Constructivism Asgmt

8/10/2019 Constructivism Asgmt

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CONTENTS

Contents 1

List of figures 2

List of table 2

1.0 Literature review 3-4

2.0 What is constructivism 4-5

3.0 Learning for primary science 5-7

3.1 Piagets Theory: Cognitive Development 8-10

3.2 Bruners Theory: Discovery Learning 10-11

3.3 Ausubels Theory: Reception Learning and Expository Teaching 11-12

3.4 Gagnes Theory: Conditions of Learning Theory 12-14

4.0 Teaching and learning strategies for science 14-15

4.1 Experiment 16

4.2 Discussion 16-17

4.3 Simulation 17-19

4.4 Project 19-20

4.5 Visits and use of external resources 20

4.6 Use of technology 20-21

Bibliography 22-25

Appendix 26


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: What is learning 6

Figure 2: Learning theories 7

Figure 3: Stage of Piagets theory 9-10

Figure 4: Inductive approach (Bruners Theory) 11

Figure 5: Teaching and learning strategies for science 15

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1: Gagnes nine events of instruction 13


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1.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Constructivism has become a leading theoretical position in education and

has become a powerful driving force in science education (Steffe & Gale, 1995;

Tobin, 1993). The appeal of constructivism is that it provides a plausible, functional

framework for understanding and interpreting experiences in learning and teaching.

In this way, constructivism acts as a powerful theoretical referent to b uild a

classroom that maximizes student learni ng (Tobin & Tippins, 1993 ).

It means that constructivism actually makes teaching and learning process

easier to be carried out if we, as educator really understand the meaning of it.

Internationally, on the educational field for over 20 years, constructivism also has

had a strong impact. In particular, science educators have been concerned with

teaching strategies based on the notion of constructivism in an attempt to enhance

students conceptual understanding in science subjects. In many cases, these notion

have been utilised as basic frameworks to reform traditional educational practices.

Constructivism is widely used as a blanket term for certain approaches to

social inquiry that are interpretative and recognise the products of research ashuman constructions, often co-constructions of the researcher and the researched

(Beld, 1994). Constructivism as an epistemology is fraught with controversy and

disagreement among educators the world over; whereas constructivism as a

perspective on teaching and learning (as reflected in the hard core of the

constructivist research programme in science education) serves as a valid, highly

effective model for educating children (Taber, 2009).

A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors

should never tell students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to

construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy

(teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is

constructed from the learners previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught.

Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new

knowledge.


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My opinion on this is that, nowadays, we have that misconception of thinking

that we should always leave students on their own for them to learn, which is actually

not synonym with constructivism philosophy. Instead, giving them lectures and some

information for them to listen and build their own understanding from that, is crucially,

one of the parts of constructivism

2.0 What is constructivism?

Constructivism is viewed as a philosophy of teaching and learning. It adopts

the view that the learners actively construct new knowledge by actively reflecting on

their own experiences and interactions with the environment. Such experiences andinteractions will include their prior knowledge and the meaning they make of the

learning activities (Yap et. al , 2004). From my point of view, when we encounter

something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience,

maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as

irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we

must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

Also, according to Yap Kueh Chin et. al (2004), educator use the term

cognitive constructivism to refer to the idea that individuals construct knowledge for

themselves. Each learner individually builds meaning as he/she learns. They use the

term social constructivism to refer to the idea that knowledge is built through

consensus among groups of subjects. Constructivism is not a pedagogical technique

although its philosophical view has implications for the teaching-learning process.

There could be many pedagogical technique that include characteristics that are

congruent with the constructivist view.

Mark Windschitl (1999) stated that constructivism is premised on the belief

that learners actively create, interpret, and reorganize knowledge in individual ways.

These fluid intellectual transformations occur when students reconcile formal

instructional experiences with their existing knowledge, with the cultural and social

contexts in which ideas occur, and with a host of other influences that serve to

mediate understanding. With respect to instruction, this belief suggests that students

should participate in experiences that accommodate these ways of learning. Such


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experiences include problem-based learning , inquiry activities, dialogues with peers

and teachers that encourage making sense of the subject matter, exposure to

multiple sources of information and opportunities for students to demonstrate their

understanding in diverse ways.

Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators,

constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert

knowledge. In a better way, constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help

students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. Tools

such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students

formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and

convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment can be provided bythe constructivist teacher. Constructivism transforms the student from a passive

recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always

guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just

mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.

To me, it means that, their involvement in any kind of learning activity is

greatly increased, which can always generates more ideas for them to manipulate,

not always depends on what their teacher gives them. Also from my own

understanding is that constructivism actually attracts the students interest to learn

and makes them want to learn more and more. So it is the students that attracted to

that lesson, not the lesson that attracted or should be reaching out the students.

3.0 Learning theories for primary science

What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a

process? Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring

information or knowing a lot. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing

information that can be reproduced. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods

that can be retained and used as necessary. Learning as making sense or

abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each

other and to the real world. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a


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different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting

knowledge (Ramsden, 1992).

Learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive,

emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing,

or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Wikipedia

Encyclopaedia). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning

takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning

theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us

understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two

chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a

conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. Theother is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories

do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are

crucial in finding solutions.

Figure 1: What is learning

WHAT

IS

L

EARNING

quantitative increase in knowledge

acquiring information orknowing a lot

memorising

storing information thatcan be reproduced

acquiringfacts, skills,and methods

making senseor abstractingmeaning

interpreting and

understandingreality

reinterpretingknowledge

cognitive, emotional,

environmental influencesand experiences


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Figure 2: Learning theories

Piagets Theory: CognitiveDevelopment

4 stages:

- Sensorimotor, preoperational,concrete and formal

Bruners Theory: DiscoveryLearning

Inductive Specific to general

Active learning

Gagnes Theory: Conditions ofLearning Theory

5 learning levels verbal, intellectual,cognitive, motor skills, attitudes

Tasks hierarchy stimulus, response,procedure, terminology, discriminations,concept, rule, problem solving

Instructional event expectancy,retrieval, selective perception, semantic

decoding, responding, reinforcement,retrieval, generalization

Ausubels Theory:Reception Learning and

Expository Teaching

Deductive General tospecific

Advance organizers

LEARNINGTHEORIES


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3.1 Piagets Theory: Cognitive Development

According to Piaget, children s thinking does not develop entirely

smoothly. Instead, there are certain points at which it takes off and moves

into completely new areas and capabilities. Also according to him, these

transitions take place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This

has been taken to mean that before these ages, children are not capable (no

matter how bright) of understanding things in certain ways, and has been

used as the basis for scheduling the school curriculum. Whether or not should

be the case is a different matter (Atherton, 2009).

So in my opinion, we can see Piagets theory as a child cognitive

structure-building idea. It means that as a child grow up, the learning process

that happens is slowly developed stage by stage (which cannot be skipped or

reordered) and cognitive structures are built from what they understand and

respond (what they have gone through that period of time). Those cognitive

structures could be any kind of mental maps, schemes, or networked

concepts.

There are four stages of Piagets theory: Sensorimotor knowledge

(birth to 2 years), preoperational (representational) knowledge (2 to 7 years),

concrete operation (7 to 11 years) and formal operation (12 years to adult). At

sensorimotor knowledge stage, the cognitive system of a child is actually very

limited. However, they still build their own understanding or concepts through

interactions (physical) with their environment. These interactions can only

happens if child can see, feel, hear, touch or taste the presence of objectsand people. When the objects or people are out of their sight, child actually do

not know that they are still exist.

The next stage is the preoperational (representational) knowledge (2 to

7 years). At this stage, child start to learn to use language and to represent

objects by words and images. According to Piaget, child are very self-oriented

and their thinking is still egocentric, which means they use their ownperspective to view the world. Also at this stage, child has the difficulty to


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have the understanding about multiple properties of objects. For instance,

they will group together all the red blocks regardless their shapes.

The third stage is the concrete operation stage (7 to 11 years). Now,

child start to have the ability to think about objects and events logically. Unlike

the preoperational stage child, child at this stage are able to take anothers

point of view and take them into account instead of having only one

perspective (their own perspective). It means that they can group objects

according to several characteristic such as colour and shapes. They can even

arrange them in correct series or order. They also understand the mass,

weight, volume, area and length are conserved. Still, they cannot solve

abstract problems, according to Piaget.

The fourth and final stage is the formal operation stage (12 to adult).

Now, not only child can think logically, like the concrete operation stage child,

but they can also think abstractly. They have the ability to manipulate the

meaning represented by symbols. Piaget said that this is the ultimate stage of

development.

Sensorimotor knowledge (birth to 2 years)

Objects and people only exist if its in their perceptual field

Preoperational knowledge (2 to 7 years)Self-oriented and egocentric. Hard to understand multiple

properties of objects.

Concrete operation (7 to 11 years)

Think logically. Can classify object according to several

features.


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Figure 3 : Stage of Piagets theory

3.2 Bruners Theory: Discovery Learning

From my own understanding, Bruners theory is all about the learning

process, which should be an active and social process. This is where student

construct their own understanding, new ideas or concepts based on current

knowledge. This is very similar to the idea of constructivism.

Bruner is a proponent of inductive thinking, which means going from

the specific to the general (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003). In my opinion,

teacher should be the facilitator to guide students along the way of learning.

What I mean by guiding is to provide all the necessities for the students to

explore or manipulate and let them discover the concepts and relationships by

and for themselves. The necessities could be experiences, objects,

experiments or any kind of activities. Teacher can also give problems or

cases to solve and maybe some simulations. All of these will draw the

students own past experiences and existing knowledge to create a new one.

Students will construct their understanding on the topic they are learninggradually.

Formal operation (12 to adult)

Think logically and abstractly. Cognitive structure almost

like an adult.


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Figure 4 : Inductive approach (Bruners Theory)

3.3 Ausubels Theory: Reception Learning and Expository Teaching

Unlike Bruners theory, Ausubel says learning should be a deductive

process which means children should first learn a general concept and then

move towards specific (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003). In my opinion, it

means that they have to learn from the simple one to the more complex and

complicated one. They also have to learn step by step for them to be able to

learn the next one, which is the more difficult one.

Yap et. al (2004) stated that according to Ausubel, learning or teaching

should be done directly. Its called the expository teaching. My opinion on this

is that teacher should play more role to make the learning more meaningful.

Teacher should plan the lesson step by step (deductive approach). There are

three strategies that can be used:

Teacher should know students prior knowledge before start a lesson

and then relate them with the topic that they are going to learn.

Inductivea roach

Specific

General concept

Objects

Experiment

Simulation

Role-play

Other activities


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Use advance organizers. It could be diagrams, pictures or graphic

organizers. This should be move from the most general to the most

specific in a logical manner.

Guide and help students to relate all the pieces of information that theyhave gathered. The use of concept maps is really important. It can help

students to generate or create their own mental map.

My opinion from own understanding is that the Ausubels theory is

more towards teacher-centered. Well, although students involve in all of the

activities and learning process but it is the teacher that has to do more. All of

the activities should be started by the teacher, giving all of the things that are

needed and students only have to do what they have been told to. Without the

right and enough supply (informations and teaching aids) from the teacher,

the lesson might not be successful. However, I still think that this is a good

approach especially because it is a deductive approach and if it is planned

well, students will have a very good lesson.

3.4 Gagnes Theory: Conditions of Learning T heory

Gagnes theory is actually focus more on intellectual skills. He says

that there are five major types of learning levels:

Verbal information

Intellectual skills

Cognitive strategies

Motor skills

Attitudes

In my opinion, this classification is really very important because not

only that it shows different level of learning but it also tells us that different

level requires different types of instruction. So it can help educator like

teacher in their preparation before start a lesson.

As said, Gagne focus more on intellectual skills. The learning tasks of

intellectual skills can be broken into a hierarchy of behaviours:


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Stimulus recognition

Response generation

Procedure following

Use of terminology Discrimination

Concept formation

Rule application

Problem solving

Looking at this hierarchy, we can get the idea that Gagnes theory is

also using deductive approach. Teaching and learning should started from thevery basic and simple one before go to the next stage, which is more

complex. Logically, this theory should work for example before pupils know

why plants cannot live without the sunlight, of course pupils have to know the

basic needs of a plant. In addition, the theory outlines nine events and the

corresponding cognitive process which should be found in any instructional

context.

Instructional events Relation to learning process

1. Gain attention New situation, use multimedia

2. Describe the goal What will they accomplish and how to use

them

3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge Prior knowledge relevant to topic, connect

them

4. Presenting the stimulus Present in different, interesting ways

5. Provide learning guidance Simpler and easier to understand

6. Elicit performance Practise skills, apply knowledge

7. Provide informative feedback Analyse, show correctness

8. Assess performance Test, general progress information

9. Enhance retention and transfer Additional practise, review lesson

Table 1 : Gagnes nine events of instruction


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Now, Gagnes theory has a big contribution to our world of educating.

There are two main things that we have learnt from his theory. The first one is

teachers should know what exactly their objectives and learning outcomes.

The second one is that teaching should move from the simple to the more

complex tasks.

4.0 Teaching and learning strategies for science

In order to teach science in the context of science literacy a variety of

teaching strategies may be used, such as experiment, discussion, simulation,

project, visits and use of external resources, and use of technology. These teaching

strategies encourage learners to participate in discussions and exchange ideas

concerning nature of science and the interrelations between science and society.

Some of these teaching strategies are presented on the next page.


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Figure 5: Teaching and learning strategies for science.

TEACHING AND

LEARNINGSTRATEGIESFOR SCIENCE

Experiment

- experience it and observesubsequent reactions orsituations

Discussion

- teacher as facilitator

- stimulate thinking, studentsexpress themselves.

- follow-up question

Simulation

- activity that resemblesthe actual situation

Project

- Project-based learning real life situation.

Visits and use of externalresources

- not limited to activities inschool compound

- task during visit

Use of technology

- interesting and effective

- analysis andpresentation of data

- easier and faster


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4.1 Experiment

Though teachers with high morale, motivation and a mastery of knowledge,

learner difficulties and capacity to facilitate learning are important (Grauwe, 1999;

Zadra, 2000), correct use of an appropriate teaching method is critical to the

successful teaching and learning of science. In my opinion, this is very important

because students may learn names and definitions theoretically. But for them to

master and really understand what the topic is all about, they need to experience it

and observe subsequent reactions or situations.

In experiment, cooperative learning is involved. Cooperative learning is a

comprehensive approach to teaching that derives from a theory of education and

encompasses key assumptions about what students should learn and how they

learn. The shared responsibility and interaction are likely to generate better inter-

group relations and result in better self-images for students with histories of poor

achievement (Joyce and Weil, 1980).

4.2 Discussion

We always heard about discussion used in learning. To me, it is a very useful

learning strategy because all students can voice out their thinking. A discussion is an

activity in which students exchange questions and opinions based on valid reasons.

Discussions can be conducted before, during or after an activity. Teachers should

play the role of a facilitator and lead a discussion by asking question that stimulate

thinking and getting students to express themselves (Kementerian Pendidikan,

2003). However, discussions need to be carefully planned. From my point of view, if

it is not well- planned, it could result bad outcomes where students dont the right key

of the topic. Arguably, good discussions can take more thought than a lecture might.

It is important to plan an activity that gets at the most important issue in the class.

The problem to solve or question that the group discusses has to be open-ended

and complex enough that they have something to chew on.

A good teacher always has plan B in mind. Planning several follow-up

questions helps to prevent the discussion from coming to premature closure. Set thequestion so they have to do more than only come up with the easy answer. Have an


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alternative activity if the first one does not engage students as anticipated.

This does not mean that if a discussion does not heat up immediately we should

ditch it and revert to lecture. Students need to practice discussion activities a few

times before they become proficient at them. Hang in there with them as they learn

to discuss easily and well (Middendorf and Kalish, 1996).

In a more common sense, I think expectation that every student will

participate should be created. This can be done by telling them this explicitly, and by

designing activities that require different students to have different responsibilities

across the semester. Direct students to be sure and let everyone speak. Again,

randomness can help. For example, when you tell students that the reporter for

today's discussion will be the person whose last name is closest to the start of thealphabet, some quiet students will end up reporting. If the same people answer all

the time, you might say, "Let's hear from someone we haven't heard from yet." And

then don't call on the students you have already heard from that day.

4.3 Simulation

Simulation is an event or situation made to resemble clinical practice as

closely as possible. Simulation can be used to teach theory, assessment,

technology, pharmacology, and skills (Rauen, 2001). The emphasis in simulation is

often on the application and integration of knowledge, skills, and critical thinking.

Unlike a classroom setting or a paper-and-pencil test, simulation allows learners to

function in an environment that is as close as possible to an actual situation and

provides them an opportunity to "think on their feet, not in their seat." Simulation has

been successfully used as a teaching strategy in both clinical and formal education(Eaves and Flagg, 2001).

Simulation has been used in the aviation, transportation, and nuclear power

industries and the social and behavioural sciences have all used simulation to teach

concepts; to allow risk-free practice; and to teach, practice, and/or evaluate critical-

thinking skills. In healthcare, the first types of simulators were the stagnant models

(eg, rubber body parts). These types are still used to learn basic skills, such as

insertion of urinary and intravenous catheters (Issenberg et. al , 1999).


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In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out.

Examples of simulation are role-play, games and the use of models (Kementerian

Pendidikan, 2003).

Role-playing is a teaching strategy that fits within the social family of models

(Joyce and Weil, 2000). These strategies emphasize the social nature of learning,

and see cooperative behaviour as stimulating students both socially and

intellectually. Role-playing as a teaching strategy offers several advantages for both

teacher and student. First, student interest in the topic is raised. Research has

shown that integrating experiential learning activities in the classroom increases

interest in the subject mater and understanding of course content (Poorman, 2002 ).

Fogg (2001) tells of a college professor who felt that his history classes were boringand not involving the students. After trying out a role-playing type game one

semester, he observed that students were much more interested in the material.

Secondly, there is increased involvement on the part of the students in a role-

playing lesson. Students are not passive recipients of the instructors knowledge.

Rather, they take an active part. Poorman (2002) observes that true learning cannot

take place when students are passive observers of the teaching process . One

student at Barnard College who was enrolled in a role-playing history class said,

This class tricks you into doing so much work (Fogg, 2001). The result of the

involvement is increased learning (Fogg, 2001).

A third advantage to using role-playing as a teaching strategy is that it

teaches empathy and understanding of different perspectives (Poorman, 2002). A

typical role-playing activity would have students taking on a role of a character,

learning and acting as that individual would do in the typical setting. Poorman (2002)

found a significant increase among students in feeling anothers distress as their

own . Role-playing has also been seen to be effective in reducing racial prejudice

(McGregor, 1993).

In my opinion, children always love to play games. However, not all kind of

games they really enjoy playing. So this is where I think teacher has to play very

important role to make the games itself, not only fun but also very useful and

relevant to the lesson. Games require procedures that need to be followed. Studentsplay games in order to learn a particular principle or to understand the process of


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decision-making. Using games as a teaching strategy will make learning process

fun, encourages classroom participation, encourages students to communicate with

each other, breaks up the monotony of lecture/add a stress reliever to the day and

also it allows for learning in a low stress environment. Whereas the use of models

means models are used to represent objects or actual situations so that students can

visualize the said objects or situations and thus understand the concepts and

principles to be learned.

4.4 Project

A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual ora group of students to achieve a particular learning objective. A project generally

requires several lessons to complete. The outcome of the project either in the form of

a report, an artifact or in other forms needs to be presented to the teacher and other

students. Project work promotes the development of problem-solving skills, time

management skills, and independent learning (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003).

Project-based learning (PBL): best defined as instruction relating questions

and technology relative to the students everyday lives to classroom projects.

Students form their own investigation of their own group which allows students to

develop valuable research skills. The students engage in design, problem solving,

decision making, and investigative activities. It allows students to work in groups or

by themselves and allows them to come up with ideas and realistic solutions or

presentations. Students take a problem and apply it to a real life situation with these

projects (Wikipedia Encyclopaedia).

Project-based learning (PBL) provides complex tasks based on challenging

questions or problems that involve the students' problem solving, decision making,

investigative skills, and reflection that include teacher facilitation, but not direction.

Project Based Learning is focused on questions that drive students to encounter the

central concepts and principles of a subject hands-on.

With Project-based learning students learn from these experiences and take

them into account and apply them to their lives in the real world. PBL is a differentteaching technique that promotes and practices new learning habits. The students


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have to think in original ways to come up with the solutions to these real world

problems. It helps with their creative thinking skills by showing that there are many

ways to solve a problem.

4.5 Visits and use of external resources

The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in school

compound. Learning of science can be enhanced through the use of external

sources such as zoos, museums, science centers, research institutes, mangrove

swamps and factories. Visits to these places make the learning of science more

interesting, meaningful and effective. To optimize learning opportunities, visits needto be carefully planned. Students should be assigned tasks during the visit. No

educational visit is complete without a post-visit discussion (Kementerian

Pendidikan, 2003).

My only view on this is that safety procedures have to be taken into

consideration a lot more. We dont want something bad happen while we go out

visiting. That is the only problem I think with this strategy especially when a lot of

students involve in the visit. It is not easy to control them. So teacher should make

some preparations such as bringing other people to help to take care of them during

the visit and of course some early briefing would help too.

4.6 Use of technology

Technology is a powerful tool that has great potential in enhancing the

learning of science. Through the use of technology such as television, radio, video,

computer, and the internet, the teaching and learning of science can be made more

interesting and effective. Computer simulation and animation are effective tools for

the teaching and learning of abstract or difficult science concepts. Computer

simulation and animation can be presented through courseware or web page.

Application tools such as word processors, graphic presentation software and

electronic spreadsheets are valuable tools for the analysis and presentation of data

(Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003).


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Technological resources can ask for different methods of learning through

powerful visuals and well-organized print; through direct, vicarious, and virtual

experiences; and through tasks requiring analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, with

applications to real-life situations. They can encourage self-reflection and self-

evaluation. They can drive collaboration and group problem solving. Technologies

can help students learn in ways they find most effective and broaden their

repertoires for learning. They can supply structure for students who need it and leave

assignments more open-ended for students who d ont. Fast, bright students can

move quickly through materials they master easily and go on to more difficult tasks;

slower students can take more time and get more feedback and direct help from

teachers and fellow students. Aided by technologies, students with similar motives

and talents can work in cohort study groups without constraints of time and place

(Chikering and Ehrmann, 1996).

My opinion on this is that technology is a must nowadays. I think in any kind of

lesson, we should always try to use technology whether it is a television, radio,

video, computer, or the internet. This is because our modern life needs that. We

want something that is faster and interesting, which we can get from our technology

world. It is a win-win situation really because not only it is good for the student but itis also a great help for the teacher to have all the technologies available to make

teaching and learning much easier and successful.


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APPENDIX

Documents

Constructivism Asgmt