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Coastal tourism, environment, and Coastal tourism, environment, and Coastal tourism, environment, and Coastal tourism, environment, and Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development sustainable local development sustainable local development sustainable local development sustainable local development

Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Page 1: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

Coastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, and

sustainable local developmentsustainable local developmentsustainable local developmentsustainable local developmentsustainable local development

Page 2: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira
Page 3: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

Coastal tourism, environment,Coastal tourism, environment,Coastal tourism, environment,Coastal tourism, environment,Coastal tourism, environment,

and sustainable localand sustainable localand sustainable localand sustainable localand sustainable local

developmentdevelopmentdevelopmentdevelopmentdevelopment

EditorsEditorsEditorsEditorsEditors

Ligia NoronhaLigia NoronhaLigia NoronhaLigia NoronhaLigia Noronha

Nelson LourencoNelson LourencoNelson LourencoNelson LourencoNelson Lourenco

Joao Paolo Lobo-FerreiraJoao Paolo Lobo-FerreiraJoao Paolo Lobo-FerreiraJoao Paolo Lobo-FerreiraJoao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

Ana LleopartAna LleopartAna LleopartAna LleopartAna Lleopart

Enrico FeoliEnrico FeoliEnrico FeoliEnrico FeoliEnrico Feoli

Kalidas SawkarKalidas SawkarKalidas SawkarKalidas SawkarKalidas Sawkar

Adiveppa ChachadiAdiveppa ChachadiAdiveppa ChachadiAdiveppa ChachadiAdiveppa Chachadi

Page 4: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

© Tata Energy Research Institute, Universidade Nova de Lisboa,Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Instituto Cartograficde Catalunya, Universita Degli Studi di Trieste, National Instituteof Oceanography, and Goa University, 2002

ISBN 81-7993-007-6

Cover photo byGabriella Henn

Published byTERIDarbari Seth BlockHabitat PlaceLodhi RoadNew Delhi – ��� ���

India

Printed byMultiplexus (India), Delhi, India

Tel. ���� ��������� ����

E-mail [email protected] ���� ����� ���� ���

Web www.teriin.orgIndia ��� • Delhi ����

Page 5: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Coastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, andCoastal tourism, environment, and

sustainable local developmentsustainable local developmentsustainable local developmentsustainable local developmentsustainable local development

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hese are the main streams of inquiry that have guidedthe collaborative research by three Indian and four

European institutions,1 supported by EU DG XII’s programme ofcooperation with developing countries (INCO-DC). An interdisci-plinary collaboration, it aims to integrate environment anddevelopment issues across disciplines and to bridge the dividebetween natural and social sciences, building on each other’sstrengths and constraints.

Societal drivers and coastal ecosystems are the two main pa-rameters studied to examine aspects of change and sustainabilityon the coast. Considering the expanse of the ‘canvas’ of issues, thefocus is on what contributes most to the variations observed. Tohelp make this decision, an expert workshop comprising coastalplanners, researchers, and activists was convened in 1999. Lookingbeyond the accepted primary drivers of population growth andmigration, this workshop identified the following five dominantdevelopment drivers of the Indian coast.1 Industry2 Tourism3 Port activity4 Urbanization5 Intensive agriculture or aquaculture.

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1 Tata Energy Research Institute, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa University,Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, InstitutoCartografic de Catalunya, and Universita Degli Studi di Trieste

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Page 6: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Of these, this project has focused on three—(1) tourism,(2) agriculture/aquaculture, and (3) industry. This book reports oncoastal tourism.

The question of sustainability is particularly appropriate in thecontext of coastal tourism, which is an activity at the interface ofhumans, land, and water.2 In this research, we are not directlyengaging in the debate on sustainability. While we have thebroader concerns of sustainability in mind, our focus here is onenvironmental sustainability, by which we mean a path of tourismdevelopment that lasts, in that it does not stress the health of thecoastal ecosystems of interest, in terms of their ability to providehumans with the goods and services that are required for theircontinued well-being over time (Costanza, D’Arge, de Groot, et al.1992; Jacobs 1997; Munasinghe and Shearer 1995). We do,however, fully acknowledge that environmental and socialsustainability cannot be seen in isolation, and that a focus on theinteractions between society and nature requires us to conceptua-lize sustainability in relational terms (Becker, Jahn, and Stiess1999). We believe that a focus on ‘sustainability’ ensures a concernwith examining not only the pros of but also ‘what is going wrong,has gone wrong, and can go wrong as a result of selected develop-ment paths. Such a focus reminds us to monitor and evaluate theimpacts of development policy on the resource base that willsustain future well-being, not necessarily in hundreds of years inthe future, but in the next few decades’ (Atkinson, Dubourg,Hamilton, et al. 1997).

The coastal ecosystems considered in this research are sanddunes, coastal vegetation, coastal aquifers, land cover, and marineand estuarine waters. These are also the ecosystems that are typi-cally stressed by development activity in Indian coastal areas3

2 The concept of sustainability and sustainable development has been much discussed inliterature (Pearce, Barbier, and Markandya 1990; Pezzey 1993; Munasinghe and Shearer1995; Atkinson, Dubourg, Hamilton, et al. 1997; Becker and Jahn 1999). The literaturereveals a concern with three issues—(1) equity across and within generations; (2) impor-tance of the environment to humans, as a constraint to economic activity in terms of thebiophysical limits that it can pose as well as a contributor to human well-being; and(3) a concern with the poor and the disadvantaged, both with regard to intragenerationalequity and to protection of the environment for future generations. Sustainability thusrequires attention to the domains that support or influence human health and well-being—economic, social, and environmental.3 The other sensitive ecosystems are coral reefs, not included here, as they are uncommonon the Indian mainland coast to which this exercise is restricted.

Page 7: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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(Rajagopalan 1996). These ecosystems are particularly vulnerableto socio-economic driving forces, as they are often considered‘expendable’ in the path of increased development, without recog-nition of their protective and other societal roles.

The representative location used to understand change and theprocesses of change is Goa, an international coastal tourism desti-nation. Within Goa, an area that experiences intense tourismactivity – the Baga watershed within which it is located – wasselected to imbue the study with an ecosystem approach. Toenable a connection with the estuarine environment, the studyarea was extended to include Nerul, another small watershed. Thestudy area thus comprises the Baga–Nerul watersheds (Figure 1).

The focus of inquiry was to understand why tourism locateditself here, the nature of this localization, how it came to appropri-ate local resources, and what the implications of this appropriationhave been for coastal ecosystems, such as water and land. Sincethe study aims to provide policy direction, the research goes be-yond explanations and understanding to a focus on what needs tobe done to improve the society–nature interactions in the contextof coastal tourism.

Page 8: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Six reasons are offered to explain why the coast provides an inter-esting and unique site for understanding the complexity of thelinkages between social and natural systems. Coastal tourism offersa rich arena to examine the interplay of human activity with eco-systems, through an assessment of the nature of consumptioninvolved. It has, as its central attributes, the triad of sun, sea, andsand. Certain seasonality accompanies this form of tourism, giventhat access to sea and sand is limited in the months of rain. This‘seasonality’ shapes the choices made in the tourism industry.

Society organizes its production and consumption choicesdepending on the activity that is possible during the period. Plan-ners, however, do not realize or sufficiently appreciate this ‘naturedependence’ and promote tourism that neglects the supportingecosystems. Coastal ecosystems must be protected not only for themore general functions that they perform in terms of support tohuman well-being but also because they provide the goods andservices required for activities based on the coast. Impairing themwill impact adversely on the economic activities that utilizethem—implicitly or explicitly. A classic ‘golden goose’ predicamentresults, where the resource is flogged until the activity cannot besupported any longer. The societal implications of this pheno-menon are also serious. Tourism can push out other prevalentactivities, result in changed skills of the local populace, and effect achange in priorities.

The planning and management of coastal tourism can be im-proved through more careful understanding of social and ecologicalsystems and their linkages, with a view to ensure a development that‘lasts’, not only for tourism but also for the host destination. Thepatterns and relationships of ecosystems and/or variations at thewatershed level are identified, and explained by identifying variableslocated at both higher (coastal, district, state, or above) and lower(village and household) levels than the watershed (Figure 2).

The chapter suggests a framework for an integrated analysis ofsocial and ecological dimensions of development activity in coastal

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areas, combining policy-relevant components, such as Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response, with others focused more onexplanations, such as population–consumption–environment(Figure 3). Using this framework will enable a clearer understand-ing of the context within which impacts occur, reasons for theiroccurrence, and possible alternative routes to pressures created bythe drivers.

This chapter suggests that society can adopt a tourism develop-ment path that ‘lasts’ by being less homogenous and uniform in itsorientation, less concerned with creating conditions available else-where, and more participatory in orientation. The main constraintsto such diversified paths in the local and state contexts seem toemerge from the ‘room to manoeuvre’ available to states in makingsocially, economically, and environmentally sustainable choices.

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Page 10: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Tourism is currently among the world’s largest industries andfastest growing economic sectors. It is estimated to have generated3.5 trillion dollars and almost 200 million jobs globally in 1999(Burke, Kura, Kassem, et al. 2000). Tourism activities are responsi-ble for employing three per cent of the global workforce; ifindirect/informal jobs are considered, this share rises to eight percent (UNEP 2002). According to the World Tourism Organization,the year 2000 saw approximately 697 million international touristarrivals worldwide (WTO 2002). The expected global growth oftourism and the increasing reliance of many developing countrieson this sector as a major employer and contributor to local,

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Page 11: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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regional, and national economies highlight the imperative to payspecial attention to the relationship between environmental con-servation and sustainable tourism.

Spatial and socio-economic impacts of tourism have been quitesignificant in some regions, causing changes in the economicstructure, stimulating some sectors and displacing others. Tourismcreates pressures on different domains—natural resources andenvironment, the built environment, and hospitality and culturalresources.

A host of socio-economic conditions lead to the development oftourism, both national and international. Such development is ac-companied by many conflicts, for instance lobbying for real estateexpansion versus the protection of agricultural, forest, and naturalspaces from tourism activities, which frequently trigger significantchanges in existing flora and fauna. The impacts are also consider-able—environmental, sociocultural, and economic, particularly incoastal areas and rural destinations. Impacts of tourism activitycan alter the biophysical environment in different ways, consumenatural spaces and agrarian landscapes, and throw into disarrayspatial distributions of population, labour, and income.

India has had a mixed experience in this sector and its share ofglobal tourism is not very high. It does possess all three vitalattributes of coastal tourism – sun, sea, and sand – which arecomplemented by the pull of India’s age-old ‘mystique’. It is thusan amalgamation of nature and culture that attracts foreign tour-ists to India, especially Goa, Kovalam, Mahabalipuram,Kanyakumari, and other locales dotting the southern Kerala coast.

Goa emerged spontaneously as a tourist destination in the1960s, its unique selling points being its natural coastal beauty, itscosmopolitanism, its rich history, and the warmth of its people.The state administration perceived this as a viable developmentoption. Numerous secondary resources – accommodation venues,restaurants, shopping centres, transport systems, and recreationfacilities – have been set up to cater to the influx of tourists fromacross the globe. This infrastructure has impacted on the existingsocial, economic, and environmental dynamics of Goan society.Some of the tourism-related influences discussed in this chapterwill be taken up at length in subsequent chapters, with specialreference to the project study area.

Page 12: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Many development specialists and governments advocate and pro-mote tourism for its potential to generate local employment andopportunities. What is the extent and nature of active involvementof local households in a typical tourist destination? This chapterassesses local stakes and their implications for tourism policy. Inan investigation into the degree of ‘localization’ of tourism and itssocial bases, which prompt the need to support it, the followingrelated activities are observed in the study area (Figure 4).1 Owning or operating a hotel, restaurant, shack, or shop2 Renting out rooms in one’s residence3 Hiring or owning a taxi (car or motorcycle)4 Selling goods and services (laundry, garbage collection,

entertainment, etc.)5 Others (being employed in hotels or restaurants).

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Page 13: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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What traditional activities are displaced by tourism? Are someactivities displaced more easily than others, and why? What are thecharacteristics associated with people’s stake in tourism? Quantita-tive analysis reveals that education, gender, and age are importantdeterminants of this stake. It is mostly young people that areinvolved as also those with a low level of education. It is notablethat the locals engaged are neither especially accomplished norprofessionally trained in the hospitality trade or visitor care oralternative skills that they could exploit to further their careers ifthis industry declined locally.

The strategy to attain a socially relevant development policymust incorporate the following components.� Attention to shifts in occupational distribution to prevent

complete loss of those activities that have longer and moresecure time spans

� Attention to the education, training, and skills imparted to theyouth of local communities

� Attention to the type of training needed for quality coastaltourism

� Examination of the implications of local involvement intourism, in relation to the functioning of local panchayats.

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The accommodation type that emerges, is supported by policy,and is developed in a tourist destination is important, as it contri-butes to the creation and sustenance of the destination’s image.The characteristics of a tourism accommodation sector includeresource-use patterns and waste generation and disposal mecha-nisms. The accommodation sector, although part of the industry’ssupply side, clearly reflects the tourists’ demands, which are influ-enced by several factors such as motivation to travel, socio-economic profile, and place of origin. These factors contribute tothe evolution of the sector’s typical features, resource consumptionpatterns, and disposal mechanisms, which variously impinge the

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Page 14: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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economic, social, and environmental domains of the touristdestination.

To enable a comparative analysis of the above parameters,hotels in the study area are categorized (on the basis of tariffstructures) into low, middle, high, and luxury budget hotels.Analysing likely implications across these categories, based on a setof selected indicators, reveals that luxury budget hotels do well inthe economic and environmental domains but fair very poorly inthe social domain. On the other hand, low budget hotels performthe best in the social domain and lower in the economic andenvironmental domains (Figure 5). However, the performancescan be improved through various measures.

Such a comparison provides tourism planners with an efficientplanning tool, based on an in-depth comprehension of trendsspecific to each type of hotel. Bearing in mind the image that theywant to project for the destination and the trade-offs possibleacross the three domains, planners and decision-makers can arriveat the type(s) of accommodation to be developed.

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Page 15: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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In this chapter, the indicator value of vegetation with respect toland use and economic development is tested. Analysis of satelliteimagery helps define land cover types and also facilitates thedocumentation of major natural and human-induced changes incoastal land cover in successive years (Figure 6).

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After such definition, computerised GIS (geographicalinformation systems) were deployed to process large volumes ofdata on land cover types—referenced geographically frommultiple sources. Analysed in terms of vegetation cover byNDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and their patterndistribution in the landscape, the different land cover types werecharacterized by majority and fractal dimension of NDVI (Figure 7).The LAI (leaf area index) – calculated for woodland vegetation byhemispherical photography – was correlated with the NDVI.A good linear correlation was found between the two parametersand regression was used to extend the LAI to all woody areas ofthe study sites. In the same analysis for the administrative units(villages), both fractal dimension and NDVI were correlated withpopulation density of different years.

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Page 16: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Correlation between variations of population density and NDVIreveals that, in general, high population density produces low NDVI.(Some exceptions can be explained by land-use and socio-economicvariables.) The chapter concludes that vegetation is an excellentecological indicator of human impact. It can yield useful param-eters to characterize administrative units, using an ecological lens.

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Attempts to ‘beautify’ an area to make it appealing to touristsoften come at the expense of the local vegetation, which is oftenundervalued. The entire vegetation of the Baga–Nerul watershedscan be classified into three types.1 Inland vegetation2 Coastal sand dune vegetation3 Mangrove vegetation.

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Page 17: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Chapter 5 may convey improved greenness in the study area overthe last 10 years but this may be misleading. The green covershown by the satellite images does result from social forestry ofAcacia and preservation of mangroves (under India’s conservationpolicies). However, other than this, what appear to be highlyvegetated coastal areas are actually the artificially landscaped hotelcampuses. These comprise ornamental, avenue trees (likePolyalthia and Casuarina) that are planted by uprooting the naturalvegetation, which, in the past, had been useful to the local com-munity and added to local natural beauty.

None of the coastal areas under study possess the rich sanddune flora characteristic of an undisturbed beach. The status ofdune vegetation in tourism villages has been deteriorating ascompared to that in the developing or non-tourist villages(Table 1). Interactions with elders from the coastal area also revealthat a number of fruit-bearing trees, which were present 20 yearsago, have now disappeared. Some isolated specimens are spottedin private compounds.

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Page 18: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Whereas tourists are attracted to Goa mainly due to its naturalbeauty, efforts to homogenize and produce ‘similarity’ in tourismdestinations destroy the diversity of natural vegetation, with ad-verse long-term consequences for the industry and the region.

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Coastal tourism is typically accompanied by developments alongthe coast – on sand dunes, cliffs, promontories, and sandy beaches– with possible implications for coastal processes and, eventually,for human activity located on the coast. National coastal zoningpolicies, designed as appropriate safeguards, are in place but oftennot enforced strictly. Noticeable changes in coastal landforms areobserved in the study area, mainly in the tourist belt betweenSinquerim and Fort Chapora. Exceptions are certain pocketswhere tourism activity was on a smaller scale.

This area is juxtaposed with Morjim, which is situated slightlynorth of Fort Chapora and where tourism has not been as intensebut is gaining popularity. A comparison of Morjim’s 1970 aerialphotographs with 1999 satellite images reveals little alteration ofthe landscape over the last three decades—the geomorphic andnatural features are largely undisturbed. However, going south-wards, River Chapora’s mouth has narrowed significantly and isgetting shallower due to heavy siltation.

Another pocket at Vagator (to the south) shows largely unaf-fected landform but the Anjuna tourist beach has narrowed down,with habitats and developmental structures moving closer to theshore. The open spaces seen in aerial photographs of Vagator –taken in the 1970s and also in 1989 – have almost disappearedin the 1999 satellite images. The Anjuna beach shows onecompletely degraded sand dune system and another about todisappear completely.

The headland at Baga was almost uninhabited in the 1970s and1980s. It is now covered with concrete structures and its tidalcreek is being reclaimed at a swift pace. There a was thriving salt

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pan industry in the southern part of the Baga stream in the 1960sand 1970s, which has been reclaimed in a very haphazard mannerfor constructing tourist accommodations, road networks, andamusement parks. This has resulted in the obstruction of free tidalflow and the creation of water pools, promoting algal growth.Towards the south, the course of the Nerul river has actuallyshifted southward since 1965. Ascertaining the cause for thiswould require detailed studies. The width of Sinquerim to theBaga beach stretch is getting narrowed and flattened, as sanddunes are razed and built-up structures creep closer to the shore-line. Sandy spaces are giving way to cemented parking lots anddune vegetation is being destroyed recklessly.

Tourism-related development is indeed taking a heavy toll ofthe natural beach ecosystems by destroying sandy spaces, dimi-nishing dune vegetation, and reclaiming land. Alternate erosion/accretion phenomena are noticed all along the shoreline. Furtherstudies are needed, however, to investigate the relative contribu-tions of natural and/or anthropogenic causes to the observed changes.

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Concepts of aquifer vulnerability and their mapping are importantinputs in planning sustainable use of groundwater. Among theseveral methods for evaluating aquifer vulnerability and potentialfor pollution is the DRASTIC index developed by Aller, Bennet,Lehr, et al. (1987). The DRASTIC index measures the vulnerabil-ity of the aquifer based on its intrinsic characteristics. These arestatic and beyond human control. The index corresponds to theweighted average of seven values corresponding to seven hydro-logical parameters.1 Depth to water table (D)2 Net recharge (R)3 Aquifer material (A)4 Soil type (S)5 Topography (T)

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Page 20: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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6 Impact of the unsaturated zone (I)7 Hydraulic conductivity (C).

High values of the index correspond to high vulnerability.The minimum value is 23 and the maximum is 226.

Both the standard DRASTIC and DRASTIC pesticide methodswere applied to the unconfined aquifer in the study area to pro-duce the final DRASTIC aquifer vulnerability maps. The map ofaquifer vulnerability index for the standard method shows that thenormal DRASTIC index ranges from 140 to 199 in most parts,indicating medium to fairly high index of aquifer vulnerability(Figure 8).

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The pesticide index map shows that the aquifer vulnerabilityindex ranges from 155 to 229 in most parts, indicating medium tohigh vulnerability of aquifers to pollution. Areas with high aquifervulnerability index, when compared with aquifer water quality,

Page 21: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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were found to be highly polluted by bacterial and heavy metalcontaminants. This fact validates and encourages the utility ofDRASTIC in identifying probable contaminated areas. Based onthe hydrogeological knowledge of the authors and study of themaps, it is quite evident that DRASTIC can be conveniently usedfor mapping aquifer pollution vulnerability in India.

This exercise has, therefore, clearly shown that apart fromprecise data, it is vital to have in-depth knowledge ofhydrogeological aspects and processes of the study area because allthe seven DRASTIC parameters are interacting and interdepend-ent variables.

The finding that aquifers are fairly highly vulnerable to pollu-tion – both under normal conditions and after pesticideapplication – reinforces the demand to plan their protection judi-ciously. Groundwater along this coastal belt has undergonebiological contamination mainly due to sewage disposal by boththe hotel and domestic sectors. The rapid drainability of aquifers –evident in the observed groundwater fluctuations and very highgroundwater recharge rates in the study area – may serve as arespite against aquifer pollution but only during the three or fourmonsoon months. In fact, it may hinder the groundwatersustainability through the year.

The study area also has evidence of an emerging water marketto support tourism and the associated construction industry—adevelopment that can exacerbate the area’s groundwater vulner-ability. The water business is conducted mainly by three categoriesof persons—(1) those that own wells, (2) those that own tankers,and (3) those that own both.

Certain questions must be addressed in the context of thegrowth of water markets.� If water from a private supplier is of inadequate quality, result-

ing in health problems for the consumer, can the supplier beheld responsible? Is s/he accountable under the present con-sumer law?

� Will the growth of the water business (expected to increase infuture years) continue without accounting for revenues?

� Do suppliers of tankers and water charge rational rates? If not,who will rationalize these rates and when?

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The tourism-dominated watershed area in North Goa has a contigu-ous stretch of marine water bodies—the open sea between Sinquerimand Chapora; the three estuaries of rivers Chapora, Mandovi, andNerul; and a small stream under tidal influence at Baga.

The present study involving seasonal (pre-monsoon, monsoon,and post-monsoon) monitoring does not show any pollutinginfluence of tourism-related activities on these water bodies. Amarked increase in values of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand)was observed at certain stations during the main fair-weather(post-monsoon) sampling period, but these occurrences appear tobe due to some episodic release of biodegradable organic matter inthe marine environment. Such high values of BOD did not recurduring the monsoon and pre-monsoon samplings at these or otherstations. The marine waters all over the sampling sites are very welloxygenated at all the seasonal observations.

Other important parameters, such as nutrients and pH level,show typical estuarine and near-shore characteristics without anyundue influence from tourism activities. Metal values for cad-mium, lead, and mercury in a dissolved state in water as well as insediments show nominal presence without any indication of pol-luted waters. The biological parameters also indicate good waterquality with the presence of normal coastal and estuarine biota.Interestingly, no important changes were observed during themonsoon land run-offs; possibly the watershed area was too smallto observe any marked impacts.

No decadal changes have been observed in the water qualityfrom 1988 through 2001, during which period tourism has in-creased manifold as an industry in the study area. It can beconcluded from the present work that there is no noticeable ill-effect due to tourism-related activities on near-shore water qualityin the study area. Water quality of the Mandovi-Zuari estuary hasalso been studied using the MIKE21 hydrodynamic water quality

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Page 23: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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model. Measured currents and tides are used to validate themodel-simulated currents and tides. Measured data on dissolvedoxygen and BOD is used for analysing water quality. The modelresults and recent measurements showed that the waters of theestuary are unpolluted with an average BOD of 1.0 mg/l. Theeffect of urban sewage could be seen only within an area of 200 sq.m around the discharge location.

This chapter also contains a section on grading of the waterquality criteria to indicate the levels of pollution of a water body,based on the classification method of the Central Pollution Con-trol Board of India (Figure 9). Five parameters crucial for healthof the waters are marked with either a ‘tick’ or a ‘cross’ and thentotalled. Zero crosses indicate zero pollution, which then increasesfrom 1 to 5 based on the number of crosses. Numbers 1 to 2indicate presence of pollutant though on a smaller scale; 2 to 3indicate increase; 3 to 4 indicate pollution and number 5 indicatesvery heavy pollution; waters with crosses 3 to 5 are unfit for anyhuman use. This table on a scale of 0–5 can be colour-coded. Withproper symbols, it is also possible to disclose the kind of pollutionthat would be encountered in the water body. This can also beused to compare – at a glance – different stretches of one or morewater bodies at different geographical locations.

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Page 24: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Keeping tourism-related activities in the fore, several relevantbacteriological parameters were studied in depth in North Goa’saquatic ecosystems. Total bacterial abundance and activity forsewage-indicator bacteria and a select set of human pathogenicbacteria were quantified during three different seasons. It is evi-dent that coastal and freshwater ecosystems in North Goa havenot been unduly contaminated.

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Page 25: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Except in the monsoon, the quantum of coliform bacteria –Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae – and many other human patho-genic bacteria was well within the limits acceptable for touristrecreational activities such as bathing, fishing, surfing, and the like.Using the socio-economic drivers of change developed by Mehraand Sreekanth (2002), it is postulated that under the BAU (busi-ness-as-usual) scenario, there will be increased sewagecontamination and thus imminent threats to aquatic ecosystems,thus rendering them unsafe and unusable for recreational activi-ties, which are popular among tourists (Table 2).

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This chapter presents a generalized picture of various aspects ofassimilation by native biota and underscores the importance ofsafeguarding the environment from excessive discharge of nutri-ent-rich effluents, even though they are non-toxic.

It reveals the findings of mesocosm experiments, conducted toevaluate the assimilation potential of water column biota (bacteria,phytoplankton, and zooplankton). Bulk water quantities fromcoastal locations, characterized by intense tourist activity, werebrought to set up mesocosms during pre-monsoon, monsoon, andpost-monsoon periods. Six different conditions – with organicnutrients (urea), inorganic nutrients (nitrate, phosphate), and toxicchemicals (mercury, crude oil) – were simulated to examine theresponses of biotic components to altered situations. Severalrelevant parameters were monitored through the three seasons(Figure 10).

Results of the study suggest that the native biota cannot utilizenutrients beyond certain limits even in a non-toxic, unpollutedcondition. Also, toxic chemicals are far more deleterious in combi-nation than individually.

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Page 26: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Coastal tourism has a spatial dimension, as chapter 2 discusses.The study area witnesses a marked spatial impact on the khazanlands—managed agro-ecosystems modified from coastal wetlandareas, especially mangroves. This paper examines ecosystem valua-tion as it relates to khazan lands in Goa, a typical touristdestination. As argued elsewhere, the diversity of use of these landsis being reduced because of competing interests, and homogeniza-tion is on the rise (Figure 11). This is due not only to tourism, butalso the changes in political, social and legal institutions over time(Noronha, Siqueira, Sreekesh, et al. 2002). The hypothesis here isthat these systems in Goa are disappearing, not only because ofthe above factors but also because of an inadequate appreciationof the social value of such systems and the functions and servicesperformed by them.

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Page 27: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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This chapter investigates this hypothesis by exploring threeconceptions of the importance of these ecosystems in terms of theservices they provide.1 The ‘general assessment’, obtained from scientific literature on

the ecosystem type2 The ‘location-specific assessment’, provided by local ecosystem

experts, who have intimate knowledge of the system3 The ‘local perceptions’, captured through a survey of village

perceptions.

The paper suggests that khazan land conversion is occurring fora number of reasons, one of which is because they are currentlyvalued only for their space attribute. People are gradually losingawareness of the various other uses of khazans and ignoring thediverse services and goods they support. Alternative options areconsidered without prior systematic valuation of such uses andservices. There is a tension between social and individual valuationthat needs further research. Whether it is possible to change thetrend and catalyse better-informed decisions by reawakening theold wisdom remains to be seen.

Page 28: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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Human activities impact the local environmental and naturalresources base, often beyond the regenerative or assimilativecapacity of the local ecosystem. Extending the framework ofEhrlich and Holdren (1974) that allows quantification of therelationship between population, environment, consumption, andtechnology, this chapter delineates key linkages between socio-economic drivers and impacts on the coastal environment, with afocus on tourism activity. The modelling of socio-economicdynamics is illustrated by focusing on North Goa’s Baga–Nerulwatersheds district, which supports extensive tourism activity. Theanalysis distinguishes the ‘mature’ tourism villages from thosewhere tourism growth is ‘developing’ or which provide support tothe tourism villages.

It evolves numerous plausible ‘What if?’ scenarios, charting outalternative growth paths and future states of the environment(Figure 12).1 The BAU case considers the continuation of existent patterns of

growth and resource use and practices of waste handling anddisposal.

2 Two variations of the BAU scenario are constructed.2a Alternative I assumes lower demand for natural resources,

owing to improved end-use efficiencies.2b Alternative II considers improved waste management and

disposal practices in all sectors.3 Two structurally different paths of tourism growth are

examined.3a ‘Globalized’ tourism develops under the influence and

control of transnational firms, entailing lower growth andmore efficient resource-use patterns.

3b ‘Participatory’ tourism involves slower growth compared tothe BAU or the ‘globalized’ scenario, lower and morebalanced resource-use patterns, and a multi-stakeholderapproach to decision making with respect to tourism.

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Drawing upon data from the primary survey, secondary infor-mation from various censuses and government documents, andstakeholder responses, the pressure on the coastal environment isprojected for the 20-year period of 2001–21, largely in terms ofrequirement of land and water and generation of solid and liquidwaste (Figure 13).

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Page 30: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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It is found that, in the case of some resources, the continuation ofprevailing trends could translate into outstripping the ecosystem’scarrying capacity, while a digression from the BAU path couldtranslate into small to significant reductions in environmental loads.

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Environmental sustainability requires that groundwater be ex-tracted safely, while minimizing risks of salt-water intrusion. Basedon available hydrogeological and socio-economical data, twodifferent optimization models are developed, as considered appro-priate for the Bardez context. These are structured to consider allthe hypotheses underlying the solution of the problem and toallow computation of the optimal solutions to satisfy (potential)water resource needs of tourist infrastructures along the coastalzone of Bardez.

The first model makes it possible to find the best possible loca-tion (of wells) that will provide a given amount of flow.

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Page 31: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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The second model points to the best location that will provide agiven amount of flow to supply a tourist hotel, whose location is pre-defined. The models include objective functions representing costminimization in well installation, protection, and operation and layingof pipe networks to carry water from the wells to the hotel.

The following questions influenced the optimization procedure.� How is it possible to find the optimal placement for supply wells?� Which are the most important parameters to be considered?� How important is the number of wells and their distance to the

hotels, taking into account the cost of coastal zone land, servicepipes, and running expenses?

� What is the relationship between the extraction rate of the wellsand the risk of salt-water intrusion?

� How is it possible to minimize this risk?

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Taking advantage of the potentialities provided by the groundwaterflow model developed for Goa, the chapter has addressed the devel-opment of safe extraction rates of coastal zone pumping wells—existing and those necessary to meet future needs (Figure 14). Theoptimization models have been applied to two exploitation sce-narios, with the results indicating the best solutions for the casestudies (Figure 15).

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Projections of land cover change can be formulated according todifferent possible scenarios, which can be simulated at any timethrough GIS. While transition matrices can help estimate theprobability of change of a land cover type, it is not possible tolocate the expected changes. In order to accurately predict suchchanges, Cellular Automata and Markov models have been used incombination in a GIS context.

The vector and raster images of the Goa study area were used torun the Cellular Automata/Markov change land cover predictionprocedure in Idrisi (CA_MARKOV). This innovative procedureincludes multi-criteria evaluation in the Cellular Automata model tocalculate the suitability that a pixel can belong to a certain land covertype. The probability of transition between two different land covertypes is thus weighted by suitability. Given a raster map, if the prob-ability of change from Type i to Type j is Pij, then the pixels that willchange more easily from i to j will correspond to those with highersuitability with respect to j in the proportion Pij.

Application of CA_MARKOV to land cover maps of 1990 and2000 gives the predicted land cover for 2010. The results revealthat, in the study area, hill forests and mangrove forests wouldincrease if the momentum of the ongoing implementation of theenvironmental protection policy were sustained. What woulddecrease is the tall woody vegetation around the villages, in favourof bush vegetation (Figure 16).

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Page 34: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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It is not possible to develop studies to analyse and model theinteractions between human activities and the environment with-out taking into account the geographic location and the spatialrelations that are set up. For tackling the challenges to sustainablecoastal development, it is necessary to possess knowledge of a setof elements that have a geographic component, like location ofmost vulnerable zones, pollution, land-use demands, deforestation,or population movement. This chapter describes spatial integrationin the case of the Goa study area.

The diversity and complexity of the spatial information underconsideration calls for its integration on a system, which guaran-tees efficient management. GIS provides the capability for storing,managing, and analysing such data; it has developed into the idealtool for studies of territorial management and sustainability. Thebases for spatial integration are the definition of a common geo-graphic framework for all data records and the establishment ofthe suitable geographic component for each record.

As coastal areas are populated and exhibit dynamism withcontinuous territorial change, no accurate topographic databasewas available. To obtain an actual cartographic database of thearea, a new approach was developed, based on the use of a high-resolution, geo-coded satellite image as the main reference.Satellite image series are systematic, continuous, and frequentlyupdated sources of spatial information. For the purpose of thisproject, the panchromatic images of IRS-1D were selected. Takenin 1999, these images have a 5.8-metre resolution and cover anarea of about 600 hectares in Goa, going from 500 metres of thewater coastal strip, through the beaches, and to the associateddrainage sub-basin. The interpretation of the infrastructure andother identifiable elements on the images is a useful and quick wayto compile an updated topographic database.

Information on the population nucleus, the communicationnet, the beach areas, and the hydrographical net was compiled.

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The concept of sustainability is contestable and disputes overwhich components should be included and which excluded are tobe expected. Relative weights attached to the components ofsustainability of different systems will depend on the viewpoint ofthe stakeholder. How can the benefits of tourism be distributed

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Only in the case of informa-tion related to administrativeboundaries and contourlines, which is not possible toacquire/actualize in this way,it was compiled from existingdocuments. All this data(images, topographical infor-mation, and administrativeboundaries) constitutes theGCD (Goa CartographicDatabase) and the appropri-ate working scale would bearound 1:50 000 (Figure 17).This makes possible thespatial integration of all thethematic data sets in ahomogeneous manner.A coherent integrationincluding all biophysical,social, and economicaldata sets, this representsthe actual environmentalconditions and socio-economic pressures.

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amongst stakeholders, especially local communities, more equita-bly? What is the ideal way to further the objective of safeguardingthe long-term interests of the tourist destination rather than thestrategic interests of any particular stakeholder?

Resolving such issues requires the adoption of a multi-stakeholder perspective on sustainability to strike a balancebetween various positions through a process of negotiation. In-deed, a more democratic resolution is possible by acknowledgingthe concerns of various stakeholders. In arriving at alternativescenarios of future tourism development paths, this project im-bibed different stakeholders’ concerns and views about the keydrivers of tourism (Box).

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Responses towards more sustainable development of Goa’scoastal tourism require that the related economic, social, andenvironmental impacts be taken into consideration. To incorporate

Page 37: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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these into possible responses, stakeholder groups were identifiedand involved in building future scenarios for tourism in Goa.Three scenarios were developed—(1) business as usual, (2) led byglobal industry, and (3) participatory (Figure 18).

This research supports the view that involving localstakeholders in identifying futures is a good way forward to aidpolicy making for a development activity such as tourism, as itinvolves local goodwill as an essential attribute of the destination.

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An analytical solution for designing the limit of the ellipse-shaped50-day groundwater protection isochrones is not available. Anempirical solution, with the following input parameters, wasdeveloped to estimate the three radii of an ellipse-shapedprotection zone.

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� Hydraulic conductivity� Effective porosity� Aquifer thickness� Gradient of regional groundwater table� Extracted volume of water.

The output comprises three maps indicating the extension of(1) the upstream protection distance, (2) the downstream dis-tance, and (3) the one perpendicular to these. Applying thismethodology, exemplified in this chapter for the case study area,it is possible to design the required well-head protection zones,without the need of studying each well individually.

The three radii of the needed protection area have been calcu-lated for three different seasons—(dry) summer, wet, and (dry)winter. The differences in inputs between the seasons are thesaturated thickness and the hydraulic gradient, both depending onthe varying water levels. This could cause a difference in the calcu-lation of the protection area, depending on the seasonal data used.

A comparison of the results obtained for the three seasons doesnot reveal significant differences per season regarding the dimen-sions of the 50-day travel time protection areas. In applying thismethodology, one should always try to estimate the maximum50-day distance, i.e. the one possible to occur in any season.

Theoretically, if calculating the upgradient protection distance,one should use data (if available) of a season or year that createsthe highest hydraulic gradient and has the highest extraction ratesor the smallest aquifer thickness. The opposite is the case of thedowngradient protection distances concerning the effects of thehydraulic gradients, therefore making the data selection morecomplex. In the Goa case study, however, using data from differ-ent seasons did not result in considerable differences in outputs,which does not mean that this will always be the case (Figure 19a,19b, and 19c).

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To monitor and manage sustainability, tools are needed for raisingawareness about pressures exerted by human activity on the localenvironment. Indicators are useful tools for identifying key aspectsof a system and monitoring its progress towards enhancedsustainability.

In this chapter, the DPSIR (Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response) framework is used to develop indicators for thedomains where most changes are observed—economic, social, andenvironmental. The changes in indicator value over a time periodreflect the changes in the state of the domain concerned. Majorissues associated with indicator development are those of scale,both spatial and temporal. Spatial issues refer to geographicaldomains/areas such as individual, household, village, taluka, dis-trict, state, national, regional, and global. Temporal issues refer totime. Once a baseline is set at a particular time, the indicatorsneed to be monitored at intervals.

The information collected and analysed earlier on what ishappening in a typical tourism destination – Goa’s Baga–Nerulwatersheds – is used to develop indicators related to human activ-ity in tourist destinations (Table 3). These indicators provideinformation that relates to particular issues typical of tourismdentations and that may be of relevance to other parts of India.The question of how tourism impacts a tourist destination can beexamined in two ways.1 Subjectively, by getting stakeholders – tourists and the local

community–to evaluate how satisfied they are with the condi-tions they find in the destination.

2 Objectively, by assessing according to some given measure, theconditions found in a destination.

This chapter develops both objective and subjective indicatorsin order to get a holistic picture of the tourist destination.

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A region’s sustainable development involves all the systems inte-grated on it, each with multiple conflicting objectives and withoutany clear hierarchy. Modelling the system necessitates the use ofadvanced analysis tools; GIS is selected considering the geographicscope of the components involved (Figure 20).

The management of sustainability is focused on the existingdemand of natural resources by human activities. The competitivedemand for these resources and their allocation creates a conflictbetween environment and human needs. The feasible solutionsdefined by sustainability are based on negotiations—trade-offsbetween various objectives, without maximizing single objectivesbut finding an efficient and acceptable balance between thestakeholders’ requirements and resource availability. It is thusnecessary to define and quantify the trade-off between the con-flicting objectives, determined by resource availability andsocio-economics.

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Page 46: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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The decision process needs to take into account the goals and,thereafter, establish and evaluate alternative solutions. Due to thesystem’s complexity, it is not possible to rank the various solutionson any single criterion. Decision analysis techniques come intoplay as a result. Decision analysis could be defined as a systematicand logical set of procedures for analysing complex and multi-objective decision problems. These techniques are based onfocusing the attention on the objectives of the decision situationand encouraging the examination of the trade-offs between con-flicting objectives, so as to integrate the processes in a logicalmanner and produce a meaningful solution.

Taking Goa as an example, a set of tools to help decisionmakers on sustainability management of coastal areas is designed,defining tourism as the main driving force, and water and landavailability as natural resources. The tools could be classified intothree main groups.1 Visualization tools

By visualizing the entire available data in the spatial databaseand making it accessible on the same interface, these tools allowin-depth knowledge of the coastal zone and give valuable sup-port to the social agents for the analysis of sustainable tourismdevelopment.

2 Spatial analysis techniquesBased on GIS functionalities to manipulate spatial data sets,these tools are focused on the establishment of spatial relation-ships between socio-economic data sets and water and landresources.

3 Advanced analysis modelling toolsSupported by GIS modelling capabilities, mainly with advancedstatistics and raster modelling capacities, these tools use definedindicators related to environment status and socio-economicpressures.

Page 47: Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local ... · Coastal tourism, environment, and sustainable local development Editors Ligia Noronha Nelson Lourenco Joao Paolo Lobo-Ferreira

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The chapters compiled in this book have the following mainobjectives.� To analyse and discuss how societal forces and pressures,

through the prism of tourism, are driving change in coastalecosystems

� To specify the types of tools, methods, and approaches that canbe used to measure and monitor impacts of tourism on coastalecosystems

� To suggest ways to improve the management of coastal tourismto alleviate the vulnerability of coastal ecosystems to stress.

The case study in Goa has been used to bring out the issuesand concerns, using a combination of the DPSIR framework witha population–consumption–environment framework in order tostrengthen both the explanatory and policy value of the study.

Returning to the central question that we started out with—‘How are societal drivers, in particular tourism, impacting coastalecosystems in our study area?’ Three types of potential impacts areobserved from human activity in Goa, with different implicationsfor ecosystem health. However, some key variables of influencecan be identified for each type of impact.1 Land conversions

Variables population and population movements, demandarising from remittance income, demand from tourism, lowerpersonal dependency on the ecosystem, insufficient knowledgeof ecosystem values, lower personal as compared to communityvaluation of ecosystems, short time horizons, zoning rules andneed to pre-empt their enforcement, changes in legal rules withimplications for management regimes, local politics and powerconfigurations, political economy of the state, rent-seekingactivities relating to construction

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2 Groundwater exploitationVariables increased demand from population growth (host andtourist), lack of policy to regulate access and use, technology ofextractive equipment, economic activity, insufficient attentionto system’s attributes, development of a water market to servicetourism

3 Degradation of beaches and dunes and their vegetationVariables Population, user behaviour, rule enforcement, tech-nology of waste management, short time horizons.

Our study suggests that globalized tourism is contributing toand providing a major impetus to the homogenization of ecosys-tems in the study villages. However, this is not the result oftourism alone, but also of changes in local political, social, andlegal institutions over time, such as capital inflows in the form ofremittance income, democratic institutions, new tenurial laws, andchanges in common property systems. In the case of vegetation,tourism seems to have greened the area, while reducing the diver-sity that existed. What this suggests is that the ecosystemfunctionality is being reduced and with this the options for diversi-fied rural livelihoods are also diminishing. An increased reliance oflocal people on tourism and tourist incomes is observed. Whetherthis path of social and economic development is more sustainableor less will depend on whether it is generating new opportunities,capabilities, and skills that will lead to improved functioning andwell-being of the local population. That would be the subject ofanother study.

Instead of a path that would provide the tourist a more‘variegated experience’ and also allow diversity to continue, thechosen tourism development path seeks to reproduce for theinternational tourist his/her home conditions and, for the domestictourist, conditions that emulate the West. When tourism was lesspackaged – in the sense that it catered to the discerning touristlooking for a different kind of experience – it created far lessimpacts on the ecosystem. However, with modern mass tourismand the goods and services being developed to cater to it, touristvillages are orienting themselves towards producing more homog-enous outputs.

The research also studied Indian policy that relates to themanagement of resources on the coast more generally and its

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working in the context of a coastal tourist destination. Sincealmost all problems encountered in coastal policy fall into threemajor domains of coastal policy problems – relating to(1) resource-use conflicts, (2) resource depletion, and (3) pollu-tion or resource degradation – policies for coastal developmentmust be sensitive to these three problems.

In the absence of an integrated holistic approach to policymaking and the failure to link the process of policy making withthe substance of policy, the resultant outcomes are inferior whenviewed within a sustainability framework. We take the view that indevelopment that is closely connected with or has implications forecosystems and involves a resource that has multiple uses andusers, as most coastal activities do, the effectiveness of policymight benefit from the notion that different kinds of coastal prob-lems require different kinds of policy regimes.

European policies do hold lessons for countries such as India,as the political system is one of many nations under a commonumbrella with innovative principles such as subsidiarity and inte-gration, which underlie environment and regional planningactivities. India’s federating states can gain an insight into theconcept of common but differentiated responses from EU’s expe-rience in coastal management. More stakeholder-sensitive policymaking for coastal tourism may improve the situation on theground by creating better incentives to shape behaviour. Thechapter ends with suggestions on what needs to be done to movetowards more sustainable tourism.

/ � �� �

Aller L, Bennet T, Lehr J H, and Petty R J. 1987DRASTIC: a standardized system for evaluating groundwater pollutionpotential using hydrogeologic settingsWashington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency[Report number 600/2-85/018]

Atkinson G, Dubourg R, Hamilton K, Munasinghe M, Pearce D, and Young C. 1997Measuring Sustainable Development: macroeconomics and theenvironmentCheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. 252 pp.

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Becker E and Jahn T. 1999Sustainability and the Social Sciences: a cross-disciplinary approach tointegrating environmental considerations into theoretical reorientationLondon and New York: Zed Books Ltd. 336 pp.

Becker E, Jahn T, and Stiess I. 1999Exploring uncommon ground: sustainability and the social sciencesIn Sustainability and the Social Sciences: a cross-disciplinary approach to integratingenvironmental considerations into theoretical reorientation, edited by E Becker and TJahn, pp. 1–22London and New York: Zed Books Ltd. 336 pp.

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