Constructing Meaningful Connections With Social Studies Content

7/23/2019 Constructing Meaningful Connections With Social Studies Content

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/constructing-meaningful-connections-with-social-studies-content 1/43

Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v :

AO@Q^TWAÎ@C KGJ@I@C

Q~wng`~q Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`clwf Ao``ga~io`q si~m Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ao`~g`~

Jxxfign Xtja~iagq Li`jf Xtobga~

Qao~~ Qki~m

@j~io`jf Wì|gtqi~y

I` xjt~ijf lwfliffkg`~ ol ~mg tgzwitgkg`~q lot KJ^ <>8

Xtolgqqot Aj~mgti`g Ei`c

Jwcwq~ 4=& 4889



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 4

Jdq~tja~

I~ iq ikxot~j`~ ~mj~ q~wng`~q mj|g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq si~m qoaijf q~wnigq

ao`~g`~& yg~ ~miq ~oo ol~g` nogq ò~ oaawt. ^miq xtobga~ tg|igsq fi~gtj~wtg ltok lowt jtgjq ol q~wny

~mj~ i`lotk ~miq xtodfgk. ^mg lowt jtgjq ol fi~gtj~wtg tg|igs jtg ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c& Qamgkj

^mgoty& g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c& j`n kg~monofocigq lot ja~i|j~i`c qamgkj j`n ao`q~twa~i`c

kgjì`c. ^mg xtobga~ jfqo iàfwngq j q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ xtgqg`~j~io` g}xfoti`c ~mg lowt jtgjq ol

fi~gtj~wtg tg|igs. Nwti`c ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c& ~gjamgtq i` ~mg } Micm Qamoof qoaijf

q~wnigq ngxjt~kg`~ i` }& AJ& siff jfqo sote ~o xtgxjtg j` jn|jàg otcjìrgt ~o wqg i` ~mgit os`

qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook. Jl~gt ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ xtgqg`~j~io` j`n ja~i|i~y& ~mg q~jll siff

aokxfg~g j qwt|gy tgcjtni`c ~mg kj~gtijf ao|gtgn i` ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~. ^miq qwt|gy iq ~mg

ja~i|g tgqgjtam aokxo`g`~ ol ~miq xtobga~.




^jdfg ol Ao`~g`~q

Amjx~gt I2 I`~tonwa~io` 7

Qicìliajàg ol ~mg Xtodfgk 7

Xwtxoqg ol ~mg Xtobga~ 3

Cwini`c Zwgq~io`q 3

Ngliì~io`q 3

Amjx~gt II2 Fi~gtj~wtg Tg|igs :8

I`~tonwa~io` :8

Jtgjq ol I`|gq~icj~io`2

Atgj~i`c Kgjì`c :8

Qamgkj ^mgoty :>

G}xgtig`~ijf Fgjtì`c :3

Kg~monofocigq 48

Aoàfwqio` 43

Amjx~gt III2 Ja~io` Tgqgjtam 4=

I`~tonwa~io` 4=

Ngqatix~io` ol Jxxg`ni}gq 4=



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v >

Aoàfwqio` 18

Jxxg`ni} J 1:

Jxxg`ni} D 14

Jxxg`ni} A 17

Jxxg`ni} N 19

Tglgtgàgq >8




Q~wng`~q Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`clwf Ao``ga~io` si~m Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ao`~g`~

Amjx~gt :

I`~tonwa~io`

Kj`y q~wng`~q i` ky qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook tgcwfjtfy mj|g ~towdfg atgj~i`c kgjì`clwf

ao``ga~io`q dg~sgg` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~ j`n ~mgit xtiot eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàgq. Smifg

qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~ iq djqgn o` ~mg ny`jkia ja~io`q j`n i`~gtja~io`q ol xgoxfg& qoaig~igq& j`n

~mgit g`|ito`kg`~q& ky q~wng`~q jxxgjt ~o lggf ò~ qikxfy xmyqiajffy tgko|gn& dw~ jfqo

gko~io`jffy j`n i`~gffga~wjffy tgko|gn ltok ~mg q~otigq j`n fgqqo`q ol ~moqg smo mj|g fi|gn

dglotg ~mgk. I~ qggkq ~mj~ ky q~wng`~q‟ lj|oti~g zwgq~io` iq& ‖Smy no sg mj|g ~o fgjt` ~miq?‛ I

j`qsgt ~miq zwgq~io` jq dgq~ jq I aj`& yg~ ky g}xgtigàg ~gffq kg ~mj~ ky dtigl j`qsgtq jtg ò~

qwlliaig`~. Jq j xtolgqqio`jf gnwaj~ot& I kwq~ j`qsgt ~miq egy zwgq~io` ò~ qikxfy i` dtigl

tgqxo`qgq dw~ dy ao`qiq~g`~fy w~ifiri`c j kg~mon ol ~gjami`c smiam ljaifi~j~gq ~mg q~wng`~‟q jdifi~y

~o gko~io`jffy& i`~gffga~wjffy& j`n xgtqo`jffy ao``ga~ si~m ~mg ao`~g`~. I` o~mgt sotnq& qoaijf

q~wnigq ao`~g`~ kwq~ dg kgjì`clwf ~o ~mg q~wng`~& smgtg kgjì`c ‖nogq ò~ g}iq~ i` kj~gtijf dw~

i` ~mg tgfj~io`qmix ol ~mj~ kj~gtijf ~o q~wng`~q‟ xjq~ eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàg‛ -Mw`~gt& 488>& x.

<=). Smg` ao`~g`~ mjq kgjì`c ~o j q~wng`~& qmg siff dg jdfg ~o j`qsgt ~mg zwgq~io`& ‖Smy no I

mj|g ~o fgjt` ~miq?‛

Qicìliajàg ol ~mg Xtodfgk

Kjte ^sji` iq atgni~gn si~m qjyi`c& $Miq~oty nogq ò~ tgxgj~ i~qgfl& dw~ i~ nogq tmykg.$ I~

iq ikxot~j`~ ~mj~ ky q~wng`~q tgaocìrg ~mg tmyki`c xj~~gt`q ol miq~oty. I~ iq gzwjffy ikxot~j`~

~mj~ kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c oaawtq ~o ao``ga~ ~mg tmykgq ol ~mg xjq~ si~m ~mg tmykgq ol xtgqg`~ i`



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v <

~mgit aokkwì~y j`n i` ~mgit os` fi|gq. I` o~mgt sotnq& i~ iq ikxot~j`~ ~mj~ ky q~wng`~q mj|g

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq si~m qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~. J xoqi~io` q~j~gkg`~ xwdfiqmgn dy

~mg @j~io`jf Aowàif lot ~mg Qoaijf Q~wnigq jqqgt~q ~mj~ ‖q~wng`~ ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c‛ si~m

qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~ iq gqqg`~ijf ~o gq~jdfiqm ‖j sgff+i`lotkgn j`n ai|ia+ki`ngn ai~irg`ty ~mj~

aj` qwq~ji` j`n dwifn o` ngkoatj~ia ~tjni~io`q‛ -488=). Jq ky q~wng`~q dtojng` ~mgit xgtqxga~i|g

ol miq~oty j`n ~mgit qoaig~y& j`n xfjag ~mgkqgf|gq i` i~& ~mgy siff fgjt` ikxot~j`~ fgqqo`q jdow~

~mgkqgf|gq j`n ~mgit tofg i` j tgxwdfia.

^mg Ajfilotìj Ngxjt~kg`~ ol Gnwaj~io` -4888) mjq xwdfiqmgn Miq~oty „ Qoaijf Qaigàg

Ao`~g`~ Q~j`njtnq lot Ajfilotìj Xwdfia Qamoofq& smiam q~j~gq ~mg loffosi`c2

^mgqg q~j`njtnq tgzwitg q~wng`~q ò~ o`fy ~o jazwitg aotg eòsfgncg i` miq~oty j`n qoaijf

qaigàg& dw~ jfqo ~o ng|gfox ~mg ati~iajf ~mièi`c qeiffq ~mj~ miq~otij`q j`n qoaijf qaig`~iq~q

gkxfoy ~o q~wny ~mg xjq~ j`n i~q tgfj~io`qmix ~o ~mg xtgqg`~ Ui~jfiaq jnngn[. I~ iq xoqqidfg

~o qxg`n j filg~ikg q~wnyi`c miq~oty j`n ò~ fgjt` jdow~ g|gty qicìliaj`~ miq~otiajf g|g`~5

ò o`g aj` eòs g|gty~mi`c. Mosg|gt& ~mg Q~j~g Dojtn moxgq ~mj~ nwti`c ~mgit ygjtq ol

lotkjf qamoofi`c& q~wng`~q siff fgjt` ~o niq~i`cwiqm ~mg ikxot~j`~ ltok ~mg wìkxot~j`~& ~o

tgaocìrg |i~jf ao``ga~io`q dg~sgg` ~mg xtgqg`~ j`n ~mg xjq~& j`n ~o jxxtgaij~g wì|gtqjf

miq~otiajf ~mgkgq j`n nifgkkjq Ui~jfiaq jnngn[. Kjq~gty ol ~mgqg q~j`njtnq siff g`qwtg

~mj~ q~wng`~q ò~ o`fy eòs ~mg lja~q& dw~ jfqo w`ngtq~j`n aokko` j`n aokxfg} ~mgkgq

~mtowcmow~ miq~oty& kjei`c ao``ga~io`q jko`c ~mgit os` fi|gq& ~mg fi|gq ol ~mg xgoxfg

smo ajkg dglotg ~mgk& j`n ~mg fi|gq ol ~moqg ~o aokg Ui~jfiaq jnngn[. -x. <)

Q~j~g j`n `j~io`jf gnwaj~io` otcjìrj~io`q jctgg ~mj~ qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook i`q~twa~io` qmowfn

ljaifi~j~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c. G|g` si~m ~miq ao`qg`qwq ol oxiìo`q& ‖afjqqtook odqgt|j~io`jf




q~wnigq mj|g ò~gn ~mg ò`+kgjì`clwf `j~wtg ol fgjtì`c nwti`c j fjtcg xtoxot~io` ol afjqqtook

~ikg iq qoaijf q~wnigq‛ -ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:& x. :98).

I~ iq gqqg`~ijf ~mj~ ky qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook ao`qiq~g`~fy ljaifi~j~gq j |jtig~y ol

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq.

Xwtxoqg ol ~mg Xtobga~

^mg xwtxoqg ol ~miq xjxgt iq ~o ing`~ily tgqgjtam+djqgn kg~monofocigq ~o ~gjam qoaijf

q~wnigq awttiawfwk i` j sjy ~mj~ ljaifi~j~gq ~mg atgj~io` ol kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c j`n ~o atgj~g j

q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ xtgqg`~j~io` g}xfoti`c ~mgqg kg~monofocigq. Nwti`c ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~

kgg~i`c& I siff sote si~m ~mg ~gjamgtq i` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq ngxjt~kg`~ ~o xtgxjtg tgqowtagq ~mj~

gàowtjcg q~wng`~q ~o kjeg xgtqo`jf ao``ga~io`q si~m ~mg fgqqo`q j`n kji` xtiàixfgq ol miq~oty&

j`n si~m ~mgit os` fi|gq j`n qoaig~igq.

Cwini`c Zwgq~io`q

Aj` j` gllga~i|g qoaijf q~wnigq afjqq g}xgtigàg mgfx ~mg q~wng`~q ~o w`ngtq~j`n j`n

xgtqo`jffy tgfj~g ~o ~mg kgjì`c j`n jxxfiaj~io`q ol ~mg awttiawfwk i` ~mgit fi|gq? Smj~ aj` I no

i` ky afjqqtook ~o ljaifi~j~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c ol qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk?

Ngliì~io`q

ô afjtily ~mg wqg ol agt~ji` ~gtkq ~mtowcmow~ ~miq xjxgt& ~mg loffosi`c ngliì~io`q siff dg

wqgn i` ~miq xtobga~.

G}xgtig`~ijf Fgjtì`c

G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c iq jfqo eòs` jq g}xgtig`~ijf gnwaj~io` j`n xtobga~+djqgn fgjtì`c.

G}xgtig`~ijf gnwaj~io` iq ngli`gn dy ~mg Jqqoaij~io` lot G}xgtig`~ijf Gnwaj~io` jq ‖j xtoagqq



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v =

~mtowcm smiam j fgjt`gt ao`q~twa~q eòsfgncg& qeiff j`n |jfwg ltok nitga~ g}xgtigàg‛ -jq ai~gn

i` I|gq+Ngsgy& 488=& x. :<3).

Fgjtì`c

Fgjtì`c iq ‖ci|i`c xgtqo`jf kgjì`c ~o xwdfia eòsfgncg‛ -Sgq~& Lg`qmjk& j`n

Cjttjtn jq zwo~gn i` ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:& x. :98).

Kgjì`c

J q~wng`~‟q w`ngtq~j`ni`c ol kj~gtijf ‖i` ~gtkq ol miq ot mgt xjq~ g}xgtigàg j`n

aocì~i|g ajxjdifi~igq ot q~twa~wtgq‛ -ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:& x. :98). ^mg kgjì`c ol ~mg qjkg

kj~gtijf kjy dg nillgtg`~ lot gjam q~wng`~ dgajwqg ‖kgjì`c nogq ò~ g}iq~ i` kj~gtijf dw~ i` ~mg

tgfj~io`qmix ol ~mj~ kj~gtijf ~o q~wng`~q‟ xjq~ eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàg‛ -Mw`~gt& 488>& x. <=). I~

iq ikxot~j`~ ~o ò~g ~mj~ kgjì`c ‖g}iq~q o` j ao`~i`wwk‛ -Mw`~gt& :9<3& x. 11)5 j q~wng`~ aj`

li`n ctgj~ kgjì`c si~m kj~gtijf& ot qmg aj` li`n j kongtj~g jkow`~& fi~~fg& ot ò kgjì`c.

Kgjì`clwf Fgjtì`c

Fgjtì`c ‖~mj~ tgfj~gq `gs i`lotkj~io` ~o eòsfgncg jftgjny xoqqgqqgn dy ~mg q~wng`~‛

-Qjàmgr , Foxgr& :991& x. 4) i` j sjy ~mj~ ~mg q~wng`~ w`ngtq~j`nq. Kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c iq ò~

to~g fgjtì`c smiam loawqgq o` kgkotirj~io` ol lja~q& qwam jq miq~otiajf `jkgq j`n nj~gq. Smifg

lja~q kjy dg ikxot~j`~& ~mgy mj|g ò qicìliajàg ~o ~mg q~wng`~ w`~if ~mg q~wng`~ w`ngtq~j`nq ~mg

lja~q i` tgfj~io` ~o mgt xgtqo`jf g}xgtigàgq ot xtiot eòsfgncg.

Qamgkj~j




Qamgkj~j -qi`cwfjt2 qamgkj) jtg jdq~tja~ aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq smiam otcjìrg j q~wng`~‟q

xtiot eòsfgncg tgfj~i`c ~o j ~oxia j`n ‖g`jdfg Uq~wng`~q[ ~o w`ngtq~j`n j`n iàotxotj~g `gs

i`lotkj~io`‛ -Qfj|i`& 488<& x. :31).

^tj`qlgt ol Fgjtì`c

^tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c iq ‖~mg q~wng`~‟q jdifi~y ~o ~tj`qlgt xjq~ fgjtì`cq ~o ~mg atgj~i|g

qofw~io` ol xtgqg`~ xtodfgkq‛ -Mw`~gt& :93:& x. :). Smg` ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c iq ja~i|g&

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c oaawtq.

Qwkkjty

I` qwkkjty& i~ iq ikxot~j`~ ~mj~ q~wng`~q kjeg kgjì`clwf ao``ga~io`q si~m ~mg qoaijf

q~wnigq ao`~g`~. ^mg Miq~oty „ Qoaijf Qaigàg Ao`~g`~ Q~j`njtnq lot Ajfilotìj Xwdfia Qamoofq

q~j~gq ~mj~ kjei`c kgjì`clwf ao``ga~io`q iq j tgzwitgkg`~ ol ~mg q~j`njtnq. Smg` q~wng`~q jqe

~mg zwgq~io`& ‖Smy no I mj|g ~o fgjt` ~miq?‛ ~mgy jtg aokkwìaj~i`c i` xjt~ ~mj~ ~mg ao`~g`~ iq

ò~ kgjì`clwf ~o ~mgk. ^mg xtodfgk i` ky afjqqtook iq li`ni`c smj~ I aj` no ~o ljaifi~j~g

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c ol qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk. ^mg `g}~ amjx~gt ol ~miq xtobga~ siff tg|igs

fi~gtj~wtg ~mj~ jnntgqqgq ~miq xtodfgk.



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v :8

Amjx~gt 4

I`~tonwa~io`Kj`y q~wng`~q i` ky qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook j~ ] Micm Qamoof tgcwfjtfy mj|g ~towdfg

atgj~i`c kgjì`clwf ao``ga~io`q dg~sgg` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~ j`n ~mgit xtiot eòsfgncg

j`n g}xgtigàgq. ^mg xwtxoqg ol ~miq xjxgt iq ~o ing`~ily tgqgjtam+djqgn kg~monofocigq ~o ~gjam

qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk i` j sjy ~mj~ ljaifi~j~gq ~mg atgj~io` ol kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c j`n ~o

atgj~g j q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ xtgqg`~j~io` ~o g}xfotg ~mgqg kg~monofocigq si~m ~mg ] Micm Qamoof

Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~.

^miq amjx~gt iq j tg|igs ol fi~gtj~wtg ltok lowt jtgjq tgfj~gn ~o ~mg ~oxia ol ao`q~twa~i`c

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq i` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook. ^mg lowt jtgjq ol i`|gq~icj~io`

jtg ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c& qamgkj ~mgoty& g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c& j`n kg~monofocigq ~mj~ ljaifi~j~g

~mg ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c. Gjam ol ~mgqg ~oxiaq qmgnq ficm~ o` ~mg xtodfgk ol ljaifi~j~i`c ~mg

ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c i` j qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook j`n siff i`lotk ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~

xtobga~ g}xfji`gn i` Amjx~gt 1.

Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c

Ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c iq j egy ~o xtoxgffi`c q~wng`~ fgjtì`c. Kgjì`c ngqatidgq ~mg

tgfj~io`qmix ol `gs eòsfgncg ~o j q~wng`~‟q w`ngtq~j`ni`c ol kj~gtijf ‖i` ~gtkq ol miq ot mgt

xjq~ g}xgtigàg j`n aocì~i|g ajxjdifi~igq ot q~twa~wtgq‛ -ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:& x. :98). Kgjì`c

iq ao`q~twa~gn ~mtowcm ~mg i`~gtja~io`q dg~sgg` ~mg q~wng`~ j`n ~mg kj~gtijf ot ~jqe ~o dg fgjt`gn.

^mg q~wng`~ j`n ~mg kj~gtijf gjam dti`c ~o ~mg xo~g`~ijf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàg ~mgit os` wìzwg

j~~tidw~gq. ^mg q~wng`~ dti`cq xtiot eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàgq. ^mg kj~gtijf ot ~jqe xto|ingq

xoqqidfg ao``ga~io`q si~m ~mg fgjt`gt‟q xtiot eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàgq. ^mg g}~g`~ ~o smiam



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v ::

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c oaawtq ngxg`nq o` ~mg q~wng`~‟q jdifi~y ~o ao``ga~ ~mg `gs eòsfgncg si~m

mgt os` xtiot eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàgq.

^mg kgjì`c ~mj~ gjam q~wng`~ ao`q~twa~q ltok ~mg qjkg kj~gtijf kjy dg wìzwg dgajwqg

‖kgjì`c nogq ò~ g}iq~ i` kj~gtijf dw~ i` ~mg tgfj~io`qmix ol ~mj~ kj~gtijf ~o q~wng`~q‟ xjq~

eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàg‛ -Mw`~gt& 488>& x. <=). Dgajwqg gjam q~wng`~‟q xjq~ eòsfgncg j`n

g}xgtigàgq jtg nillgtg`~& gjam q~wng`~ siff ao`q~twa~ wìzwg kgjì`c ltok ~mg qjkg lja~q j`n

aoàgx~q. G|g` ~mg ngx~m ol kgjì`c |jtigq ltok q~wng`~ ~o q~wng`~. Kgjì`c ‖g}iq~q o` j

ao`~i`wwk‛ -Mw`~gt& :9<3& x. 11)5 j q~wng`~ aj` li`n ctgj~ kgjì`c si~m kj~gtijf& ot qmg aj` li`n

j kongtj~g jkow`~& fi~~fg& ot ò kgjì`c j~ jff.

Kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c iq ò~ to~g fgjtì`c smiam loawqgq o` kgkotirj~io` ol lja~q& qwam jq

miq~otiajf `jkgq j`n nj~gq& òt iq i~ j ‖kj~~gt ol xjqqi|g iàwfaj~io` j`n nitga~ tgxtonwa~io` dy

~mg q~wng`~ ol ~mg ~gjamgt‟q ot ~mg ~g}~dooe‟q i`lotkj~io` ot |igs‛ -ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:& x. :9:).

Smifg qokg miq~otiajf lja~q j`n aoàgx~q siff ò~ ao``ga~ si~m ~mg q~wng`~q‟ xtiot fgjtì`c& o`g

cojf ol ~mg Ajfilotìj qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk q~j`njtnq iq ~o ‖g`qwtg ~mj~ q~wng`~q ò~ o`fy

eòs ~mg lja~q& dw~ jfqo w`ngtq~j`n aokko` j`n aokxfg} ~mgkgq ~mtowcmow~ miq~oty& kjei`c

ao``ga~io`q jko`c ~mgit os` fi|gq& ~mg fi|gq ol ~mg xgoxfg smo ajkg dglotg ~mgk& j`n ~mg fi|gq

ol ~moqg ~o aokg‛ -Ajfilotìj Ngxjt~kg`~ ol Gnwaj~io`& 4888& x. <). Smifg miq~otiajf lja~q kjy

dg ikxot~j`~ j`n kjy dwifn j q~wng`~‟q eòsfgncg djqg lot lw~wtg fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq& lja~q

mj|g ò qicìliajàg ~o ~mg q~wng`~ w`~if ~mg q~wng`~ w`ngtq~j`nq ~mg lja~q i` tgfj~io` ~o mgt

xgtqo`jf g}xgtigàgq ot xtiot eòsfgncg. Smg` ~gjamgtq kjeg ao`~g`~ kgjì`clwf ~o q~wng`~q&

~mg q~wng`~q fgjt` kotg zwiaefy j`n tg~ji` ~mj~ fgjtì`c o|gt j fo`cgt nwtj~io` -Mw`~gt& 488>5

ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:).




^mg aoàgx~ ol ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c tgfj~gq ~o ~mg ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c. I` ~mg dooe&

^gjam lot ^tj`qlgt & Kjngfi`g Mw`~gt -:93:) ing`~iligq ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c jq ‖~mg q~wng`~‟q

jdifi~y ~o ~tj`qlgt xjq~ fgjtì`cq ~o ~mg atgj~i|g qofw~io` ol xtgqg`~ xtodfgkq‛ -x. :). ^tj`qlgt ol

fgjtì`c j`n ~mg ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c qwxxot~ gjam o~mgt j`n koq~ gllga~i|gfy oaawt ~ocg~mgt.

Smg` q~wng`~q ~tj`qlgt xtiot eòsfgncg j`n g}xgtigàgq ~o awttg`~ fgjtì`c xtodfgkq&

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c oaawtq. Kjngfi`g Mw`~gt -:93:) ing`~ilign lowt lja~otq ~mj~ jllga~ ~mg

~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c j`n ~mg atgj~io` ol kgjì`c2

-j) ^mg qikifjti~y ol ~mg qi~wj~io` i` smiam qokg~mi`c iq fgjt`gn j`n ~mg qi~wj~io` ~o

smiam ~mj~ fgjtì`c kjy ~tj`qlgt. -d) ^mg q~wng`~‟q jqqoaij~io` ol ~mg ofn j`n `gs

fgjtì`cq lot j`y o`g ol kj`y tgjqo`q. -a) ^mg ngctgg ol gllga~i|g`gqq ol ~mg otici`jf

fgjtì`c. -n) ^mg xgtagx~io` ol gqqg`~ijf ot w`|jtyi`c gfgkg`~q smiam g}iq~ i` do~m ~mg

ofn j`n ~mg `gs fgjtì`cq. -x. 9)

Q~wng`~ atgj~io` ol kgjì`c j`n ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c ~jeg xfjag kotg ol~g`& kotg ao`qiq~g`~fy&

j`n kotg glliaig`~fy smg` ~mg ~gjamgt xfj`q mgt fgqqo`q ~o jamig|g ~mgqg ow~aokgq.

Kjngfi`g Mw`~gt -:93:) jllitkq ~mj~ ‖mgfxi`c ~mg q~wng`~ ing`~ily j`n qgfga~ ltok miq xjq~

fgjtì`c ~mg qg~ smiam siff yigfn ~mg jxxtoxtij~g xtoxwfqio` ~o xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c iq ~mg mjffkjte ol

j qwaagqqlwf ~gjamgt‛ -x. :9). Gkxosgtgn ~gjamgtq ‖cwing q~wng`~q ~o … qgg kgj`q j`n g`nq& ~o

gq~jdfiqm tgfj~io`qmixq& j`n ~o ao`q~twa~ ~mg kgjì`c ol g}xgtigàgq‛ -Tidiam& :99=& x. :89).

^gjamgtq xgtlotk j xi|o~jf tofg i` ljaifi~j~i`c kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq.

Q~wng`~q jfqo kwq~ dg ja~i|g i` ~mg fgjtì`c xtoagqq i` otngt lot ~mgk ~o atgj~g

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c. Tglfga~i|g ~mièi`c iq o`g ol ~mg ja~io`q q~wng`~q kwq~ ~jeg ~o atgj~g ~o

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c. Tglfga~i|g ~mièi`c& jq ngli`gn dy Bom` Ngsgy -jq ai~gn i` Gdy& Mgttgff& ,

Botnj`& 488<) iq ~mg ‖ja~i|g& xgtqiq~g`~ j`n ajtglwf ao`qingtj~io` o` j`y dgfigl ot qwxxoqgn lotk




ol eòsfgncg i` ficm~ ol ~mg ctow`nq ~mj~ qwxxot~ i~‛ -x. :8). Il q~wng`~q jtg ~o ao``ga~ xtiot

fgjtì`c si~m awttg`~ qi~wj~io`q& ~mgy kwq~ tglfga~ o` i`~gtja~io`q ol ~mgit fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq.

^gjamgtq kwq~ ljaifi~j~g q~wng`~ tglfga~io`. Ltjè Tidiam -:99=) ò~gq ~mj~ ‖lot j xgtqo` ~o ~twfy

ao`q~twa~ kgjì`c& ~mj~ xgtqo` kwq~ ... dg jllotngn ~mg oxxot~wì~y ~o ~miè j`n tglfga~ o` miq ot

mgt os` ja~io`q‛ -x. :8<). ^gjamgtq j`n q~wng`~q ~mj~ atgj~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c no ò~ ‖o`fy

‐cg~‟ ~mg j`qsgt ot qof|g j xtodfgk dw~ jfqo tgaocìrg ~mg sjy i` smiam ~mgy ao`q~twa~gn

kgjì`c ~o cg~ ~mg j`qsgt ot qof|g ~mg xtodfgk‛ -:99=& x. :89+::8).

Si~m ~mg gkxmjqiq o` xtiot fgjtì`c j`n g}xgtigàgq j`n ~mgit tofg i` atgj~i`c kgjì`c& i~

iq ikxot~j`~ ~o ò~g ~mj~ ~mgy aj` do~m xoqi~i|gfy j`n `gcj~i|gfy jllga~ ~mg q~wng`~‟q jdifi~y ~o

~tj`qlgt fgjtì`c j`n atgj~g kgjì`c -Mw`~gt& :93:& x. 1). O`g g}jkxfg ol `gcj~i|g ~tj`qlgt iq

smg` j q~wng`~ mjq mjn j djn fgjtì`c g}xgtigàg si~m j ~oxia i` ~mg xjq~ j`n ajttigq ~mj~

`gcj~i|g j~~i~wng i`~o awttg`~ fgjtì`c qi~wj~io`q. Kiqaoàgx~io`q jfqo jllga~ ~mg q~wng`~‟q jdifi~y

~o atgj~g aottga~ kgjì`c si~m awttg`~ ao`~g`~5 tgqgjtam mjq ~gtkgn kiqaoàgx~io`q ~mj~ jtg

xjt~iawfjtfy nilliawf~ ~o aottga~ jq ‖i`q~twa~io`+tgqiq~j`~‛ -ôt`gy+Xwt~j& :99:& x. :9>). Li`jffy&

q~wng`~q qokg~ikgq qikxfy no ò~ mj|g xtiot eòsfgncg ~o ao``ga~ xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c ~o.

^mg cojf ol qoaijf q~wnigq gnwaj~io` i` Ajfilotìj iq ~o ljaifi~j~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c ~mj~

~gjamgq q~wng`~q jdow~ ~mgkqgf|gq j`n xtgxjtgq q~wng`~q ~o ao`~tidw~g ~o ~mgit aokkwì~igq j`n

aow`~ty -Ajfilotìj Q~j~g Dojtn ol Gnwaj~io`& 48885 @j~io`jf Aowàif lot ~mg Qoaijf Q~wnigq&

488=). Jq ~mg fi~gtj~wtg o` kgjì`c j`n ~tj`qlgt i`niaj~gq& ‖‐kgjì`c‟ ikxfigq w`ngtq~j`ni`c dy

~mg q~wng`~ ò~ bwq~ i` ~mg kj~gtijf i~qgfl‛ -Mw`~gt& :9<3& x. 1:). ^gjamgtq `ggn ~o xfj` fgqqo`q

~mj~ ljaifi~j~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c ol qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk. I siff niqawqq kg~monofocigq ~mj~

jin i` atgj~i`c kgjì`c i` j fj~gt qga~io` ol ~mg fi~gtj~wtg tg|igs.



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v :>

Qamgkj ^mgoty

Q~wng`~q ao`q~twa~ kgjì`c dy ja~i|j~i`c aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq ao`~jiì`c xtiot

eòsfgncg. ^moqg aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq jtg qamgkj~j. Qamgkj~j -qi`cwfjt2 qamgkj) jtg jdq~tja~

aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq smiam otcjìrg j q~wng`~‟q xtiot eòsfgncg tgfj~i`c ~o j ~oxia j`n ‖g`jdfg

Uq~wng`~q[ ~o w`ngtq~j`n j`n iàotxotj~g `gs i`lotkj~io`‛ -Qfj|i`& 488<& x. :31). Qamgkj~j ‖jtg

i`|of|gn si~m i`~gttgfj~gn `g~soteq ol i`lotkj~io` ~mj~ aj` ja~ jfo`g& ot i` ao`bwà~io` si~m

tgfj~gn qamgkj‛ -Dicg`mo& :994& x. 1). ^mgy q~otg eòsfgncg i` fo`c+~gtk kgkoty -Qfj|i`&

488<& x. :9:) j`n jtg kjng ol |iqwjf& |gtdjf& j`n o~mgt qg`qoty ikjcgty& -Gdy& Mgttgff& ,

Botnj`& 488<& x. :3:) j`n ‖aoàgx~q& zwjfi~igq ol j` odbga~& ot qgzwgàgq ol oxgtj~io`q‛

-Dicg`mo& :994& x. 1). Qamgkj ^mgoty xto|ingq j ~mgotg~iajf djaectow`n lot ~mg ao``ga~io`q ~mj~

q~wng`~q kjeg dg~sgg` ~mgit xtiot eòsfgncg j`n awttg`~ fgjtì`c i` otngt ~o ao`q~twa~

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq.

Q~wng`~q‟ qamgkj~j ng|gfox jq ~mgy ctos ofngt. Gjam q~wng`~‟q qamgkj~j jtg micmfy

i`lfwgàgn dy ~mgit xjq~ g}xgtigàgq j`n jtg otcjìrgn nillgtg`~fy& fièi`c nillgtg`~ g}xgtigàgq

j`n eòsfgncg i` nillgtg`~ xj~~gt`q. Dgajwqg xtiot fgjtì`c iq j` ikxot~j`~ ng~gtki`j`~ ~o lw~wtg

fgjtì`c& ~mg ng|gfoxkg`~ ol qamgkj~j mjq j qicìliaj`~ gllga~ o` q~wng`~ fgjtì`c.

Q~wng`~q aokg ~o qamoof si~m |jtign qamgkj. Qokg q~wng`~q smo mj|g mjn kj`y

g}xgtigàgq j~ mokg& i` xjteq& j~ rooq& i` kwqgwkq& j`n i` o~mgt aitawkq~jàgq kjy g`~gt

ei`ngtcjt~g` si~m aokxfg} qamgkj~j lot mw`ntgnq ol ~oxiaq j`n g}xgtigàgq. O~mgt

q~wng`~q& smoqg g}xgtigàgq mj|g dgg` qg|gtgfy fiki~gn dy xo|gt~y ot o~mgt

aitawkq~jàgq& jtg fiegfy ~o mj|g |gty nillgtg`~ qamgkj~j& j`n qokg ol ~mgqg kjy ò~

kj~am ~mg xtg|jifi`c awf~wtg‟q |jfwgq ot |gtdjf fjdgfq. Qikifjtfy& il q~wng`~q aokg ltok

micmfy |gtdjf mokgq smgtg xjtg`~q ~jfe si~m ~mgk ltgzwg`~fy& ~mgit qamgkj~j jtg fiegfy ~o




ao`~ji` jaawtj~g |gtdjf fjdgfq lot q~otgn qg`qoty g}xgtigàgq j`n xmgòkg`j. Q~wng`~q

smo jtg tjiqgn i` fgqq |gtdjf mokgq& mosg|gt siff mj|g lgsgt |gtdjf aokxo`g`~q ~o ~mgit

qamgkj~j. ^miq ~mgoty aokxfgkg`~q Xijcg~‟q odqgt|j~io`q ol q~jcgq ol ng|gfoxkg`~….

-Gdy& Mgttgff& , Botnj`& 488<& x. :34)

J` g}jkxfg ol mos qamgkj i`lfwgàgq xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c iq ~mj~ ‖tgag`~ tgqgjtam i` ~gjami`c

j~~i~wngq qwccgq~q ~mj~ il sg xjit ot jqqoaij~g ~mg `gs fgjtì`c si~m qokg~mi`c jdow~ smiam j`

j~~i~wng jftgjny mjq dgg` lotkgn& ~mj~ xtg|iowq j~~i~wng siff cg`gtjfirg ~o ~mg `gs fgjtì`c‛

-Mw`~gt& :93:& x. >>).

Q~wng`~q kjy atgj~g kgjì`c si~m `gs ao`~g`~ smg` ~mgit qamgkj~j jtg ja~i|j~gn j`n

jxxfign ~o `gs fgjì`c qi~wj~io`q. ‖Fgjt`gtq smo eòs j ctgj~ ngjf jdow~ j qwdbga~ mj|g kotg

sgff+ng|gfoxgn qamgkj~j lot iàot xotj~i`c `gs eòsfgncg‛ -Qfj|i`& 488<& x. :9:). @o~ jff

fgjt`gtq mj|g q~to`cfy ng|gfoxgn qamgkj. ‖O`g aj`ò~ mj|g j xtgxjaejcgn qamgkj lot

g|gty~mi`c‛ -Qxito& \iqxogf& Qamki~r& Qjkjtjxw`cj|j`& , Dogcgt& :9=3& x. >). G|g` ~mowcm

gjam q~wng`~ i` j qoaijf q~wnigq afjqq aokg ~o qamoof si~m nillgtg`~ qamgkj& i~ iq q~iff ikxot~j`~ ~o

w`ngtq~j`n ~miq ~mgoty j`n ja~i|j~g ~mg qamgkj ~mgy no mj|g.

Qamgkj ~mgoty iq mgfxlwf i` g}xfjiì`c aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq j`n i` cwini`c gllga~i|g

kg~monofocigq& yg~ j `wkdgt ol tgqgjtamgtq mj|g xoi`~gn ow~ aoàgt`q ot sgje`gqq i` ~mg ~mgoty.

O`g ol ~mg ati~iaiqkq iq ~mj~ qamgkj ~mgoty iq |gty dtojn j`n ~mg ngliì~io`q jtg kj`y j`n |jtign5

i~ jfqo qggkq ~o o|gttgjam i`~o o~mgt jtgjq ol aocì~io` -Dicg`mo& :994& x. :1).

Qamgkj ja~i|j~io` jfo`g iq ò~ qwlliaig`~ lot q~wng`~q ~o dg ko~i|j~gn j`n lot kgjì`clwf

fgjtì`c ~o oaawt. Dicg`mo -:994) ò~gq ~mj~ ‖~mg `j~wtg j`n xwtxoqg ol ~mg ~jqe ngkj`nq j`n

o`g‟q i`~ti`qia ko~i|j~io` jtg ikxot~j`~ |jtijdfgq i` xtoagqqi`c i`lotkj~io`‛ -x. <). Smg`



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v :<

q~wng`~q wqg xtiot eòsfgncg& ~mgy kjy dg i`~ti`qiajffy ko~i|j~gn ~o atgj~g kgjì`c si~m ~mg

ao`~g`~& dw~ qamgkj ~mgoty jfo`g nogq ò~ g}xfji` j q~wng`~‟q i`~ti`qia ko~i|j~io`.

Ja~i|j~i`c qamgkj j`n ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c lot ~mg `gs ao`~g`~ jtg ~so nillgtg`~

xtodfgkq. Jf|jtgr j`n Tiqeo -:9=9) sjt` ~mj~ ‖smifg i~ iq xoqqidfg ~o ja~i|j~g g}iq~i`c qamgkj~j

si~m j ci|g` ~oxia& i~ nogq ò~ `gagqqjtify loffos ~mj~ j fgjt`gt aj` wqg ~miq ja~i|j~gn eòsfgncg

~o ng|gfox `gs eòsfgncg j`n qeiffq‛ -x. 4). ^mg qikxfg w`ngtq~j`ni`c ol ~mg qamgkj ~mgoty

nogq ò~ yigfn eòsfgncg ng|gfoxkg`~ si~mow~ j` jnni~io`jf ja~io` dy ~mg q~wng`~ j`n ~gjamgt.

Nosì`c -:99>) ing`~iligq ~mtgg ao`ni~io`q smiam iàtgjqg ~mg tgfijàg o` to~g fgjtì`c tj~mgt

~mj` kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c2 -j) ~mg fgjtì`c kj~gtijf fjaeq fociajf kgjì`clwf`gqq& -d) ~mg fgjt`gt

fjaeq tgfg|j`~ ingjq i` miq/mgt os` aocì~i|g q~twa~wtg j`n -a) ~mg i`ni|inwjf fjaeq ~mg i`~g`~‛ -x.

4).

Qxito& \iqxogf& Qamki~r& Qjkjtjxw`cj|j`& j`n Dogcgt -:9=3) ing`~ily sgje`gqqgq i`

qamgkj ~mgoty j`n o~mgt tgfj~gn aocì~i|g ~mgotigq5 ~mgit aoàgt` iq ~mj~ tgjf+sotfn xtodfgkq i`

nokji`q ~mj~ jtg ‖aokxfg} j`n iff+q~twa~wtgn‛ -x. 7)„ gqxgaijffy i` miq~oty& kgniai`g& j`n

dwqi`gqq „ no ò~ li~ i`~o ~mg o|gt+qikxfilign kongfq ~jwcm~ i` qamoofq. Qxito& \iqxogf& Qamki~r&

Qjkjtjxw`cj|j`& j`n Dogcgt -:9=3) li`n ~mj~ ‖qamgkj+~yxg ~mgotigq ~g`n ~o dg o|gtfy cg`gtjf

j`n ~o jdq~tja~ jsjy ltok i`ni|inwjf ajqgq ~mj~ jtg afjqqilign i` ~mg qjkg sjy…. ^mg

ao`qgzwgàgq ol ~tgj~i`c iff+q~twa~wtgn kj~gtijf jq il i~ sgtg sgff+q~twa~wtgn jtg eòsfgncg

tgxtgqg`~j~io`q ~mj~ jtg i`jxxfiajdfg i` ~tj`qlgt qi~wj~io`q ot ~mj~ xtonwag i`jaawtjay‛ -x. 7). ^mg

tgqwf~ ol ‖aocì~i|g ot gnwaj~io`jf o|gtqikxfiliaj~io`‛ -Qxito& \iqxogf& Qamki~r&

Qjkjtjxw`cj|j`& , Dogcgt& :9=3& x. >) iq ~mj~ q~wng`~q fgjt` ticin eòsfgncg q~twa~wtgq smiam

~mgy aj`ò~ jxxfy aottga~fy ~o |jtijdfg xtodfgkq ~mj~ tgzwitg lfg}idifi~y. Qxito& \iqxogf& Qamki~r&

Qjkjtjxw`cj|j`& j`n Dogcgt -:9=3) qwccgq~ qg|gtjf kg~monofocigq ~mj~ xtgxjtg q~wng`~q lot




lfg}idfg eòsfgncg ~tj`qlgt5 ~mgqg iàfwng ajqg q~wnigq& smiam siff dg tg|igsgn i` ~mg

kg~monofocigq qga~io` ol ~miq xjxgt -xx. 3+:>).

I` aoàfwqio`& qamgkj ~mgoty iq j aocì~i|g ~mgoty ~mj~ g}xfji`q mos q~wng`~q otcjìrg

eòsfgncg. Smg` q~wng`~q w~ifirg ~mgit xtiot eòsfgncg ~miq ja~i|j~gq ~mj~ qamgkj ~mj~ otcjìrgq

~mj~ eòsfgncg j`n ~mj~ xtgxjtgq ~mgk ~o ao``ga~ ~mj~ xtiot eòsfgncg si~m `gs fgjtì`c.

Kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c oaawtq i` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook smg` q~wng`~q ao``ga~ ~mgit xtiot

eòsfgncg si~m awttg`~ fgjtì`c.


G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c iq qokg~ikgq ajffgn fgjtì`c dy noi`c. ^mg Jqqoaij~io` lot

G}xgtig`~ijf Gnwaj~io` -jq ai~gn i` I|gq+Ngsgy& 488=) ngli`gq g}xgtig`~ijf gnwaj~io` jq ‖…j

xtoagqq ~mtowcm smiam j fgjt`gt ao`q~twa~q eòsfgncg& qeiff& j`n |jfwg ltok nitga~ g}xgtigàg‛

-x. :<3). Si~mi` ~mg ltjkgsote ol g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c& ‖eòsfgncg iq ngli`gn jq ~mg ao`ni~io`

ol eòsi`c qokg~mi`c ~mtowcm g}xgtigàg‛ -Oqfj`n& Eofd& , Twdi`& 488:& x. >1). ^mg ~mgoty ol

g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c jqqgt~q ~mj~ fgjt`gtq jtg ‖ò~ xjqqi|g |gqqgfq5 ~mgy jtg xgtqo`q si~m

g}xgtigàgq j`n xjq~ eòsfgncg smiam ~mgy wqg ~o ~tj`qja~ si~m ingjq j`n atgj~g kgjì`c‛

-KaCfi``& :998& x. 4). G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c kg~monq ci|g q~wng`~q `gs g}xgtigàgq ~mj~ ~mgy

kjy tgfj~g ~o o~mgt fgjtì`c j`n g}xgtigàgq i` otngt ~o ao`q~twa~ `gs kgjì`c. G}xgtig`~ijf

fgjtì`c gkxmjqirgq q~wng`~+ag`~gtgn& xtobga~+djqgn& j`n tgjf+sotfn fgjtì`c tj~mgt ~mj` to~g

kgkotirj~io`. J q~wny dy I|gq j`n Odgàmji` -488<) li`nq ~mj~ g}xgtig`~ijf gnwaj~io` ~gjamgq

do~m micmgt otngt j`n fosgt otngt ~mièi`c qeiffq. Qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk tgfj~gq g}xgtigàgq

ltok xtg|iowq qoaig~igq j`n xgoxfg. I~ loffosq ~mj~ ~mg dgq~ sjy ~o atgj~g kgjì`c dy fgjtì`c

ltok ~mg g}xgtigàgq ol o~mgtq iq ~o xto|ing q~wng`~q si~m g}xgtigàgq ~mj~ tgfj~g ~o ~mg

g}xgtigàgq ol ~mg xgoxfg ~mj~ ~mg q~wng`~q jtg q~wnyi`c.



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v :=

G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ~mgoty iq q~to`cfy i`lfwgàgn dy ~mg sote ol do~m Bom` Ngsgy j`n

Nj|in Eofd. Bom` Ngsgy xwdfiqmgn G}xgtigàg j`n Gnwaj~io` i` :91=& i` smiam mg sto~g ‖~mgtg

iq j` i`~ikj~g j`n `gagqqjty tgfj~io` dg~sgg` ~mg xtoagqq ol ja~wjf g}xgtigàg j`n gnwaj~io`‛ -jq

ai~gn i` KaCfi``& :998& x.1). Ngsgy lgf~ ~mj~ gnwaj~io` iq j` gqqg`~ijf xjt~ ol ngkoatjay. Ngsgy

-jq ai~gn i` Todgt~q& 4887) jtcwgn ~mj~ ‖~mg qwxgtliaijf g}xfj`j~io` iq ~mj~ j co|gt`kg`~ tgq~i`c

o` xoxwfjt qwlltjcg aj`ò~ dg qwaagqqlwf w`fgqq ~moqg smo gfga~ j`n smo odgy ~mgit co|gtòtq

jtg gnwaj~gn…. Dw~ ~mgtg iq j nggxgt g}xfj`j~io`. J ngkoatjay iq kotg ~mj` j lotk ol

co|gt`kg`~5 i~ iq xtikjtify j kong ol jqqoaij~gn fi|i`c& ol ao`boi`~& aokkwìaj~gn g}xgtigàg‛

-x. :3). I~ iq ò~ qwlliaig`~ ~o qikxfy ~gjam q~wng`~q ~mg ngliì~io` ol ngkoatjay. Ngkoatjay iq

ò~ bwq~ j sotn ot j ljt jsjy co|gt`kg`~5 i~ iq j sjy ol filg. ô atgj~g j`n eggx j ngkoatjay& ~mg

ai~irg`q kwq~ fi|g ~mgit fi|gq j`n i`~gtja~ si~m ~mgit lgffos ai~irg`q i` ~mg kj``gt ol j ngkoatj~ia

xgoxfg. Q~wng`~q kwq~ fgjt` mos ~o fi|g i` j ngkoatjay5 ~o no ~miq& ~mgy kwq~ g}xgtigàg

ngkoatjay. Q~wng`~q g}xgtigàg ngkoatjay ~mtowcm g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c i` j qoaijf q~wnigq

afjqq.

Nj|in Eofd‟q g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ~mgoty ing`~iligq j ltjkgsote lot ~mg fgjtì`c xtoagqq

si~m lowt xmjqgq2 aoàtg~g g}xgtigàg& tglfga~i|g odqgt|j~io`& jdq~tja~ aoàgx~wjfirj~io`& j`n

ja~i|g g}xgtikg`~j~io` -Oqfj`n& Eofd& , Twdi`& 488:& x. 4:3). Doyj~riq j`n Eofd -:99:) q~j~g

~mj~ ~miq ltjkgsote iq ‖mofiq~ia& iàfwni`c jllga~i|g& xgtagx~wjf j`n dgmj|iowtjf jq sgff jq

aocì~i|g q~tj~gcigq‛ -x. 439). Fgjt`gtq ayafg ~mtowcm ~miq fgjtì`c xtoagqq ~mtowcmow~ ~mgit fi|gq5

fgqqo`q fgjt`gn ltok o`g g}xgtigàg jtg ~gq~gn i` jò~mgt g}xgtigàg& jl~gt smiam o`g tglfga~q o`

~mg `gs g}xgtigàg& lotkq `gs cg`gtjfirj~io`q j`n ~gq~q `gs myxo~mgqirgq.

Aokko`+qg`qg ò~io`q ol xtodfgk qof|i`c ~g`n ~o loawq o` ~mg xmjqgq ol aoàtg~g

g}xgtigàg j`n ja~i|g g}xgtikg`~j~io ̀„ o` ~mg qxgailia nilliawf~igq g}xgtigàgn i`




ikkgnij~g qi~wj~io`q j`n ja~io`q ~jeg` ~o o|gtaokg ~mgk. ^tjni~io`jf gnwaj~io`jf ingjq

jdow~ fgjtì`c& o` ~mg o~mgt mj`n& ~g`n ~o loawq o` ~mg xmjqgq ol tglfga~i|g odqgt|j~io`

j`n jdq~tja~ aoàgx~wjfirj~io ̀„ gkxmjqiri`c ~mg cj~mgti`c ol i`lotkj~io` j`n

ng|gfoxkg`~ ol cg`gtjf aoàgx~q. Bwq~ jq ~mg xtoagqq ol ~tjni~io`jf gnwaj~io` iq ikxto|gn

smg` ~mg aoàtg~g j`n ja~i|g gkxmjqiq ol xtodfgk qof|i`c iq jnngn& ~mg gllga~i|g`gqq ol

xtodfgk qof|i`c iq g`mjàgn dy ~mg jnni~io` ol ~mg jajngkia fgjtì`c xgtqxga~i|gq ol

tglfga~io` j`n aoàgx~wjfirj~io`. I` do~m ajqgq& smj~ tgqwf~q iq j kotg mofiq~ia j`n

i`~gctj~gn jnjx~i|g xtoagqq. -Oqfj`n& Eofd& , Twdi`& 488:& x. 4:3)

Aokxfg~g fgjtì`c ol~g` tgzwitgq ~mj~ ~mg fgjt`gt w~ifirg jff lowt xmjqgq ol ~mg fgjtì`c xtoagqq.

Gjam q~wng`~ mjq j fgjtì`c q~yfg ~mj~ tgfigq kotg mgj|ify o` qokg xmjqg ol ~mg fgjtì`c xtoagqq.

^gjamgtq jfqo mj|g j ~g`ngày ~o ~gjam si~m ~mg fgjtì`c q~yfg ~mj~ ~mgy lj|ot yg~ ~mgy `ggn ~o

~gjam ~mtowcm ~mg smofg fgjtì`c xtoagqq smiam iàfwngq fgjtì`c ~mtowcm g}xgtigàgq.

Jq xjt~ ol ~mg g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c xtoagqq& qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk ‖tgzwitgq

i`~gctj~io` ~mtowcm i`~gtja~io`& jqqwki`c ~mj~ sg aokg ~o eòs owt sotfn dy i`~gtja~i`c si~m i~

j`n wqg owt oxgtj~i|g aocì~i|g q~twa~wtg ~o g}xfji` smj~ sg mj|g g}xgtigàgn‛ -Tidiam& :99=& x.

:89). ^mg fgjtì`c xtoagqq i` owt qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtookq qmowfn xto|ing kj`y g}xgtigàgq

~mtowcm smiam q~wng`~q aj` i`~gtja~ si~m ~mg ao`~g`~. Jq sg xfj` owt i`q~twa~io`& ~mg afjqqtook

j~koqxmgtg ‖qmowfn ntjs o` aoàtg~g j`n tgfg|j`~ g}jkxfgq j`n g}xgtigàgq5 tgzwitg q~wng`~q ~o

kjeg amoiagq5 xtoko~g q~wng`~q‟ i`~gtja~io` si~m gjam o~mgt& si~m ~mg ~gjamgt j`n si~m kj~gtijfq

ol ~mg aowtqg5 j`n xtoko~g tglfga~io`‛ -KaCfi``& :999& x.>).

Qokg~mi`c ~o dg jsjtg ol smg` xtgxjti`c j` g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ja~i|i~y iq ~mg jkow`~

ol ~gjamgt ao`~tof q~twa~wtgn i`~o ~mg ja~i|i~y. ^mg ingj ol fgjtì`c dy g}xgtigàg kjy jffos j

ctgj~ ngjf ol q~wng`~ amoiag smiam mjq dgg` tglgttgn ~o jq ~mg ngkoatj~irj~io` ol gnwaj~io`




-Todgt~q& 4887& x. :=). I~ iq qokg~ikgq nilliawf~ ~o jffos j sing tj`cg ol q~wng`~ amoiagq i` j

afjqqtook qg~~i`c smifg kji`~jiì`c ao`~tof ol ~mg fgjtì`c g`|ito`kg`~. Lot ~mg qjeg ol

glliaigày& kj`y ~gjamgtq mj|g tgko|gn kwam ol ~mg q~wng`~q‟ jdifi~y ~o amooqg ltok

g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ja~i|i~igq ~o ~mg xoi`~ ~mj~ g}xgtigàg dgaokgq ‖qatix~gn& ~ikgn& j`n

foaj~gn‛ -4887& x.:7). Qokg~ikgq i~ iq `gagqqjty lot ~mg ~gjamgt ~o ao`~tof ~mg g}xgtigàg& dw~ i~ iq

jfqo `gagqqjty ~o ljaifi~j~g jq kwam q~wng`~ amoiag jq xoqqidfg i` g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ja~i|i~igq.

I ~ooe j afjqq ltok Boyag Oqfj`n smo ao+sto~g Otcjìrj~io`jf Dgmj|iot2 J` G}xgtig`~ijf

Jxxtojam si~m Nj|in Eofd. Xtolgqqot Oqfj`n ~ofn wq wxlto`~ ~mj~ mgt afjqq sowfn dg nillgtg`~

ltok o~mgt aoffgcg aowtqgq. Qmg wqgn ~mg g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c kongf ~mtowcmow~ ~mg afjqq. I nin

ò~ tgjfirg j~ ~mg ~ikg mos gllga~i|g ~mj~ kongf sowfn dg. I` ~mg afjqq sg sgtg tgzwitgn ~o ko|g

jtow`n ~mg took j`n i`~gtja~ si~m gjam o~mgt jq sg g}xgtigàgn ~mg aoàgx~q ol ~mg afjqq. Dy

i`~gtja~i`c si~m ~mg kj~gtijf ltok ~mg afjqq jq sgff jq ~mg o~mgt q~wng`~q i` g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c& I

mj|g dgg` jdfg ~o tg~ji` j ctgj~ ngjf ol eòsfgncg ltok ~mg afjqq. Ygjtq fj~gt& ~mj~ afjqq iq o`g ol

~mg koq~ kgkotjdfg afjqqgq I mj|g g|gt ~jeg`. G}xgtig`~ijf Fgjtì`c iq j` gllga~i|g kg~mon lot

ljaifi~j~i`c ~mg q~wng`~q‟ ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c si~m qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~.

Kg~monofocigq lot Ja~i|j~i`c Qamgkj j`n Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c

Kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c iq kotg ol~g` jamig|gn smg` q~wng`~q xgtqo`jffy g}xgtigàg j`n

tglfga~ o` ~mg ja~wjf aoàgx~q ~o dg fgjt`gn. Mosg|gt& i~ iq ol~g` nilliawf~ ~o dti`c ja~wjf miq~otiajf

xgtqo`jfi~igq& g|g`~q& j`n aoàgx~q i`~o ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqtook lot q~wng`~ i`~gtja~io`5

‖ol~g` i~ iq`‟~ xoqqidfg lot q~wng`~q ~o xgtagi|g nitga~fy kj`y ol ~mg aoàgx~q j`n cg`gtjfirj~io`q

sg ~gjam‛ -Mw`~gt& 488>& x. <=). I~ iq& ~mgtglotg& `gagqqjty ~mj~ ~gjamgtq dgaokg qeiffgn j~

gllga~i|gfy w~ifiri`c kg~monofocigq ~mj~ ljaifi~j~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq.



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 4:

Tgqgjtam mjq ing`~ilign j |jtig~y ol kg~monofocigq smiam jtg gllga~i|g j~ ljaifi~j~i`c

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq. ^mg loffosi`c jtg qokg ~moqg kg~monq2 jn|jàg otcjìrgtq

-Jf|jtgr , Tiqeo& :9=95 Nosì`c& :99>5 Gncjt , Qmgxmgtn& :9=15 Cif+Cjtaij , \iffgcjq&

48815 Eg``gny& :9375 Kjtrjò& Xiaegti`c , Xoffoae& 488:5 Oqdot` , Sj~qo`& :9985

Xgtqiami~~g& :9915 Qjàmgr& :991)& k`gkoìaq -Mw`~gt& 488>5 Xgtqiami~~g& :991)& ajqg q~wnigq

-Jf|jtgr , Tiqeo& :9=95 I|gq+Ngsgy& 488=5 Qxito& \iqxogf& Qamki~r& Qjkjtjxw`cj|j` ,

Dogcgt :9=3)& qikwfj~io`q -I|gq+Ngsgy& 488=)& tgjf+sotfn xtodfgkq -Mw`~gt& 488>)& ctjxmia

otcjìrgtq -Jf|jtgr , Tiqeo& :9=95 Kjtrjò& Xiaegti`c , Xoffoae& 488:5 Oqdot` :9985

ôwt`gy+Xjt~j :99:)& awgq -Kjtrjò& Xiaegti`c , Xoffoae& 488:)& zwgq~io`q -Kjtrjò&

Xiaegti`c , Xoffoae& 488:)& j`jfocigq -Mw`~gt& :93:5 Mw`~gt& 488>)& |iqwjf ikjcgty -Oqdot` ,

Sj~qo`& :9985 Xgtqiami~~g& :991)& aoàgx~ kjxq -Jf|jtgr& :9=95 Xgtqiami~~g& :9915ôwt`gy+Xjt~j

:99:)& qgkj`~ia kjxq -Qi`j~tj& 48885 ôwt`gy+Xjt~j :99:)& kongfq -Mw`~gt& 488>)& g}jkxfgq

ltok q~wng`~q xjq~ g}xgtigàg -Mw`~gt& 488>)& j`n g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c -Mw`~gt& 488>5 I|gq+

Ngsgy& 488=5 I|gq , Odgàmji`& 488<5 KaCfi``& :999). I siff tg|igs qg|gtjf ol ~mgqg

kg~monofocigq i` ~mg xjtjctjxmq ~mj~ loffos.

Jn|jàg Otcjìrgtq

Qoaijf q~wnigq afjqqgq xtgqg`~ q~wng`~q si~m w`ljkifijt& aokxfg}& j`n qokg~ikgq

wòtcjìrgn kj~gtijf. Dgajwqg ol ~mg `j~wtjf aokxfg}i~y ol qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~& q~wng`~q kjy

ò~ qgg mos ~mg aoàgx~q ltok o`g fgqqo` ot wì~ tgfj~g ~o jò~mgt. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xto|ing

j` otcjìrj~io`jf ltjkgsote& ng|gfox migtjtamigq& niqxfjy xj~~gt`q& j`n ngko`q~tj~g

tgfj~io`qmixq dg~sgg` `gs j`n xtiot fgjtì`c ~o dtincg ~mg cjx dg~sgg` j q~wng`~‟q xtiot

eòsfgncg j`n ~mg eòsfgncg tgzwitgn ~o ao`q~twa~ kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c ol ~mg awttg`~ ao`~g`~.




Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xto|ing q~wng`~q si~m awgq jdow~ ~mg wxaoki`c fgjtì`c& qo ~mj~ ~mgy

ja~i|j~g ~mg jxxtoxtij~g qamgkj~j j`n jtg tgjny ~o kjeg kgjì`clwf ao``ga~io`q.

^mg sote ol xqyamofociq~ Nj|in Jwqwdgf mjq dgg` i`lfwg`~ijf i` ~mg ~mgoty qwxxot~i`c

jn|jàg otcjìrgtq. Jwqwdgf -jq ai~gn i` Gncjt , Qmgxmgtn& :9=1) i`niaj~gq ~mj~ j` jn|jàg

otcjìrgt iq

i`~tonwagn i` jn|jàg ol ~mg `gs fgjtì`c ~jqe xgt qg5 iq lotkwfj~gn i` ~gtkq ~mj~& jko`c

o~mgt ~mi`cq& tgfj~g i~ ~o j`n ~jeg jaaow`~ ol cg`gtjffy tgfg|j`~ djaectow`n ingjq jftgjny

gq~jdfiqmgn i` ~mg aocì~i|g q~twa~wtg5 j`n iq xtgqg`~gn j~ j` jxxtoxtij~g fg|gf ol

jdq~tja~io`& cg`gtjfi~y& j`n iàfwqi|g`gqq ~o xto|ing qxgailiajffy tgfg|j`~ jàmoti`c ingjq

lot kotg nillgtg`~ij~gn j`n ng~jifgn kj~gtijf ~mj~ iq qwdqgzwg`~fy xtgqg`~gn. -x. 1)

I~ iq ikxot~j`~ ~o dgci` j qoaijf q~wnigq fgqqo` si~m j` otcjìri`c ltjkgsote ~mj~ iq ljkifijt ot

afgjt ~o q~wng`~q& ~mj~ aokkwìaj~gq ~mg cg`gtjf q~twa~wtg ol ~mg `gs eòsfgncg ot xtodfgk& j`n

~mj~ jffosq ~mg q~wng`~q ~o kjeg ao``ga~io`q dg~sgg` ~mgit xtiot eòsfgncg j`n ~mg eòsfgncg

~mgy siff òs g}xfotg.

Smg` j q~wng`~‟q qamgkj~j jtg ja~i|j~gn ~mtowcm jn|jàg otcjìrgtq& ~mg ao``ga~io`q

dtowcm~ wx ltok fo`c+~gtk kgkoty xtgxjtg ~mg q~wng`~ ~o q~otg ~mg `gs fgjtì`c i` fo`c+~gtk

kgkoty si~m ~mg xtiot eòsfgncg. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jffos q~wng`~q ~o jqe zwgq~io`q j`n ~o

afgjt wx kiqaoàgx~io`q ot kiqw`ngtq~j`ni`cq smifg ~mg q~wng`~ ng|gfoxq ~mg qamgkj ~mj~ ngli`gq

~mg ao``ga~io`q ltok ~mg `gs ~o ~mg xtiot fgjtì`c. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg jnjx~gn ~o kgg~

`j~wtg ol ~mg ao`~g`~ j`n ~mg `ggnq ol ~mg q~wng`~q.

Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq ~jeg kj`y lotkq. G}xoqi~oty jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg afgjt |gtdjf ot

sti~~g` ngqatix~io`q ol ~mg `gs kj~gtijf dy ~mg ~gjamgt. Jq ~mg ~gjamgt ngqatidgq ~mg `gs

kj~gtijf& qmg kjy wqg kjìxwfj~i|gq& |iqwjfq& dony ko|gkg`~& j`n cgq~wtgq ~o aokkwìaj~g.




@jttj~i|g jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtgqg`~ ~mg `gs kj~gtijf jq j q~oty ~o ljaifi~j~g tgjf+sotfn ot

xgtqo`jf q~wng`~ ao``ga~io`q si~m ~mg `gs kj~gtijf. Qeikki`c j dooe iq j lotk ol jn|jàg

otcjìrgt5 q~wng`~q kjy wqg ~mg Qwt|gy& Zwgq~io`& Tgjn& Tgai~g& j`n Tg|igs -ot QZ1T) kg~mon

-Todi`qo` jq ai~gn i` Tyngt , Ctj|gq& 4881& x. :==) ot j kotg qikxfg kg~mon ol qeikki`c qwam

jq tgjni`c mgjni`cq& qwdmgjni`cq& j`n dofngn sotnq. Aokxjtj~i|g jn|jàg otcjìrgtq

niq~i`cwiqm qg~q ol eòsfgncg smiam jxxgjt ~o dg qikifjt j`n smiam kicm~ dg gjqify ao`lwqgn

-Gncjt , Qmgxmgtn& :9=1& x. 7). Ctjxmia jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg ctjxmia otcjìrgtq wqgn i` ~mg

tofg ol j` jn|jàg otcjìrgt. ^mgtg jtg `wkgtowq ~yxgq ol ctjxmia jn|jàg otcjìrgtq ~mj~

~gjamgtq kjy wqg ~o ja~i|j~g q~wng`~ qamgkj~j i` kj`y sjyq. Lot g}jkxfg& q~wng`~q kjy jnn ~o

j` gxiqong xj~~gt` otcjìrgt -Kjtrjò& Xiaegti`c , Xoffoae& 488:& x. 33)& ~mj~ ~mg ~gjamgt

xto|ingn dy tgaotni`c ~mgit djaectow`n eòsfgncg tgcjtni`c ~mg `gs kj~gtijf j`n dy kjei`c

g}xfiai~ ao``ga~io`q si~m fgjtì`c ltok xtiot wì~q ot fgqqo`q.

Tgqgjtam xto|ingq lowt cg`gtjf xtiàixfgq tgcjtni`c jn|jàg otcjìrgtq2

:. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq qmowfn loawq o` smj~ iq ikxot~j`~ jq oxxoqgn ~o smj~ iq w`wqwjf.

4. ‐Micmgt fg|gf‟ jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtonwag nggxgt fgjtì`c ~mj` ~mg ‐fosgt fg|gf‟

jn|jàg otcjìrgtq.

1. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg koq~ wqglwf si~m i`lotkj~io` ~mj~ iq ò~ sgff otcjìrgn.

>. Nillgtg`~ ~yxgq ol jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtonwag nillgtg`~ tgqwf~q. -Kjtrjò& Xiaegti`c ,

Xoffoae& 488:& x. ::=)

Qokg tgqgjtam qwccgq~q ~mj~ jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg kotg dg`gliaijf lot fosgt xgtlotki`c

q~wng`~q& q~wng`~q smoqg aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq jtg fgqq ng|gfoxgn& j`n q~wng`~q si~m niqjdifi~igq

-Gncjt , Qmgxmgtn& :9=15 Eg``gny& :937). I~ iq qwtkiqgn ~mj~ micmgt xgtlotki`c q~wng`~q mj|g

fgjt`gn ~o otcjìrg wòtcjìrgn i`lotkj~io` lot ~mgkqgf|gq& dw~ fosgt xgtlotki`c q~wng`~q mj|g



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 4>

ò~ yg~ fgjt`gn otcjìrj~io`jf ~gamìzwgq j`n kjy dg`gli~ ltok ~gjamgt+cwingn otcjìrj~io`

-Gncjt , Qmgxmgtn& :9=15 Eg``gny& :937).Sgif j`n Kwtxmy -jq ai~gn i` Oqdot` , Sj~qo`&

:998) atgj~gn j qwkkjty ol tgqgjtam tgcjtni`c ~mg gllga~i|g`gqq ol jn|jàg otcjìrgtq lot ~mg

Gàyafoxgnij ol Gnwaj~io`jf Tgqgjtam5 ~mgy aoàfwngn ~mg loffosi`c2

Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg gqxgaijffy gllga~i|g lot mgfxi`c q~wng`~q fgjt` ~mg egy aoàgx~q ot

xtiàixfgq ol j qwdbga~ jtgj j`n ~mg ng~jifgn lja~q j`n di~q ol i`lotkj~io` si~mi` ~mgqg

aoàgx~ jtgjq. ^mg jn|jàg otcjìrgt iq j micmfy gllga~i|g i`q~twa~io`jf q~tj~gcy lot jff

qwdbga~ jtgjq smgtg ~mg odbga~i|g iq kgjì`clwf jqqikifj~io` ol ~moqg aoàgx~q& xtiàixfgq&

j`n lja~q. -x. :7)

^mgtg jtg kj`y sjyq ~mj~ j ~gjamgt aj` w~ifirg jn|jàg otcjìrgtq lot wì~q& fgqqo`q& j`n

i`ni|inwjf ja~i|i~igq ~o ja~i|j~g xtiot eòsfgncg j`n otcjìrg ao`~g`~ lot kgjì`clwf q~wng`~

fgjtì`c.

Ctjxmia Otcjìrgtq

J ctjxmia otcjìrgt iq j |iqwjf tgxtgqg`~j~io` ol qokg jqxga~ ol ~mg ao`~g`~ j`n i~q

tgfj~io`qmix ~o o~mgt aoàgx~q. Ctjxmia otcjìrgtq kjy dg wqgn jq jn|jàg otcjìrgt& dw~ ~mgy

kjy jfqo dg wqgn jq jò~mgt xjt~ ol ~mg fgqqo` ot jq j qwkkjtiri`c ja~i|i~y. Smg` wqi`c ctjxmia

otcjìrgtq& ‖ofn i`lotkj~io` iq tg~tig|gn j`n fiègn ~o `gs i`lotkj~io` i` otngt ~o ljaifi~j~g ~mg

aokxtgmg`qio` ol `gs eòsfgncg‛ -Cif+Cjtaij , \iffgcjq& 4881& x. 4). Ctjxmia otcjìrgtq

otcjìrg i`lotkj~io` i` j |jtig~y ol xj~~gt`q iàfwni`c migtjtamiajf& aoàgx~wjf& qgzwg`~ijf&

g|jfwj~i|g& tgfj~io`jf& j`n ayafiajf -4881& x. 1). Qgkj`~ia kjxq jtg j dtjàm ol ctjxmia

otcjìrgtq ~mj~ `g~sote i`lotkj~io` j`n loawq o` ajwqg j`n gllga~& xgtqwjqio`&

aokxjtiqo`/ao`~tjq~& ot afjqqiliaj~io` q~twa~wtgq -Qi`j~tj& 4888). ^mgqg qgkj`~ia `g~soteq fiè




~mg xjt~q ol ~mg smofg ~ocg~mgt ‖si~m kgjì`clwf afwq~gtq ol aoàgx~q‛ -ôwt`gy+Xjt~j& :99:& x.

:93).

Tgjf+Sotfn Xtodfgkq

Tgjf+sotfn fgjtì`c gkdgnq qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk i` j` jw~mg`~ia ao`~g}~. I~ iq gjqigt

lot ~mg q~wng`~ ~o ao`q~twa~ kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c smg` ~gjamgtq otcjìrg miq~otiajf g|g`~q qwam

~mj~ ~mgy tgfj~g ~o ~mg ao`~g}~ ol ~mg q~wng`~‟q fi|gq. ^miq jw~mg`~ia ao`~g}~ ngko`q~tj~gq ~mg tgjf

|jfwg ol fgjtì`c ~o ~mg q~wng`~ smiam ikxto|gq q~wng`~ i`~gtgq~ j`n ‖ikxto|gq ~mg gjqg ol

fgjtì`c‛ -Mw`~gt& 488>& x. 31). G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ja~i|i~igq& xtodfgkq si~m tgjf+sotfn

jxxfiaj~io`q& ajqg q~wnigq& j`n qikwfj~io`q jtg g}jkxfgq ol tgjf+sotfn xtodfgkq. ^mg xtodfgkq

q~wnign i` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq nokji` jtg aokxfg} j`n ao`~g}~ tiam. Tgjf+sotfn ~gjami`c kg~monq

jtg j `j~wtjf li~ lot ~mg tgjf+sotfn `j~wtg ol qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk. Gllga~i|g tgjf+sotfn

fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq ‖ntjs o` aoàtg~g j`n tgfg|j`~ g}jkxfgq j`n g}xgtigàgq5 tgzwitg q~wng`~q

~o kjeg amoiagq5 xtoko~g q~wng`~q‟ i`~gtja~io`q si~m gjam o~mgt& si~m ~mg ~gjamgt j`n si~m ~mg

kj~gtijfq ol ~mg aowtqg5 j`n xtoko~g tglfga~io`‛ -KaCfi``& :999& x. 1).

Q~wng`~q smo gàow`~gt j |jtig~y ol tgjf+sotfn xtodfgkq i` j qoaijf q~wnigq afjqq

ao`q~twa~ kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c j`n ng|gfox qamgkj~j ~mj~ ljaifi~j~g ~mg ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c& ò~

o`fy si~mi` ~mg qamoof qg~~i`c dw~ ow~qing ol qamoof jq sgff. Q~wng`~q jtg jdfg ~o ao``ga~ ~mgit

awttg`~ fgjtì`c si~m ~mg xjq~ g|g`~q ol miq~oty dgajwqg ~mgy g}xgtigàg j qkjff xjt~ ol ~mj~ g|g`~

j`n aj` fieg` miq~oty ~o ~mgkqgf|gq.

G}jkxfgq ltok Q~wng`~q’ G}xgtigàg

Q~wng`~q aokg ~o ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq afjqq si~m j xfg~motj ol g}xgtigàgq si~m smiam ~mgy

kjy kjeg ao``ga~io`q j`n ao`q~twa~ kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq si~m `gs ao`~g`~. Smg`



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 4<

~gjamgtq wqg g}jkxfgq ltok q~wng`~q‟ xtiot g}xgtigàg& ~mg q~wng`~q jaagqq ~mgit qamgkj ltok

fo`c+~gtk kgkoty j`n jtg xtgxjtgn ~o kjeg `gs ao``ga~io`q. Kjngfi`g Mw`~gt -488>)

ing`~iligq qi} djqia xtiàixfgq lot qwaagqqlwffy wqi`c q~wng`~q‟ g}xgtigàgq ~o kjeg kj~gtijf

kgjì`clwf2

Ing`~ily ~mg ati~iajf j~~tidw~g-q) ol ~mg xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c. Qgfga~ ltok q~wng`~q‟ os` fi|gq

qokg xtg|iowq eòsfgncg ot g}xgtigàg ~mj~ g}gkxfiligq ~mg qjkg ati~iajf j~~tidw~g.

Amgae yowt g}jkxfg lot niq~tja~otq. Xtgqg`~ ~mg g}jkxfg. Fjdgf ~mg ati~iajf j~~tidw~gq ot

gfgkg`~q i` ~mg g}jkxfg. Xtgqg`~ g}agx~io`q. -x. <9)

^mg xtokx~q wqgn ~o gfiai~ ~mg q~wng`~q‟ tgajff ol g}xgtigàgq j`n ao``ga~io`q ~o `gs fgjtì`c

qmowfn iàfwng ò~ o`fy ~mg ng~jifq ol ~mg g}xgtigàg dw~ ~mg sotnq ~mj~ ~mg q~wng`~q wqg ~o

ngqatidg egy gfgkg`~q ol ~mg g}xgtigàg. ^mg sotnq ~mgkqgf|gq ao`|gy xosgtlwf kgjì`c ~o ~mg

q~wng`~q.

J`jfocigq

J`jfocigq xjit qi~wj~io`q j`n qxgaily ~mg jqqoaij~io`q ltok o`g fgjtì`c ~o ~mg o~mgt.

‖Atgj~i`c j`jfocigq i` ~gtkq ol ~mg fgjt`gt’q os` filg j`n g}xgtigàg ~ticcgtq ~tj`qlgt jq mg

jqqoaij~gq j`n ‐dti`cq lotsjtn‟ miq xjq~ w`ngtq~j`ni`c ~o ljaifi~j~g ~mg xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c‛ -Mw`~gt&

:93:& x. ><). ^mg qi} djqia xtiàixfgq ing`~ilign dy Mw`~gt -488>) ~o qwaagqqlwffy wqg q~wng`~q‟

g}xgtigàgq jq j kg~mon ~o kjeg ao`~g`~ kgjì`clwf jtg jfqo jxxfiajdfg ~o ~mg wqg ol j`jfocigq

-x. <9).

K`gkoìaq

K`gkoìaq atgj~g jt~iliaijf kgjì`c j`n kjy dg wqglwf smg` ò xtiot eòsfgncg ot

g}xgtigàgq g}iq~ i` q~wng`~q‟ qamgkj -Mw`~gt& 488>& x. 31). Lot g}jkxfg& ~o mgfx q~wng`~q




tgkgkdgt ~mg ajwqgq ol Sotfn Sjt I& j qoaijf q~wnigq ~gjamgt kjy wqg ~mg k`gkoìa

‖J@IKJF‛ -Jqqjqqi`j~io`& @j~io`jfiqk& Ikxgtijfiqk& Kifi~jtiqk& Jffijàgq). Ltok ~miq

low`nj~io` ol fgjt`gn i`lotkj~io`& q~wng`~q kjy dwifn j`n ao``ga~ ~o ~mg lw~wtg fgjtì`c i` ~mg

wì~ smiam siff ~mg` dg kotg kgjì`clwf.

I` wqi`c j`y ol ~mgqg kg~monofocigq ing`~ilign i` ~miq xtobga~ ~mg ~gjamgt jfqo `ggnq ~o

ao`qingt ~mg kg~monq wqgn ~o jqqgqq ~mg fgjtì`c. ^mgqg jqqgqqkg`~q qmowfn kgjqwtg smg~mgt ~mg

q~wng`~ mjq kjng kgjì`clwf ao``ga~io`q si~m ~mg ao`~g`~.

^mg kg~monofocigq ing`~ilign i` ~miq qga~io` ljaifi~j~g kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq

lot q~wng`~q si~m qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq& ctjxmia otcjìrgtq& tgjf+sotfn

xtodfgkq& ~mg wqg ol g}jkxfgq ltok q~wng`~q‟ g}xgtigàg& j`jfocigq& j`n k`gkoìaq xto|ing ~mg

q~wng`~ si~m ~mg oxxot~wì~y ~o ja~i|j~g ~mgit qamgkj~j j`n ao``ga~ ~mgit xtiot fgjtì`c si~m ~mg

`gs ao`~g`~. ^mg gllga~i|g wqg ol ~mgqg kg~monofocigq siff ikxto|g q~wng`~ fgjtì`c i` ~mg qoaijf

q~wnigq afjqqtook.

Aoàfwqio`

I~ iq ikxgtj~i|g ~mj~ q~wng`~q ao`q~twa~ kgjì`c si~m qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~& qo ~mj~ ~mgy

w`ngtq~j`n ~mg ny`jkia ja~io`q j`n i`~gtja~io`q ol xgoxfg j`n qoaig~igq& j`n qo ~mgy w`ngtq~j`n

~mgit os` fi|gq jq kgkdgtq ol j tgxwdfia. ^mg ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c iq egy lot q~wng`~q ~o mj|g

kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq. Qamgkj ^mgoty iq j aocì~i|g ~mgoty ~mj~ g}xfji`q mos

q~wng`~q q~otg i`lotkj~io` j`n kjeg ao``ga~io`q dg~sgg` xtiot j`n awttg`~ fgjtì`c.

G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c xto|ingq ~mg q~wng`~ si~m nitga~ g}xgtigàgq ~mtowcm smiam ~mg q~wng`~ kjy

ao`q~twa~ kgjì`c j`n fgjt` qeiffq ~mj~ tgfj~g ~o qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk. ^mg kg~monofocigq

ing`~ilign i` ~miq amjx~gt ljaifi~j~g q~wng`~ fgjtì`c ~mtowcm ~mg ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c si~m

qoaijf q~wnigq ao`~g`~& qo ~mj~ q~wng`~q aj` j`qsgt ~mg zwgq~io`& ‖Smy no I mj|g ~o fgjt` ~miq?‛



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 4=

Amjx~gt 1

I`~tonwa~io`

I siff ao`nwa~ j Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c ~o jnntgqq j

xtodfgk I ol~g` qgg i` ky afjqqgq. I~ qggkq ~mj~ ky q~wng`~q‟ lj|oti~g zwgq~io` iq& ‖Smy no sg

mj|g ~o fgjt` ~miq?‛ Jq j xtolgqqio`jf gnwaj~ot& I kwq~ j`qsgt ~miq egy zwgq~io` ò~ qikxfy i`

dtigl tgqxo`qgq dw~ dy ao`qiq~g`~fy w~ifiri`c j kg~mon ol ~gjami`c smiam ljaifi~j~gq ~mg q~wng`~‟q

jdifi~y ~o gko~io`jffy& i`~gffga~wjffy& j`n xgtqo`jffy ao``ga~ si~m ~mg ao`~g`~.

I` ky `g}~ Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c& I siff xtgqg`~ tgqgjtam

~o ky lgffos aoffgjcwgq jdow~ ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c i` q~wng`~ fgjtì`c. Sg sowfn ~mg` sote

~ocg~mgt ~o xtja~iag o`g ol ~mg kg~monq niqawqqgn jnntgqqgn i` ~mg xtgqg`~j~io`. ^mg ~gjamgt siff

~mg` jxxfy ~mg fgjtì`c ~o atgj~g j` jn|jàg otcjìrgt lot ~mgit `g}~ wì~. Sg siff jfqo niqawqq

mos ~mgy siff w~ifirg ~mgit jn|jàg otcjìrgt.

J~ ~mg g`n ol ~mg ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c& I siff ao`nwa~ j sti~~g` qwt|gy ol ~mg ~gjamgtq ~o

jqqgqq smj~ ~mgy fgjt`gn j`n il ~mgy li`n ~mg i`lotkj~io` |jfwjdfg j`n jxxfiajdfg ~o ~mgit

afjqqtook.

Ngqatix~io` ol Jxxg`ni}gq

Jxxg`ni} J2 Qwt|gy

^miq qwt|gy siff dg ci|g` j~ ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c ~o ~mg o~mgt ~gjamgtq i`

j~~g`njàg. ^mg qwt|gy jqeq ~mg ~gjamgtq ~o ing`~ily smj~ sjq mgfxlwf jdow~ ~mg xtgqg`~j~io`. ^mg

qwt|gy jfqo jqeq ~gjamgtq il ~mgy jtg jdfg ~o ing`~ily agt~ji` q~wng`~q i` ~mgit afjqqtook ~mj~

sowfn dg`gli~ ltok ~mgqg kg~monofocigq. ^mg cojf ol ~mg qwt|gy iq ~o jqqgqq ~mg ~gjamgtq‟




w`ngtq~j`ni`c ol ~mg xtgqg`~j~io` j`n ~o mgfx ~mg ~gjamgtq ~o fiè ~mg kg~monq ~jwcm~ i` ~mg q~jll

ng|gfoxkg`~ ~o ~mgit os` afjqqtook j`n q~wng`~q.

Jxxg`ni} D2 Xgtkiqqio` Lotkq

^miq jxxg`ni} ao`~ji`q ~so xgtkiqqio` lotkq j`n o`g fg~~gt. ^mg litq~ xgtkiqqio` lotk iq

lot ~mg ~gjamgtq smo siff xjt~iaixj~g i` ~mg ja~i|g tgqgjtam nwti`c ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c5

~mg xgtkiqqio` lotk ngko`q~tj~gq ~mj~ ~mg ~gjamgt mjq jctggn ~o ~jeg xjt~ i` ~mg ja~i|g tgqgjtam

j`n ~mtowcm ~mg qwt|gy. ^mg qgao`n xgtkiqqio` lotk iq lot ~mg ] Micm Qamoof Xtiàixjf ~o qic`

jw~motiri`c ky ja~i|g tgqgjtam ~mtowcm j qwt|gy si~m ~mg ~gjamgtq j~ ~mg Qoaijf Q~wnigq

Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c. ^mg fg~~gt iq jnntgqqgn ~o ~mg Xtiàixjf ol ] Micm Qamoof

j`n ngqatidgq ky ja~i|g tgqgjtam

Jxxg`ni} A2 Xtgqg`~j~io` Ow~fi`g& XosgtXoi`~ j~~jamgn

^miq jxxg`ni} iq j` ow~fi`g ol ~mg xtgqg`~j~io` lot ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c ol ~mg

Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~. ^mg ow~fi`g iq ~o dg wqgn si~m ~mg XosgtXoi`~ -j~~jamgn) smiam siff

dg xtgqg`~gn nwti`c ~mg q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c. ^mg ow~fi`g j`n XosgtXoi`~ ao|gtq j

niqawqqio` jdow~ ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c& qamgkj& g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c& j`n kg~monofocigq. ^mg

ow~fi`g j`n XosgtXoi`~ jfqo ci|g nitga~io`q lot ~mg jn|jàg otcjìrgt ja~i|i~y.

Jxxg`ni} N2 Mj`now~ lot Kgg~i`c

^miq jxxg`ni} iq j aoxy ol ~mg mj`now~ smiam I siff ci|g ~o ~mg ~gjamgtq j~~g`ni`c ~mg

Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c. ^miq siff xto|ing ~mgk si~m j` ow~fi`g lot

~mgit ò~gq j`n ci|g ~mgk j tgaotn jq ~mgy jxxfy ~mgit fgjtì`c i` ~mgit afjqqtook.




Aoàfwqio`

Ky q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ xtgqg`~j~io` siff jffos ~mg ~gjamgtq i` ky qoaijf q~wnigq

ngxjt~kg`~ ~o fgjt` jdow~& xtja~iag& j`n jxxfy ~mgotigq j`n kg~monofocigq ~mj~ siff ljaifi~j~g ~mgit

q~wng`~q‟ ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c. Jff ol ~mg ~oofq `ggngn ~o aokxfg~g ~miq ja~io`

tgqgjtam xtobga~ jtg iàfwngn i` ~miq amjx~gt j`n jxxg`ni}gq. Amjx~gtq : j`n 4 qwxxot~ ~mg ja~i|g

tgqgjtam xtobga~ dy g}xfjiì`c ~mg xtodfgk j`n tg|igsi`c fi~gtj~wtg ~mj~ jnntgqqgq ~mg xtodfgk.



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 1:

Jxxg`ni} J

Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ Q~jll Ng|gfoxkg̀ ~

Xjt~iaixj`~ Qwt|gy

Xfgjqg j`qsgt ~mg loffosi`c zwgq~io`q jq aokxfg~gfy jq xoqqidfg2

:. Smj~ sjq mgfxlwf jdow~ ~miq xtgqg`~j~io`?

4. Mos no yow ~miè ~miq siff dg wqglwf i` yowt ~gjami`c?

1. Mos siff ~miq dg mgfxlwf ~o yowt q~wng`~q?

>. Aj` yow ~miè ol qxgailia q~wng`~q ~mj~ sowfn dg`gli~ ltok ~miq kg~monofocy?

7. Smiam ao``ga~io` kg~monofocy sjq yowt lj|oti~g?

<. Iq ~miq qokg~mi`c ~mj~ yow qgg yowtqgfl noi`c o` j tgcwfjt djqiq jq xjt~ ol yowt ~gjami`c?Smy ot smy ò~?




Jxxg`ni} D

I@LOTKGN AO@QG@^ LOTK

I@LOTKJÎO@ JDOW^2 } Micm Qamoof Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~

TGQXO@QIDFG I@\GQÎCJÔT2 Qao~~ Qki~m

AO@QG@^2

I mj|g dgg` jqegn ~o xjt~iaixj~g i` j tgqgjtam q~wny ~mj~ i`|gq~icj~gq tgqgjtam+djqgnkg~monofocigq ~o ~gjam qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk i` j sjy ~mj~ ljaifi~j~gq ~mg atgj~io` ol kgjì`clwf fgjtì`c. Sg siff sote jq j ngxjt~kg`~ ~o xtja~iag kg~monq smiam gàowtjcgq~wng`~q ~o kjeg xgtqo`jf ao``ga~io`q si~m ~mg fgqqo`q j`n kji` xtiàixfgq ol miq~oty& j`n si~m

~mgit os` fi|gq j`n qoaig~igq.

I` xjt~iaixj~i`c i` ~miq q~wny I jctgg ~o jnox~ qg|gtjf kg~monofocigq j`n ikxfgkg`~ ~mgk i`~o ky~gjami`c. I siff ~mg` i` ~wt` tgxot~ ~mg amj`cgq i` q~wng`~ xgtlotkjàg j`n dgmj|iot.

I w`ngtq~j`n ~mj~2

j) I g}xga~ ò xjykg`~ lot ~miq i`~gt|igs.

d) Ky xjt~iaixj~io` iq |ofw`~jty j`n I kjy tglwqg ~o xjt~iaixj~g i` ot I kjy si~mntjs ltok

~miq q~wny j~ j`y ~ikg si~mow~ j`y `gcj~i|g ao`qgzwgàgq.

a) ^mg i`|gq~icj~ot kjy q~ox ~mg q~wny j~ j`y ~ikg.

n) I jfqo w`ngtq~j`n ~mj~2

i. ò i`lotkj~io` ~mj~ ing`~iligq kg siff dg tgfgjqgn si~mow~ ky qgxjtj~gao`qg`~ j`n ~mj~ jff ing`~ilijdfg i`lotkj~io` siff dg xto~ga~gn ~o ~mg fiki~q

jffosgn dy fjs5g) I w`ngtq~j`n ~mj~ il I mj|g j`y zwgq~io`q& aokkg`~q& ot aoàgt`q jdow~ ~mg q~wny ot ~mg

i`lotkgn ao`qg`~ xtoagqq& I kjy sti~g ot ajff ~mg } Qamoof Niq~tia~l) I jaeòsfgncg ~mj~ I mj|g tgagi|gn j aoxy ol ~miq lotk.

_______________________________________ _____________________

Qic`j~wtg ol Xjt~iaixj`~ ot Tgqxo`qidfg Xjt~y Nj~g

__________________________________________ _____________________

Qic`j~wtg ol Si~`gqq Nj~g

__________________________________________ _____________________

Qic`j~wtg ol I`|gq~icj~ot Nj~g




Qao~~ Qki~m

^gjamgt& Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~

Jwcwq~ 18& 4889

ô }2

I jk sti~i`c ~o jqe xgtkiqqio` ~o xgtlotk ja~i|g tgqgjtam j~ } Qamoof i` }. I sowfn fieg ~o

ao`nwa~ j Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c ~o jnntgqq j xtodfgk I qgg ol~g`

i` ky afjqqgq. I~ qggkq ~mj~ ky q~wng`~q‟ lj|oti~g zwgq~io` iq& ‖Smy no sg mj|g ~o fgjt` ~miq?‛ I

j`qsgt ~miq zwgq~io` jq dgq~ jq I aj`& yg~ ky g}xgtigàg ~gffq kg ~mj~ ky dtigl j`qsgtq jtg ò~

qwlliaig`~. Jq j xtolgqqio`jf gnwaj~ot& I kwq~ j`qsgt ~miq egy zwgq~io` ò~ qikxfy i` dtigl

tgqxo`qgq dw~ dy ao`qiq~g`~fy w~ifiri`c j kg~mon ol ~gjami`c smiam ljaifi~j~gq ~mg q~wng`~‟q jdifi~y

~o gko~io`jffy& i`~gffga~wjffy& j`n xgtqo`jffy ao``ga~ si~m ~mg ao`~g`~.

I` ky `g}~ Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c& I sowfn xtgqg`~tgqgjtam ~o ky lgffos aoffgjcwgq jdow~ atgj~i`c kgjì`c i` q~wng`~q fgjtì`c. Sg sowfn ~mg`

sote ~ocg~mgt ~o xtja~iag o`g ol ~mg kg~monq niqawqqgn jnntgqqgn i` ~mg xtgqg`~j~io`. J~ ~mg g`n

ol ~mg ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c& I sowfn ao`nwa~ j sti~~g` qwt|gy ol ~mg ~gjamgtq ~o jqqgqq smj~ ~mgy

fgjt`gn j`n mgfx ~mgk ~miè ol qxgailia kg~monq ~mgy aj` wqg ~o dg`gli~ qxgailia q~wng`~q.

Jl~gt aokxfg~i`c ~miq ja~i|g tgqgjtam& I moxg ~o dg jdfg ~o qgg j`n iàtgjqg i` kgjì`clwf

~gjami`c j`n q~wng`~ fgjtì`c ~mg Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~. I jk jqei`c yowt xgtkiqqio` ~o

ao`nwa~ ~mg sti~~g` qwt|gy ol ~mg ~gjamgtq. Wxo` yowt jctggkg`~& ~mg ~gjamgtq siff jfqo mj|g j

xgtkiqqio` lotk ~o qic` ~o jctgg ~o xjt~iaixj~g i` ~mg qwt|gy.

Qiàgtgfy&

Qao~~ Qki~m

Gàfoqwtgq -4)2

Qjkxfg ^gjamgt Qwt|gy Xgtkiqqio` Lotk

Xtiàixjf Jxxto|jf Xgtkiqqio` Lotk



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 1>

Xtiàixjf Jxxto|jf Xgtkiqqio` Lotk

ô Xgtlotk Ja~i|g Tgqgjtam

I` ky `g}~ Qoaijf Q~wnigq Ngxjt~kg`~ q~jll ng|gfoxkg`~ kgg~i`c& I -Qao~~ Qki~m) sowfn fieg ~o

xtgqg`~ tgqgjtam ~o ky lgffos aoffgjcwgq jdow~ atgj~i`c kgjì`c i` q~wng`~q fgjtì`c. Sg sowfn

~mg` sote ~ocg~mgt ~o xtja~iag o`g ol ~mg kg~monq niqawqqgn. J~ ~mg g`n ol ~mg ng|gfoxkg`~

kgg~i`c& I sowfn ao`nwa~ j sti~~g` qwt|gy ol ~mg ~gjamgtq ~o jqqgqq smj~ ~mgy fgjt`gn j`n mgfx

~mgk ~miè ol qxgailia kg~monq ~mgy aj` wqg ~o dg`gli~ qxgailia q~wng`~q.

Il yow jxxto|g ~mj~ I -Qao~~ Qki~m) kjy xgtlotk ~mg ja~i|g tgqgjtam jq ngqatidgn jdo|g&

xfgjqg qic` ~miq Jxxto|jf Lotk dgfos.

I jxxto|g ~mg ja~io` tgqgjtam xtobga~ xtoxoqjf ol Qao~~ Qki~m.

@jkg_____________________________________________Nj~g______________




Jxxg`ni} A

Xtgqg`~j~io` Ow~fi`g

I`~tonwa~io`2

Tgjn ~mg loffosi`c q~oty2 ‖Si~m ~mg moaegn cgkq li`jài`c mik ow~ mgto dtj|gfy nglign jff

qaot`lwf fjwcm~gt ~mj~ ~tign ~o xtg|g`~ miq qamgkg. Yowt gygq ngagi|g mg mjn qjin. J` gcc& ò~ j

~jdfg& aottga~fy ~yxiligq ~miq w`g}xfotgn xfj`g~. @os ~mtgg q~wtny qiq~gtq qowcm~ xtool. Lotci`c

jfo`c& qokg~ikgq ~mtowcm ajfk |jq~`gqq& yg~ kotg ol~g` ~mtowcm ~wtdwfg`~ xgjeq j`n |jffgyq&

njyq dgajkg sggeq jq kj`y nowd~gtq qxtgjn lgjtlwf twkotq jdow~ ~mg gncg. J~ fjq~& ltok

òsmgtg& sgfaokg si`cgn atgj~wtgq jxxgjtgn qicìlyi`c kokg`~owq qwaagqq.‛

@os tgjn ~mg q~oty jcji` jl~gt ci|i`c ~mg loffosi`c i`lotkj~io`2 ‖^mg xjqqjcg iq jdow~

Amtiq~oxmgt Aofwkdwq.‛ Dglotg yow e`gs smj~ ~mg xjqqjcg sjq jdow~ i~ xtodjdfy kjng fi~~fg

qg`qg ~o yow. Yow aowfn w`ngtq~j`n ~mg sotnq j`n ctjkkjt j`n aowfn xtodjdfy i`lgt ~mg q~oty

sjq jdow~ niqao|gty. Mosg|gt& oàg yow eòs ~mg q~oty iq jdow~ Aofwkdwq& yow aowfn dti`c jff

yowt xtiot eòsfgncg i`~o ~mg fgqqo`. -Qfj|i`& 488<& x. :93+=)

Niqawqq Kgjì`c j`n Qoaijf Q~wnigq2

Kgjì`c iq ao`q~twa~gn ~mtowcm ~mg i`~gtja~io`q dg~sgg` ~mg q~wng`~ j`n ~mg kj~gtijf ot

~jqe ~o dg fgjt`gn.

O`g ol ~mg cojfq ol ~mg Ajfilotìj qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk q~j`njtnq iq ~o ‖g`qwtg ~mj~

q~wng`~q ò~ o`fy eòs ~mg lja~q& dw~ jfqo w`ngtq~j`n aokko` j`n aokxfg} ~mgkgq ~mtowcmow~



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 1<

miq~oty& kjei`c ao``ga~io`q jko`c ~mgit os` fi|gq& ~mg fi|gq ol ~mg xgoxfg smo ajkg dglotg

~mgk& j`n ~mg fi|gq ol ~moqg ~o aokg‛ -Ajfilotìj Ngxjt~kg`~ ol Gnwaj~io`& 4888& x. <).

^mg aoàgx~ ol ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c iq tgfj~gn ~o ~mg ao`q~twa~io` ol kgjì`c. I` ~mg dooe&

^gjam lot ^tj`qlgt & Kjngfi`g Mw`~gt -:93:) ing`~iligq ~tj`qlgt ol fgjtì`c jq ‖~mg q~wng`~‟q

jdifi~y ~o ~tj`qlgt xjq~ fgjtì`cq ~o ~mg atgj~i|g qofw~io` ol xtgqg`~ xtodfgkq‛ -x. :).

Kjngfi`g Mw`~gt -:93:) jllitkq ~mj~ ‖mgfxi`c ~mg q~wng`~ ing`~ily j`n qgfga~ ltok miq xjq~

fgjtì`c ~mg qg~ smiam siff yigfn ~mg jxxtoxtij~g xtoxwfqio` ~o xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c iq ~mg mjffkjte ol

j qwaagqqlwf ~gjamgt‛ -x. :9). Gkxosgtgn ~gjamgtq ‖cwing q~wng`~q ~o … qgg kgj`q j`n g`nq& ~o

gq~jdfiqm tgfj~io`qmixq& j`n ~o ao`q~twa~ ~mg kgjì`c ol g}xgtigàgq‛ -Tidiam& :99=& x. :89).

Niqawqq Qamgkj2

Q~wng`~q ao`q~twa~ kgjì`c dy ja~i|j~i`c aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq ao`~jiì`c xtiot

eòsfgncg. ^moqg aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq jtg qamgkj~j. Qamgkj~j -qi`cwfjt2 qamgkj) jtg jdq~tja~

aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq smiam otcjìrg j q~wng`~‟q xtiot eòsfgncg tgfj~i`c ~o j ~oxia j`n ‖g`jdfg

Uq~wng`~q[ ~o w`ngtq~j`n j`n iàotxotj~g `gs i`lotkj~io`‛ -Qfj|i`& 488<& x. :31).

Ja~i|j~i`c qamgkj j`n ao`q~twa~i`c kgjì`c lot ~mg `gs ao`~g`~ jtg ~so nillgtg`~

xtodfgkq. Jf|jtgr j`n Tiqeo -:9=9) sjt` ~mj~ ‖smifg i~ iq xoqqidfg ~o ja~i|j~g g}iq~i`c qamgkj~j

si~m j ci|g` ~oxia& i~ nogq ò~ `gagqqjtify loffos ~mj~ j fgjt`gt aj` wqg ~miq ja~i|j~gn eòsfgncg

~o ng|gfox `gs eòsfgncg j`n qeiffq‛ -x. 4).

^mj~ iq smgtg sg aokg i` jq ~gjamgtq.

Niqawqq G}xgtig`~ijf Fgjtì`c2




Fgjtì`c dy Noi`c. ^mg Jqqoaij~io` lot G}xgtig`~ijf Gnwaj~io` -jq ai~gn i` I|gq+Ngsgy&

488=) ngli`gq g}xgtig`~ijf gnwaj~io` jq ‖…j xtoagqq ~mtowcm smiam j fgjt`gt ao`q~twa~q

eòsfgncg& qeiff& j`n |jfwg ltok nitga~ g}xgtigàg‛ -x. :<3).

J q~wny dy I|gq j`n Odgàmji` -488<) li`nq ~mj~ g}xgtig`~ijf gnwaj~io` ~gjamgq do~m

micmgt otngt j`n fosgt otngt ~mièi`c qeiffq.

Jq sg xfj` owt i`q~twa~io`& ~mg afjqqtook j~koqxmgtg ‖qmowfn ntjs o` aoàtg~g j`n

tgfg|j`~ g}jkxfgq j`n g}xgtigàgq5 tgzwitg q~wng`~q ~o kjeg amoiagq5 xtoko~g q~wng`~q‟

i`~gtja~io` si~m gjam o~mgt& si~m ~mg ~gjamgt j`n si~m kj~gtijfq ol ~mg aowtqg5 j`n xtoko~g

tglfga~io`‛ -KaCfi``& :999& x.>).

Niqawqq Kg~monofocigq2

K`gkoìaq

o niqawqq j k`gkoìa ~mj~ jff sotfn miq~oty ~gjamgtq jq ] wqg -g.c. J@IKJF)

Qikwfj~io`q j`n Tgjf+Sotfn Xtodfgkq

G}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c ja~i|i~igq& xtodfgkq si~m tgjf+sotfn jxxfiaj~io`q& ajqg q~wnigq& j`n

qikwfj~io`q jtg g}jkxfgq ol tgjf+sotfn xtodfgkq. ^mg xtodfgkq q~wnign i` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq

nokji` jtg aokxfg} j`n ao`~g}~ tiam. Tgjf+sotfn ~gjami`c kg~monq jtg j `j~wtjf li~ lot ~mg

tgjf+sotfn `j~wtg ol qoaijf q~wnigq awttiawfwk.

Gllga~i|g tgjf+sotfn fgjtì`c g}xgtigàgq ‖ntjs o` aoàtg~g j`n tgfg|j`~ g}jkxfgq j`n

g}xgtigàgq5 tgzwitg q~wng`~q ~o kjeg amoiagq5 xtoko~g q~wng`~q‟ i`~gtja~io`q si~m gjam



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v 1=

o~mgt& si~m ~mg ~gjamgt j`n si~m ~mg kj~gtijfq ol ~mg aowtqg5 j`n xtoko~g tglfga~io`‛

-KaCfi``& :999& x. 1).

Jn|jàg Otcjìrgt

:. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq qmowfn loawq o` smj~ iq ikxot~j`~ jq oxxoqgn ~o smj~ iq

w`wqwjf.

4. ‐Micmgt fg|gf‟ jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtonwag nggxgt fgjtì`c ~mj` ~mg ‐fosgt fg|gf‟

jn|jàg otcjìrgtq.

1. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg koq~ wqglwf si~m i`lotkj~io` ~mj~ iq ò~ sgff otcjìrgn.

>. Nillgtg`~ ~yxgq ol jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtonwag nillgtg`~ tgqwf~q.

G}jkxfg ol Sotfn Sjt I jn|jàg otcjìrgt.

Ja~i|i~y2

I mj|g jqegn ~mgk ~o dti`c ~mgit wì~ awttiawfwk ow~fi`g j`n ao`~g`~ q~j`njtnq lot j`

wxaoki`c wì~. ^mg ~gjamgtq siff dg ctowxgn jaaotni`c ~o ~mg qwdbga~ jtgj ~mgy jtg ~gjami`c. ^mg

~gjamgtq siff atgj~g j` jn|jàg otcjìrgt lot ~mg `g}~ wì~ j`n ~mg` qmjtg si~m ~mg q~jll

ng|gfoxkg`~ ctowx.

Stjx wx




Jxxg`ni} N

Mj`now~ lot Kgg~i`c2

:.

Kgjì`c

‖Mgfxi`c ~mg q~wng`~ ing`~ily j`n qgfga~ ltok miq xjq~ fgjtì`c ~mg qg~ smiam siff yigfn ~mg

jxxtoxtij~g xtoxwfqio` ~o xtgqg`~ fgjtì`c iq ~mg mjffkjte ol j qwaagqqlwf ~gjamgt.‛ Kjngfi`gMw`~gt

4. Qamgkj

Qamgkj~j jtg jdq~tja~ aocì~i|g q~twa~wtgq smiam otcjìrg j q~wng`~‟q xtiot eòsfgncg

tgfj~i`c ~o j ~oxia j`n g`jdfg q~wng`~q ~o w`ngtq~j`n j`n iàotxotj~g `gs i`lotkj~io`.

1.


Fgjtì`c dy Noi`c*

Qmowfn ntjs o` aoàtg~g j`n tgfg|j`~ g}jkxfgq j`n g}xgtigàgq5

tgzwitg q~wng`~q ~o kjeg amoiagq5

xtoko~g q~wng`~q‟ i`~gtja~io` si~m gjam o~mgt& si~m ~mg ~gjamgt j`n si~m kj~gtijfqol ~mg aowtqg5 j`n

xtoko~g tglfga~io`.

>. Kg~monq

K`gkoìaq

Tgjf+sotfn Xtodfgkq j`n Qikwfj~io`q

Jn|jàg Otcjìrgtq

:. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq qmowfn loawq o` smj~ iq ikxot~j`~ jq oxxoqgn ~o smj~iq w`wqwjf.

4. ‐Micmgt fg|gf‟ jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtonwag nggxgt fgjtì`c ~mj` ~mg ‐fosgt fg|gf‟ jn|jàg otcjìrgtq.

1. Jn|jàg otcjìrgtq jtg koq~ wqglwf si~m i`lotkj~io` ~mj~ iq ò~ sgffotcjìrgn.

>. Nillgtg`~ ~yxgq ol jn|jàg otcjìrgtq xtonwag nillgtg`~ tgqwf~q.

7. Ja~i|i~y



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v >8

Tglgtgàgq

Jf|jtgr& K. A.& , Tiqeo& \. B. -:9=9). Qamgkj ja~i|j~io`& ao`q~twa~io`& j`n jxxfiaj~io`.

Dfooki`c~o`& I@2 GTIA Afgjti`cmowqg o` Tgjni`c j`n Aokkwìaj~io` Qeiffq. -GTIA

Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN1:4<::)

Dicg`mo& L. S. -:994). Aoàgx~wjf Ng|gfoxkg`~q i` Qamgkj ^mgoty. W`xwdfiqmgn kj`wqatix~&

\j`ngtdif~ Wì|gtqi~y& @jqm|iffg& ^g``gqqgg. -GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o.

GN17:194)

Doyj~riq& T. G. , Eofd& N. J. -:99:). Jqqgqqi`c i`ni|inwjfi~y i` fgjtì`c2 ~mg fgjtì`c qeiffq

xtolifg. Gnwaj~io`jf Xqyamofocy& ::-1)& 439+497.

Ajfilotìj Q~j~g Dojtn ol Gnwaj~io`. -4888). Miq~oty „ qoaijf qaigàg ao`~g`~ q~j`njtnq lot

Ajfilotìj xwdfia qamoofq2 Ei`ngtcjt~g` ~mtowcm ctjng ~sgf|g. Qjatjkg`~o& Ajfilotìj2

Jw~mot. Tg~tig|gn ltok m~~x2//sss.ang.aj.co|/dg/q~/qq/noawkg`~q/miq~qoaqaiq~`n.xnl

Nosì`c& J. -:99>& Bwfy). J` i`|gq~icj~io` ol ~mg jn|jàg otcjìrgt ~mgoty jq j` gllga~i|g

~gjami`c kongf. Xjxgt xtgqg`~gn j~ ~mg j``wjf kgg~i`c ol ~mg Jwq~tjfij` ^gjamgt

Gnwaj~io` Jqqoaij~io`& Dtiqdj`g& Jwq~tjfij. -GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o.

GN133:78)

Gdy& B.& Mgttgff& J.& , Botnj`& K. -488<). ^gjami`c i` E+:4 qamoofq2 J tglfga~i|g ja~io`

jxxtojam ->~m gn.). Wxxgt Qjnnfg Ti|gt& @B2 Xgjtqo` Gnwaj~io`.

Gncjt& Q. G.& , Qmgxmgtn& K. B. -:9=1). ^mg wqg ol jn|jàg otcjìrgtq ~o jin fgjtì`c j`n tgajff

-^gam. Tgx. @o. 1>). @gs Yote& @gs Yote2 Aofwkdij Wì|gtqi~y& ^gjamgtq Aoffgcg.

-GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN133:78)



Ao`q~twa~i`c Kgjì`c v >:

Cif+Cjtaij& J.& , \iffgcjq& B. -4881& Bw`g). G`cjci`c ki`nq& g`mjài`c aokxtgmg`qio` j`n

ao`q~twa~i`c eòsfgncg ~mtowcm |iqwjf tgxtgqg`~j~io`q. Xjxgt xtgqg`~gn j~ j Ao`lgtgàg

o` Sotn Jqqoaij~io` lot Ajqg Kg~mon Tgqgjtam j`n Jxxfiaj~io`& Dotngjw}& Ltjàg.

-GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN>=8:1:)

Mw`~gt& K. -488>). Kjq~gty ~gjami`c2 Iàtgjqi`c i`q~twa~io`jf gllga~i|g`gqq i` gfgkg`~jty j`n

qgao`njty qamoofq -4`n gn.). ^mowqj`n Ojeq& AJ2 Aotsi` Xtgqq.

Mw`~gt& K. -:93:). ^gjam lot ~tj`qlgt. ^mowqj`n Ojeq& AJ2 Aotsi` Xtgqq.

Mw`~gt& K. -:9<3). ^gjam kotg+ ljq~gt*. ^mowqj`n Ojeq& AJ2 Aotsi` Xtgqq.

I|gq& D.& , Odgàmji`& E. -488<) G}xgtig`~ijf Gnwaj~io` i` ~mg afjqqtook j`n jajngkia

ow~aokgq2 Lot ~moqg smo sj`~ i~ jff. Bowt`jf ol G}xgtig`~ijf Gnwaj~io`& 49-:)& <:+33.

J|jifjdfg ltok GDQAO nj~jdjqg.

I|gq+Ngsgy& N. -488=). ^gjami`c g}xgtig`~ijf fgjtì`c i` cgoctjxmy2 Fgqqo`q ltok xfj`ì`c.

Bowt`jf ol Cgoctjxmy& :83& :<3+:3>. J|jifjdfg ltok GDQAO nj~jdjqg.

Kjtrjò& T. B.& Xiaegti`c& N. B. , Xoffoae& B. G. -488:). Afjqqtook i`q~twa~io` ~mj~ soteq2

Tgqgjtam+djqgn q~tj~gcigq lot iàtgjqi`c q~wng`~ jamig|gkg`~ . Jfg}j`ntij& \J2

Jqqoaij~io` lot Qwxgt|iqio` j`n Awttiawfwk Ng|gfoxkg`~.

KaCfi``& B. -:999& Qgx~gkdgt). G}xgtig`~ijf fgjì`c i` j mwkjì~igq afjqq. Xjxgt xtgqg`~gn j~

~mg kgg~i`c Amjffg`cg , Tgqxo`qg2 Tg~mièi`c Egy Iqqwgq i` Aoffgcg Fgjtì`c& Gfo`

Aoffgcg& Gfo`& @A. -GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN>7=<<=)




@j~io`jf Aowàif lot ~mg Qoaijf Q~wnigq. -488=& Kjy). J |iqio` ol xosgtlwf ~gjami`c j`n fgjtì`c

i` ~mg qoaijf q~wnigq2 Dwifni`c qoaijf w`ngtq~j`ni`c j`n ai|ia glliajay. Tg~tig|gn Jwcwq~

:3& 4889& ltok m~~x2//sss.qoaijfq~wnigq.otc/xoqi~io`q/xosgtlwf

Oqdot`& A.& Sj~qo`& X. -:998). DG^^GT qoaijf q~wnigq2 Dwifni`c gllga~i|g ~gjami`c ~mtowcm

gnwaj~io`jf tgqgjtam. Djf~ikotg& KN2 Kjtyfj`n Q~j~g Ngxjt~kg`~ ol Gnwaj~io`. -GTIA

Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN1=8111)

Oqfj`n& B. Q.& Eofd& N. J.& , Twdi`& I. K. -488:). Otcjìrj~io`jf dgmj|iot2 J` g}xgtig`~ijf

jxxtojam -3~m gn.). Wxxgt Qjnnfg Ti|gt& @B2 Xtg`~iag Mjff.

Xgtqiami~~g& E. J. -:991& Bj`wjty). I`q~twa~io`jf q~tj~gcigq lot kg~jaocì~i|g ng|gfoxkg`~2 J`

i`qgt|iag ngqic`. Xjxgt xtgqg`~gn j~ ~mg ao`|g`~io` ol ~mg Jqqoaij~io` lot Gnwaj~io`jf

Aokkwìaj~io`q j`n ^gamòfocy& @gs Otfgj`q& FJ. -GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io`

Qgt|iag @o. GN1<4:91)

Tidiam& L. K. -:99=). Ao`q~twa~i`c fgjtì`c j`n amjtja~gt. I` ^. Twq`je -Gn). J` i`~gctj~gn

jxxtojam ~o amjtja~gt gnwaj~io`. -xx. :87+::1). ^mowqj`n Ojeq& AJ2 Aotsi` Xtgqq.

Todgt~q& B. S. -4887). Niq`gy& Ngsgy& j`n ~mg ngj~m ol g}xgtigàg i` gnwaj~io`. Gnwaj~io` j`n

Awf~wtg& 4:-4)& :4+18. J|jifjdfg ltok GDQAO nj~jdjqg.

Tyngt& T. B. , Ctj|gq& K. L. -4881). Tgjni`c j`n fgjtì`c i` ao`~g`~ jtgjq -1tn gn.). Modoeg`&

@B2 Bom` Sifgy , Qo`q.

Qjàmgr& J. , Foxgr& F. G. -:991& Jwcwq~). Kjei`c ao``ga~io`q2 J` i`+ngx~m aoàgx~ ~gjami`c

~gamìzwg. Xjxgt xtgqg`~gn j~ j kgg~i`c lot ~mg Ag`~gt lot Ati~iajf ^mièi`c. -GTIA

Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN13789:)




Qi`j~tj& T. -4888). ^gjami`c fgjt`gtq ~o ~miè& tgjn& j`n sti~g kotg gllga~i|gfy i` ao`~g`~

qwdbga~q. ^mg Afgjti`c Mowqg& 31-7)& 4<<+431. J|jifjdfg ltok GDQAO nj~jdjqg.

Qfj|i`& T. G. -488<). Gnwaj~io`jf xqyamofocy2 ^mgoty j`n xtja~iag -=~m gn.). Doq~o`2 Xgjtqo`

Gnwaj~io`.

Qxito& T. B.& \iqxogf& B. C.& Qamki~r& B. C.& Qjkjtjxw`cj|j`& J. , Dogcgt& J. G. -:9=3).

Eòsfgncg jazwiqi~io` lot jxxfiaj~io`2 Aocì~i|g lfg}idifi~y j`n ~tj`qlgt i` aokxfg}

ao`~g`~ nokji`q -^gam. Tgx. @o >89). Wtdj`j2 Iffiòiq Wì|gtqi~y& Ag`~gt lot ~mg Q~wny

ol Tgjni`c. -GTIA Noawkg`~ Tgxtonwa~io` Qgt|iag @o. GN4=3:77)

ôt`gy+Xwt~j& B. -:99:). Qamgkj ~mgoty j`n aocì~i|g xqyamofocy2 Ikxfiaj~io`q lot qoaijf

q~wnigq. ^mgoty j`n Tgqgjtam i` Qoaijf Gnwaj~io`. :9-4)& :=9+4:8. J|jifjdfg ltok

GDQAO nj~jdjqg.

\iffjò& ^. F. -4887). Qmowfn qoaijf q~wnigq ~g}~dooeq dgaokg miq~oty? J fooe j~ jf~gt`j~i|g

kg~monq ~o ja~i|j~g qamgkg i` ~mg i`~gtkgnij~g afjqqtook. ^mg Tgjni`c ^gjamgt& 79-4)&

:44+:18. noi2:8.:79=/T^.79.4.4

Documents

Constructing Meaningful Connections With Social Studies Content