PROJECT REPORT ON

CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER

USING

MICROCONTROLLER AT89C2051

THIS PROJECT REPORT IS BEING SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR BACHLOR’S DEGREE IN

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG.

 

Under the expert guidance of:

Mrs. Bharti Mr. jaspal jindal

(Project Mentor) (H.O.D. ECE Deptt.)

SUBMITTED BY:

MOHIT MALIK (07/EL/53)

MUKESH SHARMA (07/EL/56)

NARENDER SOUROT (07/EL/58)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report gives the details of the project work done in VIII semester for partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of

Technology/Engineering (B.Tech.), under the Supervision of Mrs. BHARTI.

I am very grateful to my supervisor Mr. Lalit Kumar for his/her help and able

guidance for the project. I am very thankful to my Institute, for providing me

resources and facilities to help in the project.

We are also thankful to Mr. Jaspal Jindal, HOD, ECE Department,

BSAITM,ALAMPUR, FARIDABAD. Whose suggestions & coorperation have helped us

to complete this work.

SUBMITTED BY:

MOHIT MALIK (07/EL/53)

MUKESH SHARMA (07/EL/56)

NARENDER SOUROT (07/EL/58)

CERTIFICATE

It is certified that project on

CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER

USING

MICROCONTROLLER AT89C2051

IS BEING SUBMITTED BY

MOHIT MALIK (07/EL/53)

MUKESH SHARMA (07/EL/56)

NARENDER SOUROT (07/EL/58)

Final year engg. Students session 2007-2011 in partial fulfillment of requirement for The award bachelor’s degree in ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGG.

BY

MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY (ROHTAK)

This project was completed by them under our guidance and according to our satisfaction.

Mrs. Bharti Mr. jaspal jindal

(Project Mentor) (H.O.D. ECE Deptt.)

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

 We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the project entitled

“CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER USING MICROCONTROLLER AT89C2051”

in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of degree of B.TECH.

(Electronics & Communication Engineering) submitted in the department of

Electronics & Communication Engg. at B.S.A.I.T.M under M.D.U ROHTAK is

an authentic record of our work, under the supervision of MRS.Bharti

SUBMITTED BY:

MOHIT MALIK (07/EL/53)

MUKESH SHARMA (07/EL/56)

NARENDER SOUROT (07/EL/58)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.

(Signature of the supervisor

(Signature of internal Examiner) (Signature of External Examiner)

INTRODUCTION

A tachometer is an instrument designed to measure the speed of an object or substance. The word is formed from Greek roots tachos, meaning speed, and metron, meaning measure. The traditional tachometer is laid out as a dial, with a needle indicating the current reading and marking safe and dangerous levels. Recently, digital tachometers giving a direct numeric output have become more common. In its most familiar form, a tachometer measures the speed at which a mechanical device is rotating.A tachometer is nothing but a simple electronic digital transducer. Normally, it is used for measuring the speed of a rotating shaft. The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) is valuable information for understanding any rotational system.For example, there is an optimum speed for drilling a particular-size hole in a particular metal piece; there is an ideal sanding disk speed that depends on the material being finished. You may also want to measure the speed of fans you use.This easy-to-make photoelectric tachometer measures the rpm of most shop-floor tools and many household machines without any mechanical or electrical interface. A common example is the tachometer found on automobile dashboards. In this application, the tachometer measures the revolutions per minute (RPMs) of the engine drive shaft. It is important to monitor engine RPMs, as running the engine at excessively high rates can drastically shorten engine life. A tachometer used in this application can be built in multiple ways. It may be a small generator attached to the engine drive shaft, where the RPM measurement is scaled to the electric current generated by the device. Alternately, it may simply measure the rate at which the ignition system sends sparks to the engine. The traditional tachometer requires physical contact between the instrument and the device being measured. In applications where this is not feasible for technical or safety reasons, it may be possible to use a Contact less tachometer to take measurements from a distance. A Contact less tachometer works by pulsing an Infrared radiation against the rotating element. The rotating element will have a reflective spot, and the tachometer measures the rate at which the infrared radiation is reflected back. A Contact less tachometer can be a permanent part of the system, or it can be handheld for occasional spot measurements. So I have made this possible which overcome the disadvantages of the traditional tachometer. I have used new technologies like the liquid crystal display, the AT89C2051 microcontroller, the infrared sensor and the generator. It has many advantages over the traditional tachometer. Although, laser can be used instead of the infrared transmitter and the receiver. There was a practical problem using the laser. The laser uses more power consumption. By using the

infrared radiation I have omitted those practical problems. We can name it as a pick up or transducer because it converts the frequency of the shaft into the pulses using the infrared transmitter and the receiver. These pulses are counted by the microcontroller. These pulses are the short duration pulses of the order of few milliseconds. So the microcontroller sense these pulses counted these pulses and convert it into revolutions per minute. These revolutions per minute is then converted in the voltage and then sent it to the liquid crystal display. The liquid crystal display can be replaced by the seven segment display but I have used the 7-segment display because I have display the four digit number which uses four seven segment. I have to display the maximum and the average speed of the rotating part. It may leads to increased number of interconnection and the circuit complexity will be increased. To minimize the circuit I have used the 7-segment display. It has less number of interconnection and requires less power. It occupies less area than the seven segment display. I will explain each and every point in the detail that is the principle, the algorithm used, the program that I have created. The microcontroller working and operation.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The idea behind most digital counting device, frequency meters and tachometers, is a micro-controller, used to count the pulses coming from a sensor or any other electronic device. In the case of this tachometer, the counted pluses will come from proximity sensor, which will detect any reflective element passing in front of it, and thus, will give an output pulse for each and every rotation of the shaft. Those pulses will be fed to the microcontroller and counted. to understand the microcontroller counts pulses, and deduce the frequency of those pulse, please refer to this tutorial about building a frequency meter that elaborates the process of frequency counting. The main difference between this tutorial about tachometer and frequency meters, is that we need the reading in pulses per minutes (to count revolutions per minutes), but in the same time, we don't want to wait a whole minute before getting a correct reading. Thus we need some additional processing to predict the number of revolutions per minute in less than a second that I will explain in the algorithm.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. shows the circuit of the microcontroller-based tachometer.

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Fig. shows the circuit of the microcontroller-based tachometer. The tachometer comprises AT89C2051microcontroller, ULN2003 high-current Darlington transistor array, CA3140 operational amplifier, common-anode 7-segment (4-digit multiplexed) display and its four anode-driving transistors The AT89C2051 is a 20-pin, 8-bit microcontroller of Intel’s 8051 family made by Atmel Corporation. Port-1 pins P1.7 through P1.2, and port-3 pin P3.7 are connected to input pins 1 through 7 of ULN2003. Port-1 pins are pulled up with 10-kiloohm resistor network RNW1. They drive all the seven segments of the display with the help of internal inverters. Port-3 pins P3.0 through P3.3 of the microcontroller are connected to the base of transistors T1 through T4, respectively, to select one digit out of the four at a time and to supply anode- drive currents to the common anode pin of respective digit. Pin configurationof transistor BC557. When pin P3.0 of microcontroller IC1 goes low, it drives transistor T1 into saturation, which provides the drive current to anode pin 6 of 4- digit, 7-segment, common-anode display DIS1. Similarly, transistors T2 through T4, respectively, provide supply to common-anode pins 8, 9 and 12 of DIS1. Thus microcontroller IC1 drives the segment in multiplexed manner using its port pins. This is time division multiplexing process. Segment data and display-enable pulse for display are refreshed every 5 ms. Thus, the display appears to be continuous even though it lights up one by one. Switch S1 is used to manually reset the microcontroller, while the power on-reset signal for the microcontroller is given by C1 and R6. A 12MHz crystal is connected to pins 4 and 5 of IC1 to generate the basic clock frequency for the microcontroller. The circuit uses a 6V battery for power supply or alternatively a mains derived low voltage supply. An actual-size, single-side PCB layout for the tachometer is shown in Fig. and its component layout in Fig.

PCB LAYOUT

HOW DOES IT WORK

Just point the light-sensitive probe tip atop the spinning shaft towards the spinning blade, disk or chuck and read the rpm. The only requirement is that you first place a contrasting colour mask. A strip of white adhesive tape is ideal on the spinning object. Position it such that the intensity of light reflected from the object’s surfacechanges as it rotates. Each time the tape spins past the probe, the momentary increase in reflected light is detected by the phototransistor. The signal processorand microcontroller circuit counts the increase in the number of such light reflections sensed by it and thereby evaluates the rpm, which is displayed on the 4-digit, 7-segment display.The phototransistor is kept inside a plastic tube, which has a convex lens fitted at one end. A convex lens of about 1cm diameter and 8-10cm focal length is a common item used by watch repairers and in cine film viewer toys. It can be obtained from them to set up the experiment. The phototransistor is fixed on a piece of cardboard such that it faces the lens at a distance of about 8 cm.

The leads from the phototransistor are taken out and connected in the circuit shown in Fig.

Fig. shows the suitable arrangement of phototransistor.

The detected signal is amplified by transistor 2N2222 (T5) and further amplified by operational amplifier CA3140 (IC3). The reference voltage point for the operational amplifier is obtained by resistor divider network comprising R2 and R3. The output from pin 6 of IC3 is fed to pin 12 of microcontroller AT89C2051. Note that pins 12 and 13 of microcontroller AT89C2051 are the inputs (+ and -) of its internal analogue comparator. Pin 13 is adjusted to nearly half the supply voltage using a potential divider comprising resistor R7 and preset VR1 across the supply. The pulses picked up by the phototransistor are sensed by the internal

comparator of AT89C2051 and through software, each pulse representing one rotation of the object is detected. By counting the number of such pulses, on an average per minute basis, the RPM is evaluated. It is displayed by a software routine to light up the LED segments of the 4-digit, 7-segment display.

SoftwareThe software is written in Assembly language and assembled using 8051 cross-assembler. It is well commented and easy to understand. It uses AT89C2051’s internal timer for measuring the period of one cycle of the rotation in units of 100 microseconds. Thus if the speed is 1500 rpm, it is 25 rps, and the time taken for one cycle is 40 ms. The timer uses an interrupt to count overflows every 100 microseconds and so the number counted by the timer program in this case will be ‘400.’ This is divided by ‘600,000’ (so many 100/ μs present in a minute), giving a result of ‘1500.’ This gives the rpm. These digits are displayed on the 4-digit, 7- segment display. To perform the division, subroutine UDIV32 is employed, which is a standard subroutine available for 8051 family for 32-bit number by 16-bit number division. It has an accuracy of 5 rpm in a 6000rpm count.

COMPONENTS

MICROCONTROLLER : AT89C2051

Features • Compatible with MCS®-51Products • 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory – Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles • 2.7V to 6V Operating Range • Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz • Two-level Program Memory Lock • 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM • 15 Programmable I/O Lines • Two 16-bit Timer/Counters • Six Interrupt Sources • Programmable Serial UART Channel • Direct LED Drive Outputs • On-chip Analog Comparator • Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes • Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option

1. Description: The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read-only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a power-ful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a

full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for opera-tion down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

2. Pin Configuration

20-lead PDIP/SOIC

3.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4. Pin Description:

4.1 VCC: Supply voltage.

4.2 GND: Ground.

4.3 Port 1 :The Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7 provide internal pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1 out-put buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are written to

Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives code data during Flash programming and verification.

4.4 Port 3: Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-directional I/O pins with internal pull-ups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip comparator and is not accessible as a gen-eral-purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C2051 as listed below: Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

4.5 RST Reset : Input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes high. Holding the RST pin high for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. Each machine cycle takes 12 oscillator or clock cycles.

4.6 XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)4 0368H–MICRO–6/08

4.7 XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

5. Oscillator Characteristics : The XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while

XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

6. Special Function Registers: A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is shown in the table below. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.

7. Restrictions on Certain Instructions : The AT89C2051 and is an economical and cost-effective member of Atmel’s growing family of microcontrollers. It contains 2K bytes of Flash program memory. It is fully compatible with the MCS-51 architecture, and can be programmed using the MCS-51 instruction set. However, there are a few considerations one must keep in mind when utilizing certain instructions to pro-gram this device. All the instructions related to jumping or branching should be restricted such that the destination address falls within the physical program memory space of the device, which is 2K for the AT89C2051. This should be the responsibility of the software programmer. For example, LJMP 7E0H would be a valid instruction for the AT89C2051 (with 2K of memory), whereas LJMP 900H would not.

7.1 Branching Instructions LCALL, LJMP, ACALL, AJMP, SJMP, JMP @A+DPTR – These unconditional branching instructions will execute correctly as long as the programmer keeps in mind that the destination branching address must fall within the physical boundaries of the program memory size (loca-tions 00H to 7FFH for the 89C2051). Violating the physical space limits may cause unknown program behavior. CJNE [...], DJNZ [...], JB, JNB, JC, JNC, JBC, JZ, JNZ – With these conditional branching instructions the same rule above applies. Again, violating the memory boundaries may cause erratic execution. For applications involving interrupts the normal interrupt service routine address locations of the 80C51 family architecture have been preserved.

7.2 MOVX-related Instructions, Data Memory : The AT89C2051 contains 128 bytes of internal data memory. Thus, in the AT89C2051 the stack depth is limited to 128 bytes, the amount of available RAM. External DATA memory access is not supported in this device, nor is external PROGRAM memory execution. Therefore, no MOVX [...] instructions should be included in the program. A typical 80C51 assembler will still assemble instructions, even if they are written in violation of the restrictions mentioned above. It is the responsibility of the controller user to know the physi-cal features and limitations of the device being used and adjust the instructions used correspondingly.

8. Program Memory Lock Bits: On the chip are two lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the Table 8-1. Note: 1. The Lock Bits can only be erased with the Chip Erase operation. Table 8-1. Lock Bit Protection Modes(1) Program Lock Bits LB1 LB2 Protection Type 1 U U No program lock features 2 P U Further programming of the Flash is disabled 3 P P Same as mode 2, also verify is disabled7 0368H–MICRO–6/08 AT89C2051 9. Idle Mode In idle mode, the CPU

puts itself to sleep while all the on-chip peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions regis-ters remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. The P1.0 and P1.1 should be set to “0” if no external pull-ups are used, or set to “1” if external pull-ups are used. It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hardware reset, the device normally resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory. 10. Power-down Mode In the power-down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize. The P1.0 and P1.1 should be set to “0” if no external pull-ups are used, or set to “1” if external pull-ups are used.

CA3140

BiMOS Operational Amplifier, 4.5MHz, with MOSFET Input/Bipolar Output: The CA3140A and CA3140 are integrated circuit operational amplifiers that combine the advantages of high voltage PMOS transistors with high voltage bipolar transistors on a single monolithic chip. The CA3140A and CA3140 BiMOS operational amplifiers feature gate protected MOSFET (PMOS) transistors in the input circuit to provide very high input impedance, very low input current, and high speed performance. The CA3140A and CA3140 operate at supply voltage from 4V to 36V (either single or dual supply). These operational amplifiers are internally phase compensated to achieve stable operation in unity gain follower operation, and additionally, have access terminal for a supplementary external

capacitor if additional frequency roll-off is desired. Terminals are also provided for use in applications requiring input offset voltage nulling. The use of PMOS field effect transistors in the input stage results in common mode input voltage capability down to 0.5V below the negative supply terminal, an important attribute for single supply applications. The output stage uses bipolar transistors and includes built-in protection against damage from load terminal short circuiting to either supply rail or to ground. The CA3140A and CA3140 are intended for operation at supplyvoltages up to 36V (±18V).

Features

• MOSFET Input Stage- Very High Input Impedance (ZIN) -1.5TΩ (Typ)- Very Low Input Current (Il) -10pA (Typ) at ±15V- Wide Common Mode Input Voltage Range (VlCR) - Can beSwung 0.5V Below Negative Supply Voltage Rail- Output Swing Complements Input Common ModeRange• Directly Replaces Industry Type 741 in Most Applications• Pb-Free Plus Anneal Available (RoHS Compliant)

Applications

• Ground-Referenced Single Supply Amplifiers inAutomobile and Portable Instrumentation• Sample and Hold Amplifiers• Long Duration Timers/Multivibrators(μseconds-Minutes-Hours)• Photocurrent Instrumentation• Peak Detectors• Active Filters• Comparators• Interface in 5V TTL Systems and Other LowSupply Voltage Systems• All Standard Operational Amplifier Applications

• Function Generators• Tone Controls• Power Supplies• Portable Instruments• Intrusion Alarm Systems

Absolute Maximum Ratings Thermal InformationDC Supply Voltage (Between V+ and V- Terminals) . . . . . . . . . 36VDifferential Mode Input Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8VDC Input Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (V+ +8V) To (V- -0.5V)Input Terminal Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1mAOutput Short Circuit Duration∞ (Note 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IndefiniteOperating ConditionsTemperature Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -55oC to 125oC

BC557

PNP general purpose transistors BC556; BC557 FEATURES

•Low current (max. 100 mA)•Low voltage (max. 65 V).

APPLICATIONS

•General purpose switching and amplification.

DESCRIPTIONPNP transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package. NPN complements: BC546 and BC547.

Notes1.VBEsat decreases by about −1.7 mV/K with increasing temperature.

2.VBE decreases by about −2 mV/K with increasing temperature.

ULN2003

HIGH-VOLTAGE, HIGH-CURRENT DARLINGTON TRANSISTOR ARRAYS:

FEATURES• 500-mA-Rated Collector Current (SingleOutput)• High-Voltage Outputs: 50 V• Output Clamp Diodes• Inputs Compatible With Various Types ofLogic• Relay-Driver Applications

DESCRIPTION:

The ULN2002A, ULN2003A, ULN2003AI, ULN2004A, ULQ2003A, and ULQ2004A are high-voltage high-current Darlington transistor arrays. Each consists of seven npn Darlington pairs that feature high-voltage outputswithcommon-cathode clamp diodes for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating of a single Darlington pair is 500 mA. The Darlington pairs can be paralleled for higher current capability. Applications include relay

drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers, display drivers (LED and gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers. For 100-V (otherwise interchangeable) versions of the ULN2003A and ULN2004A, see the SN75468 and SN75469, respectively.

The ULN2001A is a general-purpose array and can be used with TTL and CMOS technologies. The ULN2002A is designed specifically for use with 14-V to 25-V PMOS devices. Each input of this device has a Zener diodeand resistor in series to control the input current to a safe limit. The ULN2003A and ULQ2003A have a 2.7-kΩ series base resistor for each Darlington pair for operation directly with TTL or 5-V CMOS devices. TheULN2004A and ULQ2004A have a 10.5-kΩ series base resistor to allow operation directly from CMOS devices that use supply voltages of 6 V to 15 V. The required input current of the ULN/ULQ2004A is below that of theULN/ULQ2003A, and the required voltage is less than that required by the ULN2002A.

2N2222NPN switching transistors 2N2222; 2N2222AFEATURESHigh current (max. 800 mA)Low voltage (max. 40 V).APPLICATIONSLinear amplification and switching.DESCRIPTIONNPN switching transistor in a TO-18 metal package.PNP complement: 2N2907A.

L14F1

HERMETIC SILICON PHOTODARLINGTON L14F1 L14F2

DESCRIPTIONThe L14F1/L14F2 are silicon photodarlingtons mounted in a narrow angle, TO-18 package

FEATURES• Hermetically sealed package• Narrow reception angleNOTES:1. Dimensions for all drawings are in inches (mm).2. Tolerance of ± .010 (.25) on all non-nominal dimensions

NOTE:1. Derate power dissipation linearly 3.00 mW/°C above 25°C ambient.2. Derate power dissipation linearly 6.00 mW/°C above 25°C case.3. RMA flux is recommended.4. Methanol or isopropyl alcohols are recommended as cleaning agents.5. Soldering iron tip 1/16” (1.6mm) minimum from housing.6. As long as leads are not under any stress or spring tension.7. Light source is a GaAs LED emitting light at a peak wavelength of 940 nm.8. Figure 1 and figure 2 use light source of tungsten lamp at 2870°K color temperature. A GaAs source of 0.05 mW/cm2 is approximatelyequivalent to a tungsten source, at 2870°K, of

0.2mW/cm2.unless otherwise specified.

1N4001 - 1N4007

Features• Diffused Junction• High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop• Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak• Low Reverse Leakage Current• Lead Free Finish, RoHS Compliant (Note 3)

Mechanical Data• Case: DO-41• Case Material: Molded Plastic. UL Flammability ClassificationRating 94V-0• Moisture Sensitivity: Level 1 per J-STD-020D• Terminals: Finish - Bright Tin. Plated Leads Solderable perMIL-STD-202, Method 208• Polarity: Cathode Band• Mounting Position: Any• Ordering Information: See Page 2• Marking: Type Number• Weight: 0.30 grams (approximate)

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Maximum Ratings and Electrical Characteristics @TA = 25°C unless otherwise specifiedSingle phase, half wave, 60Hz, resistive or inductive load.For capacitive load, derate current by 20%.

Notes: 1. Leads maintained at ambient temperature at a distance of 9.5mm from the case.2. Measured at 1.0 MHz and applied reverse voltage of 4.0V DC.3. EU Directive 2002/95/EC (RoHS). All applicable RoHS exemptions applied, see EU Directive 2002/95/EC Annex Notes

APPLICATIONS1 The tachometer measures how fast the engine is turning in RPM - Revolutions

per Minute. (a) This tachometer information is useful if your car has a standard

shift transmission and you want to shift at the optimum tachometer RPM for best fuel economy or best acceleration. One of the least used gauges on a car with an automatic transmission. You should never race your engine so fast that the tachometer moves into the red zone as this can cause engine

damage. Some engines are protected by the engine computer from going into the red zone.  Usually, the tachometer shows single digit markings like 1, 2, 3 etc.  Somewhere, you will also see an indicator that says RPM x 1000.  This means that you multiply the reading by 1000 to get the actual RPM, so if the needle is pointing to 2, the engine is running at 2000 RPM.

(b)This can be used by the companies that prepare the fan. It can be used to check the performance of the fan.

(c) This can be used by the companies that manufacture motor that has the r.p.m. less than 9900 can use this device it shows the maximum and the average speed of the motor or rotating part.

(d) It can be used as optical counter just the thing is that the material to be counted should reflect the infrared radiation.

(e) It can be used to check the r.p.m for the hard disk drives, floppy disk drives in the field of electronics.

(f) When choosing a motorcycle tachometer there is a decent selection of manufacturers to choose from. Autometer tachometers are a brand that are well known. Each of these companies make a quality Tach for bikes. Autometer makes Tach's for cars and has expanded to making them for motor cycles as well. This line is called Pro-Cycle. When it comes to choosing the right Tach it is important to keep in mind the application that you are going to use it for. They are fairly easy to install and have a range of up too 9,000 RPM. Since most bikes have high revving engines it is important to find one that suits your application. Autometer Tachometers are mostly electronic and come in a variety of sizes and variations. Their is bound to be one that suits your application. Autometer also makes tachometers that have integrated shift lights or you can buy the shift light kit by itself. In order to use a shift light you will also need a RPM activated module and a RPM Pill module kit. You can also choose from a black or white face as well as the diameter of the gauge. Lightning Performance makes a pretty cool looking electronic tachometer. I am currently of currently aware of 3 different Lightning Performance tach's. They are all micro gauges and are easily mounted on to a handlebar. They integrate very well in to most motor cycle’s lines. Lightning Performance Electronic tachometers are CNC machined from a 5 lb brick of billet aluminum which is then chrome plated for a show quality finish.

BENEFITS2 The following are the benefits of the contact less tachometer

(a) It takes less than a minute to read out r.p.m.(b) It reads the r.p.m. with the maximum speed and the average

speed.(c) It gives better performance and reliability.(d) It saves the energy consumed by the conventional tachometer.(e) Since it is working with the nine volt battery so it can be used

even if the electricity is not there.(f) It is portable so we can carry it to large rotating machine to note

the r.p.m.(g) It does not slow the speed of the main motor as it was in the

conventional contact tachometer.(h) It does not interfere with the motor on test because we are not

touching any component.(i) It refreshes the L.C.D. after the reset key is pressed.(j) It can hold the reading if hold key is pressed.(k) It can measure accurately in the range of 10cm.(l) It has a flexible I.R.proximity sensor which can be turned round

according to the requirement.(m) It does not cause the friction and the wear and tear of the

components as in the conventional tachometer.(n) Light in weight as compared to the conventional tachometer.(o) Compact in size.(p) Simple circuitry and easy to understand.(q) Mass production may reduce the cost of Contact less

tachometer.(r) Calibrations points are given to change the capacitance.(s) It can measure maximum r.p.m. of 9900 which was less in the

conventional tachometer.(t) Easy to repair and can be extended to the wireless tachometer.(u) Unique method of setting the conversion factor.

SAFETY3 The following are the safety measure use to kept in mind while making this

project and using it.(a) Do not touch the sensor this may lead to wrong reading.

(b)Keep the sensor away from the rotating part because mishandling may lead to damage of the sensor.

(c) The sensor should be kept at the safe place.(d)The microcontroller should be mounted properly. If it is not

mounted properly then the pins get bent and break this make the microcontroller useless.

CONCLUSION4 It gives me immense pleasure that I have completed my project successfully.

This project helps me to enhance my skill. By selecting this project I have understood the applications of the microcontroller. I understood how the microcontroller reduces the circuit and performs the function accurately. It was my great opportunity to work on this project “Contact-Less Tachometer”. By this project I have learnt the P.C.B. designing, layout preparation, burning of the microcontroller, tinning. It gives me immense pleasure that I have learnt something new from the project which helps me in my technical life. This project helps the mechanical students to know the r.p.m. of any motor, fan, engine shaft which can helps him to decide the engine performance. The electrical students are also benefited by this project that they do not have to wait for minutes to know the r.p.m. of the fan. The application of this project are very much interesting because now a days this technology is being used in the car and the bikes, which replaces the analog speedometer by digital contact less tachometer which first find out the r.p.m. then calculates the speed in Km/Hr.

5 The mounting of the component is very interesting because with precautions the components are damaged. I have done the component mounting carefully. I like the drilling of the P.C.B. because it requires concentration and attention on the target point. The etching of the P.C.B. is a very interesting because the fine tracks are formed by this process. I think my efforts may leads to new innovation in extending this project into the wireless Tachometer. I am glad that I have created something new. I have prepared this report that one can easily understand and if anyone wants to extend it can easily find each and every information. In this report I have explained the project step by step so one follow those steps and can make this project and can extend according to the requirement. This report look like a simple project but it is mine of knowledge about the new electronics components. By this project I have understood the power of microcontroller.

6 I conclude with these words that whatever I have understood in this project I have given it as a record for future reference which can help my junior to know about the new innovation of hardware interfacing. This project will help me to gain knowledge. I understood what is the difference between the theoretical

knowledge and the practical knowledge. How the theoretical knowledge can be used to make new project and utilize our potential in new innovation. In making this project I have found many problems relating to the component availability. I have found the substitute to every component which has the same operation and working. This helps me to know different types of components. I have learnt how components are classified according to the performance, company. I have learnt the specifications of the components. Different companies manufacture the same components with different name and the serial number. Finally, I would like to say that my concept can be utilized in the manufacturing of the Contact less tachometer.