What was the Cold War?

COLD WAR: 1945-1989 – War between superpowers (USA [capitalist] and USSR [communist]) with every means short of actual fighting. There was deep mistrust and suspicion which also involved their allies. Although no armed conflict, they attacked each other with propaganda and followed a general policy of non-co-operation.

Main Features of the Cold War: Spying – to find out military developments, spy planes used (American U2 plane high enough not to be shot down), increased rivalry Propaganda – ensured public opinion supported government, Soviet Olympic success illustrated superiority of communist system Arms Race – conventional (non-nuclear) and nuclear weapons developed, ‘Mutually Assured Destruction’ theory deterrent to war. Two rival camps NATO and Warsaw Pact Space Race – effective propaganda for USA and Soviet Union Loans and aid – each side provided this to less developed/newly independent states to win support in Cold War Indirect fighting – competed for influence all over world (e.g. Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan)

Cold War was based on mutual distrust: America convinced Stalin wanted world domination/communist revolution. Stalin believed West wanted to destroy communism.

Why did a Cold War develop?

1. Long Term Mistrust – USA and UK opposed Communist revolution in 1917, intervened in civil war. Churchill outspoken against them.

2. Two ideological extremes : Communism vs Capitalism, feared spread of world revolution3. Stalin signed Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939

a) Stalin had feared invasion from West.b) West feared, rightly, Stalin wanted to seize part of Poland

4. Pushed into ‘marriage of convenience’ during WW2 – tensions during conferences 5. Stalin continues to increase Soviet sphere of influence with satellite states in liberated

countries6. West afraid of Communism spreading to their countries. Truman in particular felt the

need to contain Communism.7. Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech in Missouri Mar 1946 demonstrates division of Europe.

“an Iron Curtain had descended across the continent.”8. The Truman Doctrine (contain USSR) versus Cominform: Europe politically divided9. Marshall Plan and Comecon: Europe economically divided10. Berlin Blockade ends wartime alliance – causes formation of NATO, and consequently

Warsaw Pact – two rival alliances.11. Arms race increases tension

Overall, this led to mistrust and suspicion nurtured by propaganda used by the two governments.

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TEHERAN CONFERENCE – Iran, Nov-Dec 1943 Subject Agreements Disagreements/ tensions

War with Germany

Britain and USA to open second front in France

May 1944

USSR annoyed they delayed until June (Stalin said they were waiting until USSR were seriously weakened)

Churchill’s idea of invasion through Balkans (to stop Red Army) rejectedWar with

JapanUSSR to wage war

on Japan after Germany defeated

United Nations

UN to be set up after war

Poland Area of Eastern Poland added to

USSR (Stalin insisted upon Oder and Neisse Rivers)

Stalin believed Soviet control of Poland vital for security (although Britain began WW2 for Polish independence)

April 1943, Germans discovered mass grave of 10,000 Polish officers murdered by Soviets in 1939

Aug 1944 Warsaw Uprising – Soviets stood by while Germans quashed it, leaving Poland defenceless against USSR

Churchill had supported Bolshevik’s enemies in Civil War. Suspicious of Stalin in Eastern Europe, convinced Soviet troops would stay in

liberated countries

Meeting of the ‘Big Three’ Allies: Churchill (Britain), Roosevelt (USA) and Stalin (USSR) to improve relationships and coordinate decisions of Grand Alliance FDR was keen to improve relations between the allies; Stalin achieved most of what he wanted (FDR unwell and sided with Stalin)

YALTA CONFERENCE – Ukraine, Feb 1945,Subject Agreements Disagreements/ tensionsGermany Divide into four zones

Divide Berlin in same way Hunt Nazi war criminals and try in

international court

German reparations – Stalin wanted more than other two

Japan USSR to declare war on Japan after Germany surrendered

United Nations Join UN to maintain peace after warPoland Stalin eventually agreed to free elections in

Poland Stalin wanted friendly Polish government

(protection from Germany), but West feared this would be Soviet controlled.

Stalin wanted Polish/German border further WestEastern Europe Allow liberated countries free elections

Soviet Sphere of influence in Eastern Europe

Soviet forces in control here – Stalin wanted proper recognition of Soviet control. UK and USA

forced to accept demands.

Meeting of Big 3 (same as Tehran) to consider what to do with Germany after victory Stalin and FDR enjoyed warm relationship; Churchill felt isolated Still fearful of Hitler though war nearly over; agreed on most issuesTHE POTSDAM CONFERENCE – Germany, Jul 1945

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Changes between Yalta and Potsdam Soviet troops now occupied many more liberated countries – satellite states (Estonia,

Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania) Stalin established communist government in Poland despite wishes of citizens and Yalta

agreements USSR expanded its armed forces instead of demilitarisation like the West Roosevelt died in April 1945, replaced by Truman who mistrusted Stalin and hated

Communism, convinced he planned to dominate Europe, tougher policy July 1945, USA successfully tested an atom bomb – Stalin furious he wasn’t informed.

USA no longer dependent on USSR for victory against Japan. Halfway through Potsdam conference, Churchill defeated in elections, replaced by

Clement Atlee.

Subject Agreements Disagreements/ tensionsGermany Divide and occupy as previously discussed

Demilitarise Re-establish democracy : free press,

elections and speech Pay reparations in equipment and

materials (mostly to USSR) Ban Nazi party , remove Nazis from important positions, Nuremberg Trials

1946

Stalin wanted massive compensation that would

permanently cripple Germany; Truman wanted revived Germany

as barrier to Soviet expansion (and memory of Versailles)

United Nations

Participate fully

Poland Frontier moved to Oder and Neisse RiversEastern Europe

Truman wanted free elections. Stalin believed US pressure ‘unwelcome interference’.

Last meeting of the superpowers: Atlee (Britain); Truman (USA); Stalin (USSR) Truman concerned and furious – determined to ‘get tough’ with Communists. USSR controlling Eastern Europe but USA couldn’t do much to prevent it because Stalin was already there. During the next few months Stalin made his intentions clear as Communists took over the running of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland & Romania.

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Who was to blame for the Cold War?

USA to blame Agreed at Yalta to have a ‘Soviet sphere of influence’ Percentages deal with Churchill Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania fought against USSR in WW2 – Security Huge casualties in world wars: Poland and Eastern Europe had always been a corridor of attack – having Soviet-friendly governments necessary for security e.g. from future German attacks USA and UK developed nuclear bomb secretly – provocation and beginning of arms race which they continued ahead of the USSR Cominform forced response to Truman Doctrine – USA no right to meddle in European affairs and ‘contain’ USSR Comecon forced response to Marshall Aid – USA implementing own influence but had agreed Soviet sphere of influence; Marshall Aid makes them reliant on foreign aid rather than self-sufficient Truman and Churchill taking hard line from beginning (e.g. fought Bolsheviks in civil war), talk of ‘free vs unfree world’. NATO, a military alliance, set up.

USSR to blame Determined to spread communism – expansionism Refused to allow free elections – set up Soviet controlled communist governments Refused to remove military presence in Eastern Europe Had invaded Poland with Nazi-Soviet Pact Blockaded West Berlin Marshall Aid was necessary for the post-war recovery of Europe – USSR not economically strong enough

Why did the USSR expand? Memory of hostility of Eastern Europe to USSR – Poland signed non-aggression pact with France; Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria fought against USSR in WW2 Security – huge casualties in world wars – wanted friendly or Soviet-controlled governments in Eastern Europe as a buffer for future invasions and as only way of ensuring support, especially Poland the ‘corridor of attack’. Percentages deal with Churchill – accepted influence of USSR in Eastern Europe Expansionism – political motives to spread communism and Soviet empire

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Soviet control of Eastern EuropeUsual pattern of satellite states: Coalition governments set up (Communists shared power) Backed by USSR, communists took over civil service, media, security and defence Opposition leaders arrested or forced to flee Elections held and fixed to ensure communist victory ‘People’s democracies’ set up

Poland Jan 1945 coalition set up Jan 1947 rigged elections Leader of main opposition fled to London

Romania 1945 coalition set up Communists, encouraged by Stalin, took part in demonstrations to disrupt government Mar 1945 – Soviet army intervened, disarmed Romanian army and forced king to form Communist dominated government under Petru Groza Nov 1946 – elections, communists 80% Communists form government and abolish monarchy

Hungary Aug 1945 – Smallholders’ Party won over 50% of vote Economic crisis – communists seize of Ministry of Interior, which controlled police 1947 – arrest Bela Kovacs (leader of Smallholders); Imre Nagy (PM) forced to resign Aug 1947 – communists secure large share of vote, took over government. Other parties banned.

Czechoslovakia 1947 – communists already largest party in coalition, controlled police and army 1948 – supported by USSR used army to seize control. Non-communists arrested; Jan Masaryk (foreign secretary) murdered Rigged elections – communist victory, other parties banned

Bulgaria 1944 – Communist dominated government set up Rigged elections, other parties banned

Yugoslavia Communists fought Germans during WW2 Tito elected leader, but didn’t follow Stalin. Yugoslavia expelled from Cominform, other communist countries applied economic sanctions Tito accepted aid from west

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Truman Doctrine – March 1947

Policy of USA to support free countries who were trying to resist communismTruman gave a speech to the US congress introducing policy of containment – locked in struggle against communism as Stalin wanted to expand it to rest of the world

Causes of Truman Doctrine:1. USA had the atom bomb and wanted to use this and superior economic strength to

put pressure on USSR and prevent further expansion2. USA and Truman thought USSR was trying to spread communism through Eastern

Europe and then beyond to the west3. Events in Greece :

Percentages deal – Britain has 90% influence in Greece Civil war since 1944: UK helping royalist government fight communists 1946 – communists heavily defeated in elections Communists continue guerrilla war against government, helped by neighbouring communist countries. Britain militarily and economically support anti-communists in Greece and Turkey. 1947 – Britain told USA they can no longer continue. USA gave necessary financial aid to save Greece and Turkey from Communism.

Key features of Truman Doctrine:1) $400 million financial aid given to Greece and Turkey to ensure they did not become

communist2) Policy of containment to prevent further Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe –

US involvement in Europe for first time (apart from world wars) in all but military assistance

3) Marshall plan – Truman doctrine ‘in action’

Effects of Truman Doctrine:1. Greek government defeated communists 2. Increased rivalry between USA and USSR – Truman stated world divided between

‘free, capitalist camp’ and ‘unfree, communist camp’ – USA would use economic and military strength to protect world from spread of communism

3. USA committed to policy of containment and more involved in European affairs – turning point in US foreign policy, formed its basis for 20 years

4. USA decided on Marshall Plan5. Stalin set up Cominform

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Marshall Aid (European Recovery Plan) – June 1947

Causes of Marshall Aid (Why Introduced):1. Created by General George Marshall to back up Truman Doctrine through economic

influence - Truman did not want to commit US military2. Solving communism ‘from the roots’ in war-torn Europe. Believed communism won

support where there were economic problems and unemployment – by providing employment and reasonable prosperity, prevents communism arising in rest of Europe

3. Post-war economic recovery – there were shortages of nearly everything and all of Europe was struggling to deal with damage and suffering after WW2 – prevent 'hunger, poverty, desperation & chaos.'

4. Expand US market and economy

Key features of Marshall Aid:1) By 1953, $17 billion of aid was given by USA to European countries after WW2 to

revive factories, agriculture and trade – money, machinery, food and technological assistance. Open to all countries – 16 nations signed up. Organisation for European Economic Recovery (OEEC) set up to discuss how to use aid.

2) Beneficiaries had to agree to buy US goods and allow US businesses to invest capital in their industries

3) USSR withdrew from aid and stopped countries in Comecon receiving aid – accused US of self-interest, set up Comecon.

4) Economic version of Truman doctrine – Truman doctrine ‘in action’

Effects of Marshall Aid:1. Helped rebuild European economies , factories and transport systems after effects of

WW2 and raise living standards. Successful outcomes and Western Europe prospered. Contained threat of communism.

2. Stalin accused USA of using aid for own interests – dominate Europe, interfere in Soviet sphere of influence and boost US economy. USSR withdrew from discussions (didn’t want to show how economically weak they were) – increased tension between USA and USSR.

3. Stalin created Comecon and prevented these countries accepting aid – Europe more firmly divided between East and West.

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Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) – Sep 1947

Response to Truman Doctrine Coordinate communist parties in Europe under Soviet direction Ensured they followed Soviet foreign policy Introduced Soviet economic policies e.g. collectivisation, state control of industry Purge members who disagreed with Stalin and Moscow e.g. Yugoslavia

Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) – Jan 1949

Response/alternative to Marshall Aid – USSR financially support Eastern Europe Eastern European communist states formed into single economic union led by USSR Controlled economies of these states Gave USSR access to their resources Encouraged economic specialisation e.g. Czechoslovakia and East Germany heavy industry; Romania and Hungary food and raw materials

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The Berlin Crisis, 1948-49

Importance of Berlin Heart of Nazi Power, capital of Germany, Race for Berlin at end of WW2: USA vs USSR Geographical location – USA and USSR wanted central European military bases

Causes of Berlin Crisis (long term):1. USSR ensured minority communists took control of East Germany. They tried to

secure communist control of Berlin city council, but western socialists resisted2. USSR wanted to keep Germany weak to punish for war and prevent invasion (he feared

a strong, reunited, democratic Germany on the Russian border), so refused to allow own zone to trade with the other three zones. USA and Britain wanted to rebuild German economy (buffer to communism) which faced food and fuel shortages.

3. Western countries determined to remain in Berlin so they could observe Stalin’s activities behind Iron Curtain – spying.

4. West Berlin = ‘an island of capitalism in a sea of communism’ – showing off affluent, capitalist way of life to poverty in east – embarrassment for Stalin, fear western life and ideas would spread and undermine his control of East Germany

5. Western Allies set up free elections in West Germany to establish democracy.

Causes of Berlin Crisis (short term):1. Jan 1948: USA and Britain merged zones to create ‘Bizonia’. Same done for Berlin.2. Mar 1948: Soviet representatives walked out of Allied Control Commission,

complaining that western attitudes made it unworkable3. Apr 1948: USA announces Marshall Aid. Western Zones received Marshall Aid. Soviet

troops began searching road and rail traffic into West Berlin.4. June 1948: Western Allies introduce new currency (the Deutschmark) to speed up

recovery in their zones and West Berlin. USSR introduce the Ostmark. Allies announce plans to create a West German State .

Key features of Berlin Crisis:1. 24 th June 1948: Stalin cut off road, rail and canal routes in and out of West Berlin , to try

to starve the city so the Allies would pull out of their sectors, leaving all of Berlin to USSR. Stalin doesn’t want direct confrontation: he can’t shoot planes for fear of starting a war, but this is first crisis of the Cold War and official end to wartime alliance.

2. America, Britain and France flew food, fuel and other supplies into West Berlin to sustain 2.5 million civilians and remain in capital but avoid direct confrontation with the USSR. ‘Operation Plainfare’

Lasted for 10 months. During this time, 275,000 flights from US and Commonwealth airlifted in 2m tonnes of supplies (average 4,000 tonnes per day). Costs $100 million. Mild winter did not disrupt flights, even with awkward weather balloons and Soviet planes in the way Rationing of food, fuel and electricity e.g. 4hrs of electricity per day.

3. 12th May 1949: Stalin called off blockade. Berlin ‘symbol of freedom’ behind Iron Curtain, and Allied success and aversion of conflict in first Cold War crisis.

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Effects of Berlin Crisis:1. Psychological boost for west – Truman saw this as a victory; for Stalin it was a

humiliation (though he told very different story to USSR). Symbol of Cold War and ‘test of freedom’

2. Increased East-West rivalry – war had almost broken out and Cold War worsened. End to WW2 alliance. Increased competition in control over Germany.

3. Confirmed Divisions of Germany and Berlin : West – Federal German Republic East – German Democratic Republic

4. Led to formation of NATO and consequently Warsaw Pact – defensive alliances

Cold War intensified in the years afterwards with the formation of rival alliance systems and the arms race.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) – 1949

Causes of NATO: Berlin Crisis – confirmed USA’s commitment to containment; highlighted Soviet threat Western Europe needed formal support of USA in case of war – needed military

alliance to ensure security: backed by atomic power of USA. To prevent Soviet expansion (and defend Western World from communist takeover)

Key features of NATO: Military alliance that offered mutual support in the case of attack. Armed attack against

one was considered to be an attack against them all. 12 countries originally signed treaty (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, UK,

USA, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland)

Effects of NATO: Confirmed US policy of containment Prompts arms race : USA and USSR compete to build more powerful nuclear weapons

than the other Warsaw Pact formed, and Europe militarily divided . USSR saw it as a threat to end

communism and Soviet Power In 1955, West Germany joined NATO. USSR’s worst fears realised: Germany being

rebuilt and now part of military alliance leads USSR to think NATO could be offensive, although USA claim NATO was defensive alliance. USSR not going to suffer at the hands of the Germans again

Warsaw Pact – 1955

Defensive alliance based in Moscow to counter the threat of NATO (especially after West Germany joined), mutual support in case of attack

8 countries signed it, led by USSR , which also had the atomic bomb. Used to keep control in Eastern Europe and defend USSR

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Arms Race and Space Race: 1945-1962 1945: USA test first atomic bomb and drop two on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 1949: USSR developed atom bomb in 1949 – shocked US public, lost advantage Both sides poured money into more and better nuclear and conventional weapons, continually increasing spending 1953: USA tested hydrogen bomb, followed by USSR only a few months later. Churchill described it as a ‘balance of terror’ Soviet atomic research programme transformed and increased, so USA also expanded for fear they were being overtaken. Each suspected the other was building enough weapons to make a first strike to prevent the other side striking back or trigger nuclear war. Alternatively to create power to intimidate the other into submission rather than actually prepare for war. Both powers in direct competition to be biggest nuclear power, so aggressive attitudes and worsening relations; made Cold War difficult to end due to lack of trust with demilitarisation. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) theory – neither would attack for fear of retaliation and destruction Both sides reduced conventional weaponry, and focussed on nuclear superiority. Very expensive for both, but USA had upper hand as more money and resources. USA placed missile bases in some European countries. By 1960, Eisenhower near end of Presidency. Khrushchev & Eisenhower seemed likely to make a deal and limit Arms Race. Both made public statements about their interests in ‘peaceful progress’. But relations still strained due to U-2 crisis and Berlin Crisis. 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis. Both superpowers saw how close the world had come to nuclear war, and nuclear disarmament began with détente. Space race symbolic of technological superiority

o 1957: USSR launched the satellite Sputnik, which could orbit the earth in 1½ hours. Seen by USA as a military threat. Soviet spaceman is first person in space, followed later by an American.

o 1958: Eisenhower introduced NASA. USA concerned USSR would overtake them: increased missile spending by 20%, expanded engineer and scientist training programmes, increased B-52 bombers, equipped submarines with nuclear weapons

o 1969: USA lands first man on the moon.

Further developments: 1949-1956 1949: Communist take-over in China (Mao Zedong), fear that this would have a domino effect in Asia, as USA hugely invested in Japan after WW2 1950-1953: Korean War . Communist North Korea, supported by USSR & China, invade capitalist South Korea, supported by USA. Domino theory a reality. Indirect fighting. Anti-communist hysteria and accusations in USA, fuelled by Senator McCarthy. Government employees found guilty of passing on secrets about atom bomb. 1953: Stalin died . After two years, Nikita Krushchev established himself as Soviet leader. Gave secret speech denouncing Stalin’s policies; began a policy of peaceful co-existence with West and de-Stalinisation in Eastern Europe (proved limited after Hungarian uprising). Jun 1956: Polish uprising – 100 Poles shot by Soviet soldiers; Gomulka released from prison and popular as leader. Despite animosity to USSR, Khrushchev does not send army to ensure Soviet control. Accept Gomulka and withdraw Red Army to border to let the Poles do their stuff.

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Hungarian Uprising – 1956

Hungary after WW2 Sep 1944: USSR occupied Hungary. USSR most influential in Allied Control

Commission. Provisional Government set up – agreed to pay USSR $300 million Nov 1945: Smallholders’ Party won election. Head of occupying Soviet forces established

coalition with communists in charge of security police. Feb 1947: opposition leaders arrested or fled. Communists became largest party and drew

out constitution making Hungary a ‘Republic of Workers and Working Peasants’. 1947-1953: Rakosi leader – imposed dictatorship and followed Stalin.Mar 1953 - Stalin died. Malenkov replaced Rakosi with Imre Nagy.Nagy introduced many reforms - freed political prisoners, tried to improve the living

standards. This was called the 'New Course'. Other Communists criticised him and claimed that he was too right wing.

Apr 1955: Nagy replaced with Rakosi again.Feb 1956: Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’Mar 1956: Rakosi succeeded by Erno Gero (on orders of Moscow)

Causes of Hungarian Uprising:1. Continued Soviet occupation after liberation and forced to pay USSR $300 million.

Smallholders’ Party prevented from forming government despite majority vote.

2. Rakosi's brutal dictatorial regime : Terror state of secret police (AVH), executions (2000 killed in purges; 200,000 political prisoners) Imposed Soviet-style constitution; Comecon and Cominform (USSR control government, economy, education etc.) Prevented from trading with West and receiving Marshall Aid. Forced to trade on uneven terms with USSR. Religion attacked: removed from education, head of Catholic church imprisoned 5-year-plan failed (heavy industry and steel, but Hungary had no iron ore) Economy collapsed and living standards fell (1952 lowest agricultural output)

3. Khrushchev's speech gave them hope , and encouraged by success in Poland

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Key features of Hungarian Uprising:1. 23rd Oct: 300,000 demonstrators in Budapest demanding free elections, press and withdrawal

of Soviet troops. Ripped down statue of Stalin. Police supported Rakosi. Khrushchev sent troops to restore peace, tanks opened fire on rebels. Kadar takes over as PM, followed by Nagy next day. After talks with USSR, tanks withdrawn. Seen as victory.

2. 30th Oct: Nagy does some stuff: releases political prisoners approaches UN – hoped to draw USSR into negotiations publishes reforms (free elections, press, speech, worship, trade unions; end to

one party system; trade links with West; withdraw from Warsaw Pact) Political parties reappear, coalition government formed.

3. 4th Nov: Khrushchev invades Hungary with 200,000 Soviet troops and 6,000 tanks. Rebels fought with guerrilla tactics but were no match. 10th Nov: ceasefire agreed, but sporadic fighting continued until mid 1957. Janos Kadar new leader. Promised Nagy safe passage out, but then arrested him and he was shot

Why did the USSR invade Hungary? Pressure from Mao and China to stand firm against deviation from Communism Fear of loss of control of Eastern Europe and damage to Warsaw Pact Send message to rest of satellite states – if Hungary left others may follow Khrushchev had to stamp his own authority on USSR Knew USA would not intervene :

o Presidential electionso Involved in Suez crisis

Effects of Hungarian Uprising: Hungary: Still part of Soviet empire – population political prisoners Janos Kadar new Soviet-backed leader with strong, communist rule 20,000 rebels killed ; 200,000 fled Hungary (and 7,000 Soviet troops killed) Much of Budapest destroyed

USSR and Warsaw Pact: Iron curtain reinforced – maintained empire Warning to other satellite states thinking of breaking away Poland and Hungary made only slow and gradual reforms after 1956, but still remained firmly under Soviet power

Superpower Relations: Limit to de-Stalinisation : Krushchev’s messages of peace are a sham – despite

negotiations USSR hadn’t changed Khrushchev seen as tough leader , like Stalin However, USA not directly involved and no superpower threats, so not such a large

change in relations USSR sees unwillingness of USA to intervene – USSR can get away with whatever

they want in Eastern Europe? Eastern Europe loses faith in UN and USA

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BERLIN WALL: 1961-1989Causes of Berlin Wall (long term):

1. West Berlin was window to success and prosperity of Capitalism – didn’t want citizens of East Berlin seeing Capitalism as stronger. East Berlin had shortages of consumer goods, no private trading, forced collectivisation, bad living conditions... communism unpopular in East Berlin.

2. Gap in Iron Curtain – drain of skilled/professional population leaving to West Berlin threatened economic collapse of East Germany: 20,000 people flee per month. Makes Communism look unpopular, and gap in Iron Curtain.

3. Khrushchev saw West Germany as a military threat . West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and EEC in 1957 – economically strong.

4. Soviet Union wanted to prevent espionage– still determined to get West out of Berlin.

Causes of Berlin Wall (short term):1. Eisenhower had seemed prepared to negotiate over Berlin, a summit was organised

for May 1960 in Paris to discuss Berlin and nuclear weapons Soviet Union shot down American U-2 spy plane 9 days before the summit. Khrushchev demanded that all such flights stop and USA apologise. Eisenhower stopped flights but wouldn’t apologise. America spying on Russia. Khrushchev stormed out of preliminary meeting, Eisenhower cancelled visit to USSR.

2. Kennedy’s view strongly against Communism : Khrushchev thought he could use experience to push young Kennedy around, but didn’t note JFK had reasserted Truman doctrine in inauguration speech. Vienna summit Jun 1961 Khrushchev offered to make a treaty with East Germany ending all four Allies’ occupation rights, but Kennedy still refused to withdraw forces from West Berlin, and increased US defence spending by $3.5 billion. Khrushchev increased Soviet defence budget 30%.

Key Features of Berlin Wall: 13th Aug 1961: Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin Barbed wire placed along 50km border . Concrete wall built in a day encircling West

Berlin. Wall built up over 14 years (4th generation 1975) Many were shot if they tried to escape from East Berlin USA and Allies did nothing to stop building of wall

Effects of Berlin Wall: Although Khrushchev failed to remove western forces, crisis ended and tension eased

in Europe. Peace kept as JFK not prepared to go to war over this issue. Economic crisis in East Germany evaporated as flow of refugees stopped Wall became a symbol of division – the iron curtain in reality. Emphasised mutual

distrust (e.g. spying) and opposing ideologies. Wall remained up separating Berlin until 1989. Germans had paid the price of

international tension – tool of the superpowers – let down as USSR broke 1949 agreement and JFK still didn’t do anything. Berlin families were split – travel restrictions made communication and seeing relatives difficult.

Soviet Union presented to Western world as inhumane Khrushchev felt he had beaten Kennedy Kennedy visited West Germany in 1963, made popular speeches to 1.5 million

Berliners (including some East Berliners listening too) – JFK very popular in West Germany and Berlin.

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CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS: 1962Causes of Bay of Pigs:

1959: Fidel Castro, an anti-capitalist (but non-communist), lead a revolution and took power from US backed dictator Batista.

Castro rejected US business and investment in Cuba and nationalised US owned estates and factories. USA refused to buy Cuba’s biggest export, sugar.

USSR offered to buy sugar and provide machinery, oil and technological assistance. Castro claimed his political leanings were moving towards communism – closely linked to USSR.

Jan 1961 USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba. Khrushchev eager to challenge USA to deflect criticisms of his failures in USSR (and

because he had been unable to re-unite Berlin).

Key features of Bay of Pigs invasion, 1961 1,500 US-backed anti-Castro Cuban exiles (‘La Brigada’) trained by CIA (with $45m

budget) to invade Cuba: USA thought this would start revolution against Castro 15th Apr US planes bombed part of Cuban air force, but called off second wave so Cuban

air force could regroup. La Brigada 2506 landed at Bay of Pigs and mushed by 20,000 men from Castro’s army – 100 killed; 1,100 imprisoned.

Invasion failed because:o CIA didn’t realise Castro was very popular (Cubans pleased with Castro’s reforms of

improved living and social conditions), so no mass uprising.o Castro aware of invasion as exiles overheard discussing plans in Miami.o USA didn’t attack Cuban air force – mistake as La Brigada’s supply ships sunk by

Cuban planes.o Castro’s 20,000 men superior in leadership, arms and organisation

Effects of Bay of Pigs: Worsening of superpower relations – USA trained Cuban exiles to attack ally; caused

Cuba to be firmly on side of USSR and consequently have missiles placed there USA and Kennedy humiliated . Developing countries saw USA as imperialist. Castro’s position strengthened in Cuba. Seen as example by developing world. End of 1961: Castro declared conversion to communism – closer to USSR Kennedy determined to resist growth of communism in the Americas. USA began

Operation Mongoose to remove Castro Khrushchev saw the move into Cuba as the beginnings of the spread of communism

into Latin America, so USSR promised to help Cuba with weapons, military advisers and combat units because: - opportunity to readdress ‘failure’ of Berlin Wall: unable to remove allies from Berlin- Putting nuclear weapons on Cuba would put pressure on USA- USSR nuclear weapon positioning was far inferior to USA (USA had missiles in

Italy and Turkey, so had ‘total coverage’ of USSR) – Khrushchev wanted equivalent to restore balance of power, and Cuba would mean USSR had weapons base within 90 miles of USA

- USSR falling behind technologically with nuclear development – unable to match US ICBMs.

- Defending Cuba from future attacks from USA after Bay of Pigs- Mao Zedong was criticising Khrushchev.

Throughout 1962, Khrushchev sent military supplies to Cuba. In Sept, Soviet technicians began to install ballistic missiles.

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Causes of Cuban Missile Crisis: Castro takes over and rejects US business and trade, makes deal with USSR Bay of Pigs – invasion fails . Cuba becomes closer to USSR and declared conversion to

Communism in 1961. Worrying to USA as Cuba so geographically close (160km from Florida) so concerns seem magnified.

USSR put missile bases in Cuba (see above)

Key features of Cuban Missile Crisis:1. 14th Oct 1962: U-2 Spy Plane took photos of Cuba which showed construction of

Soviet intermediate-range missile bases, to be operational by November, with IRBMs that could hit most US cities (though no actual missiles were identified). Further spy photos revealed Soviet ships travelling towards Cuba carrying long-range nuclear weapons.

2. President Kennedy set up a committee of 12 political and military advisors (ExComm) and various options were discussed:

Bomb Cuba and the Soviet Union using nuclear missiles Invade Cuba Use an air-strike to destroy missile bases Blockade Cuba Do nothing.

22nd Oct: Kennedy made decisions: A naval blockade (quarantine) 3300 km around Cuba to prevent Soviet ships delivering military materials (but allowed food etc.). If Soviet vessels didn’t stop, US ships had orders to fire. Kennedy stated that if the blockade is ‘forced’, the USA will be at war with Cuba and USSR. 156 ICMBs were made ready for combat and air-force bombers in air on patrol Hundreds of soldiers placed on combat alert.

Kennedy’s television address – informed Khrushchev that Soviet convoy would be stopped and if found to have offensive military equipment would be turned back24th Oct: 18 Soviet ships stop and turn around to avoid facing US blockade.3. Kennedy and Khrushchev correspond :

Kennedy demanded the removal of all missiles or would invade Cuba. [Threatening USSR, offensive blockade and preparing for war/invasion.] 26th Oct: Khrushchev offers to remove long-range missiles on Cuba if Kennedy ends blockade and promises not to invade Cuba. 27th Oct: Khrushchev adds that Kennedy must also promise to remove US missiles in Turkey. U2 spy plane shot down over Cuba by Soviet missile. 28th Oct: Kennedy ignores 2nd letter and agrees to 1st one. Kennedy secretly agrees to withdraw missiles in Turkey later. USSR removes missiles from Cuba.

How was a nuclear war avoided? The UN Secretary General U Thant appealed to both sides for constraint. Both sides realised that a nuclear war could easily have broken out & how destructive the

results may have been. Communication - the telegrams led to an eventual agreement.

Khrushchev promised that the USSR would remove the missiles & dismantle the sites.

JFK promised that the USA would not invade Cuba again, remove blockade and remove the missiles in Turkey.

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Effects of Cuban Missile Crisis: Kennedy seems to have won (great statesman), Khrushchev looks weak and perceived

to have backed down (Turkey missiles removed secretly) – Khrushchev lost support of politicians in USSR; criticised by Mao Zedong for placing missiles in Cuba then backing down. Khrushchev sacked in 1964.

However, Khrushchev saw crisis as victory for himself – knew Turkey missiles would be removed; Cuba a secure communist state near USA with promise not to invade.

Relations improved with détente and reduction of tensions – Cuba turning point in Cold War: relief that crisis ended and world-destructive nuclear war avoided (superpowers realised arms race nearly brought about nuclear war).

o COOPERATION: in 1963, USA sold grain to USSRo COMUNICATION: Hotline created between White House and Kremlin to

improve speed of communicationo NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT:

Aug 1963: Partial Test Ban Treaty July 1968: Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty SALT talks from 1969 to consider limitations to nuclear arsenals Missiles removed from Cuba and Turkey – lesser threat to USA and USSR

Little consultation with other countries: France withdrew from NATO in 1966.

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CZECHOSLOVAKIA: The Prague Spring 1968

Until 1960s, Czechoslovakia model satellite state, obedient to USSR, good living standard.

Causes of Opposition: Memory of brutal way USSR had seized power with army; murder of Jan Masaryk

(foreign secretary) Antonin Novotny, hard-line communist :

o slavishly followed Soviet lineo refused to introduce reformso slow to de-Stalinize, especially releasing political prisoners

By 1960s, economy in decline therefore fall in living standard and national income Forced to give vital raw materials to USSR; not allowed to produce consumer goods Novotny’s New Economic Model failed (surplus of unaffordable consumer goods)

Events leading up to reforms: Oct 1967: Novotny challenged by reformers (e.g. Alexander Dubcek and Ota Silk);

demonstrations follow Dec 1967: Brezhnev visited Prague, surprised at opposition to Novotny, withheld support 5th Jan 1968: Novotny replaced as First Secretary of Communist Party by Dubcek

(supported by Brezhnev) Prague Spring reforms announced by Dubcek. March 1968: Novotny resigned as President and was replaced by General Svoboda (who

supported Dubcek’s reforms). Novotny powerless.

Prague Spring Reforms: ‘Socialism with a human face’ – aim to get rid of worst features of communism Greater political freedom – free speech, free movement, end to censorship (propaganda

against Novotny and previous government: communists ‘grilled’ on TV) Reduction in powers of secret police (can’t imprison without trial) Contact with West and trade with West Germany 10 year programme for political change – democratic elections and socialism Creation of works councils to represent the workforce (workers’ rights etc.) Federalisation of the Republic – relations between Czechs and Slovaks Decentralisation – independent enterprises and small businesses

Effects of reforms: Encouraged anti-communists to demand even greater reforms June 1968: Social Democrats set up separate party to rival to communists Journalist Ludvik Vaculik published a manifesto The Two Thousand Words –called for

Czechoslovakians to force more extreme reform Made Soviet Union very concerned, and ultimately caused the invasion

Why was the USSR concerned about Czechoslovakia? Czechoslovakia moving away from USSR:

o Anti-communist/Soviet reforms coming at once without consulting USSRo West Germany trading more with Czechoslovakia – West Germany might come to

dominate economy of Eastern Europe and Czechoslovakia

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o Tito given enthusiastic reception in Czechoslovakia – suspicious? Worried ideas would spread elsewhere Czechoslovakia had strongest industry – feared they would leave Warsaw Pact. Czechoslovakia centrally placed – feared NATO would move in (split Eastern bloc,

advance NATO’s frontier 700km to the Soviet border) Pressure from leader of East Germany, Walter Ulbricht, and Polish leader, Gomulka, to

stop reform

How did the Soviet Union respond? Jun 1968: Soviet tanks remain in Czechoslovakia after military exercises Jul 1968: Brezhnev met with leaders of Warsaw Pact and shared concerns. Dubcek agreed

not to allow new Social Democratic Party; not change foreign policy; remain in Warsaw Pact, however insisted on reforms. Tension eased.

3rd Aug 1968: Warsaw Pact leaders (inc. Dubcek) sign Bratislava Declaration – declaring faith in Communism

15th Aug 1968: 3 day meeting of Soviet Politburo. Brezhnev shouted at Dubcek on phone “You’re going to bring down the Warsaw Pact! ☭”

Key features of the Soviet Invasion: 20th Aug: thousands of Soviet troops invaded, backed with units from Bulgaria, East

Germany, Hungary and Poland Czechoslovakians resisted : threw petrol bombs at tanks; buildings set on fire; protestors

assembled; students tore down street names and argued with soldiers; anti-Soviet broadcasters stayed on air moving from hiding places

No resistance from army , so fewer than 100 killed Dubcek and other leaders arrested and taken to Moscow – abandon reforms

Effects of the Soviet Invasion: Czechoslovakia:

o End to democratic reforms o Czech communist party purged o New leader, Gsutav Husak, reverted to strict communist rule (Dubcek expelled)o Demonstrations went on until Apr 1969; 1 student set himself on fire in protest

Brezhnev Doctrine :o Communist one party systemo All countries had to remain in Warsaw Pact

Warsaw Pact:o Message sent out – USSR would suppress attempts to reformo Some moved away from Moscow : Romania refused to send troops and more

independent from Moscow; Albania left Warsaw Pact 1968 (USSR preoccupied with Czechoslovakia)

Superpower Relations:o Temporarily worsened relations, but détente continued after slight breako Criticism of USSR – pressure off USA as other western countries also criticised themo USA busy with presidential election and Vietnam – USSR knew they would not acto Increased rivalry between USSR and China : Chinese criticised force against fellow

communist nation (feared same fate)

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DÉTENTE: 1962 – 1979Détente (‘relaxed tensions’): period of Cold War where Superpower relations improved after

the Cuban Missile Crisis and the threat of nuclear war.

Why were both Superpowers keen on Détente? 1. Money – arms race very expensive. Both, especially USSR, keen to reduce spending.2. Nuclear War – Cuban Missile Crisis frightened superpowers, realised how close they had

come to nuclear war. Wanted to reduce chance of nuclear conflict and world destruction.3. Nuclear Proliferation (spreading) : would mean more chance of nuclear conflict.4. Public Opposition – more people grew against nuclear weapons once they realised effects5. China – China and USSR fell out in 1960. USA keen for détente to keep USSR and

China apart (otherwise would create powerful force that would challenge American supremacy). USSR also concerned about USA and China allying against them. Détente meant friendly relations between USSR and USA.

6. Vietnam – USA keen to withdraw from Vietnam (public very against it) and détente would be an opportunity to negotiate a withdrawal.

7. Brezhnev keen to gain access to US technology and further grain sales.

Key Features of Détente Indirect fighting continued – Six Day War; Yom Kippur; Vietnam War Cooperation and communication – linkage to end Vietnam; sale of grain; hotline Nuclear disarmament – summits, SALT treaties, Helsinki agreements Other tensions: China; Czechoslovakia/ Brezhnev doctrine; arms race continued; USSR

violation of human rights; competing in Africa etc., tension late 1970s

Changing relations during détente (✓ is positive for relations; ✗ is negative)✓ 1963: Partial Test Ban Treaty: stop testing nuclear weapons in atmosphere, only underground✗ 1965-1973: Vietnam War – To stop the spread of communism, USA sent troops to South

Vietnam in 1965. Soviet Union was supplying arms to North Vietnam. Vietnam War didn’t go well for USA: despite huge military force, couldn’t defeat North Vietnamese and the Vietcong (Vietnamese communists). By 1968, USA wanted to end war and peace talks began in spring 1968.

✗ 1967: Six Day War in Middle East: Arab nations closer to USSR as Israel militarily supplied by USA, but superpower tensions didn’t come anywhere close to those at Cuba, since managed to negotiate a ceasefire.

✗ 1968: Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia – USA and other countries criticised USSR, but didn’t really endanger relations

✗ 1968: Brezhnev Doctrine (Soviet foreign policy) – if a capitalist country threatened any communist country then the other communist states had to intervene using force

✓ 1968: Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty – USA, USSR and Britain agree to prevent spread of nuclear technology (countries that signed agreed not to develop it)

✗ 1968: USA develops ABMs and MIRVs✗ 1971: USA didn’t block communist China from joining UN✓ 1972-1979: Five summit conferences between USA and USSR (including three with

asterisk*: 1972, 1974 and SALT II 1979) about nuclear missiles, increased trade links etc.✗ Feb 1972: Nixon visited China (Brezhnev scared of a Chinese-US alliance).✓ *May 1972: Nixon visited Moscow. Made it clear he did not see Vietnam as an obstacle to

détente. Agreed to take part in European Security conference (Helsinki Agreements).

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✓ May 1972: SALT I treaty signed (see next page for agreements) after 3 years of Strategic Arms Limitations Talks in Helsinki and Vienna. Each side allowed to use satellites to check the other was not breaking arms limits.

✓ Shows world that Brezhnev and Nixon are making an effort to work together to create peace, which reduces tensions.✓ Some limitations may help arms race and nuclear disarmament.✗ Can still develop (new) nuclear weapons✗ Still ABMs – fear that nuclear weapons will be used✗ Strategic bombers not limited, will have same effect as inter-continental bombs.

✗ Despite SALT I treaty 1972, Arms Race continued. Effects of agreement limited and many agreements not enforced. Neither side trusted the other to reduce their nuclear arsenal significantly. Both sides continued to develop conventional and smaller weapons not covered (‘around’ agreement) and develop ways to ‘transport destruction’. Size of both armies increased and space race continued.

✓ 1973: ‘Linkage’ ends Vietnam War - After Nixon became president, it was hoped if USA improved trade (e.g. grain) and technology links and made an offer of arms reduction, Brezhnev might persuade his North Vietnamese ally to negotiate an end to war. Brezhnev acted as intermediary between Washington DC and Hanoi and helped resolve peace between USA and North Vietnam in 1973.

✗ 1973: Yom Kippur War – still fighting indirectly. Tested optimism of 1972. Syria and Egypt (backed by USSR) attacked Israel (backed by USA). Brezhnev proposed joint USA-USSR force to go and save Egyptian army from Israelis, otherwise USSR would go alone. Nixon angry at suggestion of independent action and put US forces (including nuclear strike groups) on alert. USA suggested UN peacekeeping force of non-nuclear countries intervene, and war ended with ceasefire on 24th Oct 1973.

✓ *Jul 1974: Nixon’s visit to Moscow. Although relations weren’t warm, agreed to:- Continue removing danger of war, especially nuclear and mass destruction- Limit and eventually end arms race, especially in strategic warheads. Both agreed

ultimate objective was complete disarmament. - Contribute to elimination of sources of international tension and military conflict.- Relax tensions worldwide- Co-operate in economy, science, technology and culture to promote

understanding between the peoples of the two countries.✓ July-Aug 1975: European Security Conference (1973-5) reach Helsinki Agreements –

35 nations (including USA and USSR) sign on 3 agreements to keep détente developing:SECURITY: Agree borders of Europe (recognised Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe)**; USSR accepts existence of West GermanyCO-OPERATION: work together on scientific, economic and cultural ideas as well as trade and technological cooperation to lead to closer political agreement HUMAN RIGHTS – agreed to respect freedom of thought, speech, religion, movement, political freedom and freedom from unfair arrest**Many critics say this was a mistake – USSR only interested in benefits of détente e.g. trade links and decreased expenditure (Brezhnev said that it did not mean end of the struggle between Communism & Capitalism).

✓ 17 th July 1975: Space link up – 3 US astronauts and 2 Soviet cosmonauts met up in space. Symbolic handshake. Relations on the mend with sporting and cultural alliances.

✗ 1977-1981: USSR’s violation of human rights agreements. In 1977, Carter wanted to link human rights to arms limitations to put pressure on USSR, who were not keeping to Helsinki Agreements. USA and other nations complained. Trading agreements began to break down. Brezhnev said this was interference in Soviet internal affairs. Helsinki groups

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set up in Eastern Europe to monitor USSR’s adherence to human rights agreements: highlighted lack of freedom of speech, religion and movement. Human rights issue embarrassment for Brezhnev.

✗ Superpowers competing in South America, Middle East and Africa. Carter increased US defence budget late 1978 due to Soviet interference in Africa.

✓ *June 1979: Salt II (see below) – final agreements reached and signed (but not ratified)✗ Salt II never ratified by USA – Congress didn’t believe limits could be verified; Senate

refused to ratify treaty after Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. ✗ 2000 Soviet troops in Cuba – Renewed concern for USA ✗ Late 1979: NATO placed long-range missiles in Europe✗ 25 th Dec 1979: USSR invaded Afghanistan – end of détente

SALT I Treaty, May 1972Limited Not limited

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) (shoot down inter-continental and strategic ballistic missiles) – allowed at only 2 sites, with 100 missiles at each. Key in nuclear arms control as ensured that neither side could ever consider itself immune from retaliation.

Strategic bombers and their bombs not limited.

Interim Agreement on Offensive Arms – 5 year freeze on total number of ICBM (inter-continental ballistic missile) and SLBM (submarine launched ballistic missiles) launchers.

No restriction on MIRVs (multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles). Allowed to use satellites to check other side wasn’t breaking arms limits.

SALT II Treaty, July 1979 From 1974, talks for a new SALT agreement took place to limit every type of rocket &

warhead (explosive bit on nuclear missiles) (all nuclear weapons) Agreements for SALT II, July 1979, to last until 1985:

- Limit of 2,400 strategic nuclear delivery vehicles (ICBMs, SLBMs, heavy bombers)- 1320 limit on MIRV systems (can strike several targets)- Ban on construction of new land-based ICBM launchers.- Limits on deployment of new types of strategic offensive arms.

Although treaty was never signed, both sides pledged to follow its guidelines. However, it did not mention tactical (short-range) weapons or designate how many strategic warheads each side could deploy.

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Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979Political Situation

Pre 1978: Islamic dictatorship: no rights, poor farmers, inequality of wealth, pro-USA. 1978: People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA: communist) overthrew

government. Formed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Muhammad Taraki PM. USSR give them military assistance (equipment and advisors).

PDPA imposed communist-style reform programme: changes in marriage customs, land reforms, education of women, anti-Muslim policies. Thousands of traditional élite (Muslim religious establishment and intellectuals) imprisoned, tortured or murdered.

1979: PDPA had no support. Deputy-PM Amin seized power, but still unstable because of anti-Muslim policies. Thousands joined the Mujahideen (guerrilla movement on holy war -jihad- for Allah), which declared war on government and their supporters (inspired by overthrow of Shah in Iran 1979)

PDPA get more Soviet support. Amin did not want to become reliant on USSR, wanted to improve links with USA. Chaos continues in Afghanistan.

Causes of Invasion1. Fear of spread of Islamic fundamentalism to 30 million Muslims in USSR (threat to

Soviet system)2. Unstable political situation – restore order. Brezhnev said USSR only complying with

the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Good Neighbourliness that former President Taraki had signed.

3. Keep communist, pro-Soviet PDPA in power against strong opposition from people and Mujahideen

4. Close to oil reserves in Persian Gulf: USSR wanted to keep control and keep from USA5. Geographical importance close to Arabian Sea (and oil supply route to USA)

Key Features of Invasion 25th Dec 1979 – 1st Jan 1980: 50,000 Soviet troops invade Afghanistan. Dec 27th 1979: Admin shot, replaced by Babrak Kamal (who had been in exile in

Moscow), but now required 85,000 Soviet soldiers to keep it in power. Many Afghan soldiers deserted to join Mujahideen.

Invasion condemned by most of UN Much devastation of Afghanistan, over 1 million Afghans killed, 5.5 million refugees. By 1988, Mujahidin controlled 75% of country 1989: Soviet forces withdrew.

Impact of Afghanistan War (1980-87) on USSR Seriously weakened USSR financially : 15,000 Soviets killed, 37,000 wounded: morale

of Soviet army affected, spent $20 billion. Mujahideen fought successful guerrilla war (support from people, knowledge of landscape

etc.) Funded by $2 billion from USA and $600 million a year from Saudi Arabia. Opposition: international condemnation of invasion, led by USA USSR offered to withdraw 1982 if USA stopped supplying Mujahideen: USA rejected. Agreement: UN sponsored peace talks finally meant an agreement between USSR,

Afghanistan, Pakistan & USA. USSR finally withdrew in 1987. Taliban come into power 1992 – Islamic fundamentalists

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Effects of Invasion – US reaction: Carter doctrine : USA would use military force to defend national interests in the

Persian Gulf region if necessary. Firm approach to USSR after failure to solve Iran hostage problem in 1979 – Carter looking weak.

Promised US military aid to all countries bordering Afghanistan . To achieve this, Carter proposed creation of a quick-strike military force (Rapid Deployment Force) that could intervene anywhere at short notice.

Draft registration for men aged 18-20. Congress to allow CIA to increase its intelligence gathering activities Assistance to be given to Mujahideen – USA spent $2 billion to weaken USSR US companies forbidden to sell high technology there e.g. computers/oil drilling

equipment. USA cancelled all shipments of grain to USSR Pressurised US Olympic Committee to boycott 1980 Moscow Olympics, threatening to

withhold funding and remove tax benefits. USOC agreed, and 61 other countries followed USA’s example and attended alternative ‘Liberty Bell Classic’ – relations worsened. In retaliation, USSR boycotted 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.

Carter asked Senate to suspend ratification of SALT II treaty Détente dead by beginning of 1980

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President Reagan, 1981-1989Replaced Jimmy Carter in 1980. Aggressive anti-Soviet Foreign Policy.

Why did Reagan increase defence spending? Emphasised fighting communism : wanted to confront USSR when possible (evil empire) Determined to re-establish USA as the leading superpower , and not to be intimidated by

arsenal USSR had built up – thought they had lost ground to USSR during détente. Less emphasis on human rights.

Wanted to erase humiliation: loss of Vietnam War; hostage crisis in Iran; loss of prestige to USSR in Africa and Central America.

Reagan’s Defence Policies, 1981-87: Massively increase military arms spending (over $1 trillion): Worsened relations

because USSR felt threatened, USSR under pressure as struggling to keep up with US spending, and nuclear war more likely. Led to NUTS theory and ‘Star Wars’ policy.

- Increased size of forces- Strengthened military communications systems- Development of neutron bomb (killed people but did little damage to property)- Construction of new Stealth bomber that would be invisible to radar- Construction of six Trident nuclear submarines- 100 MX missiles; 100 B-1 long-range and supersonic bombers- Developed defensive weapons that could shoot down missiles.

Placed Cruise Missiles (undetectable by radar) in Western Europe (result of deployment of Soviet SS20 missiles in Western USSR).

Nuclear Utilisation Target Selection (NUTS theory). [He wasn’t MAD, he was NUTS!] Felt the USA could win limited nuclear war (mainly due to Star Wars). Worsened tensions: until then, both superpowers had accepted MAD; now nuclear war possible.

Nov 1981: Reagan proposed ‘zero option’ to cancel deployment of new US intermediate-range missiles in Western Europe in return for USSR dismantling of comparable forces (600 SS20 missiles). Reagan approaching talks from position of economic and military strength: offer would lose USSR large percentage of weapons, and if USSR rejected, could put even more missiles in Europe. Brezhnev rejected offer.

Jun 1982: Called USSR ‘Empire Evil’ . Andropov let loose barrage of insults (insane, liar, fanning flames of war, compared Reagan to Hitler)

Strategic Arms Reduction (START) Talks : Despite arms build-up, negotiations to reduce arms continued.

Situation worsened by events in Poland: USA gave secret assistance to Polish workers’ trade union (was banned; leaders imprisoned 1982). USA criticised Brezhnev and Polish government for heavy-handed approach and banned all high-tech trade with USSR.

Soviet delegation walked out of START talks in 1983. Reagan announced the SDI (Star Wars) programme.

23 rd March 1983: Reagan announces Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) ‘Star Wars’ : Anti-ballistic missile system: ground and space laser beams that could intercept

and destroy missiles. USA no longer relied on MAD to prevent Soviet attack and protect citizens, allies and nuclear weapons.

4 days after announcement, Andropov accused USA of preparing a first-strike attack on USSR to unleash a nuclear war in the hope of winning.

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Andropov realised SDI would give USA a huge advantage in a conflict and make them consider tactical nuclear war. USSR would have to spend even more money on armaments to compete with USA. Threatened the already unstable Soviet economy: Reagan hoped the USSR would increase arms spending in an attempt to compete, which might destroy their economy completely.

Although certain talks took place (off & on) no real progress was made.

Changing Leaders of the Soviet Union

Leader of Soviet Union DatesJosef Stalin 1924 – 1953Georgy Malenkov 1953 – 1955Nikita Khrushchev 1955 – 1964Leonid Brezhnev Oct 1964 – Nov 1982Yuri Andropov Nov 1982 – Feb 1984Konstantin Chernenko Feb 1984 – Mar 1985Mikhail Gorbachev Mar 1985 – 1991

Other Changes in Superpower Relations 1983-1985 Change in leaders made it difficult to establish continuity 1983: Reagan permitted sale of US grain to USSR (to help US economy) – biggest ever

trade agreement between two countries. 1984: Chernenko announced Soviet boycott of US Olympic Games in LA (accused

USA of using games for political purposes and using propaganda against USSR; claimed security for Soviet athletes was inadequate). Reagan said USSR needed to consider its ‘barbarous’ actions in Afghanistan and its treatment of dissidents e.g. Andrei Sakharov. Boycott supported by USSR’s allies – retaliation for US boycott 1980 (they held ‘Friendship Games’). Showed world was still divided into two camps, even in sport. US games biggest ever (140 nations, including China for first time since 1932).

End of 1984: hint of willingness to resume détente: fear in Europe that Cruise and Pershing missiles had brought nuclear war closer. Anti-nuclear demonstrations in USA and countries where missiles were stationed.

Mar 1985: Gorbachev new Soviet leader – younger, prepared for drastic policies for peace to stop collapse of USSR

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End of the Cold War

Situation in Soviet Union by 1985 Weak economy : draining wealth so USSR could not develop – fighting costly, fruitless war in Afghanistan; trying to compete with USA in arms race and space race No incentive to work under communist system – guaranteed job and fixed salary from state (no fear of being sacked or chance of promotion) Poor living standard and decrease in life expectancy to 62 years Reliant on imports of food and technology Shoddy Soviet goods Problems caused unrest

What were Gorbachev's aims when he came to power in 1985? Readiness to meet Reagan – ready to make unthinkable deals with USA and make radical changes in Eastern Europe for world peace and détente to improve relations with West. Had inherited stagnation and problems in USSR – Soviet economy could no longer support strain of forces Eastern Europe. Knew that without change USSR would collapse. Wanted to:

Reform and modernise Communist Party and Soviet-style socialism, not abandon it Improve living conditions and industrial efficiency in USSR Move towards giving people greater political freedom Withdraw from Afghanistan (failure was severe embarrassment as well as costly). Improve relations with China Improve relations with the USA

- reduce defence spending (understood crippling effects of keeping up with US spending)- borrow money from western banks to buy food, raw materials and equipment from abroad.- persuade Western firms to build factories in the USSR.

What Gorbachev did Had three main strategies:

o Reforms in Communist party and USSR: Perestroika ([economic] restructuring) – changing the way USSR is run (improve

industrial efficiency) Glasnost (openness) – expression, freedom (including greater political freedom)

o Ended arms race , signed arms reduction agreementso Stopped Soviet interference in satellite states

Wanted USSR to remain superpower – had to win support of people, show world he didn’t threaten peace. Gorbachev went out and talked directly with public all over USSR, e.g. discussing nurses’ pay with staff at a hospital; computer training for teachers; truck factory. Made him seem more open and popular. However, Glasnost meant that the more freedom people gained, the more they wanted and began to criticise Gorbachev, making it difficult for Communist Party to maintain power.

Perestroika (economic Glasnost (openness)

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restructuring)Private businesses and people allowed to make own profits: no longer illegal

to buy or sell for profit

Reforms in political system e.g. elections for local government (Perestroika) won Gorbachev support and

enabled him to be equally radical in his dealings with USA.

Uskorenie (acceleration of economic development) brought changes

Soviet people learnt of the atrocities committed when Stalin was in power

Withdrew troops from Afghanistan Feb 1989

Dissidents (people who disagreed with government) released from jail

Cut spending on military, began disarmament:

Announced 6 month freeze on deployment of weapons in Europe (as

long as NATO did the same).Anniversary of Hiroshima: announced

ban on nuclear testing.

Banned books were publishedHuman rights, including freedom of religion

Knocked down Berlin Wall – freedom of movement1988: Rejected Brezhnev doctrine

1989: Sinatra Doctrine in Eastern Europe – allowed satellite states to go their ‘own way’, not willing to use Soviet

military to keep control, policy of equality and democracy

Disarmament and End of the Arms Race

Reagan continued to take Soviet military threat seriously and to follow a strong defence policy. Wanted to force USSR into arms reduction but responded positively to offer of détente, which was helped as Reagan and Gorbachev got on very well. Reagan announced that the USA would keep to agreements of SALT II. By 1987, pressure on US government to be working for peace - Reagan wanted a place in history as a peace maker.

Geneva Accord, Nov 1985 Nothing concrete determined, but agreed to:

speed up arms talks (led to later meetings) work towards the abolition of chemical weapons be more active on issues of human rights

Reagan and Gorbachev good-natured and amicable. At end, spoke of world being a ‘safer place’.

Tensions: Reagan wouldn’t give up ‘Star Wars’

Summit meeting in Reykjavik, Oct 1986 Initially agreed arms reductions Agreements collapsed with tensions over SDI and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty .

Gorbachev publicly blamed Reagan.

The Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), Dec 1987 Eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with

ranges 500-5500km within three years. By June 1991, ≈ 2700 such weapons destroyed (850 by USA; 185- by USSR)

Both nations allowed to inspect each other’s military installations. Strict verification procedures to check that nuclear weapons were destroyed.

Stressed that INF only first step towards an even more radical agreement to half long-range nuclear weapons, to be signed in Moscow in 1988.

Only 4% of existing stocks of nuclear weapons: Reagan unwilling to give up SDI, but this was a turning point in affairs – first time weapons had been destroyed.

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Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE), 1989 1988: Moscow summit , more arms control talks. Troop reductions in Europe 1989. Gorbachev’s promise to reduce troops from Afghanistan showed peaceful intentions Moscow summit led to CFE, signed by NATO and Warsaw Pact Nov 1990. CFE reduced conventional weapons , including: tanks, missiles, aircraft

End of the Cold War – superpowers still good relations ‘Gorbymania’ – Gorbachev hailed as hero: very popular in West (and East). Wives of Reagan and Gorbachev played role in pushing leaders together. Malta 1989: End of Cold War announced by George Bush Senior and Gorbachev USA and USSR cooperated over Kuwait in 1990 (Saddam Hussein) and followed directions of UN. However, USSR did not commit and Soviet troops.

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), 1990-91 Talks began from 1982. 31st May-3rd June 1990: Washington summit (Bush and Gorbachev) 31st July 1991: Signed START I (Treaty for the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic

Offensive Arms). Both sides to reduce strategic nuclear forces over 7 years to:- 1600 strategic nuclear delivery vehicles (SNDVs) and 6000 warheads.- 4900 ballistic missiles .

(This meant reducing 25-35% of all their strategic warheads)

Why did the Cold War end?

Gorbachev Popularity in West and openness increased international trust Eagerness for peace and willingness to co-operate improved Reagan’s attitude and sped up nuclear disarmament (however USSR was collapsing anyway) Agreed treaties (especially INF); removed troops from Afghanistan; didn’t interfere in anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe; glasnost Collapse of Eastern Europe and the USSR from internal pressures and success of disarmament – USA no longer considered Russia a major threat so tensions ended.

Response from USA (limited but significant) Reagan blocked peace offers and refused to give up SDI, to get best offer for USA Reagan made personal friends with Gorbachev – helped peace process Reagan and Bush made peace agreements. Gorbachev seemed more eager to make concessions for world peace

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Collapse of Eastern Europe

1988 HUNGARY Gorbachev accepts multi-party state. Elections to be held 1990.

1988 POLAND Strikes throughout country1989 POLAND Free trade union (Solidarity) wins elections.

Mazowiecki first non-communist Prime Minister in Eastern Europe

May 1989 HUNGARY Hungary opens border with Austria – hole in Iron Curtain, Berlin Wall now useless

Oct 1989 EAST GERMANY Gorbachev said USSR would not put down German demonstrations

23rd Oct 1989 EAST GERMANY 300,000 protestors in Leipzig4th Nov 1989 EAST GERMANY 1 million protestors in Berlin for democracy and

free elections9th Nov 1989 EAST GERMANY West German border opened and Berlin Wall

dismantled. 1 million a day go to see relatives and experience life in West

17th Nov 1989 CZECHOSLOVAKIA Huge demonstrations against communism24th Nov 1989 CZECHOSLOVAKIA Communist government resign16th Dec 1989 ROMANIA Secret Police fire on demonstrators in Timisoara21st Dec 1989 ROMANIA Crowd in Bucharest boos President, who flees

but is later captured 22nd-24th Dec 1989 ROMANIA Army joins rebellion and fights secret police.

Hundreds killed.25th Dec 1989 ROMANIA President and wife are shot by firing squad

1990 ROMANIA National Salvation Front (with many ex-communists) win elections

1990 BULGARIA Elections won by renamed communist party1990 HUNGARY Democratic Forum (alliance of anti-communist

groups) wins elections3rd Oct 1990 EAST GERMANY Germany reunified into one country and joined

NATO.1st Jul 1991 WARSAW PACT Warsaw Pact dissolved.

Soviet Union’s loss of power in Eastern Europe so quickly caused massive easing of tensions. These events also had impacts within the USSR:

1990: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declared independence. Moscow accepted 1991. Fears that USSR would disintegrate – Gorbachev opposed by most of USSR Aug 1991: Attempted coup d’état , defeated by Boris Yelstin (President of the Russian Socialist Republic). Gorbachev restored but lost authority. Dec 1991: Gorbachev resigned. USSR split into 15 states (including Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, the Stans) 1990: Gorbachev awarded Nobel Peace Prize

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Essay structure

2 Mark – 2 minutes

e.g. Describe one reason why the Marshall Plan was drawn up in 1947.Key features/ recall of knowledge (AO1/AO2)

1 or 2 sentences that give one developed statement (with additional supporting material or explanation), not 2 shorter ones. Use specific detail/ example.

6 mark – 8 minutes

e.g. Key features/ effectsKey features/ recall of knowledge (AO1/AO2)

3 specific, different key features. SIGN POST “One key feature is… another key feature is…” Try to link but do not need to. No introduction or conclusion First developed statement is 4 marks; the next two developed statements are one mark each For key features, avoid doing a cause or effect unless you’re really stuck Read question – if ask for features of Prague Spring Reforms, do not talk about invasion

12 mark – 15 minutes

e.g. Why did relations worsen/change during years…Causation/ recall of knowledge (AO1/AO2)

Intro (1 sentence) e.g. relations worsened between the USA and the USSR because… 3 developed factors. Link and prioritise factors for full marks (and explain why a factor is the most important e.g. because it led to the others/ affected most people directly/ biggest threat of nuclear war) Link to question in each paragraph – say what happened and why it worsened relationships (e.g. scared/ threatened/ humiliated/ angered/ highlighted division/ emphasised opposing ideologies/ made to look weak) Reference your three points in the conclusion to summarise links/prioritisation

NB: A flashpoint is a thing: “Explain why Czechoslovakia was a flashpoint in 1968 = Explain why we look at Czechoslovakia in 1968 i.e. what happened of note”

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Example 12 mark essay

Describe why superpower relations worsened between 1948 and 1956

Between 1948 and 1956, superpower relations worsened mainly due to the Berlin blockade, the formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact and the Hungarian Uprising.

In 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded all road, rail and canal roots to Allied West Berlin. Stalin was trying to force the Allies out to have total Soviet, communist behind the ‘Iron Curtain’ and to keep a weak Germany. However, the Allies airlifted supplies to West Berlin for almost a year before the USSR gave up. This was almost a ‘test of wills’ between the superpowers to see who would give up first. It worsened relations by confirming the end of the wartime alliance between them and confirming the divide in Europe, and also showed an end to their cooperation.

In 1949 in response to the Berlin blockade, the Allies set up NATO as a defensive alliance against the spread of Communism and to ally the USA officially to Western Europe. In response, the USSR set up an alliance ‘The Warsaw Pact’ between them and Eastern European states to counter the threat of NATO. These alliances confirmed a global divide and mistrust between the superpowers, worsening relations as they were in two opposing alliance so might be preparing for a possible war, and so escalating the size of the Cold War.

Perhaps feeling oppressed by the hard-line Soviet regime and being kept firmly in the Eastern bloc and now part of the Warsaw Pact, the Hungary Uprising occurred revolted in 1956. Their leader, Nagy, approached the UN, waned to introduce reforms (e.g. free speech) and talked of leaving the Warsaw Pact. The USSR invaded, hundreds of thousands were killed or fled and the uprising was quashed. This worsened relations as it showed that the new Soviet leader Khrushchev was no different to Stalin: his talks of peace were shown to be a sham and there was a limit to de-Stalinisation. This was a brutal act by the USSR, but as the USA did not react (they were involved in presidential elections and the Suez crisis) there was no real threat of nuclear war, although the USSR could reinforce the ‘Iron Curtain’.

Overall, relations worsened mainly due to the Berlin blockade, which confirmed their divide and an end to cooperation, and that caused the formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact as global military alliances dividing them and thus hugely worsening relations.

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TimelineNB: Timeline is very rough with very little detail, as a tiny supplement to these notes to give the basic idea about what happened when and what to put about changes in superpower relations between certain dates. Most causes and Effects of events have not been put (e.g. changes in leaders in Hungary pre- and post-uprising): they are all in the notes.

Nov-Dec 1943 Tehran Conference1945-46 USSR ‘liberate’ German occupied

Eastern Europe, but Red Army continues to occupy countries and set up Communist governments (see page 5 for details)

Feb 1945 Yalta Conference12 Apr 1945 Roosevelt dies, replaced by Harry

Truman.8 May 1945 VE Day – End of war with

Germany.16 Jul 1945 US test first atomic bomb

Jul-Aug 1945 Potsdam ConferenceAug 1945 USA drop two atomic bombs in

Japan – Hiroshima and Nagasaki. End of war with Japan.

5 Mar 1946 Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech1946-67 Greek civil war

Mar 1947 Truman DoctrineJun 1947 Marshall PlanSep 1947 Cominform

24 Jun 1948 Stalin begins Berlin blockade12 May 1949 Stalin calls off blockade

Jan 1949 Comecon4 Apr 1949 NATO signed29 Aug 1949 USSR test first atomic bomb1 Oct 1949 Mao Zedong proclaims China a

communist state.25 Jun 1950 Korean War begins1 Nov 1952 USA test first hydrogen bomb.20 Jan 1953 Eisenhower replaces Truman.5 Mar 1953 Stalin dies. Malenkov leader of USSR.27 Jul 1953 Korean War ends12 Aug 1953 USSR test first hydrogen bomb.

Mar 1955 Khrushchev replaces Malenkov. Secret Speech and de-Stalinisation.

9 May 1955 West Germany joins NATO14 May 1955 Warsaw Pact formed.

Jun 1956 Polish uprising.Oct-Nov 1956 Hungarian uprising.

4 Oct 1957 USSR launches Sputnik 1.29 Jul 1958 NASA is formed.

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25 Sep 1959 Khrushchev visits USA.May 1960 Khrushchev storms out of summit

meeting with Eisenhower in Paris.20 Jan 1961 Kennedy replaces Eisenhower.12 Apr 1961 Yuri Gagarin (USSR) is first man

in space.15 Apr 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion.13 Aug 1961 Berlin Wall is built.

Oct 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis.7 Oct 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty.22 Nov 1963 Kennedy assassinated. Lyndon Johnson

US President.Oct 1964 Brezhnev replaces Khrushchev.

8 Mar 1965 US troops invade Vietnam.1966 France withdraws from NATO

Jun 1967 Six Day War1968 Prague Spring reforms,

Czechoslovakia1 Jul 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty26 Sep 1968 Brezhnev Doctrine20 Jan 1969 Nixon replaces Johnson.

Jul 1969 Neil Armstrong (USA) first man on the moon.

Feb 1972 Nixon visits China.May 1972 Nixon visits MoscowMay 1972 SALT I signed. Arms race

continued.29 Mar 1973 Last US troops leave Vietnam

(due to linkage).Oct 1973 Yom Kippur WarJul 1974 Nixon visits Moscow.

9 Aug 1974 Ford replaces NixonJul-Aug 1975 Helsinki Agreements.

17 Jul 1975 Space link up.Dec 1977-81 USA and others complain about

USSR’s human rights.20 Jan 1977 Carter replaces Ford.

Jun 1979 SALT II signed (but never ratified)

1979 NATO placed long-range missiles in Europe

Nov 1979 US hostages seized in Iran.25 Dec 1979 USSR invade Afghanistan

1980 USA boycott Moscow Olympics.20 Jan 1981 Reagan replaces Carter.

1981-87 US massively increase military spending.

Nov 1981 Reagan proposed ‘zero option’Jun 1982 Reagan called USSR ‘evil empire’

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Nov 1982 Andropov replaces Brezhnev.23 Mar 1983 Reagan proposes SDI (Star Wars)

Feb 1984 Chernenko replaces Andropov.1984 USSR boycott LA Olympics

Mar 1985 Gorbachev replaces Chernenko.1985-90 Gorbachev’s policies in the USSR

Nov 1985 Geneva conference.Oct 1986 Summit meeting at Reykjavik

1987 Soviet troops withdraw from Afghanistan

Dec 1987 INF treatyMay 1988 Moscow Summit

20 Jan 1989 George Bush Snr. replaces Reagan.1989 End of Cold War officially

announced.1989 CFE signed1989-91 USSR collapses (see timeline in

notes)9 Nov 1989 Berlin Wall comes down

May-Jun 1990 Washington Summit1 Jul 1991 Warsaw Pact dissolved

Jul 1991 START I signed

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