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Page 1: Conflict Management Strategies of Lecturers and ... · Conflict Management Strategies of Lecturers and ... a qualitative research method which made use of a ... STRATEGIES OF LECTURERS

© Kamla-Raj 2014 Anthropologist, 18(2): 477-489 (2014)

Conflict Management Strategies of Lecturers and AdministratorsWorking in the Physical Training and Sports Academy (PTSA)

Pinar Yengin Sarpkaya

Adnan Minderes University, Faculty of Education, Educational Sciences Department, 09100, Aydin, Turkey

Telephone: +902562142023, E-mail: [email protected]

KEYWORDS Conflict Solving. Avoiding, Obliging. Compromising. Integrating. Competition.

ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to determine organizational conflicts, conflict management strategies ofadministrators and lecturers. It also includes the reasons and the effects of these conflicts. This research is designedas a multiple case study and as a qualitative research method which made use of a semi-structure interviewtechnique. The study group of this research is made up of 43 participants working in four different sportsacademies. In addition, the data was analyzed by N-Vivo. Lecturers perceive explanation as a conflict managementstrategy, claiming that in conflicting situations they insist on their ideas and in case of failure, they appeal to theauthority. They prefer competition first, then avoiding, obliging, compromising and integrating sequentially.Moreover, between lecturers who are administrators and those who are not, there exists a remarkable differenceamong their emphasis on the strategies they use. It can be suggested to both administrators and lecturers toimprove their conflict management abilities.

INTRODUCTION

Conflict occurs between employees who per-ceive each other’s mistakes and cause the oth-ers have problems at work (Dana 2001). Thereare some opinions which have to do with thenecessity of separating competition from con-flict. This has been considered as an inactiveprocess between social beings who come upwith disagreement and incompatibility issues(Sirivun 2001), as a dynamic occurrence betweenpeople, which affects their personal and groupperformance, though being shaped by their per-sonal conditions (Lin 2003), as an intentionalstruggle of A for disabling the efforts of B (Rob-bins 1994). In general, when conflict occurs, bothparties involved feel the threat of losing thethings they care about (Mc Connon and McConnon 2008). According to Rahim (2001) ifpeople who become a party to conflict realizethe incompatibility and struggle to put obsta-cles in front of other people’s objections, all thedivergent situations cause conflict. The term‘conflict’ within the literature was used to con-ceptualize the initial provisions of conflictivebehaviour, and the affective conditions of indi-viduals, together with their cognitive status orjust the conflictual behaviour (Pondy 2012). ‘Con-flict’ is a human experience which covers a widearea ranging from indecision to disagreement,and then to stress (Dana 2001) which is an inev-itable attendant feature of human interaction in

every organization (Ada 2014). Conflict is dy-namic and it can be expected in all situations(Prenzel and Vanclay 2014).

Conflicts may be categorized among individ-ual of a group, as well as between the individu-als and between the groups (Rahim 2001: 23; Al-jhani et al. 2011: 731). Furthermore, conflicts arealso categorized as efficient-inefficient, destruc-tive-efficient (Carrell et al. 1997: 469), reliable-un-reliable (Kaiser 2003: 315) by evaluating if the pro-cess serves the organizational objectives or not.Tjosvold (2007: 24) argues against that kind ofcategorization. He asserts that conflict research-ers confuse conflict with competition and con-tribute conflict’s disrepute. Furthermore, he ar-gues that conflict type should be not about itsmanagement but about its results. Robbins andJudge (2012: 455) underline that conflicts extendsto job, relation and process conflicts and thatrelational conflicts not functional. This is becausein relational conflicts, friction and hostility be-tween individuals increase personality clashesand decrease mutual understanding.

The fact that it’s not conflict’s results, butrather conflict itself has been perceived nega-tively on classical theoreticians and classicalmanagement perception. When conflict is per-ceived negatively, it is considered as a circum-stance that should not be encountered withinthe organization and as an epidemic virus to bewiped out immediately. Indeed, conflict is omni-

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478 PINAR YENGIN SARPKAYA

present and creates both positive and negativeimpacts (Prenzel and Vanclay 2014).

Classical theoreticians believe that conflictproduces inefficiency within organizations (Han-son 2003) and so they see it as an inconsistencythat may diminish the effectiveness of the orga-nization and adequateness of leader (Bolman andDeal 2003). Behavioural view argues that con-flict is inevitable but some have a corruptive ef-fect while some are functional (Balci 2000). How-ever interactionists view not only accepts theconflict but also defends to encourage it in re-gard to the opinion which says that a coherent,tranquil, peaceful and collaborative group wouldnot stand idle against reform and alteration (Rob-bins 1994). Nowadays, it is accepted that con-flict is necessary and has regenerative, construc-tive, improving effects on organizations and in-dividuals (Carnevale 2006). Conflict evokes or-ganizational transformation and vice versa(Hoelscher and Comer 2002). Consequently, well-conducted conflicts may accelerate the transfor-mation positively in favour of the organization.It can be inferred from common definitions thatconflict can be managed constructively (Tjos-vold et al. 2014: 33).

The positive effect of conflict on organiza-tion may be summarized as: “The clash of thesiswith antithesis can result in synthesis.” (Kaiser2003: 312). Conflict may bring the conflicting partsand the organization into a new point by push-ing them towards a pursuit thus this new circum-stance may be specified as a synthesis. This newpoint might be an environment more productive,creative and may have stronger communicationthan before.

Conflict is part of life and people may experi-ence stress or tension at home or at work be-cause of conflict (Tindal 2009). Besides conflict,administrator’s approach of conflict settlementor management may cause stress. Polat (2008)found that the most effective type of causingstress is the one initiated by administrators. With-in the universities that Mintzberg (1983) calls“professional bureaucracies”, there is a need forspecialists to have the control on their own job.This means relatively being more independentthan their colleagues, but also being closer tothe customers. In this case, the most vital actwithin professional bureaucracies is to build co-ordination by means of standardized skills andknowledge. From this perspective, managing aconflict might be as complex as a world war or as

simple as a discussion between friends on whatto watch (Carrell et al. 1997). Consequently, it isso important that both administrators and otherlecturers acquire the ability to analyse and man-age conflicts. However, it’s not always easy tomanage conflict in the manner that provides allthe involved parties with job satisfaction andhelps the organization reach its goals.

In literature, both the term ‘conflict resolu-tion’ (Aydin 1984; Carrell et al. 1997; Dana 2001;Kaiser 2003; Koçel 2010) and the term ‘conflictmanagement’ (Karip 1999; Brewer et al. 2002;Morris-Rothschild and Brassrd 2006; Tjosvold2007; Basaran, 2008) are being used in relation toovercoming conflict. However, Rahim (2002)states that conflict resolution emphasizes de-creasing or eliminating conflict, whereas conflictmanagement doesn’t need to emphasize decreas-ing the level of conflict. The term conflict man-agement reflects the attitude of the individualwith respect to conflict. This attitude reflects theperception on the necessity and feasibility ofconflict resolution (Wilson and Hanna 1993). Thisis also a parallel approach towards conflictingand unfavourable attitudes which needs to beeliminated. When conflict resolution is plannedfor, the focus is generally separating conflictingparties, driving them apart from each other, andpreventing them from harming one another. How-ever, when conflict management is objected, thefocus should be leading the conflicting parties,the energy, the attention and the resources to-wards organizational purposes. Tjosvold, Wongand Yi-Feng Chen (2014: 43) suggest that con-flict management can result in effectiveness.When the subject is resolving, the purpose isneutral, whereas when it’s managing the subject,the purpose is making contributions to the orga-nization and to the individuals in it. Despite thisdifference, when the literature is examined, it canbe stated that the term ‘conflict resolution’ isused with the same sense as the term ‘conflictmanagement’.

According to political perspective, individu-als struggle for title and prestige; departmentsfor resources and strength; groups for politicalconcession. Therefore, the conflict is natural andinevitable. This perspective has focused on strat-egies and tactics instead of conflict resolution(Bolman and Deal 2003). Considering this per-spective, this research puts emphasis on con-flict management strategies.

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF LECTURERS AND ADMINISTRATORS 479

Concerning conflict management strategies,there stand different proposals. Deutsch (2006)underlines two subjects on conflict management:The first one is the positive or negative purposereliance of conflicting parties. The second one isthe competitive or cooperative behaviour of theparties. If positive purpose reliance exists, thenthe parties will sink or float together. If there is anegative reliance, then one party sinks while theother floats. Moreover, interdependence is re-quired. As a behaviour, it has been stated thatcooperative or win-win oriented behaviours fa-cilitate a constructive solution while competitivebehaviour inhibits it.

According to Mary Parker Follett, there arethree ways to discuss conflict (Owens 1981; Basa-ran 2000) and they include: 1. One of the partiessurpasses and gains a victory (Win-lose meth-od). 2. Conflicting parties should deprive them-selves of some things and come to an agreement(Lose-lose method). 3. Conflicting parties shouldconverge on a common point by integrating theirclaims (Win-win method). For Follette (2012), in-tegrative problem solving method is the mostconstructive of all. For Rahim (2001), Folletteassumes the other - suppression, avoidance,dominance and compromise – methods, which isineffective.

According to Decision Making Theory builtby Herbert Simon and James G. March, there arefour processes for conflict management (Basa-ran 2000) and they are: Problem solving, con-vincing, negotiation and policy. Thomas and Kil-mann (2008) and Thomas (Hoy and Miskel 2010,conveyed from 1976) discuss the behaviours ofconflicting individuals in these two dimensions:1. Assertiveness: The struggle of individual forsatisfying his/her own concerns 2. Cooperative-ness: The struggle of individual for satisfyingothers’ concerns. These two dimensions consti-tute five different modes for responding to con-flict: Competing is assertive and uncooperative.Accommodating is unassertive and cooperative.Avoiding is unassertive and uncooperative. Col-laborating is both assertive and cooperative;Compromising is moderate in both assertivenessand cooperativeness. For Carrell et al. (1997),avoiding tactics may include avoiding totally allconflicts or delaying through accommodation.Competitive tactics are based on an individualusing his/her dominance on another individual,whereas compromising and collaborative tacticsare based on finding a solution through persua-sion of both sides for cooperation.

For handling the conflict behaviour, Rahim(2001) specified two fundamental dimensions ofconcern for self and concern for others as Tho-mas and Kilmann (2008). The first one shows thelevel of the individual’s desire for satisfying self-concern whereas the second one shows the lev-el of desire for satisfying the concerns of others.Thus, the five following conflict managementbehaviours or strategies may emerge:

Integrating: In this strategy, concern for selfand others is high. This strategy is also calledproblem solving (Rahim 2001). It contains thosetwo processes: Conflict diagnosing and devel-oping alternative solutions to the problem (Weitz-man and Weitzman 2006). Thomas and Kilmann(2008) named this approach “Collaboration”.

Obliging: This strategy indicates low con-cern for self and high concern for others. Thisstrategy is also called accommodating (Rahim2001). If an individual steers for valuing the oth-er’s interests above his/her own in order to con-ciliate and pacify the other party, and for aban-doning own concerns to protect their relation-ship (Robbins and Judge 2012), this is calledobliging or accommodating.

Avoiding: This strategy means low concernfor self and others. This behaviour is also knownas suppression (Rahim, 2001). In this strategy,problems are being shelved or being thought todisappear (Hoy and Miskel 2010). Administrators’avoiding behaviours on conflict managementcauses a creative person to be stifled (Kaiser 2003).

Compromising: This strategy indicates inter-mediate concern for self and others. In this strat-egy, both parties come to an acceptable jointdecision by depriving themselves. By followingthis path, the individual gives up more than adominating party but less than an obliging indi-vidual (Rahim 2001). In reconciliation there isn’tan explicit loser or winner (Robbins 1994).

Competition: Within this strategy, one partyprioritizes his/her own concerns and ignores theconcerns of the other party (Rahim et al. 1999).Competition is a win-lose strategy. In this case,the superior party generally uses his/her formalauthority.

The preferred strategies for managing con-flict within the organization affect the peace atwork and goal achievement. Trudel and Reio(2011) found that individuals that use integrat-ing style experience rude behaviours less, whileindividuals who choose the dominating stylebecome the target of rude behaviours more. Ac-

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480 PINAR YENGIN SARPKAYA

cording to the research of Henkin, Histone andDee (2000), in a place where differences aresolved via collaborative and integrative problemsolving, the educational process and necessi-ties of constituents receive the best service.

In literature, besides the studies on strate-gies preferred by administrators or employees(Gümüseli 1994; Welt 2000; Henkin et al. 2000;Baykal and Kovanci 2008; Polat 2008; Özmen etal. 2011; Aljhani et al. 2011), there are various stud-ies on the relation between conflict managementand leadership (Anderson 2007), gender and lead-ership (Truslow 2004), principal’s age, gender,salary and the size of school (Dillard 2005), prin-cipal’s personal characteristics (Akinnubi et al.2012), principal’s communication skills (Tabor2001), and the moral development of employees(Rahim et al. 1999).

This research is a part of project coded Phys-ical Training and Sports Academy 7001 support-ed by Adnan Menderes University ScientificResearch Department and is about organization-al conflicts and conflict management strategiesof administrators and lecturers working in thePhysical Training And Sports Academy and alsoabout the reasons and effects of conflicts theyexperience. The questions below are tried to beanswered:

Within the institutions of physical trainingand sports branch;a. According to lecturers and administrators,

how do they manage the conflicts they face?b. According to lecturers and administrators,

how do opponent manage the conflicts theyface?

II . METHODOLOGY

Research Design

By using the remarks of lecturers from 4 dif-ferent institutions of physical training and sportsat the level of bachelor degree, this research is todetermine the strategies that conflicting partiesuse and to understand the situation within theseinstitutions. As this study aims to examine a cur-rent fact within its own conditions, it is a qualita-tive study designed as a case study (Yin 2003).Since the concern of this study includes behav-iours (Lodico et al. 2006), feelings and commentsof individuals (Merriam 1998) that cannot be eas-ily observed, a face-to-face semi-structured in-terview was preferred as a data collection meth-

od. The role of the researcher is to find out theparticipants’ perception from the inside and togain an integrative view through an attentionrequired process with an empathetical conscious-ness, by putting up all the prejudices (Miles andHuberman 1994).

Since each institution that was included inthe research is regarded as a well-defined phe-nomenon, they are considered as a case each(Merriam 1998). This research was planned asmultiple-cases design (Yin 2003) since the deter-mination of institutions was considered not as aprocess based on sampling logic, but as originalcases each, which might show similarities anddifferences in conflict management.

Participants

For the working group, four sports acade-mies giving four-year education in four differentuniversities in Aegean Region were chosen. In-stitution A, founded in 1995 and in good condi-tion physically, has 50 lecturers, the principal isa professor of Faculty of Economics and Admin-istrative Sciences. Institution B, founded in 1995and physically at medium-level condition, has38 lecturers, and the principal is a professor fromMedical Faculty. Institution C, founded in 1994and physically below the average, has 22 lectur-ers, and the principal is a professor from the Fac-ulty of Veterinary Science. Institution D, found-ed in 1992 and physically in good condition, has44 lecturers, and the principal is a professoramong the lecturers of the same institution.

In order to get a rich data and to observe thedifferent perspectives of individuals that havedifferent characteristics, great effort was madeto reach all the lecturer with different titles ineach institution. For this reason, the workinggroup was created in accordance with maximumvariation sampling method to get the most vari-ety. The distribution of lecturers in the workgroup can be explored according to their dutyand institution in (Table 1).

From 43 lecturers in work group; 5 of themare professors, 12 of them are assistant profes-sors, 20 of them are lecturers, 6 of them are re-search assistants; 11 of them are women and therest 32 were men.

Data Collection and Procedure

The study was conducted by face-to-facesemi-structured interviews. In other to pose the

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF LECTURERS AND ADMINISTRATORS 481

same questions to all participants and in ordernot to do word changes that causes change inmeaning (Lodico et al. 2006), a seven-question“Conflict Management Strategies InterviewForm” was prepared by the researcher. Duringthe preparation process, eight experts from fiveuniversities were asked for their review aboutthe form. In the view of revisions in the form, apilot interview with three lecturers from a Physi-cal Training and Sports Academy (PTSA) wasconducted and the final shape of form was giv-en. In the seven-question Conflict ManagementStrategies Interview Form, each question has itssub-questions. This paper focused on the strat-egies of participants themselves and of the oth-er party. A sample question is as follows:

Do you experience conflict because of taskdistribution (lecture, competition, camping, staffetc.) and assignments? (If the answer is “No”,pass to the next question; if it’s “Yes” continueto sub-questions)

Can you give an example?How does/did this conflict affect you?What do/did you do to overcome or manage

this conflict?What does/did the other party do?In order to perform the interview, appoint-

ments were obtained from the principals of theinstitutions by telephone. Then on the appoint-ment date, the aim and the process of researchwere explained to the principals. With the helpof them, the list containing the departments andthe lecturers of the academy was obtained. Forthe interviews, the lecturers from different de-partments, genders, branches, titles and senior-ities that were or would be present in one or twoweeks in school were determined. Three of theinstitutions were visited three times and the oth-

er was visited two times. Only two interviewslasted ten minutes, whereas the others lastednearly an hour.

Data Analysis

While analyzing the data, N Vivo7 qualita-tive data analysis software package was used asit enables data coding, recalling and changingcoded data, implementing the conceptual struc-ture appropriate for data (Miles and Huberman1994; Yin 2011).

Since the qualitative research focuses on datashaped by words (Miles and Huberman 1994),the concentration was on revealing and inter-preting the meaning rather than digitizing it. Forinterpreting, all the interview records were con-solidated within NVivo, thereafter the catego-rized data was reduced and interpreted (Meriam1998). Concerning the reader, the three-stage pro-cess suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994)was conducted: Data reducing, data introducingand result submitting.

While analyzing the data, an experienced re-searcher in qualitative studies coded the data,and then the conformation percentage waschecked. The conformation percentage of differ-ent coders was found to be 86 percent (Milesand Huberman 1994). The conformation percent-age of researcher’s own codes realized in twomonths apart was found to be 91 percent. Whilecoding, the conceptual framework in literaturewas taken as a basis and this framework formedthe approach of conflict management and cod-ing used in strategies.

The draft categories formed by benefitingfrom literature while preparing interview form wereextended, also they were formed after observingthe questions and outputs of interview form andthe categories for coding were shaped. The dataand the main categories were transferred to NVivo 7 qualitative data analysis software. In ad-dition to main six categories determined beforeN Vivo 7 data analyzing process, two more cate-gories were added during this process thus thecoding was conducted with eight categories intotal.

RESULTS

The findings on strategies followed by theparticipants themselves and by the other partiesare represented separately. The lecturers dem-

Table 1: Distribution of lecturers according to theirduty and institution

Duty Institu- Institu- Institu- Institu-tion A tion B tion C tion D

Administrator 1 0 1 1Deputy Adm- 1 1 1 0 inistratorDeputy Man. - 1 0 1 0 Department HeadDepartment 2 2 2 1 HeadLecturer 7 8 5 8Total 12 11 10 10

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482 PINAR YENGIN SARPKAYA

onstrated their behaviour by explaining and talk-ing to other parties in case of conflict as a strat-egy. Therefore, “explaining” was involved in thefindings but was not considered as a strategy.Figure 1 summarizes the conflict managementstrategies of four institutions in general.

Lecturers stated that they generally insist ontheir claims or appeal to the superior or the au-thority in case they fail. This situation showsthat they predominantly prefer competing. Thesecond strategy applied is avoiding while oblig-ing takes the third and compromising the fourthplace, whereas integrating is the less preferredstrategy of all.

According to the findings, between lectur-ers who are administrators and those who arenot, there exists a remarkable difference in theemphasis made on their individual strategies..There are no strategies that non-managerial lec-turers don’t use. When participants were men-tioning the strategies they use, the fact that thehead of departments didn’t mention compromis-ing, the deputy administrators didn’t mentionappealing to authority, and administrators didn’tmention avoiding or integrating has been foundremarkable.

As understood from the participants’ state-ments, the objective of demanding solution byappealing to the principal or the authority seemslike asking the administrator to act as a concilia-tor; on the contrary, the objective has mostlysought for a way to impose his/her solution tothe opposite party or to prove his/her rightful-

ness through authority. The following quotesbetter demonstrate the situation:

“We speak out. The last resort is writingpetition to department head and to the admin-istrator.” (B. 22nd Participant)

“Talking to the administrator, trying to makehim/her take the initiative...” (C. 27th Partici-pant)

“I write petition.. To Prime Minister, and tothe Minister of the Republic. To Human Rights.I speak out at department commission, and Iuse primarily the internal legislation.” (A. 1st

Participant)Not only lecturers but also administrators

appeal to authority. However the reason is notperceived in the same by the parties and the con-flict continues, although it seems to be managed.

“We pass the class to a lecturer having doc-torate degree. The other stood up to it. We askedabout who knows this business. We were givennames from 3 universities. We organized a phonecall between them. He was convinced.” (A. 3rd

Participant)In the conflict mentioned above, the admin-

istrator appeals to the authority and the subjectof dispute is resolved as the administrator havealready predicted. The principal assumes that thelecturer who couldn’t take the class he wanted isconvinced. However, the situation is not the sameas principal thinks for the lecturer. The lecturer isnot persuaded and thinks that the principal usehis authority insupportably. Figure 2 shows theconflict management strategies of the other parts.

Fig. 1. Lecturers own strategies

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF LECTURERS AND ADMINISTRATORS 483

When lecturers experience conflict, they as-sume the other party mostly insists on his/herown claims or that he/she follows the competi-tion strategy by appealing to a superior. Regard-ing the strategies followed by the other party,avoiding becomes the 2nd, obliging the 3rd, com-promising the 4th while integrating becomes thelast. The lecturers basically thinks that they canmanage conflict by talking, discussing, and ex-plaining; on the other hand, they don’t think thatthe other party acts the same way as they do.For lecturers, the other party chooses to com-pete twice as long as they prefer the other strat-egies, whereas they assume themselves to pre-fer half competition as much as they do for otherstrategies. In a situation of conflict, they try toexplain themselves unlike the other party. Ac-cording to lecturers, the other party almost nev-er used the integrating strategy at all.

Both the administrators and non-manageriallecturers think that the strategy preferred by theother party is competition. The administratorsmentioned secondly the compromising strategy,whereas, they never mentioned integration.Thus, it may be deduced that when lecturershave conflict with the administrator, if they don’tprefer competition, it means that they obey therequests of the administrator. The following quoteconfirms this situation:

“As the administrator takes his/her powerfrom hierarchy, he/she can expose the power insome matters that are obviously true. We intendto publish a journal but administrators say ‘it’s

not favorable right now’. However, it’s totallysuitable but apparently not for him/her.” (A. 9th

Participant)Within the framework of this study, when in-

stitutions were compared, Institution D showeddifferent specifications from the others. Figure 3illustrates the conflict management strategies oflecturers and other parts in Institution D. In gen-eral, it has been observed that in this institutionthe conflicts are not too profound and also not aparticular strategy comes to the forefront.

As the reason for the above mentioned situ-ation, some lecturers emphasized on the collec-tive culture, which was shaped within the insti-tution and that they learned from their past expe-riences. There are some participants who di-

Fig. 2. The other part’s strategy

Fig. 3. The conflict management strategies oflecturers and other parts at Institution D)

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484 PINAR YENGIN SARPKAYA

versely explained that this situation enabled aninclusive decision making and proper manage-ment of potential conflicts. The quote given be-low provides an insight on the issue:

“There should be different opinions withinthe school for some issues to progress well. It’s awell-established educational institution asthere is a cultural level gained from the past.We were educated from the same school at thesame time by the same lecturers, and also havethe same knowledge. A school set an examplein science, in order to educate. Conflicts arosein the past, but they were resolved. The schoolunited, employed a rector, and searched for right-fulness. That was the proof of unification. Thefact that the solution comes through unificationwas comprehended.” (D, 34th Participant)

I would say we understand each other. We havea common attitude of not being too sharpened. Idon’t say the last word. If I do, I stand behind it. Ileave it to time; I believe it will work itself out intime. Conflict gives harm to this institution, it re-flects to students.” (D. 32nd Participant)

In institution D, a number of participantsmentioned about circumstances that in whichboth they and the other party of the conflict ap-ply competition but it is clearly understood fromthe interviews that those occasions are rare andremain limited. It can be clearly deduced from the

phrase “We resolve our solutions by talk.” thatthe processes of negotiation, communion andproblem solving - in other words the integratingstrategy - are practically followed.

Figure 4 represents the conflict managementstrategies of lecturers and other parts in Institu-tion A, B and C. The participants from institutionA, B and C mentioned more serious and profoundconflict examples than the participants from D,and they expressed that both themselves andthe other party’s prefer competition, but if noresults are obtained, then they choose to avoidor to oblige. Different from B and C, participantsfrom institution A emphasized obliging strategymore. The obliging strategy comes to the fore-front, especially in conflicts with administratorsor when the administrators support the other partof the conflict.

“I just state my opinion to the administrator.He/she develops an attitude against me. He/shepasses over without a salute. I sometimes go withthe crowd. If I realize that I cannot create achange, I vote like the others. That’s wrong, butsometimes they harm by being over reactive.”(A. 9th Participant)

“I try to persuade. As the head of depart-ment, I use my providence if I believe it to betrue.” (B. 18th Participant)

In those three institutions, one of the issuesthey complained about is that as the administra-

Fig. 4. The conflict management strategies of lecturers and other parts at Institution A, B and C

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF LECTURERS AND ADMINISTRATORS 485

tor is a professor of another institution, he/shecannot stay long in school and thus cannot fullyobserve the mechanism. It was also mentionedthat since the administrator is not the professorof their institution and that he/she don’t knowthe branch, institution and the personnel, he/she harms the institution in case of any conflict.Participants expressed their feelings as follows:

“Primarily we try to solve the conflict byhead of departments, if we find any. We have noother collocutor. The school is empty, and thereis no principal. All the conflicts are unclear andcannot be solved.” (C. 28th Participant)

DISCUSSION

According to the findings of the research,when a conflict occurs the lecturers say theyfirstly prefer to talk and explain the situation tothe person they are in contrast with. In fact, thisis the primary natural behavior expected in theatmosphere of conflict. However, when lecturersare asked how they manage or resolve the con-flict, the fact that they suggest talking and con-sider it as a strategy clearly demonstrates theirdistance to conflict management strategies. Eval-uated in terms of main strategies, competitiontakes the first place followed by avoiding. As apart of competition, appealing the authority meth-od or a superior method is frequently used. Asunderstood from participants’ statements, thepurpose behind appealing to authority or admin-istrator and demanding solution appears to askfor their conciliation; but on the contrary thepurpose is searching for a way to impose theirown solution to the opposing party and to provetheir rightfulness through the authority. In liter-ature, appealing to an arbitrator or authority isaccepted as competition or using force strategy(Koçel 2010); and it’s stated that the party whodoesn’t have the authority to force or give ordermay bluff, mislead or seek to force the other par-ty through an authority. This situation is a win-lose strategy (Karip 1999). Since competing as-sumes that only one individual can win (Mos-sanen et al. 2014), the frequent use of this strat-egy may affect organizational climate negative-ly. Considering the study of Gross and Guerrero(2000), determining the inconvenience of com-petition in relations and considering the otherfindings of research, it can be thought that rela-tions in Institution A, B and C may be harmed bythis case.

In some cases where one party loses, superi-ority may be cited. In literature, it has been indi-cated that this strategy is in use in the institu-tions where authoritarian management under-standing rules. Since in this situation obliging isthe subject rather than solution, if this method isused frequently the expectation would have anegative effect on the morale, motivation andefficiency of the party in difficulty (Koçel 2010;Genç 2004). It is also observed in the study ofKarip (1999) that the most preferred strategy bythe participants is competition and it also con-firms this study.

Considering all the administrators together,it has been observed that they apply mostly forintegrating followed by compromising. The samefindings on strategies preferred by administra-tors were encountered in the studies of ªirin(2008), Mirzeoglu (2005), Yildirim (2003), Rahim(1983) and Gümüseli (1994). In a study conduct-ed by Özdemir and Özdemir (2007), it was foundthat the strategies of integrating (cooperation)and compromising are perceived more effectivein conflict management. Gross and Guerrero(2000) also found that the integrating strategy isconvenient and effective; and that compromis-ing is perceived as convenient and effective atmedium-level. When considered from this pointof view, it has a high importance of administra-tors’ statements on their primary preference ofthe above mentioned strategies. However, theymentioned that the other party uses primarily thecompetition, and then later prefer compromising.If administrators and the conflicting party bothuse compromising strategy, then it can be con-cluded that administrators have competing be-havior. There are studies showing that in respectof individuals’ conflict management strategies,their perception is different from the others’(Sirin 2008). Besides, by their position the ad-ministrators may be using the problem solvingmethod or they may have mentioned what theirstrategy should be. Because there was found adifference between the styles of handling inter-personal conflict and the stage of moral devel-opment (Rahim et al. 1999) and also administra-tors may perceive themselves in upper stages ormay think they should be.

The research findings that specify the deans’integrating style has a positive relation with allthe dimensions of leadership and their competi-tion style has a negative relation with humanresources dimension (Kimencu 2011); while the

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administrators are preferred to focus on integrat-ing strategy.

When individuals think that their interestswould be satisfied at best by the organization,the possibility of their willingness for a collabo-ration increases (Hicks 1979). Therefore, one ofthe substantial missions of management is di-recting all the employees towards this idea. Whenthis circumstance is ensured, the employeeswould be disposed to make an effort for organi-zational objections and their tendency towardsusing integrative conflict management wouldincrease. This situation may be considered astroublesome in Institution A, B and C. In Institu-tion D where acting together was emphasized, itcan be conceived that there occurs a joint cul-ture on separations and this might ease conflictresolution in favour of the institution. Bolmanand Deal (2003) also indicated that scarce re-sources and enduring differences make conflictcentral to organizational dynamics and they un-derline power as the most important asset.

The administrators of Institution A, B and Cwho came from different institutions and disci-plines may affect the conflict management pro-cess there. The study of Favero (2006) showsthat academic deans’ managerial behaviours maybe affected by their academic disciplines and thatthe process is sophisticated. These findings maybe correlated in this respect.

It is an interesting finding that non-manage-rial lecturers prefer avoiding strategy after com-petition. In literature, it has been stated that thisstrategy may be effective when the subject isnot important or when there exist a high tensioninterrupting the proper communication betweenthe parties (Owens 2001; Rahim 2001); it is alsoinevitable and beneficial in the short term, sincethe conflict may emerge again in the long term(Tjosvold and Sun 2003; Can 2005). Furthermore,in their study Gross and Guerrero (2000) foundthat the avoiding strategy is perceived ineffec-tive and insufficient, whereas Lee (2008) foundthe same for both dominating and avoiding strat-egies. In the research group, especially in twoinstitutions (B and C), where the conflict level ishigh and where lecturers care about conflicts, itmay not be proper to think that the conflict wouldbe resolved in time or the problems would fadeaway. As a matter of fact, three years after theinterviews, in one of the institutions there oc-curred three principle changeovers, whereas two

principals changed in the other two; moreoverone of the institutions had lots of complaint peti-tions, investigations and disputes to be settled incourt. All these cases, considering the findings,clearly demonstrate that in respect of conflictmanagement or resolution, the administrators -being in the first place- and the lecturers have noprofessional conflict management strategies.

The cultures of countries were analyzed andthe power distance scored increasingly between11 and 104. The power distance demonstratesthe unequal power distribution in institutions andthe hesitation of subordinates to have conflictwith superiors. The score of Turkey was 66 (Hof-stede 1983; Hofstede et al. 2010). Although insti-tutions’ cultures are different from one another,significant correlations were found between na-tionality and the organization’s culture and em-ployees’ perception of the applications (Hofst-ede et al. 1990). When findings are analyzed con-sidering those data, subordinates’ common atti-tude of hesitation may be correlated with thepower that administrators have. However, it’sclear that more research must be conducted inthis case.

CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, lecturers claim that theyfirstly prefer to talk and explain the situation tothe person they have dispute with. On the otherhand, when lecturers are asked how they man-aged or resolved the conflict, they suggest talk-ing and consider it as a strategy which obvious-ly indicates how far they have gone with theconflict management strategies. In general, com-petition takes the first place as a conflict man-agement strategy followed by avoiding. As a partof competition, appealing the authority or a su-perior method is frequently used. As interpretedfrom participants’ statements, the purpose be-hind appealing to authority or administrator anddemanding solution seems to ask for their con-ciliation; but on the contrary the purpose issearching for a way to impose their own solutionto the opposing party and to prove their right-fulness through authority. When all the admin-istrators considered things together, it was ob-served that they apply mostly integrating strate-gy followed by compromising. Moreover, non-managerial lecturers prefer avoiding strategy af-ter competition.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

With reference to findings, both administra-tors and lecturers working in the institutions stat-ed in the research may be advised to receive ed-ucations on how to improve their conflict man-agement abilities; and for the administrators totake training for knowing themselves better. Forthe frequently consulted practice of designatingadministrators from other institutions to physi-cal training and sports academies, the decisionmaking process might be considered togetherwith the employees of the institution. The stud-ies on the duration of administrator’s staying inschool; has to do with the fact that he/she mustbe a bona fide staff of the institution and shouldmake good plans between the institutional cul-ture and conflict management strategies.

NOTES

1. PTSA: Physical Training and Sports Academy2. This paper is based on BESYO 7001 project sup-

ported by Adnan Menderes University ScientificResearch Projects Department.

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