Conservation of Critical habitats: The Mangroves, Coral Reefs

and Seagrass beds in Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park,

Wandoor, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

K. Ravichandran, IFS

Conservator of Forests (Wildlife)

Department of Environment and Forests

Haddo, Port Blair

Abstract

Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Wandoor boasts with a unique combination of

forest and marine ecosystems in the form of dense tropical wet evergreen, moist deciduous

and littoral forests occurring on the islands, lush mangrove forest growing in the inter tidal

zone next to the dense tropical forests and the beautiful, diverse and rich fringing coral reefs

and sea grass beds, occurring in the marine environs of the park. Coral reefs, sea-grass beds,

and mangrove forests are critical resources supporting ecosystems and livelihoods in coastal

areas. This paper explores the role and current status of these resources, the exchange of

mutual benefits from and between these critical habitats and its contributions in maintaining

the rich and highly productive biodiversity. Mutual Benefits between Mangrove, Sea grass,

and Coral Reef Ecosystems

Mutual Benefits between Mangrove, Sea grass, and Coral Reef Ecosystems

Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (MGMNP), Wandoor, located

between11022’06 to 11

036’34”N latitude and 92

030’00” to 92

040’33”E longitude in the Bay

of Bengal, is the first Marine National Park of Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Fig. 1). Situated

in southwest coast of the South Andaman Island, the national park is an important component

of the ‘Protected Area Network’ and conserves a representative sample of Andaman and

Nicobar Island biogeographic zone. MGMNP was created with the aim to preserve certain

areas in their natural state while allowing opportunities for their appreciation and enjoyment

by the public, allow reasonable general use consistent with the objective of conservation,

provide opportunities for research, training and education about marine conservation and

ecologically sustainable development and make people understand the value and benefits of

conservation of marine biodiversity.

Fig. 1: Map showing the location of MGMNP in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The MGMNP is spread over 281.5 km2 area situated between southwest coast of

South Andaman Island and northeast coast of Rutland Island. The park encompasses 15

Islands, viz., Jolly Bouy, Malay, Pluto, Red Skin, Boat, Snob, Chester, Grub, Hobday,

Alexandra, Tarmugli, Twins, Belle and Rifleman and some unnamed rocky outcrops. The

total land area of MGMNP is approximately 61.5 km², which includes 59.77 km² of the land

area of 15 islands mentioned above and 1.73 sq km of rocky outcrops and the remaining 220

km² area consists of mangrove lined creeks, shallow reef areas and open sea (Fig.2).

There are shallow sheltered creeks in the northwest portion of the Park, while eastern

and southern parts consist of moderately deep open sea. The normal depth range is up to 30

metres, while at places it goes down up to 50 metres. McPherson Strait passes through the

central portion of the Park, connecting the Bay of Bengal with the Andaman Sea, between

South Andaman and Rutland islands.

It represents a unique combination of forest and marine ecosystems in the form of

dense tropical wet evergreen, moist deciduous and littoral forests occurring on the islands,

lush mangrove forest growing in the inter tidal zone next to the dense tropical forests and the

beautiful, diverse and rich fringing coral reefs and sea grass beds, occurring in the marine

environs of the park. The large terrestrial mammals are not represented here due to the long

geographic isolation of these islands, but the birds, reptiles, fishes and other lower animals

such as insects, butterflies, many of which are endemic, along with plant and marine

biodiversity, is very well represented in the MGMNP and is unparalleled in the country

(Ravichandran,2006). The critical habitats like mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, beaches

contributes to the species diversity of the Park, is richest amongst all marine national parks in

the country.

Mangroves

Mangroves are characterized by one or more species of salt-tolerant trees, or

halophytes that form distinct monospecific zones along tropical protected coastlines (Ellison

and Farnsworth, 1993). They occur in a wide range of geo-morphological settings ranging

from the vast riverine and estuarine mangrove forests of Southeast Asia to isolated cays that

have developed atop carbonate sands and coral rubble along the coasts of the Caribbean,

Micronesia, and the Andamans (Ellison, 2000).

Fig.2: Map Showing the boundary limits of MGMNP

Mangroves are trees or shrubs that have the common trait of growing in shallow and

muddy salt water or brackish waters, especially along quiet shorelines and in estuaries. In

another way, mangroves are the tidal forests of coast wetlands, existing in the inter-tidal

zones of sheltered shores, estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats

of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The word ‘Mangroves’ is used to refer

to the plants and also to the forest community. These ecosystems are also otherwise called as

tidal forests, oceanic rain forests or coastal woodlands (Duke, 1992).

Mangrove ecosystem harbours a diversity of organisms which in some way or the

other directly depend on this ecosystem (Macnae, 1968). Leaf litter decomposition within the

ecosystem provides an important nutrient base for food-webs leading to commercially

important food fishes and invertebrates. For example, the commercially important prawns

(Penaeus monodon, P. indicus), fishes like snapper, grouper, milk fish (Chanos chanos) etc.

dwell in the mangrove water for their breeding. The mangrove root systems provide a safe

place to hide or to escape from predators and thus act as nurseries of juvenile fish stocks

(Kathiresan, 1995).

Mangrove forest ecosystems fulfil a number of important functions and provide a

wide range of services. They are among some of the most productive and biologically

important ecosystems of the world because they provide important and unique ecosystem

goods and services to human society and coastal and marine systems (FAO 2007). The

forests help stabilize shorelines and reduce the devastating impact of natural disasters such as

tsunamis and hurricanes. They also provide breeding and nursing grounds for marine and

pelagic species, and food, medicine, fuel and building materials for local communities (Giri

et al., 2010). Mangroves, including associated soils, could sequester approximately 22.8

million metric tons of carbon each year. Covering only 0.1% of the earth’s continental

surface, the forests account for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into the ocean

(Jennerjahn & Ittekot, 2002) and 10% of the terrestrial dissolved organic carbon (DOC)

exported to the ocean (Dittmar et al., 2006). The rapid disappearance and degradation of

mangroves could have negative consequences for transfer of materials into the marine

systems and influence the atmospheric composition and climate.

Mangroves support the conservation of biological diversity by providing habitats,

spawning grounds, nurseries and nutrients for a number of animals. These include several

endangered species and range from reptiles (e.g. crocodiles, iguanas and snakes) and

amphibians to mammals (tigers – including the famous Panthera tigris tigris, the Royal

Bengal tiger – deer, otters, manatees and dolphins) and birds (herons, egrets, pelicans and

eagles). A wide range of commercial and non-commercial fish and shellfish also depends on

these coastal forests. Mangrove organic productivity (Odum and Heald, 1972) has been

suggested to support near shore fisheries production (Lee, 1999). Mangrove ecosystems are

also used for aquaculture, both as open-water estuarine mariculture (e.g. oysters and mussels)

and as pond culture (mainly for shrimps).

They harbour a large number of animal species, which are partially or totally

dependent on mangrove ecosystems. According to Gopal and Krishnamurthy (1993), more

than 500 species of insects and Arachinds, 229 species of crustaceans, 212 species of

Molluscs, 50 species of nematodes, 33 species of polycheates (Sunil Kumar, 2000), 150

species of planktonic and benthic organisms are known from Indian mangroves. About 300

species of fishes, 177 species of birds, 36 species of mammals are also reported from Indian

mangroves.

According to Tomlinson (1986), the major mangroves include 34 species in 9 genera

and 5 families. The minor species contribute 20 species in 11 genera and 11 families. Thus a

total of 54 mangrove species in 20 genera and 16 families are present globally. Duke (1992),

on the other hand, identified 69 mangrove species belonging to 26 genera in 20 families. The

species distribution in coastal wetlands is non random and striated. While species such as

Rhizhophora and Ceriops occupy the shore line with higher salinity the various Bruguiera

taxa occur in the inland. Thus there are more or less well striated distinct zones, each

dominated by a different mangrove species (Rey, 1999). Although tides and successful

seedling establishment play an important part in creating these zones, predation of certain

propagules by crustaceans such as crabs, can also influence which species creates a certain

zone. Grapsid crabs play considerable role in the predation of mangrove propagules that may

be a threat to natural or artificial mangrove restorations (Dahdouh-Guebas, et al., 1998).

The taxa Rhizophoraceae is truly viviparous, where the growing embryo remains

attached to the parent and germinates into a seedling before falling from the tree (Rey, 1999).

Habitat loss and fragmentation are seen as two of the major extinction vortices to terrestrial

productivity and biodiversity (Soule, 1991). Mangroves are under threat throughout the

tropical distribution, primarily through deforestation and clearing to accommodate

aquaculture or establish harbour facilities, or infilling for land-based developments (Hatcher

et al., 1989). Mangroves have been reduced between 20 - 75% in many tropical countries in

Asia and the Caribbean. A figure of 1% decline per year has been given as a conservative

estimate for the Asia-Pacific region (Ong, 1995).

Mangroves in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are estimated to occupy an area of

617 Sq. km, mostly in the Andaman group of islands (FSI, 2011). Rhizophora mucronata

and R. apiculata occur in the outer zone. Bruguiera gymnorrihiza and Ceriops tagal as well

Avicennia and Lumnitzera form the middle zone. Some shrubs such as Acanthus ilicifolius,

fern Acrostichium aureum as well as Phoenix palustris, a palm species, occur in the

innermost zone where the tidal influence is less and salinity is low.

A study revealed that 38 species of mangroves belonging to 21 genera and 18 families

are found in A&N Islands (Mall et al., 1985). Dagar and Sharma (1989) have classified the

mangrove types into 19 communities and associations on the basis of structure and species

composition. A total of 34 exclusive mangrove species were recorded in A&N Islands (Dagar

et al., 1991) and recently Debnath (2004) reported 58 species from A&N Islands.

The MGMNP is having considerable area under healthy and intact mangroves (Fig.1)

having 13 species, Rhizophora being the dominant one. In some islands such as South-eastern

part of Malay island, South western part of Hobday Island, Northern tip of Rutland Island,

Eastern part of Alexandra Island and near Manjeri village mangrove growth is patchy and

degraded.

Loss of Mangroves

In the marine environment, problems of habitat degradation have so far primarily

affected vegetated estuarine and coastal habitats, including wetlands, salt marshes, seagrass

beds, kelp forests and mangroves. (Hatcher et al., 1989; Suchanek, 1994; Zann, 1995).

Studies on Post-Tsunami Changes in the distribution of mangroves and other land cover

categories in South Andaman have indicated that there is a reduction in area of Mangrove

swamps, Agriculture and settlement. However, there is an increase in area under tidal

creek/water mass in south Andaman. Whereas, 22% of the mangroves are heavily damaged,

23% least damaged and 15 % moderately damaged. Only 40 % of the mangroves remains

intact in the South Andamans (Chatterjee, et al., 2008). The giant fern Acrostichum aureum

and the aquatic sedge Fimbrisstylis littoralis and true mangroves namely Rhizophora spp,

Bruguiera spp, Avicennia spp, Sonneratia spp, etc. have got affected in various degrees based

on their physiological responses to the continuous inundation/exposure under the changed

scenario. In the South Andamans, in few localities 30–80% of mangrove stands have got

affected. In the Middle Andaman the impact is negligible, whereas in the North Andaman due

to the elevation of land, the sea water is not reaching some of the mangrove stands (Dam Roy

and Krishnan, 2005).

Restoration of Mangroves:

Restoration is defined as the return from a disturbed or totally altered condition to a

previously existing natural or altered condition by some human action (Lewis, 1990).

Restoring an ecosystem to exactly the same condition that it was in itself is unrealistic

(Simberloff, 1990). However, an approximation of the original system may be possible and

sufficient (Lewis, 1990; Henry & Amoros, 1995), given that ecosystems may be essentially

non-equilibrium in nature (Wyant et al., 1995). Restoration attempts have been made in

major habitat types of marine ecosystems, but mostly in salt marshes, sea grasses and coral

reefs (Race, 1985; Moy & Levin, 1991; Clark & Edwards, 1995). Among different forest

ecosystems in the tropics mangroves have received relatively little attention. It has been

reported that growing mangroves to a young tree stage leads to greater success by allowing

plants to bypass a disease vulnerable stage (Hannan, 1975; Thorhaug, 1990).

Mangrove ecosystems are often cited as being responsive to differences in soil

salinity, frequency of tidal inundation, sedimentation, soil chemistry, freshwater influx and

groundwater availability. This is said to have led to significant variations noted in mangrove

community structure and function even within small geographic ranges. Mangroves may be

one of the easiest marine systems to restore because of the apparent plasticity of assemblages,

viviparous reproduction and the observation that these seedlings often have the best survival

and growth rates (Rabinowitz, 1978).

In restoration efforts on mangroves care should be taken to propagule from predation

by using certain methods viz., saturation of crabs with a large number of propagules, vertical

planting of propagules, planting a mixture of species, and planting mature propagules. In

addition, crab exclusion is another method that may be helpful. Restoration of mangroves in

MGMNP impacted due to Tsunami is on the restoration efforts have resulted in recovery of

mangroves in the park area.

Corals

A coral reef ranks among the most biologically productive and diverse of all-natural

ecosystems. Coral reefs play an important role in global biochemical processes and in the

reproduction of food resources in the tropical regions. They act as a barrier against wave

action along coastal areas thus preventing coastal erosion. In addition, coral reefs protect

mangroves and seagrass beds in certain areas, which are the breeding and nursing grounds of

various economically important fauna. Coral reefs are also important breeding, spawning,

nesting, and feeding areas for many economically important varieties of fishes and other

marine organisms. The people living along the coast obtain a considerable proportion of their

food and earnings from the productivity of coral reefs. Coral reef ecosystems are very

sensitive to external impacts both natural and manmade (Sorokin 1993). The majority of

damage to coral reefs around the world has been through direct anthropogenic stress (Grigg

and Dollar 1990). According to Bryant et al.,(1998) 57% of the world’s coral reefs are

potentially threatened by human activity such as coastal development, destructive fishing,

over exploitation, marine pollution, runoff from deforestation and toxic discharge from

industrial and agricultural chemicals.

The MGMNP possesses some outstanding coral reef areas of very high diversity.

Department of Ocean Development and the Space Application Centre, Ahmadabad (SAC)

(1997) reported narrow, linear and extensively well developed fringing reefs, and classified

the reefs of the Islands as fringing reefs found in Rutland, Jolly Bouy, Tarmugli, Boat, and

Redskin Islands and as coral pinnacles found in Twin, Chester, Snob and Malay Islands

(Fig.3)..

The reef flat is generally broader on the west and narrower on the eastern side.

Broader reef flats are present in Tarmugli, Boat, Snob and Jolly Buoy Islands. The coral

reefs are complete with wide and extensive reef flat, coralline shelf and coral heads which are

an indication of continuing coral growth activity and are found in Tarmugli, Boat, Chester,

Redskin and Alexandra Islands. The type and category of reefs and associated features such

Fig.3: Map Showing the Mangroves and Coral Reef Areas of MGMNP

Source: Space Application Centre, Ahmadabad

as reef flats, sand on reef, mud over reef, reef vegetation, coralline shelf and coral heads of

the Islands in MGMNP have been mapped on 1: 50,000 scale using IRS, LISS II, LANDSAT

TM and SPOT MLA (Bahuguna and Nayak, 1998).

Arjan Rajasuriya, et al., (2002) reported that there were 203 coral species in Andaman

and Nicobar Islands and reported that the bleaching event had less impact in the Islands

compared with the other coral reef areas in India and reported 56% live coral cover, 20%

dead coral cover and 11% coral rubble.

Turner et al., (2001) have recorded high coral diversity for the MGMNP and have

reported 42-88 coral species around five Islands in this Park. They have also reported that

Andaman reefs consist of about 83% maximum coral diversity found anywhere in the world

and is equal to the “Coral Triangle” off Indonesia

Kulkarni (2001) recorded 122 species of corals, representing 55 genera of

scleractinian corals in MGMNP. Four species of non-scleractinian reef-building corals

including Tubipora musica, Heliopora coerulea and two Millepora species are also found

here. Among the corals recorded, 8 genera (Anacropora, Lithophyllon, Zoopilus,

Echinophyllia, Oxypora, Acanthastrea, Mussa and Cynarina), and 60 species of scleractinian

corals are new records for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Most of the species

assignments correspond to those by Veron and Pichon (1976,1980 and 1982), Veron et al.,

(1977), Veron and Wallace (1984) and Veron (2000).

Factors affecting Reef Development

Coral reef development is reduced or eliminated in areas of high turbidity. When

sediment is carried by streams and run off from elevated areas, the combination of reduced

salinity and excess sediment results in the mortality of coral reefs. Sedimentation is a major

factor controlling the distribution of reef organisms and overall reef development (McIntyre

1988). The reduced level of light due to suspended sediment in the water can reduce coral

growth (Hubbard et al., 1986) and has an impact on natural zonation patterns (Morelock et

al., 1983). Coral Larvae cannot successfully establish themselves in shifting sediments.

Increases in sediment input could alter the distributions of reef organisms, by influencing the

ability of their larvae to settle and survive (Rogers 1990). Tomascik and Sander (1987)

suggest that lower light levels may inhibit development of coral larvae by reducing the

amount of energy available to maturing ova or embryos.

Acanthaster planci

The “crown of thorns” starfish Acanthaster planci is a large specialised corrallivore

echinoderm, which feeds exclusively on scleractinian corals. Massive infestations of crown of

thorns were first recorded in 1989 in MGMNP (Wood, 1989), resulting in its

catastrophic degradation. The subsequent recovery might take 10-40 years, depending on the

degree of damage and on not being attacked repeatedly. The attacks by this starfish on reefs

could be considered as an ecocatastrophe on a large scale, triggered mainly by human activity,

considered a major disturbance. The Acanthaster planci have very flexible motile spiny rays.

By their use, they are able to crawl easily upon colonies of the corals and hold onto them.

Coral disease

The exposure of corals to disease had been first discovered in MGMNP in 1991.

Raghukumar and Raghukumar (1991) described two kinds of diseases “white band” and

“black band” which could be considered as an indication of stressed environment. Kulkarni

et.al (2004) reported that corals from deeper water of Alexandra, Red Skin and Jolly Bouy

showed symptoms of disease. He also observed the outbreaks of these diseases on reefs where

corals had been destroyed by cyclones, and then bored by sponges and clams. Under the

influence of siltation and pollution in zones of such an activity, the coral increase their

excretion of mucus, the excess of which stimulates the development of bacteria, which then

infect the corals themselves (Rogers, 1990).

Threats due to Anthropogenic Pressure

Hunting, shell, coral and sea cucumber collection, fishing, sand mining, removal of

NTFP are major illegal activities reported in MGMNP area.

Fishing

Fishing by dinghi with hook and cast net is done by local people residing in fringing

villages of MGMNP. The threat mainly due to the fishing is coral damage by anchoring and

depletion of resources, due to illegal fishing. In South - East Asia, there is great demand for

shark fins for soup and medicinal value. Due to the high commercial value in the market,

local fishermen are attracted to hunting of sharks, which again affects the park.

Shell/coral collection

Shell collection is permitted in areas other than national park and sanctuaries to

license holders in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is regulated by Directorate of Fisheries.

Due to its commercial value and easy availability and accessiblity, shell collection is one of

the major illegal activities within MGMNP. Plucking corals or shells goes on for three to four

months in a year, during the dry period. For most of the newly immigrant population, in the

absence of any land or property, diving provides the simplest and most attractive income

opportunity. The abundant mollusc such as Trochus, cowries, conch, murex, cone, volutes,

chank and ark, are mainly removed. Collection and sale of corals is new banned in these

islands. Also the Molluscs such as Cassis cornuta, Charonia tritonis, Conus milneedwardsi,

Cypraecassis rufa, Hippopus hippopus, Nautilus pompilius, Tridacna maxima, Tridacna

squamosa and Tudicla spirillus have been brought under Schedule I and other molluscs such

as Cypraea lamacina, Cypraea mappa, Cypraea talpa, Fasciolaria trapezium, Harpulina

arausica, Lambis Chiragra, Lambis chiragraathitica, Lambis crocea, Lambis millipede,

Lambis scorpius, Lambis truncate, Placenta placenta, Strombus plicatus sibbaldi, Trochus

niloticus and Turbo marmopratus under schedule IV of Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972 and

accorded protection. The collection of the above species is totally banned. However, sale of

the shell items under Schedule IV is permitted under licence by the Chief Wildlife Warden

till such time the existing stock is liquidated (Ravichandran, 2006).

Sea cucumber collection

The sea cucumber (beche de mer) has very high commercial value in South East

Asian countries. These sluggish animals play a very important role in removing algae and

preventing stratification of bottom and also preventing algal attack on corals. These sea

cucumber resources are facing serious threats from foreign as well as local poachers in

MGMNP. The important species are Holothuria nobilis, H. scabra, H. atra, and Actinopyga

echinites.

Due to high fishery returns, reef areas in MGMNP always attract fishermen and shell

& sea cucumber collectors. The people have complaints about restrictions on fishing and

shell collecting within the park. This fishing and poaching activity creates imbalance in the

ecosystem and damages the resources particularly the coral reefs. Protection machinery has

been geared up in the park territory which have minimised the illegal activities.

Sea Grass Beds:

Seagrass bed is an ecosystem often occurs alongside coral reefs. Although they are

much less charismatic and frequently overlooked, seagrass beds play a vital role in

maintaining the health and diversity of adjacent coral reefs. Seagrasses are not one but 50

species of flowering marine plant which usually form dense stands in the shallow, sandy

bottom environments of back reef lagoons and semi-enclosed bays. They are bright sunlit

fields of waving green fronds and are the favoured habitat of the globally endangered green

turtle (Caretta caretta) and queen conch (Strombus gigas). Other common inhabitants are

cushion stars, urchins and sea cucumbers (Rey, 1999).

One of the most remarkable things about seagrasses is their ability to spread and grow

by sending out underground rhizomes (roots). It is also their greatest weakness as it makes

them phenomenally vulnerable to trampling and physical damage. Seagrasses trap sediment

and bind soil thereby preserving water quality and protecting coastal environments.

Similar to mangroves systems, seagrass beds provide an ideal hiding place for the

young of many species of reef fish and other marine life. They trap substantial quantities of

organic and inorganic sediments that support an enormous array of reef flora and fauna and

serves as a nursery ground for many reef fishes. Sea grass beds are also an extremely

important food source for dugongs and sea turtles. Studies have suggested that there is a

correlation between the sea grass and dugongs abundance (Das, 1996).

Sea-grasses play an important role by maintaining the richness of coastal

environment. The large areas of shallow calcareous sand of MGMNP provide a suitable

substrate for sea grass growth. Here sea grasses occur from inter tidal region to up to 13m

depth. The dense intertwined rhizomes and roots of the sea grasses form a strong mat that

penetrates the substrate and secures the plant against the water and wave motion, thereby

stabilising the bottom sediments. Five species namely Halophilia ovata, Halodule pinifolia

Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea serrulata and Enhalus acoroides have so far been recorded

from MGMNP.

Impacts to Sea grasses

Over the years losses of seagrasses have been severe, with some areas losing up to

95 percent of their coverage. Other areas, however, have remained stable and productive.

Reduced light transmittance through the water column has been one of the major factors

implicated in losses of seagrass coverage. Seagrass loss due to light attenuation usually

starts at the outer (deeper) edge of the beds, where the light reaching the plants is only

marginal, and progresses towards the shallower regions as conditions deteriorate. Several

factors are important in reducing light penetrating to a given depth of the water column:

Absorption by phytoplankton and macroalgae, Suspended particle load and colour due to

dissolved organic materials (Rey, 1999).

Phytoplankton and algal blooms are often caused by increased nutrient loads from

sewage discharges and from agricultural and residential fertilizers, which run off into the

lagoon. Increased nutrient levels also cause an increase in the density of epiphytes

(organisms that attach to the seagrass blades and block light). Suspended particles are

introduced into the water column via runoff from commercial, agricultural, and residential

areas, and also from activities within the estuary such as dredging and sediment re-

suspension caused by boat propellers. Dissolved organic material has many sources,

including residential and commercial pesticides and fertilizers, marsh vegetation, and

others.

Conclusion

Conservation of the natural and cultural resources and their ecological relationshipare

the primary objectives of management of Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park. The

dynamic ecological processes must be kept going in the same way as they have been going on

since time immemorial, not influenced by man. This can only be achieved through strict

protection to avoid any disturbances to the critical habitats like mangroves, coral reefs,

seagrass beds and sandy beaches. Involvement of local communities is paramount to accord

complete protection to the critical habitats which are breeding and feeding grounds of rare

and endangered species of fauna and flora and to gradually eliminate the destructive factors

adversely affecting the system, if any. Promotion of eco-tourism involving local communities

is required to create awareness on the need for conservation and management of the marine

ecosystem on scientific lines, and for proper socio-economic development based on the

principles of sustainability. Economic development which is ecologically and culturally

sustainable has to be promoted through eco-development programmes in villages adjoining

the MGMNP and promotion of uses compatible with conservation and sustainable

development by involving the local communities so as to conserve the unique resources of

the MGMNP for posterity.

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