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The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden PERSGA Technical Series No. 7 PERSGA Jeddah 2003 Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Surveys 1990 to 2000 Summary and Recommendations

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenThe document “Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Surveys 1990 to 2000 Summary and Recommendations” was prepared by Dr. Nicolas

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The Regional Organization for theConservation of the Environment of the Red

Sea and Gulf of Aden

PERSGA Technical Series No. 7

PERSGA Jeddah 2003

Coral Reefs in the Red Seaand Gulf of AdenSurveys 1990 to 2000

Summary and Recommendations

PERSGA - ‘The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Seaand Gulf of Aden’ is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the conservation of thecoastal and marine environments in the region.

The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (JeddahConvention) 1982, provides the legal foundation for PERSGA. The Secretariat of the Organizationwas formally established in Jeddah following the Cairo Declaration of September 1995. The PERSGAmember states are Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen.

PERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom of Saudi ArabiaTel.: +966-2-657-3224. Fax: +966-2-652-1901. Email: [email protected]

The document “Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Surveys 1990 to 2000 Summary andRecommendations” was prepared by Dr. Nicolas Pilcher in 2000 with the assistance of severalco-authors as listed in the table of contents.

The work was carried out through the ‘Habitats and Biodiversity Conservation’ Component of theStrategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, a Global Environment Facility (GEF)funded project implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank, with supplementary funding from theIslamic Development Bank (IDB).

The comments expressed in this document represent the opinion of the author(s) acting in their own capacities and do notnecessarily represent the views of PERSGA or the agencies that assisted with funding the preparation of the report. Any outlinesor descriptions presented do not imply the expression of any opinion, on the part of PERSGA or any funding agency, concerningthe legal boundaries of any state, territory, city limit, frontier or boundary.

© 2002 PERSGA

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without thepermission of the copyright holders provided that acknowledgement of the source is given. PERSGA would appreciate receivinga copy of any publication that uses this material as a source. This publication may not be copied, or distributed electronically, forresale or other commercial purposes without prior permission, in writing, from PERSGA.

This publication may be cited as:PERSGA/GEF. 2003. Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Surveys 1990 to 2000 Summaryand Recommendations. PERSGA Technical Series No. 7. PERSGA, Jeddah.

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. iiAuthors’ Addresses.............................................................................................. iiList of Acronyms ............................................................................................... iii

Executive Summary ............................................................................................ vRésumé Analytique .......................................................................................... xiii

Coral Reefs of Egypt........................................................................................... 1Nicolas Pilcher & Mohammed M. Abou Zaid

Coral Reefs of Sudan ........................................................................................ 13Nicolas Pilcher & Dirar Nasr

Coral Reefs of Djibouti ..................................................................................... 27Nicolas Pilcher and Nasser Djama Abdi

Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti .............................................................................. 43Nicolas Pilcher and Nasser Djama Abdi

Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia............................................ 59Nicolas Pilcher, Robert Baldwin, Mike Schleyer

Coral Reefs of Yemen ....................................................................................... 71Nicolas Pilcher & Lyndon DeVantier

Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia ............................................................................. 93Nicolas Pilcher & Lyndon DeVantier

Coral Reefs of Jordan...................................................................................... 117Nicolas Pilcher & Salim M. Al-Moghrabi

References ....................................................................................................... 125PERSGA Publications ..................................................................................... 135Executive Summary - (Arabic)

i

Table of Contents

ii

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Acknowledgements

This document was prepared under the patronage and guidance of the Regional Organization forthe Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Funding wasprovided by the Global Environment Facility (UNDP, UNEP, World Bank) and the IslamicDevelopment Bank through implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea andGulf of Aden. Our sincere thanks are offered to Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq (Secretary General) for his supportand commitment to the research undertaken within the region. All assistance is gratefullyacknowledged.

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the following for their assistance with thecountry reports: Aden Atteyeh and David Obura (Djibouti); Ashraf El Cibahy, Yaser Awadalla, EkramAmine, Mohammed Shokry, Mohammed Kotb, Mahmoud Hanafy and Stephen Jameson (Egypt);Fareed Krupp and Abdullah Alsuhaibany (Saudi Arabia); Ali Farah Ali and Yusuf Omar Ali (Somalia);Mohammed Younis and Fareed Krupp (Sudan); Abdullah Alsuhaibany, Fareed Krupp, CatherineCheung, Emre Turak, Majed Al-Sorimi, Khaled Hariri, Malik Abdul-Aziz, Fouad Naseeb Saeed, JonBrodie, Glenn De’ath, John Turner, Rebecca Klaus, Uwe Zajonz and Jeremy Kemp (Yemen). Wewould also like to thank Prof. Dr. Abdulaziz Abuzinada and Dr. Hany Tatwany at the NationalCommission for Wildlife Conservation and Development for giving us access to material presented atthe International Workshop on the Extent and Impact of Coral Bleaching in the Arabian Region, heldin Riyadh in February 2000.

Authors’ AddressesNicolas PilcherMarine Research Foundation1-3A-7 The Peak, Lorong Puncak 188400 Kota kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

Mohammed M. Abou ZaidMarine Biology and Fish Science Section, Faculty ofScience, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt.

Abdullah AlsuhaibanyPERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom ofSaudi Arabia.

Nasser Djama AbdiNPC PERSGA-SAP, P.O. Box 616, Djibouti.

Dirar NasrPERSGA, P.O. Box 53662, Jeddah 21583, Kingdom ofSaudi Arabia.

Lyndon DeVantierJICA-NCWCD Study Team, P.O. Box 61681, Riyadh11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Salim M. Al-MoghrabiMarine Science Station, P.O. Box 195, Aqaba 77111,Jordan.

iii

ARA Aqaba Regional AuthorityALECSO Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific OrganizationCAMP Coastal Area Management ProgrammeCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCERD Centre for Scientific Research (Djibouti)CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and FloraCOTS Crown of thorns starfishCZM Coastal Zone ManagementDANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDAP Di-ammonium PhosphateDC Dead CoralEARO Eastern Africa Regional Office (IUCN)EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs AgencyEFZ Economic Free Zone (Sudan)EGPC Egyptian General Petroleum CorporationEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentEPC Environment Protection Council (Yemen)EPCCOM Environmental Protection Coordinating CommitteeENSO El Nino Southern OscillationEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFIMPA Farasan Islands Marine Protected AreaFRT Fisheries Research TeamGAFRD General Authority for Fish Resources Development (Egypt)GCC Gulf Cooperation CouncilGCEP General Corporation for Environmental Protection (Jordan)GCRMN Global Coral Reef Monitoring NetworkGEF Global Environment FacilityGIS Geographical Information SystemGNPOC Greater Nile Petroleum Operating CompanyGTA General Tourism Authority (Yemen)HC Hard CoralHCENR Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (Sudan)HCEP Higher Council for Environmental Protection (Jordan)ICED International Center for Environment and Development (Egypt)ICRI International Coral Reef InitiativeICLARM International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources ManagementICZM Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementIMO International Maritime Organization of the United NationsITMD International Tyre Manufacturing and Distribution (Sudan)IUCN World Conservation Union (formerly International Union for the Conservation of

Nature)JICA Japanese International Co-operation AgencyJPMC Jordan Phosphate Mines CompanyJREDS Jordan Royal Ecological Diving SocietyJSS Jordan Standards SpecificationsKFUPM-RI King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Research Institute

List of Acronyms

iv

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

KISR Kuwait Institute for Scientific ResearchLMR Living Marine ResourcesMARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ShipsMAW Ministry of Agriculture and Water MEMAC Marine Emergency Mutual Aid CentreMEPA Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (Saudi Arabia)MFW Ministry of Fish Wealth (Yemen)MoD Ministry of DefenceMOU Memorandum of UnderstandingMP Marine Park (Jordan)MPA Marine Protected AreaMPD Ministry of Planning and Development (Yemen)MSRRC Marine Science Research and Resources Centre (Yemen)MSS Marine Science Station (Jordan)MSY Maximum Sustainable YieldNCWCD National Commission for Wildlife Conservation & Development (Saudi Arabia)NCICZM National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (Egypt)NEAP National Environmental Action PlanNGO Non-governmental OrganizationNIOF National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Egypt)NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA)NOSCP National Oil Spill Contingency PlanNPK Nitrogen Phosphorus PotassiumODA Overseas Development AuthorityPCMA Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs (Yemen)PDRY Peoples Democratic Republic of YemenPERSGA Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and

Gulf of AdenRAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl HabitatREA Rapid Environmental AssessmentRMP Regional Master Plan (for Marine Protected Areas)ROPME Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine EnvironmentROV Remotely Operated VehicleRSG Red Sea Governorate (Egypt)SAP Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenSCUBA Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus SD Standard DeviationSES Saudi Environment SocietySMCC Sudan Marine Conservation CommitteeSRRP Somali Relief and Rehabilitation ProgrammeSWCC Saline Water Conversion Corporation (Saudi Arabia)TAPLINE Trans-Arabian PipelineTDA Tourism Development Agency (Egypt)TS Technical Secretariat (Yemen)UN United NationsUNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the SeaUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNDOS United Nations Development Office for SomaliaUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNOPS United Nations Office for Project ServicesUSAID United States Aid for International DevelopmentWAJ Water Authority of JordanYAR Yemen Arab Republic

The status of coral reefs in Egypt, Sudan,Djibouti, Somalia, Yemen, Saudi Arabia andJordan1 are presented, collated from surveysundertaken in the late 1990s.

Corals in this region are found primarily onthe following:

fringing reefs along the mainland andaround islands,

barrier reefs,

pinnacles,

atolls.

Several other habitats contain corals,including:

submerged patch reefs,

coralline red algal beds,

relic reef formations,

volcanic rock flows.

In general, reef health was considered good,with 30 to 50 % live coral cover at mostlocations and more than 50 % total cover onaverage. Coral diversity and reef-associatedfauna were considered amongst the highest inthe Indian Ocean region. Coral bleaching causedextensive die-offs in the northern-central RedSea in 1998, and on the Sudanese coast a redalgal film was present over most shallow reefs.

The bleaching followed a period when seasurface temperatures exceeded mean monthlyaverages by more than one degree Celsius(Centigrade).

A review of the major threats to coral reefswas compiled during the preliminary phase ofthe Strategic Action Programme for the Red Seaand Gulf of Aden (World Bank 1998). Theyinclude:

land-filling and dredging for coastalexpansion,

destructive fishing methods,

shipping and maritime activities,

sewage and other pollution discharges;lack of public awareness,

damage from the recreational SCUBAdiving industry,

insufficient implementation of legalinstruments that effect reef conservation.

Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide isexpected to alter the alkalinity of the world’soceans over the next century, making itincreasingly difficult for corals and othercarbonate secreting organisms to grow. Presentpredictions are that calcification rates may slowby as much as two-thirds over the next 50 years,with the potential for catastrophic effects on reefgrowth and marine biodiversity in general(KLEYPAS et al. 1999).

v

Executive Summary

1 Country order anticlockwise from Egypt around theRed Sea.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

The countries of the region have becomesignatories to a number of international,regional, bilateral or multilateral agreementsand other legal instruments. Each country alsopossesses a relatively complete set of nationallaws and regulations. However, theimplementation of these remains generally poorand in some cases there is no implementation orenforcement.

For coral reef conservation to improve andto be effective in the Region, there is a need forincreased public awareness, increasedimplementation and enforcement of nationaland international legal instruments, and theexecution of coastal management plans thatintegrate coastal development, pollution control,and tourism with the maintenance ofenvironmental quality in marine habitats.

Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt is home to over1800 km of diverse coral reef habitats along thewestern Red Sea coast and in the Gulfs of Suezand Aqaba. Data is drawn from surveys carriedout by staff from the Suez Canal and the Al-Azhar Universities from 1997-99, a recentoverview of reef status and a RapidEnvironmental Assessment at several frequentlyvisited dive sites.

Corals accounted for 55 % of reef cover innon-sheltered areas and 85 % of cover insheltered areas. The percentage of live coralcover was highly variable along the coast, withthe highest cover occurring on reef walls and theleading edges of the reefs. Southern reefshoused a greater diversity of fish species thannorthern reefs. Exposed reefs contained a higherdiversity of fishes than sheltered reefs. Until

recently the reefs were considered healthy andfree of major anthropogenic stresses but latelysedimentation from land reclamation works, oilspills and physical damage from the recreationalSCUBA diving industry have taken their toll,and coral cover at many places has dropped byas much as 30 %. Natural threats includeflooding, disease and predator outbreaks2.

Egypt currently has four marine protectedareas, which include coral reefs, establishedaround the Sinai Peninsula. Seven additionalareas have been proposed to the Government forprotected status. Three national institutions arein charge of the management of coral reefresources, the Tourism Development Agency,the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency andlocal governments through three Red SeaGovernorates. In addition, several secondaryagencies play a role in environmentalmanagement, including the Egyptian GeneralPetroleum Corporation and the NationalCommittee for Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement. A number of tertiary agencies arealso responsible for the protection of the marineenvironment.

Egypt is a signatory to a number ofinternational conventions under which theconservation of coral reef resources is stipulatedor indirectly addressed. The country has alsopassed a number of laws and presidentialdecrees that give coral reefs direct or indirectprotection. To improve the current response to,and mitigation of, natural and anthropogenicthreats, the development of an integrated coastalarea management plan, the review andupgrading of existing regulations and moreefficient monitoring and control of pollutionsources and coastal development are required.

2 Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS)Acanthaster planci may be caused by overfishing ofreef-associated fish predators in the familiesLethrinidae, Balistidae and Tetraododontidae (ORMONDet al. 1990).

vii

Executive Summary

Sudan

The Sudanese Red Sea coast isapproximately 750 km long inclusive of baysand inlets, and encompasses three primary coralhabitats:

barrier reefs,

fringing reefs and

Sanganeb, an oceanic atoll.

Surveys in 1997 and 1999 indicated that thecoral reefs were in moderate to good health,despite reports of an extensive coverage of algaeover a high proportion of the fringing reefs. Thereefs are patchy at depths down to 10 m, withaverage live coral cover ranging from 5 to 75 %.Below 10 m, the reefs contain healthy coloniesof framework corals. Fish health was consideredgood and over-fishing was not a severe problemon the coral reefs. Key indicator species wereabundant and diversity appeared high relative toother Red Sea sites. The crown-of-thornsstarfish was not recorded in plague numbers atany of the Sudanese reefs. In 1999, bleachedcorals were estimated to cover 14 % of thesubstrate. There is one established protectedarea: Sanganeb Marine National Park. Fourother areas have been proposed as protectoratesand await government decisions andimplementation.

Fisheries play a minor role in the economybut are important at a subsistence level. Neithercommercial nor artisanal landings reach theestimated maximum sustainable yields.Fisheries are believed to have great potential forgrowth, but face logistical problems such asrefrigeration, transport and market access.

The most severe threats to reefs come fromshipping, and dredging for ports andinfrastructure development. Though currentlysmall-scale, tourism has a negative impact on

the reefs. Both anchoring and fin damage bydivers contribute to reef impairment.

Sudan has much of the infrastructure neededfor regular monitoring and effectivemanagement of coral reef resources, but manyof the present problems with coral reefconservation are attributed to a lack of lawenforcement, a lack of awareness, a weak legalframework and the absence of surveillance. Anintegrated coastal management plan that takesinto consideration shipping, coastaldevelopment, pollution and natural resources,along with effective and enforcedimplementation, would address most of theissues mentioned.

Djibouti

Djibouti has a coastline of 372 km. Thenorth coast is generally shallow and sandy withoccasional coral outcrops, while the Sawabiarchipelago east of Ras Siyyan is fringed bycoral reefs. The southern coast is shallow withpoorly developed coral reefs, linked to the cold-water upwelling from the Indian Ocean. Most ofthe coasts and territorial waters are still in alargely pristine state, but there are signs ofdegradation and threats to the environment areincreasing rapidly.

Two short, but extensive, reef assessments in1998 and one comprehensive subtidal survey in1999 have provided a wealth of information onDjibouti’s reefs. At the south-western tip of IleMaskali, turbidity was high and the reefs werevery poor. Iles Moucha and Maskali hadmoderate to good live coral cover (> 30 %).Live coral on the reefs to the north of Mouchaand Maskali was moderate to good (25 to 40 %cover). The reefs of Khor Ambado had anaverage hard coral cover of 52 %. Speciesdiversity of benthic and sessile organisms waslow. Porites and Pocillopora were the dominantreef forming-corals on the reef edge and reef

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

slope. Coral and other fauna were relatively rareon the back reef and reef flat. Eastwards fromKhor Ambado the reef was in moderate to goodcondition with coral cover up to 80 %. Thestatus of reefs at Iles des Sept Frères was good(cover averaged 34 %) and most of thearchipelago had balanced and healthy reefs. Nosignificant signs of recent bleaching wererecorded on the reef face or reef flat. In 1998,166 species of coral were recorded.

The reefs of Djibouti are under pressurefrom many anthropogenic sources, primarilytourism and sewage discharges. The majoreconomic sectors in the coastal zone aremaritime transport and port-related activities.Pressure is particularly high in the vicinity of thecapital. Fisheries play a limited role, althoughsubsistence fisheries are locally important.

Djibouti has two declared marine protectedareas, while two additional areas are proposedfor protected status, one of which is of regionalimportance. Several key actions at the nationallevel in the form of legislation andimplementation could reduce the risks of ship-based pollution and oil spills. A dedicatedresearch and monitoring programme that fedback into coastal area management plans wouldcontribute greatly to efficient conservationactions.

Somalia, north coast

The north coast is generally shallow withexposed, high-energy sandy beaches. Thecentral portion consists of shallow, sandyshorelines with occasional outcrops and cliffsthat may extend into the shallow water.

Three short surveys along this coast between1966 and 1999 provide the bulk of the currentinformation on the status of coral reefs. Each ofthese used simple, rapid assessment methods.

Coral reefs of limited development occurnear Ras Khansiir, Ras Cuuda, Siyara, off ElGirdi and west of Berbera. Reefs are shallow (1to 10 m) and have developed on fossilised rock.The coral communities on the reefs variedconsiderably in condition. All have beenaffected by bleaching to some degree. Theshallow reefs to the east of Berbera had sufferednearly total mortality. Deeper reefs (2 to 5 m)were in better condition. At the Saardin Islands(Saad ad-Din), coral diversity, fish populationsand individual fish sizes were large. A total of 69species of scleractinian coral, 11 species ofalcyonacean coral and two species of fire coralwere found in one study. In general the area isboth productive and relatively pristine, apartfrom the deleterious effects of coral bleachingand, to a lesser extent, predation by crown-of-thorns starfish on the coral reefs.

Somali fishermen target a limited number ofdemersal stocks, bound by fishing gearlimitations, and a range of coral reef fish.Fishing by Somali people is limited and nearlyentirely artisanal in nature. Though stillunderdeveloped, these fisheries are essential forthe livelihood of a large proportion of thecoastal population. Along the north coast, mostcommercial operations are carried out byforeign vessels.

Three areas along the north coast have beenproposed for protection, of which only theAibat, Saad ad-Din and Saba Wanak area (twoislands and an adjacent stretch of coastline nearZeila [Saylac]) includes coral reefs. The effectsof human activity on the environment appear tobe minimal, the only exceptions being therelatively heavy, opportunistic exploitation ofturtles and sharks. Fisheries and transport areonly a small component of the national economyand are not significant threats to coral reefs.

Although signatory to several conventionsand protocols Somalia’s ability to effectively

ix

Executive Summary

implement international or national legislationis limited.

The two key requirements for improvedconservation of coral reefs are funding andpersonnel. Conservation of coral reefs iscurrently given a lower priority than nationbuilding and the eradication of poverty. There isa need to develop a system of marine protectedareas, and for the adoption of oil spill responsemeasures, broad-scale environmental educationand continued research and monitoring for earlydetection of reef deterioration.

Yemen

The Republic of Yemen lies in the south-western corner of the Arabian Peninsula andincludes the Socotra Island Group. The coastlineis about 2,200 km long, roughly one third ofwhich is in the Red Sea and the remaining two-thirds facing the Gulf of Aden. Only about 25 %of Yemen’s Red Sea coastline supports coralreefs. The most highly developed reefs occuroffshore, in the vicinity of the many islands thatcharacterise the southern Red Sea. Only 5 % ofthe Gulf of Aden coast supports either fringingcoral communities or reefs, while there isextensive coral growth around the SocotraIsland Group.

Several major projects have recentlyassessed the distribution, composition and statusof living marine resources around the Yemencoastline. More than 300 species of reefbuilding corals and 600 species of reef-associated fishes have been identified onYemeni reefs and coral communities. Inparticular, coral and fish communities of theSocotra Island Group are extremely diverse. Atotal of about 176 species of stony corals havebeen recorded from the Red Sea coast of Yemen,with richness at individual sites ranging from 1to 76 species. At least 19 new records have been

identified for the southern Red Sea. Diversity islower along the mainland Gulf of Aden coast,which is thought to support some 100 coralspecies. The area remains relatively poorlystudied. The Belhaf - Bir Ali area supports themost concentrated collection of coralcommunities known from the northern Gulf ofAden, with large coral patches developedoffshore from the Bir Ali village and coralcommunities fringing the offshore islands.These communities display moderate to highdiversity (about 100 spp. of Scleractinia) andwide-ranging coral cover (< 10 to > 75 %).

The Socotra Island Group supports a diversefauna of about 250 stony coral species, placingit among the richest sites in the western IndianOcean. Most extensive coral development hasbeen found on north facing coasts where coralcover and diversity are higher than inmacroalgal-dominated south coast locationswhich are more exposed to the south-westmonsoon.

Coverage of stony corals, dead corals, softcorals and algae were all highly variable amongdifferent sites within the Red Sea, Gulf of Adenand Socotra Island Group. Ratios of live/deadcoral cover at individual sites were relatedlargely to the differential effects of recentdisturbance, notably coral bleaching in 1998.Reefs in the northern Yemeni Red Sea showedlow live coral cover (average 17 %), high deadcoral cover (average 34 %) and a highpercentage cover of macroalgae (20 %). Thenorthern and central Yemeni coast and nearshoreislands had very low live coral cover (3 %) andhigh dead coral cover (average 34 %). Aroundthe Socotra Island Group, the cover of stonycorals ranged from less than 1 % to more than75 %, and in large patches (about 1,000 m2)attained almost 100 %. Overall, living stonycoral cover averaged about 20 %, with highestcover (about 35 %) on the outer islands.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Bleaching effects in 1998 were patchilydistributed around the Socotra Island Group andthe north-east Gulf of Aden. At the worstaffected sites, more than half the species wereinjured and about half of the live coral coverwas killed. Pocilloporids, table and branchingAcropora spp., and fire corals Millepora spp.were the worst affected.

Fishing is a traditional profession forthousands of Yemenis. Total annual catches varybetween 90,000 and 95,000 metric tonnes. Reef-based fisheries, for the most part, areunderdeveloped and at a subsistence level.

Only in recent years has the protection ofcoral reefs been addressed. There is one officialprotected area - the Socotra Island Group - anda further six have been proposed. Coastaldevelopment, the petroleum industry andmaritime shipping pose a significant risk to reefsin the form of untreated sewage, land filling andhydrocarbon pollution.

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia’s Red Sea coastline measuresapproximately 1,840 km. Coral reefs are foundfringing the entire length and the offshoreislands. Several major surveys have been carriedout along the coast in the 1980s and 1990s, themost recent being a joint study between theNational Commission for Wildlife Conservationand Development and the Japanese InternationalCo-operation Agency. Reefs are generally in agood condition, with the exception of those nearJeddah and Yanbu. In the early 1980s, 194species of corals were recorded with the greatestdiversity from the central portion.

Bleaching caused mass coral mortality in thecentral-northern Saudi Arabian Red Sea in late1998. Bleaching was patchily distributed andhighly variable in intensity. The most intense

bleaching occurred near Rabigh, where morethan 65 % of total coral cover was bleached orhad died recently. Significant levels of coralmortality were observed along the southern RedSea, where at some sites (i.e. Abalat Islands)live coral cover declined from 80 % in 1993 toabout 10 % in 1999. Mean monthly sea surfacetemperatures were found to be unusually high(> 32 °C) three months prior to the first reportsof coral mortality.

Threats to Saudi Arabia’s coral reefsoriginate primarily through industrialdevelopment and maritime transport, includingoil spills, land-filling, pollutant discharges andeffluents from desalination activities. Mostacute damage to reefs is localised around majorurban areas.

Many marine areas have been proposed forprotected status, dating back to the mid and late1980s. However, with the exception of theFarasan Islands, protected in 1996, no othermarine protected areas have been established onthe Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast.

Saudi Arabia has carried out a number ofprogrammes and adopted a number of legalmeasures to conserve coral reefs. These includelaws on pollution discharges and theestablishment of protected areas. However, anumber of issues remain unresolved or arepoorly addressed, most importantly - theenforcement of existing emission standards,industrial development (particularly land-filling), and the integration of the public andprivate sectors in reef conservation.

Jordan

The Jordanian coastline extendsapproximately 27 km along the north-easternreaches of the Gulf of Aqaba. Approximately30 % of the coast is used for port activities.

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Executive Summary

Fringing reefs border up to 50 % of the coast,supporting a high diversity of coral andassociated fauna (158 coral species in 51 generaand over 280 fish species).

Jordan’s coral reefs are in good condition,supporting up to 90 % cover of scleractiniancorals. No bleaching events were recorded in1998, possibly as a result of Jordan’s morenortherly latitude.

There are no official marine protected areas,although the area within the Marine Stationgrounds known as the Aqaba Coral ReefProtected Area is, de facto, a protected area andis the only proposed protected area in thecountry.

Jordan has revised its legal and regulatoryframework for environmental protection at anational and international level. The country isparty to eight international conventions ortreaties that directly or indirectly have an impacton the conservation of coral reefs.

The Gulf of Aqaba is highly susceptible topollution. At present pollution is limited andlocalised. The main threats are oil spills anddischarges, industrial discharges, municipal andship-based sewage and solid waste. Thedevelopment of the tourism sector might alsofurther threaten the coral reefs.

Summary

To improve the conservation status of coralreefs, there is a need to strengthen the overallinstitutional capabilities of governmentagencies. This can be achieved through thehiring and training of staff, the implementationof environmental protection laws andregulations, and improving regional cooperationto co-ordinate and enhance the efforts ofindividual Gulf-bordering nations. Severaladditional measures are also needed. Theseinclude the development of an integrated coastalzone management strategy, capacity building atthe legislative, management and operationallevels, the establishment of marine protectedareas and the harmonisation of existingregulations at the national and internationallevel.

xii

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Les résultats d’études menées à la fin desannées 1990 portant sur l’état des récifscoralliens en Égypte, au Soudan, à Djibouti, enSomalie, au Yémen, en Arabie Saoudite et enJordanie1 sont detailles dans ce rapport.

Les coraux de cette région sontprincipalement

des récifs frangeants les continents et lesîles,

des récifs-barrières,

des pinacles et

des atolls.

On y trouve également plusieurs autreshabitats, notamment

des platiers de corail submergés,

des tapis d’algues rouges coralliennes,

des récifs reliques et

des coulées de roches volcaniques.

En général, les récifs de la région sontconsidérés comme etant en bonne santé, avecune couverture de corail vivant de 30 à 50 % surla plupart des sites et une couverture totalemoyenne de plus de 50 %. La diversité des

coraux et de la faune corallienne est considéréecomme l’une des plus élevées dans la région del’océan Indien. Un épisode de blanchissement aproduit la mort de vastes étendues de corauxdans la mer Rouge septentrionale et centrale en1998 , et sur la côte soudanaise. Une pelliculed’algues rouges recouvre la plupart des récifsdes fonds.

Parmi les grandes menaces qui pèsent sur lesrécifs coralliens figurent

le remblayage de la mer et le dragagepour l’aménagement du littoral,

les méthodes de pêche destructives,

les dégâts causés par les plongeurs sous-marins,

le transport maritime et la navigation,

les rejets des eaux usées et d’autrespolluants,

le manque de sensibilisation du public et

l’absence d’ application des dispositionsjuridiques relatives à la conservation desrécifs coralliens.

Les pays de la région sont signataires demultiples conventions internationales,régionales, bilatérales et multilatérales ainsi quede divers autres instruments juridiques. Chaquepays possède également un ensemblerelativement complet de lois et de règlementsnationaux. En revanche, c’est généralement au

xiii

Résumé Analytique

1 Pays classés par ordre anti-horaire à partir de l’Égypteselon leur situation géographique autour de la MerRouge.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

niveau de la mise en œuvre que se situent lesfaiblesses. Dans certains cas même, celle-ci faitentièrement défaut et les lois restent lettremorte.

Il faut, pour améliorer véritablement laconservation des récifs coralliens dans la région:accroître la sensibilisation du public, renforcerla mise en œuvre et l’application desdispositions juridiques nationales etinternationales et exécuter des plans de gestionintégrée des zones côtières qui tiennent comptedu développement de ces zones, de la luttecontre la pollution et de la réglementation desactivités touristiques d’une manière équilibréeet respectueuse de la qualité de l’environnementet des habitats marins.

Égypte

La République arabe d’Égypte possede plusde 1,800 km de cote comprenant la côteoccidentale de la mer Rouge et les golfe de Suezet d’Aqaba. On y trouve des récifs coralliens.Les données concernant ces habitatsproviennent d’études effectuées par le personneldes Universités du Canal de Suez et d’Al-Azharde 1997 à 1999, d’un récent examen général del’état des récifs coralliens et d’évaluationsenvironnementales rapides menées sur des sitesde plongée fortement fréquentés.

Les coraux représentent 55 % de lacouverture récifale dans les zones non abritéeset 85 % dans les zones abritées. Les taux decouverture corallienne vivante présentent defortes variations le long des côtes; les plusélevés étant observés a la peripherie des récifs.La diversité de la faune ichtyologique est plusgrande sur les récifs du sud que sur ceux du nordet sur les récifs exposés que sur les récifsabrités. Jusqu’à une date récente, les récifsétaient considérés comme etant en bonne santéet exempts de stress d’origine anthropique maisdepuis peu, la sédimentation résultant des

projets d’aménagement des terres, lesdéversements d’hydrocarbures et les dégâtscausés par les activités de plongée sous marinequi ont eu un grave impact : en de nombreuxpoints, la couverture corallienne a diminuéparfois de 30 %. Parmi les menaces naturellesfigurent les inondations, les maladies et lesinfestations de prédateurs.

L’Égypte possède actuellement quatre airesmarines protégées qui englobent les récifscoralliens de la péninsule du Sinaï. Leclassement de sept autres zones en tant qu’airesmarines protégées a été proposé aux pouvoirspublics. Trois institutions nationales sontchargées de la gestion des ressources des récifscoralliens:

l’Agence de développement dutourisme,

l’Agence des affaires environnementalesegyptienne et

les administrations locales parl’intermédiaire des trois gouvernorats dela Mer Rouge.

Par ailleurs, plusieurs organismessecondaires interviennent dans la gestion del’environnement, notamment la SociétéGénérale du Pétrole Égyptien et la CommissionNationale de Gestion Intégrée des ZonesCôtières. Plusieurs organismes tertiaires sontégalement chargés de la protection del’environnement marin.

L’Égypte est signataire de diversesconventions internationales en vertu desquelleselle a pris des engagements, directs ou indirects,en matière de conservation des ressources desrécifs coralliens. Le pays a égalementpromulgué un certain nombre de lois et dedécrets présidentiels protégeant directement ouindirectement les récifs coralliens. Pourrenforcer les mesures actuelles visant à faire

xv

face aux menaces naturelles et anthropiques et àles atténuer, il s’avère nécessaire d’élaborer unplan de gestion intégrée des zones côtières,d’examiner et de renforcer les règlements envigueur et d’exercer un suivi et un contrôle plusefficace des sources de pollution et del’aménagement du littoral.

Soudan

La façade soudanaise de la Mer Rouges’étend sur une longueur d’environ 750 km, ycompris les baies et les bras de mer. On y trouvetrois types de coraux:

des récifs-barrières,

des récifs frangeants et

un atoll océanique a Sanganeb.

L’état de santé des récifs coralliens estconsidéré comme modéré à bon, bien qu’il aitété signalé récemment la présence d’une vastecouverture algale sur une forte proportion desrécifs frangeants. À moins de 10 m deprofondeur, les récifs sont discontinus et lamoyenne de la couverture de coraux vivantsvarie de 5 à 75 %. À plus de 10 m, les récifscontiennent des colonies coralligènes en bonnesanté. La santé de la faune ichtyologiquerécifale est considérée comme bonne et lasurpêche ne constitue pas un problème grave.Les principales espèces utilisees commeindicateurs sont abondantes et leur diversité estélevée par rapport aux autres sites de la MerRouge. Il n’a pas été observé une epidemied’Acanthaster planci, étoiles de mer ditescouronnes d’épines (CdE) sur les récifssoudanais. En 1999, on estimait que les corauxblanchis couvraient 14 % du substrat. Il existeune aire protégée classée, le Parc national marinde Sanganeb. Quatre autres aires ont étéproposées et l’on attend les décisions despouvoirs publics pour procéder à leur mise enplace.

Les principales activités industrielles sontles transports maritimes et les activitésportuaires connexes, mais les secteurs dutourisme et des pêcheries possèdent un fortpotentiel de croissance. La pêche, qui ne jouequ’un rôle mineur dans l’économie nationale,est importante en tant qu’activité de subsistance.Ni les prises commerciales ni les prisesartisanales n’atteignent les taux estimés derendement maximal soutenable et la croissanceactuelle des pêcheries est négligeable. Lesecteur possède, estime-t-on, un grand potentiel,mais qui ne pourra se réaliser qu’à condition derésoudre les problèmes logistiques de laréfrigération, du transport et des marchés.

Les menaces les plus graves qui pèsent surles récifs proviennent des transports maritimeset du dragage. Le secteur du tourisme contribuepar ailleurs à la degradation des coraux par lesancres de bateaux et les plongeurs . Le Soudanpossède l’essentiel de l’infrastructure requisepour exercer un suivi régulier et assurer unegestion efficace des ressources des récifscoralliens, mais nombre de problèmes actuels dela conservation des récifs sont attribuables à descarences dus a la non application des règlementset de l’absence de la sensibilisation, à lafaiblesse du cadre juridique et à l’absence desurveillance des sites. Un plan de gestion intégrédes zones côtières qui porterait sur lestransports, l’aménagement du littoral, la pollutionet les ressources naturelles, assorti de mesuresefficaces de mise en œuvre et d’application,permettrait de résoudre la plupart des problèmesévoqués ici.

Djibouti

Djibouti possède un littoral de 372 km delong. La côte nord est généralement sablonneuse,avec des eaux de faible profondeur et desaffleurements coralliens ponctuels, tandis quel’archipel des îles des Sept Freres, à l’est de RasSiyyan, est entouré de récifs frangeants. Letroncon de la cote au sud est de la ville de

Résumé Analytique

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Djibouti a des eaux peu profondes et les récifscoralliens y sont peu développés, du fait de desupwelling d’eau froide de l’océan Indien. Laplupart des eaux côtières et territoriales sontencore essentiellement intactes, mais on relèvecertains signes de dégradation et les menacesenvironnementales s’intensifient rapidement.

Deux évaluations des récifs, brèves mais devaste portée, menées en 1998 et une étudecomplète des zones subtidales effectuée en 1999ont fourni une somme considérabled’informations sur les récifs djiboutiens. Àl’extrémité sud-ouest de l’île Maskali, laturbidité est élevée et la sante des récifs s’enressent. Les îles Moucha et Maskali possèdentune bonne couverture corallienne vivante (plusde 30 %); la couverture est modérée à bonne surles récifs situés au nord de Moucha et Maskali(25 à 40 %). La couverture de coraux durs desrécifs de Khor Ambado est en moyenne de52 %. La diversité des espèces d’organismesbenthiques et sessiles est faible. Porites etPocillopora sont les coraux bâtisseursdominants en bordure des récifs et sur les pentesrécifales. Les coraux et autres espèces fauniquessont relativement rares sur l’arrière-récif et leplatier. À l’est de Khor Ambado, l’état du récifest modéré à bon, avec une couverturecorallienne atteignant 80 %. L’état des récifsaux îles des Sept Frères est bon (couverturemoyenne de 34 %) et la plupart de l’archipelpossède des récifs en équilibre et en bonnesanté. Il n’a pas été relevé de signes notables deblanchissement récent sur les faces récifales nisur les platiers. En 1998, il a été dénombré 166espèces de coraux.

Les récifs djiboutiens subissent les pressionsd’origine anthropique, principalement dutourisme et des rejets d’eaux usées. Lesprincipales activités économiques de la zonecôtière sont les transports maritimes et lesactivités portuaires connexes. Les pressions sontparticulièrement fortes au voisinage de lacapitale. Les pêcheries jouent un rôle limité

dans l’économie, mais la pêche de subsistanceest importante au niveau local.

Djibouti possède deux aires marinesprotégées classées et deux autres aires ont étéproposées, l’une d’elle étant d’importancerégionale. Plusieurs mesures clés à prendre auniveau national dispositions législativesassorties de mesures de mise en œuvrepourraient réduire les risques provenant de lapollution des navires et des déversementsd’hydrocarbures. Un programme spécialisé derecherche et de suivi qui appuierait des plans degestion des zones côtières apporterait un appuiimportant aux activités de conservation etcontribuerait à leur efficacité.

Somalie (côte nord)

La côte nord de la Somalie a généralementdes eaux peu profondes et des plages de sablefortement exposées à l’action de la mer. Dans sapartie centrale, la côte sablonneuse présente encertains points des affleurements rocheux et desfalaises qui s’étendent parfois dans les eaux defaible profondeur.

Trois brèves études menées sur cette côte de1966 à 1999, selon des méthodes simplesd’évaluation rapide, fournissent la majorité desdonnées actuellement disponibles sur l’état desrécifs coralliens.

On trouve des récifs coralliens peudeveloppe près de Raas Khansiir, de RaasCuuda et de Siyara, au large d’El Girdi et àl’ouest de Berbera. Ils sont de faible profondeur(1 à 10 m) et se sont formés sur une rochefossile. L’état des communautés coralliennesprésente des variations considérables. Toutesont été touchées par le blanchissement dans unecertaine mesure. La mortalité est presque totalepour les récifs de faible profondeur à l’est deBerbera. Les récifs plus profonds (2 à 5 m) sont

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en meilleur état. Aux îles Sa’adadin (Saad ad-Din), on note une forte diversité des coraux etune faune ichtyologique nombreuse avec desspecimens de grande taille. L’une des études arelevé la présence de 69 espèces de corailmadréporaire, 11 espèces d’alcyonaires et deuxespèces de Millepora (corail de feu). En général,la région est productive et relativement intacte,mis à part les effets destructeurs dublanchissement et, dans une mesure moindre, dela prédation des couronnes d’épines.

Les pêcheurs somaliens exploitent unnombre limité d’espèces démersales, avec deslimites imposées quant au matériel de pêche, ettoute une gamme de poissons récifaux. Leursactivités sont limitées et presque entièrementartisanales. Bien qu’encore sous-développées,ces pêcheries constituent les moyensd’existence essentiels pour une forte proportionde la population du littoral. Il existe unepêcherie de langoustes établie qui exploite lesrécifs situés à proximité de la côte sud-est. Surla côte nord, la plupart des activités de pêchecommerciale sont le fait de navires étrangers.

Il a été proposé d’établir trois aires protégéessur la côte nord, seule celle de Aibat, Sa’ adadinet Saba Wanak (deux îles et la côte adjacente àproximité de Zeila [Saylac]) possédant desrécifs coralliens. Les effets des activitésanthropiques sur l’environnement semblentminimes, à la seule exception de l’exploitationopportuniste, relativement intense, des tortues etdes requins. Les pêcheries et les transports nereprésentent qu’une petite composante del’économie nationale et ne sont pas source demenaces significatives pour les récifs coralliens.

Bien que signataire de plusieurs conventionset protocoles, la Somalie ne possède que descapacités limitées à mettre en œuvre les accordsinternationaux et les dispositions législativesnationales.

L’amélioration de la conservation des récifscoralliens dépend de l’apport de deux types deressources, à savoir les ressources financières etles ressources humaines. Par ailleurs, cetteconservation se place actuellement au troisièmerang des priorités nationales, derrière laconstruction de la nation et l’éradication de lapauvreté. Il sera nécessaire d’établir un systèmed’aires marines protégées, d’adopter desmesures de lutte contre les déversementsd’hydrocarbures, d’instaurer un systèmed’éducation environnementale de grandeenvergure et de poursuivre les activités derecherches et de suivi en vue d’une détectionprécoce de la détérioration des récifs.

Yémen

La République du Yémen est située dans larégion sud-ouest de la péninsule Arabique, sonterritoire comprenant également l’archipel deSocotra. Ses côtes s’étendent sur quelque2,200 km, dont environ un tiers se trouve sur laMer Rouge et deux tiers sur le golfe d’Aden.Seul environ un quart des côtes yéménites de laMer Rouge possède des récifs coralliens. Lesplus développés de ces récifs se trouvent aularge, à proximité des nombreuses îles de la MerRouge méridionale. Seuls 5 % de la côte dugolfe d’Aden possèdent des récifs frangeants ouautres. On constate en revanche une fortecroissance des coraux dans la zone de l’archipelde Socotra.

Plusieurs projets d’une importance majeureont permis d’évaluer récemment la répartition,la composition et l’état des ressourcesbiologiques marines de la côte du Yémen. Plusde 300 espèces de coraux bâtisseurs de récifs et600 espèces de poissons récifaux ont étérecensés sur les côtes yéménites. Lescommunautés coralliennes et la fauneichtyologique récifale de l’archipel de Socotraen particulier sont extrêmement diverses. Autotal, quelque 176 espèces de corailmadréporaire ont été recensées au Yémen sur la

Résumé Analytique

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

côte de la Mer Rouge, la diversité des sitess’échelonnant de une à 76 espèces. Pas moins de19 nouvelles espèces ont été identifiées pour laMer Rouge méridionale. La diversité estmoindre le long de la côte continentale du golfed’Aden où se trouve, estime-t-on, une centained’espèces de coraux. Cette région n’a fait l’objetque de quelques études. La zone de Belhaf-BirAli contient la plus forte concentration decommunautés coralliennes connues depuis lenord du golfe d’Aden, avec de vastes bancscoralliens au large du village de Bir Ali et desrécifs frangeants entourant les îles. La diversitéde ces communautés est de modérée à forte (unecentaine d’especes) et la couverture corallienneprésente de larges variations (moins de 10 à plusde 75 %).

L’archipel de Socotra contient une faunediverse comptant quelque 250 espèces demadrépores, ce qui le classe parmi les sites lesplus riches de l’océan Indien occidental. Ledéveloppement des coraux est le plus élevé surles côtes orientées vers le nord; la couverture etla diversité coralliennes y sont plus grandes quesur les côtes orientées vers le sud, dominées parles macroalgues et plus exposées à la moussondu sud-ouest.

Les taux de couverture des corauxmadréporaires, des coraux morts, des corauxmous et des algues présentent tous une fortevariabilité entre les différents sites de la MerRouge, du golfe d’Aden et de l’archipel deSocotra. Les variations des proportions de lacouverture de coraux vivants par rapport auxcoraux morts sont dues dans une grande mesureaux différents effets des perturbations récentes,notamment du blanchissement corallien de1998. Au Yémen, sur les côtes nord de la MerRouge, les récifs ont une faible couverture decoraux vivants (17 % en moyenne), une fortecouverture de coraux morts (34 % en moyenne)et une forte couverture de macroalgues (20 %).La côte continentale septentrionale et centrale etcelle des îles côtières présentent une couverture

de coraux vivants très basse (3 %) et une fortecouverture de coraux morts (34 % enmoyenne). Dans l’archipel de Socotra, lacouverture de madrépores varie de moins de 1 %à plus de 75 % et, sur certaines formations degrande superficie (environ 1,000 m2) avoisine100 %. Dans l’ensemble, la couverture decoraux madréporaires vivants atteint unemoyenne d’environ 20 %, les taux les plusélevés (environ 35 %) ayant été relevés sur lesîles extérieures.

Le blanchissement de 1998 a eu des effetsinégalement répartis dans l’archipel de Socotraet le nord-est du golfe d’Aden. Sur les sites lesplus durement frappés, plus de moitié desespèces ont subi des lésions et environ 50 % dela couverture de coraux vivants ont été tués. Lesespèces les plus touchées sont celles de lafamille des pocilloporidés, les coraux tabulaireset arborescents Acropora spp., et les coraux defeu Millepora sp.

La pêche est une profession traditionnellepour des milliers de Yéménites. Les prisesannuelles varient de 90,000 à 95,000 tonnesmétriques et plus de 90 % de la productionhalieutique totale du pays provient des pêcheursartisanaux. Les pêcheries récifales sont, pour laplupart, sous-développées et se situent au niveaude la subsistance.

Ce n’est que ces dernières années que laprotection des récifs coralliens a été prise enconsidération. Il existe une aire marineprotégée, celles de l’archipel de Socotra, et despropositions ont été émises en vue d’en établirsix autres. L’aménagement du littoral,l’industrie pétrolière et les transports maritimesprésentent des risques significatifs pour lesrécifs, sous forme de rejets d’eaux usées nontraitées, de remblayage de la mer et de lapollution par les hydrocarbures.

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Arabie Saoudite

Le littoral de l’Arabie Saoudite sur la MerRouge s’étend sur environ 1,840 km. Des récifscoralliens frangeants se trouvent sur toute lalongueur de ce littoral et autour des îles situéesau large de la côte. Ils sont généralement en bonétat, à l’exception de ceux qui se trouvent àproximité de Djeddah et de Yanbu. Au début desannées 1980, 194 espèces de coraux ont étérecensés dans la partie centrale de la côte, où ilsprésentent la plus grande diversité.

Le blanchissement a causé une mortalitémassive des coraux en Arabie Saoudite dans lapartie centrale et septentrionale de la Mer Rougeà la fin de l’annee 1998. Ses effets ont étéinégalement répartis et d’intensité très variable.L’épisode de blanchissement le plus intense estsurvenu près de Rabigh, où plus de 65 % de lacouverture corallienne en a subi les effets. On aconstaté une mortalité corallienne significativedans le sud de la Mer Rouge où sur certains sites(tels que les îles Abalat), la couverture de corauxvivants qui était de 80 % en 1993 n’était plusque d’environ 10 % en 1999. On a égalementnoté que la moyenne mensuelle destempératures de surface de la mer étaientanormalement élevées (plus de 32 °C) troismois avant les premiers rapports signalant lamortalité corallienne.

Les menaces auxquelles sont exposés lesrécifs coralliens en Arabie Saoudite proviennentprincipalement du développement industriel etdes transports maritimes et comprennent lesdéversements d’hydrocarbures, le remblayagede la mer et les rejets de polluants et d’effluentsdus aux activités de dessalement de l’eau demer. Les dégâts graves causés aux récifs sontlocalisés pour la plupart aux environs des grandscentres urbains.

De nombreuses propositions de créationd’aires marines protégées ont été soumises auxautorités depuis le milieu et la fin des années1980. Toutefois, à l’exception des îles Farasan,protégées depuis 1996, aucune autre aire n’a étéétablie en Arabie Saoudite sur les côtes de laMer Rouge.

L’Arabie Saoudite a exécuté plusieursprogrammes et adopté un certain nombre demesures juridiques visant à la conservation desrécifs coralliens. Ces mesures comprennent enparticulier des lois sur les rejets de polluants etsur l’établissement des aires protégées. Mais ilreste plusieurs problèmes à résoudre oupartiellement pris en considération, etnotamment l’application des normesd’émissions en vigueur, le développementindustriel, qui comprend le remblayage de lamer, et l’intégration des interventions du secteurpublic et du secteur privé pour la conservationdes récifs.

Jordanie

La Jordanie possède environ 27 km de côteà l’extrémité nord-est du golfe d’Aqaba, dontquelque 30 % sont le site d’activités portuaires.Cinquante pour cent de cette côte est bordée derécifs frangeants qui présentent des coraux etune faune associée d’une grande diversité (158espèces de coraux appartenant à 51 genres etplus de 280 espèces de poissons).

Les récifs coralliens de la Jordanie sont enbon état, leur couverture de madréporesatteignant 90 %. Ils ont été épargnés par lesépisodes de blanchissement survenus en 1998,peut-être en raison de la situation de la Jordanieplus au nord que les autres pays.

Il n’existe pas d’aire marine protégéeproprement dite, mais la zone de la stationmaritime dite Aire protégée des récifs coralliens

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

d’Aqaba est, de fait, une aire protégée; c’estégalement la seule du pays dont il soit proposéde faire une aire protégée classée.

La Jordanie a révisé son cadre législatif etréglementaire relatif à la protection del’environnement aux niveaux national etinternational. Elle est partie de huit conventionsou traités internationaux qui ont un impact directou indirect sur la conservation des récifscoralliens.

Le golfe d’Aqaba est sujet à une fortepollution. Celle-ci est actuellement limitée etlocalisée. Les principales menaces sont lesdéversements et les rejets d’hydrocarbures, lesrejets industriels et les eaux usées et les déchetssolides des navires et des municipalités. Ledéveloppement du secteur du tourisme pourraitégalement faire peser de nouvelles menaces surles récifs coralliens.

Sommaire

Il est nécessaire, pour améliorer laconservation des récifs coralliens, de renforcerles capacités institutionnelles générales desinstances gouvernementales. Cela peut se fairepar le recrutement et la formation de personnel,par la mise en œuvre de lois et de règlements deprotection de l’environnement et parl’amélioration de la coopération régionale pourcoordonner et étayer les efforts des différentsÉtats riverains du golfe. Plusieurs mesuressupplémentaires sont également requises, etnotamment la formulation d’une stratégie degestion intégrée des zones côtières, unrenforcement des capacités en matière delégislation et de gestion ainsi qu’au niveauopérationnel, l’établissement d’aires marinesprotégées et l’harmonisation des règlementsexistants aux niveaux national et international.

Introduction

The Egyptian Red Sea coast extendsapproximately 1800 km along the Gulfs ofSuez, Aqaba and the Red Sea, and is borderedby fringing reefs for most of this length. Thereare also several submerged reefs and fringingreefs surrounding some 35 small islands(Fig. 1).

Matters pertaining to the conservation andmanagement of coral reefs are the responsibilityof the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency(EEAA).

Rapid development over the last fewdecades has resulted in a number of newanthropogenic threats to the reefs, includinghigh sedimentation rates, dredging, destructivefishing, tourism and curio trading. Resortdevelopment is proceeding rapidly, threateningthe valuable coral reef resources (JAMESON et al.1995). The reefs in the Hurghada area, forinstance, are under significant stress throughanchor and fin damage (JAMESON & SMITH1997) and an initiative funded by USAID hasprovided a number of permanent mooring buoysto mitigate these effects. Non-anthropogenicthreats include flood run-off, infestations by thecrown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci andhigh sea temperatures, resulting in severebleaching.

Egypt has subdivided the futurerequirements for coral reef conservation intothree major categories:

information requirements,

development challenges and

public awareness.

Under information requirements, it isrecommended that advanced mappingtechniques be employed to update data on theextent of current reefs. Reef monitoring must be

1

Coral Reefs of Egypt

Sharm Al-Sheikh

Hurghada

Sinai

EGYPT

RedSea

Gulf ofAqaba

Gulf ofSuez

RasMohammed

GiftunIslands Straits of

Gubal

Port Berenice

Port Safaga

Mirear Island

Fig. 1: The major features of the Egyptian coastline

2

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

prioritised in areas of recreational and industrialuse and must be continued and incorporated intocoastal management plans. Developmentchallenges include improving sewage treatmentand outfalls, including collection and recyclingof solid wastes, testing and implementing thenational Oil Spill Pollution Response Protocol,developing flood control mechanisms,minimising siltation and careful planning oftourism operations within the coastal zone.Finally, it is recognised that there is a need forheightened and improved informationdissemination through various media, includingworkshops, seminars, and academicprogrammes, and a need for co-operationbetween the tourism and government sectors.

The most northerly reefs lie near Suez.Along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez,patch reefs are small and occur in depths of 1 to5 m, resting on calcareous sandy substrates. Onthe western coast of the Gulf of Suez reefs aremore developed, forming a fringing reef thatstretches from 50 km south of Suez to Ain-Sukhna, extending 30 to 40 m offshore andsloping from 1 to 5 m in depth. There areextensive reefs in the southern Gulf of Suez, onthe Sinai Peninsula at Ras Mohammed andsurrounding the Ashrafi Islands close to thewestern shores of the Gulf. In the Gulf of Aqabathere are narrow fringing reefs along the steepcliffs of both shores. At the mouths of wadis(river valleys) and across bays the fringing reefsextend outwards for up to 1 km from the shore.In the Red Sea proper, fringing reefs extendfrom Gubal in the north nearly continuously toHalaib, at the border with Sudan. These reefs are25 to 150 m wide at the northern end,increasing to 500 m wide from Marsa Alam toShalatein. At Shalatein, the reef extends up to12 km from the shore to Mirear Island,decreasing in width (to 50 m) southwards toAbu Ramad.

Surveys

Geographical Scope and SurveyTechniques

Surveys were carried out from Hurghada toShakateen by staff from the Suez CanalUniversity and the Al-Azhar University between1997 and 1999. The surveys examined 130 reefsites to evaluate the status of coral reefs andassociated communities. In addition, moredetailed studies were carried out at 11 sites closeto Hurghada to assess the impact of recreationaldiving on reef habitats. ABOU ZAID (2000)summarised data collected by the Egyptian RedSea Coastal and Marine Resources ManagementProject, the Ecological Sustainable TourismProject and the Coral Reef Biodiversity Projectto provide a recent overview of reef status.Rapid Environmental Assessments (REAs) weremade at 48 frequently visited dive sites as partof the Environmentally Sustainable TourismProject (JAMESON et al. 1997).

Survey methodology generally followed thatoutlined in ENGLISH et al. (1997). At the detailedstudy sites, 10 replicates of a 4 m2 quadrat wereused at 5 m and 10 m intervals to assess coraland fish community structures, comparingheavy and moderately dived sites with controlsites at which no diving occurred. In the REAproject, quadrat sampling over a one hour periodat each of 43 sites yielded data on the percentageof life-form coverage, while the IUCNquantitative line transect method (Pernetta1993) was used to obtain detailed data at fiveheavily used sites.

Coral Reefs – Benthos and Fish

Coral Diversity

Reefs in the north and central Red Sea weremore diverse than those in the south, with nearly

3

Coral Reefs of Egypt

double the number of coral species (Table 1).The distribution and development of reef-building corals was believed to be restricted byseveral physico-chemical parameters, includingtemperature, sediment load, salinity and light.

Coral Cover

The percentage of live coral cover generallyranged from 11 to 35 % in the reef flat areas(Table 2), while the highest cover was foundalong the reef walls (ranging from 12 to 85 %)and reef slopes (5 to 62 %). Variation in coralcover was attributed to siltation, caused byflooding and mining activities, and torecreational SCUBA diving.

Overall there has been a decline in coralcover at most sites in the Egyptian Red Sea(Table 3). Coral cover has decreased by 20 to30 % and the percentage of recently dead coral(normally through anchor and fin damage) hasincreased by several factors. Surveys by the

Table 1: Number of genera and species of reefbuilding corals in the Egyptian Red Sea(ABOU ZAID 2000)

Al Aruk Small Giftun El Erg 31987 1996 1987 1996 1987 1996

Hard coral 36.8 24.1 49.9 22.0 60.9 49.2

Soft coral 23.6 15.6 12.5 3.1 16.6 19.8

Rubble 1.7 5.0 3.6 3.6 0 1.5

Recently broken coral 10.9 0 9.2 0 0.2 0.2

Recently dead coral 0 5.5 1.3 3.5 0.5 6.0

Sector Reef ZoneZone

Reef Flat Reef Edge Reef Wall Reef Slope

North of Hurghada 30 65 68 35

Hurghada - Safaga 18 25 50 20

Safaga - El Quseir 16 45 33 20

El Quseir - Marsa Alam 14 25 50 5

Marsa Alam - Hamatah 11 20 45 12

Hamatah - Baranis (Berenice) 12 20 22 10

Baranis - Shalatein 20 11 12 45

Shalatein - Halaib 35 48 85 62

Table 2: Average percentage of live coral cover in different reef zones along the Egyptian coastline(GEF 1977)

Table 3: Historical comparison of reef composition (percentage cover) at three dives sites in thenorthern Red Sea (adapted from JAMESON et al. 1997)

Region Genera Species

Gulf of Aqaba 47 120Gulf of Suez 25 47North Red Sea 45 128Central Red Sea 49 143South Red Sea 31 74

4

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Marine Conservation Society also indicatedeteriorating trends between 1981 and 1996 atShaab Fanadir and Giftun Saghir (WOOD et al.1996).

Over 40 % of dive sites had less than 30 %hard coral cover, of which more than one thirdhad significant levels of broken coral (JAMESONet al. 1997).

Fish Communities

ABOU ZAID (2000) reported a total of 261fish species representing 89 genera from 46families. He also noted that southern reefshoused a greater diversity of fish species thannorthern reefs. Exposed reefs contained a higherdiversity of fishes than sheltered reefs, whichwas attributed to the lower incidence of diversand fishermen in these areas. The most abundantfamily was the Pomacentridae (damselfishes),represented by 16 to 26 species across all sites,followed by the Labridae (wrasses), representedby 20 species. The most common damselfishwas Chromis dimidiata and the most commonwrasse was Labricus quadrilineatus. The leastabundant family was the Scaridae (parrotfishes),represented by only nine species, of whichHipposcarus harid and Scarus ferrugineus werethe most common. Among the Acanthuridae(surgeonfishes), Naso literatus, Acanthurusnegrifuscus and Acanthurus sohal were the mostcommon species. Chaetodontidae(butterflyfishes) diversity increased in the north,with Chaetodon larvatus, C. auriga and C.fasciatus being among the most common.

Coral Reef Fisheries

The Red Sea fisheries contributeapproximately 11 to 14 % of the total annualEgyptian fish production including aquaculture,and nearly 16 % of the marine fisheries. Ofthese, 44 % of fish landings are coral reef-based.

Fishery activities are regulated by the GeneralAuthority for Fish Resources Development(GAFRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture.

Over 7 % of the national workforce isinvolved in fisheries of one kind or another(GAFRD 1989). Highest landings are reportedat the port of Suez (78 % of the total), but mostof the fishing boats landing their catch in Suezactually fish further south, in central andsouthern areas of the Red Sea.

The total number of commercial coral reeffish species is 27. Five species make up over 48% of the total landings, amounting to slightlyover 22,800 tonnes per annum. The balance ofthe catch is made up of crustaceans, offshorepelagic fishes and demersal fishes (in equalproportions). Fishery landings have decreasedsteadily since 1994, after a peak in 1993 thatconsisted of record landings of Indian and othermackerel, and of sardines (PERSGA/GEF2001). GAFRD aims to increase fish catches to70,000 tonnes by 2017.

Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

Coral reefs are affected by a wide range ofanthropogenic impacts. Oil spills, landreclamation and sedimentation are responsiblefor a large proportion of the damage.Recreational SCUBA diving practices, whichalso include anchor damage, is also consideredsignificant. Urban garbage, especially plastic, isbecoming increasingly prevalent on reefs. Anumber of natural phenomena, includingflooding, disease and predator outbreaks alsoaffect coral reef habitats. It is not understoodhow much these phenomena are the indirecteffect of anthropogenic inputs.

5

Coral Reefs of Egypt

Floods and EarthquakesHeavy rainfall causes floods from wadis

(dry river beds), which increase sediment loadsand reduce salinity levels. These effects mayextend several kilometres offshore depending onthe substrate type and the severity of the flood.

DiseaseA number of coral diseases prevalent in the

Red Sea have been found in Egyptian waters.Most important of these are black band andwhite band diseases which are believed to be theresult of cumulative stresses fromanthropogenic impacts such as high nutrient(chemical) and sediment (physical) loads.

Predator OutbreaksMajor outbreaks include infestations of the

crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci),sea urchins (Diadema sp.) and gastropod snails(Coralliophila sp. and Drupa sp.). Coralliophilaviolacea was found to feed intensely on Poritessp. at several sites along the Red Sea(ABOU ZAID et al. in press). Acanthaster planciwas rarely observed prior to the 1990s. In 1994there was a moderate outbreak (200 individuals)at Ras Mohammed in south Sinai. It wasestimated that the 20 to 30 cm sized starfishcaused a loss of 20 to 30 % of total live coralcover. From 1995 to 1998 the populations ofstarfish appeared to increase in density, withrecords of up to five starfish per 10 m2 (Salem1999). In 1998 a further outbreak ofapproximately 250 to 300 small (7 to 15 cm)individuals occurred at Ras Mohammed, but thegreatest outbreak (10,000 individuals) occurredaround Gordon Reef, near Tiran Island. TheEEAA have reduced the impact to the reefs byorganising the removal of over 60,000 starfishbetween 1998 and 1999.

Sedimentation and SiltationSiltation of Egyptian reefs is invariably the

result of poorly planned and implementedconstruction. Dredging and land reclamation

(land-filling) activities have resulted in the lossof numerous reef habitats. In Hurghada, a2,900,000 m2 reef flat was land-filled, and thesediment plume from this activity extendedseveral kilometres from shore between 1994 and1997. Mandatory environmental impactassessment studies have curtailed land-fillingoperations since then.

Nutrient Enrichment Sewage and phosphate ore washing (such as

that at Qusseyr and El-Hamrawain) are theprincipal sources of nutrient enrichment alongthe Egyptian coastline. Sewage, high incoliform bacteria and suspended solids, isnormally untreated and discharged into theintertidal zones. The effect of these nutrientloads on coral habitats is not fully understood,although it is believed that they result in higherturbidity and sedimentation and reduce coralreproductive capacity.

Salinity ChangesThe most important human-induced salinity

changes are those caused by discharges fromdesalination plants. The higher salinitydischarges increase coral mucous productionand result in the expulsion of zooxanthellae.This leads to bleaching and growth of algae overcoral colonies. Efforts to mitigate these effectshave been undertaken by the EEAA to enforcethe dilution of the brine prior to reintroductionto the sea.

Destructive FisheriesUnsustainable fishery practices include

spear fishing, the use of closed mesh nets anddynamite (blast) fishing, all of which have beenreported to occur along the Egyptian coastline(REIGL & LUKE 1998). These practices removemany reef herbivores, resulting in changes (suchas algal blooms) to natural ecological processeson the reef.

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

BleachingRising sea surface temperatures, especially

the above-normal warm period between 1997and 1998, are believed to have resulted in thelarge scale bleaching and mortality of manyscleractinian corals. During the summer monthswater temperatures increased to 35 ºC,particularly on shallow reef flats (30 to 50 cmdeep).

Curio CollectingConsiderable quantities of coral, molluscs

and fish are collected for the curio and aquariumtrades.

Recreational SCUBA DivingMajor effects of the recreational SCUBA

industry include anchor, trampling and findamage (JAMESON et al. 1999).

Oil and other HydrocarbonsThe danger from oil pollution comes not

only from exploration activities but also fromtransport. Up to 100 million tonnes of oil maypass through Egyptian Red Sea waters eachyear. Oil and gas exploration are concentrated inthe Gulf of Suez, with the main sources ofpollution being from Ras Ghariba, RasShoukier, Abu Rudees and Abu Zenimahthrough the inefficient operation of equipment,illegal discharges and lack of monitoring. Morethan 20 oil spills have occurred along the RedSea since 1982 (Table 4). The spills involve anumber of pollutants, which smother corals andpoison them through hydrocarbon absorption.Seismic blasts from oil exploration are also athreat to coral reefs (FOUDA 1983).

6

Location Date Vessel Spill Cause

Gulf of Suez 1982 Unknown Crude oil CollisionGulf of Suez 1989 Mbuy Samba Crude oil CollisionSuez Canal 1989 Lauber Horn Crude oil GroundingSafaga Island 1991 Salem Express Fuel SinkingRas Gharib 1992 Samah Fuel SinkingBaranis (Berenice) 1993 Hamad PVC and fuel SinkingGulf of Suez 1993 Gele 15 Crude oil CollisionGulf of Suez 1993 Mega Biolot Crude oil UnknownSuez Harbour 1994 Salam 91 Detergent CollisionRas Nasrami 1994 Baltabs Kiazori Fuel GroundingSuez Harbour 1994 Itab Fuel BunkeringSharm El-Sheikh 1994 Balmeera Bilges MalfunctionRas Shukheir 1994 Meraw Crude oil CollisionRas Shukheir 1994 Hazzam Chemicals DischargingSuez Harbour 1994 Rafah Bilges DischargingRas Shukheir 1994 Ocean Spirit Ballast water DischargingSharm El-Sheikh 1994 Unknown Crude oil UnknownSuez Harbour 1994 GPC Crude oil Pipe leak

Table 4: Shipping accidents along the Egyptian coastline (1982-1994) resulting in hydrocarbon contamination(ABOU ZAID 2000)

7

Coral Reefs of Egypt

Marine Protected Areas and Levelof Management

The Government is committed to amanagement programme to arrestenvironmental degradation and to improveenvironmental quality. Egypt currently has fourmarine protected areas that include coral reefs,and another two in which coral reefs are notpresent. The majority of these protected areashave been established around the SinaiPeninsula at sites where recreational SCUBAdiving is common and the threat from anchorand fin damage is considered high. In total,Egypt has legally protected over 37,000 km2.There are seven additional areas that have beenproposed or suggested to the Government forprotected status. The major implementing andfunding bodies in each case involve GEF-Egyptand USAID projects.

MPAs Declared

Ras Mohammed National Park: Establishedby Prime Minister’s Decree No. 1068 in 1983,the Park occupies part of the southern portion ofthe Sinai Peninsula (27°44’N 34°15’E), nowextending to and including Senafir and TiranIslands, and covering an area exceeding480 km2. The Park has a particularly highdiversity of flora and fauna, including coralreefs, seaweed and seagrass beds, mudflats,mangroves and other halophytic vegetation. Themanagement plan, developed with financial andtechnical assistance from the EuropeanCommission, includes the development ofinfrastructure and training for rangers andscientific staff. The Park is an important seaturtle developmental habitat and serves asEgypt’s major marine environmental educationcentre.

Nabq: Occupying another 600 km2 of thesouthern Sinai Peninsula, the Nabq MultipleUse Management Area (28°15’N 34°24’E) wasestablished by Prime Minister’s Decree No.1511 in 1992. It encompasses a number of

marine and terrestrial ecosystems (seagrassbeds, coral reef) and is an important habitat forresident and migratory birds. The mangroveswithin Nabq represent the northern limit of theirextent in the Red Sea. Threats includerecreational diving-related damage anduncontrolled output from a shrimp farm.

Abu Galum: Also established by PrimeMinister’s Decree No. 1511 in 1992, the AbuGalum Multiple Use Management Areaoccupies part of the Sinai Peninsula extendinginto the Gulf of Aqaba (28°41’N 34°34’E) andcovers an area of roughly 400 km2. Biologicallyrich in both flora and fauna, Abu Galumtraverses several mountain ranges and wadisystems, freshwater springs and sand dunes. Thecoral reefs form one of the main SCUBA divingattractions in the region. In addition to coralreefs, the Area contains seagrass beds thatsupport a significant amount of marine life.

Elba: The Elba protectorate (declared in1986) is by far the largest in Egypt,encompassing 35,000 km2 of the Doaib, GebelElba and Abraq regions (22°10’N 36°19’E). Theprotectorate is home to large mangrovecommunities, which serve as important birdbreeding sites, and extensive fringing reefsalong the mainland and 22 offshore islands. Themain threats within the MPA are extensivefishing activities.

The protected areas at El-Zaranik (700 km2)and Ashtom El-Gamil (1200 km2) establishedin 1985 and 1988 respectively, include wetlandsand sandy shores but do not have coral reefhabitats.

De facto and Planned MPAs

The area that each of the seven proposedMPAs will cover has not yet been defined.

8

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Giftun Islands and Straits of Gubal: ThisMPA has been proposed to the Egyptiangovernment based on the well-developed anddiverse coral reefs and rich reef-associatedfauna. The islands are also important sea turtleand seabird nesting areas. Current threatsinclude recreation pressure, anchor damage andfishing.

Safaga Island: Small patches of coral reefsurround the mangrove-lined island, which isalso a seabird nesting site. Current threatsinclude shipping and a small-scale fishery.

Sharm al-Lulu: This is a small bay linedwith coral on both sides. Threats to the area aretourism related.

Dedalus Island: The island lies some 40 kmoffshore and is mostly affected by recreationalSCUBA diving and anchor damage.

Zabareged (Zabargad) Island: This is asmall sea turtle nesting island 40 km offshoresurrounded by coral reefs. Threats here alsoinclude recreational SCUBA diving and anchordamage.

Brother Islands: The coralline islandssupport extensive and well-developed coralreefs on which extensive diving takes place.

El-Quseir Reef Complex: Extensive andcomplex submerged offshore reefs with adiverse reef-associated fauna. Threats identifiedinclude damage from anchors, SCUBA divingand coral collection.

Wadi Gamal: A large terrestrial area, withcoastal wetland, mangroves, islands andmigratory birds; there are no coral reefs present.

Current Monitoring andManagement Capacity to ConserveCoral Reef Resources

Several institutions carry out monitoringactivities along the Egyptian coastline. TheEgyptian Environmental Affairs Agency(EEAA) is responsible for monitoring pollutionand damage to coastal environments. TheNational Institute of Oceanography andFisheries (NIOF) has carried out investigationsof fisheries and corals and associated fauna inthe Hurghada region for 70 years. In addition,staff from the Al-Azhar University and SuezCanal University carry out research andmonitoring of coral reef habitats.

There are three organisations in charge ofthe management of coral reef resources: theTourism Development Agency (TDA), theEgyptian Environmental Affairs Agency(EEAA), and local governments through threeRed Sea Governorates (RSG). The primary roleof the TDA is to support the private sectortourism industry and to develop an institutionalframework for environmentally sound tourismdevelopment. This includes developingguidelines for hotel management and thefollow-up of environmental regulations andprocedures. The EEAA is tasked withdeveloping environmental preservation policyand legislation and with reviewingenvironmental impact assessment studies. TheEEAA is also responsible for the control ofpollution, National Park and coastal zonemanagement, including law enforcement forcoastal recreational activities. In addition, theEEAA recommends the accession to regionaland international conventions related to theenvironment. The RSGs are responsible forpromoting tourism and regulating landallocation and hotel construction within citylimits through zoning and the issue of permits.

In addition to the three primaryorganisations, several secondary agencies play arole in environmental management. The

9

Coral Reefs of Egypt

Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation(EGPC), which is responsible for oil and gasexploration, controls the activities ofinternational oil companies and has developedan oil spill response capability in Ras Gharib onthe Gulf of Suez. At present, the equipmentavailable for tackling oil spills is only suitablefor small spills in good weather. The NationalCommittee for Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement (NCICZM) co-ordinates coastalactivities among competent authorities bydeveloping guidelines for all activities,including EIAs. The NCICZM is responsible forharmonizing development with the carryingcapacity of coastal ecosystems, and for co-ordinating and specifying mandates forauthorities in the coastal area.

Finally, a number of tertiary agencies arealso responsible for the protection of the marineenvironment. These include the Port andLighthouse Authority, the Suez Canal Authority,Suez Port Authority, GAFRD, and the GeneralOrganization for Coastal Protection.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policy Pertinent to ReefConservation

Egypt is a signatory to a number ofinternational conventions under which theconservation of coral reef resources is stipulatedor indirectly addressed. At the same time, sincethe early 1980s the country has enacted anumber of laws and presidential decrees throughwhich coral reefs receive direct or indirectprotection.

International Agreements

Egypt has acceded to the RegionalConvention for the Conservation of the Red Seaand Gulf of Aden Environment and to theProtocol for Regional Cooperation for

Combating Pollution by Oil and other HarmfulSubstances in Cases of Emergency (1982). It isa signatory to the MARPOL Convention, theConvention on Wetlands of InternationalImportance (RAMSAR), the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the AfricanAgreement for the Conservation of Nature andNatural Resources (Algiers 1988) and theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

National Legislation

A number of Presidential decrees and Publiclaws have been formulated dealing with oil andother forms of pollution, coastal developmentand tourism, through which coral reefs receivedirect and indirect protection (Table 5).

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

One of the major gaps identified in theprocess of coral reef conservation is that ofappropriate information. While there are severalhundred publications on Red Sea coral reefs,few of these address specific problems and offermanagement solutions. There is currently nowater quality database on which repeatedmeasurements can be based and compared.There is also a need to establish detailed,refereed species lists for each area coveringcorals, their associated fauna, and the fisheryresources. It is also necessary for Egypt toparticipate in regional and global informationnetworks and to develop national training andeducation programmes through the use of localand international experts.

ResearchResearch needs to be carried out in order to

establish baseline environmental conditions andfollow-up monitoring should refer to thesebaselines to detect changes in environmentalquality.

10

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Networking There is a need to integrate current research

into global initiatives such as the InternationalCoral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and the GlobalCoral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN).

TrainingThere is a need for training in the use of

modern technology, including SCUBA,Remotely Operated Vehicles, side-scan sonar,satellite mapping and Geographical InformationSystems (GIS).

Planning Direct use and indirect development

activities that affect reef systems need to becarefully evaluated in the design stages and besubject to continued monitoring through theimplementation stages.

Community Education There is a need to develop community

education programmes that highlight the impactof communities on reef ecology, includingdegradation.

Law, Ordinance, Regulation Year Implementation

Public Law No. 280 1960 Ministry of DefenceMoD Decree No. 56 1962 Ministry of DefencePresidential Decree No. 1984 1965 Ministry of PetroleumPublic Law No. 72 1968 Ministry of TourismPresidential Decree No. 691 1972 Ministry of TourismEstablishment of Protectorates Law No. 102 1983 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPrime Minister's Decree No. 1068 (Ras Mohammed National Park) 1983 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPrime Minister's Decree No. 1429 1985 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPresidential Decree No. 152 1986 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPrime Minister's Decree No. 450 1986 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPrime Minister's Decree No. 1186 1986 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPrime Minister's Decree No. 459 1988 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPresidential Decree No. 478 1988 Ministry of Environmental AffairsNational Environmental Action Plan 1991 Ministry of Environmental AffairsPrime Minister's Decree No. 1511 1992 EEAAPublic Law No. 4 1994 EEAAPrime Minister's Decree declaring 22 islands and mangrove areas asprotected areas

1995 Ministry of Environment

Table 5: National laws and decrees that affect coral reef protection directly or indirectly, and the date whenthey came into effect

11

Coral Reefs of Egypt

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

A number of actions are needed to improveEgypt’s current response to and mitigation ofnatural and anthropogenic threats. Theseinvolve the collection of baseline informationfor sound decision making, the development ofan integrated coastal area management plan, thereview and upgrading of existing regulationsand more efficient monitoring and control ofpollution sources and coastal development.

Zonation and ProtectionKey marine areas should be assigned extra

protection through strict planning. Acomprehensive coastal zoning scheme is neededin which four land classes are recognised:

Urban and development areas in whichcommercial and industrial developmentassessments should be carried out.

Standard areas where normal planningregulations apply and in which EIAsshould be carried out.

Multiple Use Management Areas inwhich development is restricted buttraditional uses continue.

Marine Parks and Reserves that affordcomplete protection to species andhabitats.

Coastal Zone ManagementA comprehensive, integrated plan is needed

to address development along coastal areas andto harmonize existing conservation projects.

Pollution ControlLocal and regional pollution monitoring

units should be established, along with theprovision of adequate reception facilities forpetroleum wastes, guidelines for the use ofdispersants, a review of existing pollutioncontrol regulations and the development of acontingency plan for pollution control. Alsoneeded are improved sewage treatmentfacilities, diversion of outfalls away from reefhabitats and effective collection and recycling ofsolid wastes. To reduce sedimentation, siltcurtains, berms and other mechanical aidsshould be used around coastal construction.

Geographical and Biological Data SetsComplete, up-to-date data sets on the

biological components of the coastal zone areneeded for effective management. These shouldinclude fishery stock assessments, shorelineprofiles, land use patterns and coral reefresources.

InformationNational training programmes are needed to

raise institutional capacities of key agenciesinvolved in coral reef management, linkingdecision makers with the facts needed for soundenvironmental management decisions.

12

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

13

Introduction

The Sudanese Red Sea coast isapproximately 750 km long inclusive of baysand inlets, extending from 18ºN at the Eritreanborder to 22ºN at the Egyptian border (Fig. 2).Average annual rainfall is 111 mm (varyingfrom 36 mm at Halaib to 164 mm at Suakin)and the coastal plain is very dry. Sudan lieswithin the desert and semi-desert sub-zone andthere is no perennial water flow to the sea. Onlyafter torrential rains, which occur mainly inNovember and December, is there occasionalfreshwater influx. In most parts of the SudaneseRed Sea water transparency is very high,reaching up to 70 m. Surface temperaturesrange from 26.2 to 30.5 °C, and salinity is high(39 to 41 ppt). From May to October, surfacecurrents flow in a southerly direction, for therest of the year they flow northwards.

The primary coral habitats along theSudanese Red Sea coast are barrier reefs,fringing reefs and one oceanic atoll, Sanganeb(Fig. 3). Most of the coast is bordered byfringing reefs 1 to 3 km wide, which areseparated by deep channels from a barrier reef 1to 14 km offshore. The outer barrier dropssteeply to a depth of several hundred metres.Previous studies along these reefs suggestedthey are among the most diverse and spectacularin the Red Sea (HEAD 1980; IUCN/UNEP 1985;KRUPP et al. 1994; ORMOND 1980, 1987;SCHROEDER 1981; SCHROEDER & NASR 1983;VINE & VINE 1980; VINE 1985). One of the most

unique reef structures in the Sudanese Red Seais Sanganeb atoll (KRUPP 1990), whose steepslopes rise from a seafloor at more than 800 mdepth.

Port Sudan is the largest coastal city with apopulation of about 390,000. At present thenatural resources of the Red Sea are under-exploited due to a lack of marketing, transportfacilities and cold storage. There is no offshoreoil exploitation, the contribution of fisheries andtourism to the GNP is less than 3 % andsubsistence fisheries are only locally important.The primary industries are maritime shippingand port-related activities. Tourism and fisherieshave great growth potential, as does shrimpaquaculture.

At present fisheries play a minor role in theeconomy at the national level, but are importantat a subsistence level along the coast. Non-living resources from the coastal area includemetalliferous muds, oil and gas. Natural gas wasfound in Tokar and Suakin, while offshorereserves are located in the Suakin archipelago.Present exploitation amounts to 16.1 millioncubic feet per day.

While large parts of the Red Sea region arestill in a pristine state, environmental threats,notably from habitat destruction, over-exploitation and pollution, are increasingrapidly, requiring immediate action to protectthe region’s coastal and marine environment.

Coral Reefs of Sudan

14

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Surveys

Geographical Scope and SurveyTechniques

D. NASR and K. AL-SHEIKH carried outsurveys on Sudanese corals in 1999 at three sites(Abu Hashish Jetty, Bashayer Port and ArousTourist Village). Hunting Aquatic Resources(HAR), under contract to PERSGA, carried outa more thorough survey in 1997, covering thecoastal area from Port Sudan to Suakin.

In the 1999 surveys, Reef Check methods(HODGSON 1999) were followed to determinepercentage cover of hard, soft and dead coralsand to obtain a general assessment of reefhealth, while 10 m quadrat analysis and20-minute timed swims (ENGLISH et al. 1997)were used by HAR. During these surveys thepercentage cover of different life forms wasdetermined along with counts for indicatorspecies such as butterfly and angelfishes, thehumphead wrasse Cheilinus undulatus andseveral commercial fishes.

Coral Reefs – Benthos and Fish

The coral reefs of the Sudan are consideredto be in moderate to good health, despite anextensive coverage of algae over a highproportion of the fringing reefs surveyed. Analgal film covered a large proportion of theshallow corals, but was not found to affect thosemore than 10 m deep. The reefs are patchy indepths less than 10 m, with average live coralcover ranging from 5 % to 75 %. Below 10 m,the reefs contain healthy colonies of frameworkcorals. In general, the status of the fish faunawas considered good, and overfishing not asevere problem at the coral reefs. As anexample, grouper counts were high relative toassessments in other parts of the Red Sea, withmore than 20 groupers in over half of the20-minute swim samples recorded. Keyindicator species were abundant and diversityappeared high relative to other Red Sea sites.

Dungonab

Aqiq

Jeddah

Hala'ib

Sanganeb

Port Sudan

Sawakin

SuakinArchipelago

Trinkitat

SUDAN

RedSea

Saudi ArabiaEgypt

Sudan

Red S

ea

MukawaarIsland

Fig. 2: The Sudanese coast of the Red Sea

lighthouse

southernlagoons

northernlagoon

N

Fig. 3: Sanganeb atoll, off PortSudan

15

Coral Reefs of Sudan

Anthropogenic pressures on the reefs arelow, with those most affected being the fringingreefs along the coast in the vicinity of PortSudan and Suakin. Framework corals are stillintact and large colonies of Acropora andPorites survive at depths in excess of 10 m.Those shallower than 10 m are affected by analgal cover believed to be the result of thermalinfluences. The crown-of-thorns, Acanthasterplanci, was not recorded in plague numbers onany of the Sudanese reefs.

Coral Cover

Over 80 % of the coastal fringing coral reefsites surveyed in 1997 had a high percentage ofthin algal film cover, averaging 28.8 % (range 5to 95 %, n = 54 sites; PERSGA/ALECSO inpress). Live coral cover ranged from 5 to 60 %(mean = 25.3 %, n = 25 sites). Dead coral coverexceeding 1 % was only noted at five sites. Thedominant substrate cover at depths shallowerthan 10 m was algal film. The origin of the highalgal film cover was attributed to a thermalevent, possibly through runoff of hightemperature waters from a lagoon. The die-offevent is consistent with reports of similar eventsin Saudi Arabia and Eritrea at the same time.The algal cover did not affect larger coloniesand it was suggested that the reef might recoverfrom this within a span of decades, rather thancenturies (PERSGA/ALECSO in press).

At Abu Hashish Jetty the reef extends about800 m with an average depth of 2 m followedby a steep drop-off to a depth of 10 m. Surveysby NASR & AL-SHEIKH (2000) found that thepercentage of hard live coral (HC) rangedupwards from 23.5 % at 10 m deep and 50 %at 5 m, while dead coral (DC) ranged from2.5 % at 10 m deep and 0 % at 5 m, suggestingthat the area was comparatively healthy. AtBashayer Oil Exporting Port, where the areabetween the shoreline and the fringing reef isshallow (0.5 to 3.5 m) with a muddy sandbottom, HC covered 37.5 % while DC covered

21.25 % of the substrate. At 2 m a large numberof corals were dead and covered with algaeindicating that a coral die-off had recently takenplace. This observation was supported by theresults of interviews with scientists from theInstitute of Marine Science of the Red SeaUniversity and divers in the area. They reportedthat during the summer of 1998, when the waterlevel was exceptionally low, the corals in thebarrier reef 2 km away were white in colour ‘asif covered with a white cloth’ i.e. corals werebleached. At Arous, a small tourist village wherecoral damage by tourist activities is noticeable,dead corals covered 51.25 % of the substrate butno bleaching was observed below 4 m.Bleached corals were observed at the top of thefringing reef at 2 m (Fig. 4). Overall, bleachedcorals were estimated to cover 14 % of thesubstrate.

Fish Communities

Based on the results of the 1997 surveys(PERSGA/ALECSO in press), fishcommunities were considered healthy andabundant. The humphead wrasse, currentlyconsidered endangered throughout its range,was found in three of the 25 timed swims.Angelfish (Pomacanthidae) were observed at allbut one site, with 15 sites recording more than10 angelfish; butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae)were recorded at all sites, of which 19 containedmore than 50 individuals; triggerfish(Balistidae) were only recorded at seven sites,with a maximum of two at any site; groupers(Serranidae) were recorded at all sites, and 13sites contained more than 20 individuals;similarly, snappers (Lutjanidae) were recordedat 24 of the 25 sites, with a maximum count of212 and at four sites more than 100; surgeonfish(Acanthuridae), in particular the endemicAcanthurus sohal and Ctenochaetus striatus,were noted at all sites and a number of indicatorwrasses (Labridae) were also found at all sites.Sharks were reported at three sites. The surveysin 1997 recorded an abundance of Chaetodonsemilarvatus, which was not found in 1981

16

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

(EDWARDS & ROSEWELL 1981), but they did notrecord the presence of C. pausifasciatus, whichwas found frequently around Port Sudan at thattime. A list of fish species recorded fromSanganeb can be found in KRUPP et al. 1994.

Selected non-piscivore fauna were countedduring timed swims and distribution was normal(PERSGA/ALECSO in press). Studies wereundertaken on the distribution of polychaetesand crabs at Sanganeb, and on the mangrovefauna along the Sudanese coastline by KRUPPet al. (1994).

Coral Reef Fisheries

At present fisheries play a minor role in theeconomy at the national level, but are importantat a subsistence level along the coast. Neithercommercial nor artisanal landings reach theestimated maximum sustainable yields butfurther fishery development at present isnegligible. Fisheries are believed to have greatpotential in Sudan, but face logistical problemssuch as refrigeration and transport.

SANDERS & KEDIDI (1981) and MISHRIGI(1993) report about 65 species of economicallyimportant bony fishes, in addition to sharks,rays, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, molluscs and seacucumber. In artisanal fisheries, the ninefollowing taxa account for 60 to 70 % of thecatches: gushar (Epinephelus spp.), bohar(Lutjanus bohar), asmoot (Lutjanus gibbus),shaoor (Lethrinus spp.), bayad (Carangidae),najil (Plectropomus maculatus), farisi (Aprionsp.), abu garin (Naso unicornis), arabi(Valamugil seheli) and sharks (mainlyCarcharhinidae and Sphyrnidae).

Other reef-based fisheries involve the reefmollusc, trochus (Trochus dentatus), and seacucumber (Holothuria sp.) and the pearl oyster(Pinctada margaritifera).

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Fig. 4. Average percentage of coral cover from three selected sites, Sudanese RedSea coast (NASR & AL-SHEIKH 2000) HC = live hard coral, SC = soft coral, DC = dead coral

17

Coral Reefs of Sudan

Fishery Trends and Composition

All the shallow water areas (mersas) alongthe Sudanese coast are potential spawninggrounds. The only spawning ground for oystersis Dungonab Bay, where there are eight oysterfarms producing mother-of-pearl for export. Theonly areas where trawl fishing is carried out arethe Tokar Delta in the south and Ofoul Bay inthe north. Over 80 % of fish are caught withhook and line. There are an estimated 400 smallfishing boats in Sudan and about 300 slightlylarger boats of 9 to 10 m (4 to 5 crew). Fish areexported from Port Sudan to Saudi Arabia aboutevery 10 days. A DANIDA study in 1989estimated that there were about 1,500 artisanalfishermen in Sudan.

The Fisheries Administration of Sudansuggests that the maximum sustainable yieldfrom artisanal fisheries is around 10,000 mt.Present annual production is 1,200 mt, morethan double that of 1975 (555 mt). Peaklandings occurred in 1984 (1,489 mt) and havegradually decreased by 30 % since that time(Fig. 5; PERSGA/GEF 2001). Over the last twodecades two major fishery development projectswere phased out (FAO 1980 to 1985 and ODA1975 to 1990), whereupon financial support tothe artisanal fisheries was discontinued and noother financing mechanisms have beendeveloped. At the same time, fuel andmaintenance costs increased, and fishermenhave reverted from modern outboard-powered

craft to sailing dugouts.

Catches of bohar, farasi and koraib(Pristipomoides filamentosius) have decreasedby 50 %. Shark catches, which presentlyrepresent a small sector of the artisanal fishery,decreased from 90 mt in 1982 to 13 mt in1992. No figures are available for catches byforeign vessels (MISHRIGI 1993).

Commercial fisheries are currently under-exploited. Several ventures have carried out trialtrawls in Sudan’s 700 km2 of trawling grounds,landing a catch that was composed primarily oflizard fish (75 %). Shrimp catches were notconsidered economically viable and mosttrawlers have moved away from the area.Offshore there is the potential for purse seinefisheries and present landings amount to some1,300 mt, with an estimated maximumsustainable yield of 2,300 mt.

Three other important fishery resources arekokian (trochus shell) and sadaf (pearl oysters)and sea cucumber (Holothuria sp.).Traditionally, the Suakin area was the centre ofkokian (Trochus dentatus) fisheries, but thefishery recently shifted to Mohammed Gol.Annual exports of kokian from 1991 to 1995varied between 306 and 535 mt. The pearloyster (Pinctada margaritifera) is a highlyprized resource, based at Dungonab andMohammed Gol. The average annual landingdeclined from a peak in 1971 of 118 mt to 25 mtin subsequent years. Oyster farming hasflourished in Dungonab with up to 65 familyfarms. Large-scale farming ceased in 1969following mass mortality events but exportcontinued from wild populations. Between 1966and 1989, the average annual export rate was37 mt. Since 1998 the Dungonab oyster culturescheme has been revived, and there are now 36farms in Dungonab and 15 in Mohammed Gol.The farms grow some 6,000 oysters each andare supervised by scientists. Improved growthrates allowed for partial cropping after only twoyears, rather than 3 to 4 years as used to be the

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1975 1980 1982 1984 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995

Fig. 5: Artisanal finfish landings in metric tonnesbetween 1975 and 1995 (PERSGA/GEF 2001)

18

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

case. However, mortality is still high (up to50 %). OXFAM UK/Ireland presently fundsoyster farms under the supervision of the MarineFisheries Research Centre as part of acommunity development project (FRC/IDRC1985, MISHRIGI 1993). In 1981, 15 mt of driedsea cucumber were exported and thereafterproduction ceased due to low prices anddifficulties in collecting. Sea cucumberexploitation recently resumed in the MarsaAshat area south of Suakin.

Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

Due to the limited scale of industrialdevelopment along the Sudanese coastline,threats are localised at the few urban centres.The most severe threats come from maritimeshipping, dredging and land-filling, although thetourism sector contributes to reef damagethrough physical contact from anchors anddivers’ fins. An additional problem that willinvolve an international solution is that of theshark fishery, which may lead to ecologicalchanges on the coral reefs through the removalof top level carnivores.

Maritime TransportPort Sudan is the largest port and accounts

for the bulk of the country’s import and exporttrade with about 1,000 ship-calls per annum.Apart from ship-related pollution risks (e.g.discharges of garbage and oily wastes;bunkering activities), Port Sudan handlesapproximately 1.5 million tonnes of petroleumproducts annually and accidents involvingtankers, together with discharges fromunloading operations, constitute a seriouspollution risk.

Physical damage to coral reefs is caused byanchors. Wingate and Towartit Reefs are themain anchorage areas for large vessels waiting

to enter the port. There is an urgent need formoorings at these two locations. There are alsosigns of coral die-off at several sites on thefringing reef near Wingate, believed to becaused by vessel discharges.

The coral reef systems also pose severalhazards to navigation. Combined with heavymaritime traffic and limited navigationaldevices, there is a constant risk of ship collisionsand groundings. This is particularly severe nearthe ports of Port Sudan and Suakin, both ofwhich have to be approached through channelsamong large reef complexes.

Vessel sewage and discharges of solid wastefrom ships pose additional threats. Withoutwaste reception facilities at the ports, shipsdispose their waste directly into the sea. Vesselsare reported to throw large garbage bagsoverboard once they reach international waters.Once these break, they release their contentsinto the sea.

Tourist boats also damage reefs withanchors, and there is a need for moorings atpopular diving destinations.

Coastal DevelopmentHabitat destruction as a result of coastal

development is localised. The extension of PortSudan and the port at Suakin, which involveddredging and land-filling, resulted in severesedimentation pressure on coral reefs. InSuakin, parts of the coastal fringing reef havebeen removed for the extension of the port. Anew port has been constructed at O’Seif, while afourth one is planned at Agig and further reefdamage is expected at these locations. Theimplementation of the Sudan IntegratedFisheries Project is also expected to destroycoastal habitats: at the entrance of Port Sudanharbour 5 to 8 ha of land will be land-filled for

19

Coral Reefs of Sudan

the construction of industrial processing plants.This will cause damage to the coral reefs atWingate and Towartit.

The establishment of the Economic FreeZone (EFZ), which covers 600 km² betweenPort Sudan and Suakin, may also impact thediverse coral reefs at Towartit, which are locatedimmediately offshore. Heavy industries,petrochemical industries, fish processingfactories, slaughter houses with a capacity of3,000 heads per day, tanneries and warehousesare expected to be established in the area.

Destructive FisheriesAt present shark resources are being

depleted and catches by local fishermen aredeclining rapidly due to large-scale sharkfisheries by foreign vessels for the East-Asianshark fin market. A proportion of thesefishermen operate with licences, but many fishillegally. Sharks are caught by hook and line,and with nets, the latter damaging coral reefs.Large amounts of bye-catch, including turtles,dolphins and fin-fish are discarded, invariablydead. The capture of top-level predators and theaccidental mortalities that are associated withthe trade may irreversibly alter the ecologicalbalance of the reef ecosystems. Recently theGovernment has decided to stop commercialshark fisheries and no new licences will beissued.

Petroleum Industry Development andTransport

There is a constant threat of oil spills. Oilleaks occur regularly from the oil terminal andtankers in Port Sudan Harbour and the Port isalready heavily polluted by oil. The oil filmextends as far as the edge of Wingate reef andthis affects the productivity and the fauna in theharbour area. At some sites intertidal biota havedisappeared completely (ABU BAKR 1995).

A new joint venture company, the GreaterNile Petroleum Operating Company (GNPOC),has been formed to manage a pipeline that willtransport crude oil 1,500 km from the Hegligand Adariel oil fields to the Sudanese coast forexport. The new Bashayer oil terminal is locatedat Gezirat Abd Alla, about 24 km south of PortSudan. Gezirat Abd Alla is in the presentanchorage area between the shoreline andTowartit Reef. It has deep water and is shelteredfrom prevailing winds.

With the gradually increasing volume ofshipping using Port Sudan and the developmentof the new oil terminal at Bashayer, a NationalOil Spill Contingency Plan for Sudan has beenprepared. This contingency plan describes thepolicy and procedures for the response to oilspills in the coastal waters of the Sudan,including the organisational relationship of thevarious bodies involved. The scope of the plancovers internal waters including ports, harbours,estuaries, bays and lagoons. On land, it includesthe foreshore and any adjacent land affected byan oil spill.

Industrial ActivitiesPrimary industry is located in the vicinity of

Port Sudan. The chronic release of industrialpollutants has caused a decline in water quality.Among these are the oily discharges from PortSudan refinery, which are discharged withouttreatment or analysis. A major source of oilpollution is the power station, which is in theinnermost part of Port Sudan Harbour. TheInternational Tyre Manufacturing DistributionCo. Ltd. (ITMD) has problems withmanagement of its solid wastes, in particular thedisposal of carbon residue, of which loosedischarges constitute a significant health hazardand also pollute the beach.

20

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

BleachingNo bleaching was reported by

PERSGA/ALECSO (1998), but coral die-offevents were observed on shallow reefs. Thereport suggested that these reefs exhibit thepotential for recovery if development in theregion is well managed. A widespread die-off ofreefs at shallow depths was also mentioned inthe Sudan Country Report (PERSGA/GEF2001). The coral die-off event in the fringingreef was attributed to coastal developmentalactivities, but no explanation was given to thoseoccurring in the offshore reefs and the reportcalled for further investigation.

In July 1998, a survey on the western side ofSanganeb atoll indicated that reefs wererelatively healthy, supporting a diverse fishpopulation, and bleached corals covered only14 % of the substrate (NASR & AL-SHEIKH2000). At Bashayer Oil Exporting Port a largenumber of corals were dead and covered withalgae, indicating that a coral die-off had recentlytaken place. Observations by scientists at theInstitute of Marine Science (Red SeaUniversity) and divers in the area indicated thatwhen the water level was exceptionally low theyhad noticed that corals in the barrier reef werewhite in colour and suggested that corals werebleached. Tourist operators reported thatbleached corals in the southern Sudanese RedSea could amount to 30 % of cover, withPlatygyra sp. being the most affected.

Marine Protected Areas and Level ofManagement

MPAs Declared

The only Marine Protected Area in Sudan isthe Sanganeb Marine National Park (19°45’N37°25’E), established in 1990. This is a 12 km2

atoll with highly diverse and complex coralreefs, diverse reef-associated fauna, sharks,marine mammals and manta rays (KRUPP et al.

1994) and is the only typical atoll in the RedSea. Current threats come from recreationaldiving practices, including anchor and findamage.

De facto and Planned MPAs

There are five proposed Marine ProtectedAreas, of which four contain coral reefs:

Shuab Rami, which covers about 4 km2

and contains highly diverse coral reefswith unique associated fauna includingsharks and marine mammals,

Mukawwar Island and Dungonab Bay,which cover about 300 km2 and arehome to coral reefs, whale sharks and thelargest aggregations of manta rays in theRed Sea,

the Suakin archipelago, which containscoral reefs with a diverse fish fauna andis a nesting site for marine turtles and seabirds,

Abu Hashish, which covers about 5 km2

and also contains diverse coral reefs andassociated fauna.

The proposed Khor Kilab BirdSanctuary (2 km2) is an estuarine areawith mangrove and salt marsh, importantfor migratory birds.

Current Monitoring andManagement Capacity to ConserveCoral Reef Resources

Sudan has much of the infrastructure neededfor regular monitoring and effectivemanagement of coral reef resources. A numberof research organisations (based at theuniversities) have carried out research on reefs

21

Coral Reefs of Sudan

in the past, while government agencies (such asthe Navy) provide a limited degree ofenforcement. Many of the present problems canbe attributed to a widespread lack of lawenforcement activities, a lack of awarenessamong law enforcement authorities, a weaklegal framework and the absence ofsurveillance. Recently, power was transferredfrom the central government to federal states.The new system is not yet well established,resulting in an unsatisfactory legal situation andinadequate enforcement of existing regulations.

Monitoring CapacityMonitoring is carried out primarily through

research projects based at the universities andthrough external research groups. The mostrecent research has been carried out by stafffrom the Red Sea University. The followingorganisations collect information on coral reefecosystems:

The Sudan Marine ConservationCommittee (SMCC): This institutionincludes representatives from allgovernment institutions, the privatesector and NGOs concerned with theRed Sea environment. It has played animportant role in raising awareness andin formulating regulations, particularlyin the 1970s.

The Red Sea University at PortSudan: Founded in 1993, two of its sub-units are active in marine research andeducation. These are the Faculty ofMarine Sciences and Fisheries that trainsundergraduate students in marine andfisheries sciences, and the MarineResearch Institute that is beingestablished to revive the researchactivities of the former Institute ofOceanography.

The University of Khartoum: TheDepartments of Zoology, Botany andGeology train students and conduct

research on the Red Sea. The SuakinMarine Biological Laboratory isengaged in marine biological researchand training of undergraduate andgraduate students from the Universitiesof Khartoum, Juba, El Nilein andUmdurman Ahlia. The laboratory hasreasonable facilities but no residentresearch staff because of a lack ofresearch funding. The Institute ofEnvironmental Studies conductsresearch on environmental issues andsupervises graduate students.

NGOs: include the SudaneseEnvironment Conservation Society,which has branches at Port Sudan andSuakin, the Sea Friends Association atPort Sudan, and OXFAM U.K./Irelandwhich has offices in Port Sudan andTokar.

Management Capacity

Coral reefs are only managed indirectlythrough government institutions andregulations, with the exception of the SanganebNational Park. The following institutions areinvolved in management of coastal and marineareas and resources:

The Ministry of Environment andTourism: Established in 1994 with themandate of co-ordinating environmentalconservation and promoting tourism.Under its umbrella it includes the HigherCouncil for the Environment andNatural Resources (HCENR), which isthe technical branch in charge of co-ordination, policy making andinternational co-operation; the NationalTourism Corporation, which isresponsible for the planning andpromotion of tourism; and the GeneralAdministration for WildlifeConservation, which is charged with theprotection and management of wildlife,including protected areas.

22

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

The Ministry of Animal Wealth: Incharge of animal production andfisheries, and includes the MarineFisheries Administration, whichmanages fisheries resources and controlsthe observation of fisheries regulations;the Marine Fisheries Research Centre,which provides scientific information forthe management of fisheries resources;the Wildlife Research Centre, in chargeof providing the scientific backgroundfor wildlife conservation andmanagement.

The Ministry of Transport: Includesthe Sea Ports Corporation, which takesresponsibility for all ports, maritimetransport and the MaritimeAdministration Directorate.

The Ministry of Energy and Mining:Co-ordinates coastal and marine miningactivities, oil and gas explorations.

The Ministry of Defence: Is in chargeof the Naval Forces in the Red Sea area.The Navy is responsible for the securityin the coastal and marine areas. It has aboat and two soldiers stationed atSanganeb Marine National Park.

The Ministry of Interior: Is in chargeof the Police Forces. The Wildlife Forceis under administrative supervision ofthis Ministry.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policy Pertinent to ReefConservation

Sudan is a signatory to a number ofinternational conventions and agreements thatpromote the protection of coral reefs. Nationallegislation in Sudan does not address coral reefsper se, but indirectly supports pollution controlmeasures that affect coral reefs. It is suggested

that the demarcation and enforcement of MarineProtected Areas will strengthen nationallegislation.

International Agreements

Sudan has ratified the followingConventions and Protocols (adoption date /ratification date): Bamako Convention on theBan of the Import into Africa and the Control ofTransboundary Movement and Management ofHazardous Wastes within Africa (1991/1993);Convention Concerning the Protection of theWorld Cultural and Natural Heritage (-/1974);Convention on Biological Diversity(1992/1995); Convention on International Tradein Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(1973/1982); Regional Convention for theConservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenEnvironment (1982/1984); Protocol ConcerningRegional Cooperation in Combating Pollutionby Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency (1982/1984); United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea (1982/1985).MARPOL has not yet been ratified, because of alack of port reception facilities.

National Legislation

Several national legislative frameworks arein place that relate to coral reefs:

Sudanese Fishery Ordinances andRegulations: Dates back to 1937 andwas amended in 1975 and 1978.Prohibits overfishing, dumping of refuseand oil into the sea and the collection ofcorals, shells and aquarium fish.

Environmental Health Act:Established in 1975. Prohibits thedumping into the sea of any item that isharmful to humans or animals.

23

Coral Reefs of Sudan

Marine Fisheries Ordinance: Givespolice, customs officers and localauthorities the right to board and searcha vessel and detain any craft accused ofviolating the above regulations.

Maritime Law: Drafted by theMaritime Administration and waitingapproval and implementation.

Comprehensive National Strategy:Through this, Sudan is committed to thepursuit of sustainable development andenvironmentally sound resourcemanagement.

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

A major problem in the conservation of reefresources is funding for research andmanagement efforts. Additionally, there arepolitical obstacles within the government: theGeneral Administration for WildlifeConservation is charged with the protection andmanagement of wildlife, including protectedareas. However, it is still lacking experience inthe marine field and its efficiency is hamperedby the fact that it is technically under theMinistry of Environment and Tourism, butadministratively under the Ministry of Interior(employees are part of the police force). Finally,there are a number of logistical constraints,which combine to make coral reef conservationineffective:

LegislationA number of important legal instruments

still await ratification, for instance the NationalMaritime Law and the marine conservation lawsdrafted by the Sudan Marine ConservationCommittee.

CommunicationThe communication network between all

ports and the headquarters of the Port

Commission is not yet operational. Similarly,the Coastal Survey and Monitoring Unit, whichwill patrol the Sudanese coast, has yet to beequipped with fixed or mobile radar. Both ofthese are needed for the operation of a RescueCo-ordination Centre.

ResearchSince 1992 the Faculty of Marine Science

and Fisheries of the Red Sea University and theSuakin Marine Laboratory have conductedresearch programmes on oil pollution and coralreefs, but these projects are limited in scope andintermittent. No temporal studies take place inSudan, providing little indication of changes tothe environment over time.

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

Several legislative decisions are needed atboth national and international levels. Thesewould strengthen Sudan’s legal framework,benefiting coral reefs. At the same time, there isa need for further, continued research on coralreefs and an information disseminationprogramme to enhance community participationand awareness. An integrated coastalmanagement plan that takes into considerationshipping, coastal development, pollution andnatural resources, along with effective andenforced implementation, should cater to mostof the above. Specifically:

Legislation The National Maritime Law, which is

presently being drafted, should be ratified andimplemented. Related laws and regulations,including the Marine Fisheries Ordinances andRegulations, should be revised within thecontext of the Environmental Policy Act, whichhas been drafted by the Higher Council for theEnvironment and Natural Resources.

24

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

To combat oil pollution at an internationallevel, it is recommended that the InternationalConvention for the Prevention of Pollution fromShips (MARPOL 1973/78) be ratified. Thefollowing related conventions should also beconsidered: The International Convention on OilPollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (1990); the International ConventionRelating to Intervention on the High Seas inCases of Oil Pollution Casualties (1969); theInternational Convention on Civil Liability forOil Pollution Damage (1969); the InternationalOil Pollution Compensation Fund (1971); theInternational Convention on Hazardous andNoxious Substances and Limitation of Liability(1996); the Convention on the Prevention ofMarine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes andOther Matter (London Convention 1972); andthe RAMSAR Convention on InternationallyImportant Wetlands (1971).

Institutional FrameworkA National Integrated Coastal Zone

Management Plan is urgently needed that paysspecial attention to urban planning. Institutionsinvolved in the management of coastal andmarine resources and in law enforcement needstrengthening.

An integrated management programmeshould be developed for Marine Protected Areasunder which Sanganeb should be given highestpriority. Management should then be extendedto other protected areas within a national systemthat forms part of a regional network of MPAs.

A set of guidelines for visitors to coral reefareas should be developed. This should includemaps, permanent moorings and guidelines forboats. A guide to coral reef areas and major divesites might be a way of achieving part of thiseffort.

A Fisheries Management Plan is needed thattakes into consideration marketing, cold storageand transport. The fisheries managementprogramme, which should include sharks,shellfish and sea cucumbers, must be based oncomprehensive stock assessments for eachcommodity.

Maritime Transport and IndustrialActivities

There is a need to upgrade currentmonitoring of vessels passing through Sudanesewaters. Navigational markers along majorshipping channels need to be installed andmaintained.

The Port Sudan refinery should take steps torepair the skimmer system at its lagoon andreduce discharges of highly contaminateddrainage water onto the beach.

It is essential for the Bashayer Oil Terminaloperators to prepare a local oil pollutionemergency plan, backed by an oil spill responseorganisation and an adequate level of oil spillclean-up equipment.

The Ministry of Environment and Tourismshould ensure that the development of theEconomic Free Zone is subject to a strictEnvironmental Impact Assessment to ensurethat all risks to the terrestrial and marineenvironment are clearly identified and thatpollution control and other abatement measuresare properly implemented.

It is recommended that the ITMD tyremanufacturing company address the problemswith regard to management of its solid wastes,in particular the handling of carbon black toremove the hazards to occupational health andthe pollution of adjacent beaches.

25

Coral Reefs of Sudan

The Government of the Sudan isrecommended to seek international funds tomap comprehensively all known data aboutfishing activities.

Waste reception facilities need to beupgraded/installed at ports. A feasibility studyon waste management and the development ofport reception facilities is urgently needed.

InformationFinally, an environmental awareness and

education programme for various target groupsis urgently needed to enhance publicparticipation in environmental initiatives.

26

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Introduction

Djibouti has a coastline of 372 km fringed,in places, by extensive coral reefs. The northerncoast near Eritrea faces the Straits of Bab al-Mandab and is generally shallow and sandy,with coral outcrops at Ras Siyyan and KaddaGueini. The Sawabi (Iles des Sept Frères)archipelago east of Ras Siyyan is also fringed bycoral reefs. The southern coast towards Somaliais shallow with several estuaries and poorlydeveloped coral reefs, due to the cold waterupwelling from the Indian Ocean. Most of thecoast of Djibouti lies along the deep (883 m)Gulf of Tadjoura. Ghoubbet al-Kharab, ashallow semi-enclosed basin separated from theGulf of Tadjoura by a narrow opening, containslow diversity coral reefs. At the entrance of theGulf of Tadjoura, north of Djibouti city, are IlesMoucha and Maskali, surrounded by extensivecoral reefs (Fig. 6).

At the confluence of three biogeographiczones, Djibouti is home to a unique assemblageof coral reef species. The combination oftropical warm-water biota (from the IndianOcean and Red Sea) with cold water habitats(from the Somali and Arabian regions) isunusual, and found in few other parts of theworld.

Djibouti lies in a hot and semi-arid zonewhere the weather is influenced by the IndianOcean monsoon. Mean air temperatures varybetween 25 ºC in the winter to 35 ºC in thesummer. Annual rainfall ranges from 50 to215 mm. During the south-west monsoon, from

June to September, northerly winds movesurface waters from the Gulf of Aden out intothe Arabian Sea. This is reversed during Octoberto May, bringing cooler waters into nearshoreareas. Salinity ranges from 36 to 39 ppt,increasing during south-west monsoon periods,and water temperature ranges from 25 to 29 ºC.

Agriculture, cattle breeding and fisheriescontribute less than 2.5 % to the nationalincome. The international port of Djibouticontributes significantly to the nationaleconomy.

At the confluence of three biogeographiczones, Djibouti is home to a unique assemblageof coral reef species. Ecologically, theconfluence of warm-water tropical biota (fromthe Indian Ocean and Red Sea) with cold waterupwelling habitats (from the Somali andArabian regions) is notable at the Iles des SeptFrères, and resembles marine conditions seen inonly a few other parts of the world.

Current threats to coral reefs come fromshipping, coastal development and tourism,though marine tourism is still in its infancy. AGEF supported project is underway to preparean action plan for the conservation of nationalbiodiversity, both terrestrial and marine.

27

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

Surveys

Geographical Scope and SurveyTechniques

In 1998 a national team led by David Oburasurveyed Iles Moucha and Maskali, KhorAmbado, Les Trois Plages, Sable Blanc, RasDuan, Iles des Sept Frères, Recif d’Ambouli anda site off Tadjoura (OBURA & DJAMA 2000). Aseparate survey by Hunting Aquatic Resourceson behalf of PERSGA surveyed coastal andmarine resources at Iles Moucha and Maskali,Khor Ambado, Djibouti City, Sable Blanc,Godoria, Khor Angar, Iles des Sept Frères andRas Siyyan in April 1998, during which a totalof 185 locations were sampled examined(PERSGA /ALECSO 2003). Obura also carriedout a detailed study was also carried out at 21sites between November and December 1998,

covering the Gulf of Tadjoura, the Iles Mouchaand Maskali and the Iles des Sept Frères in thenorth. Benthic cover and reef fish statistics aregiven in OBURA 1998.

OBURA & DJAMA (2000) measured thepercentage cover of soft and hard corals, andmade counts of major invertebrates usingcircular plots at random locations. The status ofcorals was assessed and any evidence of algalblooms was recorded.

In the PERSGA/ALECSO study, visualassessment by snorkel of 10 m × 10 mquadrats, centred on a demarcating line betweenthe reef edge and the reef face, was used toassess principal sessile and anthropogenicfeatures on the reef. In addition, timed20-minute swims were made by snorkel alongthe line of the reef edge. These started and endedat quadrat sample sites and were used to assesspercentage cover of different life forms within a10 m band transect. Counts were also made forindicator species such as butterflyfish andangelfish, the humphead wrasse Cheilinusundulatus and several commercial fishes.Benthic features were assessed for percentagecover following English et al. (1997), with theexception of ‘algal turf’, which was a genericterm used to cover all forms of non-calcareousalgae that were too small to distinguish with theunaided eye. Certain features were countedrather than listed as percentage cover, inparticular macro-invertebrates such as lobstersand crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthasterplanci (COTS). A number of indicator fishspecies were counted following methods inENGLISH et al. (1997).

OBURA (1998) collected data by snorkellingin water less than 5 m deep and by SCUBAdiving in depths exceeding 5 m. Circles wereused covering 100 m2, marked by a radial lineof 5.6 m. Estimates were made of thepercentage cover of three types of bottom

28

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Fig. 6: Map of the Republic of Djibouti illustratingthe location of major marine areas.

Djibouti

Yemen

Somalia

Gulfof

Aden

RedSea

Bab al Mandab

Ras Siyyan

Iles des Sept Frères

Khor Angar

Godoria

Ras Bir

TadjouraSable Blanc

Iles Moucha& Maskali

Sharm Tadjoura

Djibouti

Khor Ambado

GhoubbetKharab

substrate and six types of living cover. Broad10-percentile ranges (i.e. 10 %, 30 %, 90 %,etc.) were used, with additional categories forlow-cover presence indicated by categories of1 % and 5 %. The principal objective of themethod was to sample large areas of the bottomrapidly rather than obtain detailedmeasurements of small areas, as provided byline transect and quadrat techniques.

Coral Reefs – Benthos and Fish

The reefs off the main beach of Ile Maskali(currently demarcated by mooring buoys) arewere in a very poor condition. Towards thesouth-western tip of Maskali, near thenavigation beacon, the reefs are were also verypoor and turbidity is was very high. In contrast,most of the other reefs off Iles Moucha andMaskali had moderate to very good live coralcover (estimated at > 30 %). Sample sites onpatch reefs, and coral gardens to the south of IleMaskali, had good live coral coverage withassociated fish populations. Live coral cover onthe fringing reefs to the north of Iles Mouchaand Maskali was moderate to good (25 to 40 %)and framework corals at these sites appearedsubstantive and robust. Additionally, the patchreefs in the channel between Iles Maskali andMoucha are were reasonably well developed.The fringing reefs to the north of Iles Mouchaand Maskali had a relatively high cover ofbroken Acropora, now colonised by corallinealgae. This was possibly a result of a bleachingevent, with most breakage subsequentlyoccurring due to wave action. However, livingsubstrate cover at these sites is was substantiveand may have been indicative of a regeneratingsystem.

The fringing reefs of Khor Ambado had anaverage, living, hard coral cover of 52 %. Thiswas high compared to many other sites inDjibouti and elsewhere in the Red Sea, despitevery turbid conditions at the time of the survey.

Species diversity of benthic and sessileorganisms was low relative to other study sitesvisited, and Porites and Pocillopora were thedominant reef- forming corals on the reef edgeand reef slope. Coral and other fauna wererelatively rare on the back reef and reef flat. Thefringing reef directly offshore from the touristbeach at Sable Blanc had large Porites coralcascades on a steep reef slope that dropped offto sand at approximately 20 m. Most coloniesexhibited signs of minor impact, possibly due todisease or sedimentation damage.

Eastwards along the coast, the reef was inmoderate to good condition with coral coverwithin samples of up to 80 %. The influence oflocalised factors such as wadi (dry river beds)out-washing and run-off, rather than visitorpressure appeared to dictate the overall reefcondition.

The reef flat at Sable Blanc exhibitsexhibited a greater array of small coral coloniesand living substrate cover than the reef at KhorAmbado. Observations indicated that thepredominant coral species on the reef flat wasPocillopora. Small colonies of Acropora werealso present on the reef flat, particularly to thewest of the main tourist beach. No significantsigns of recent bleaching, other than COTSfeeding scars, were recorded on the reef face orreef flat.

The reefs of Djibouti are under pressurefrom many human activities. Despite thesethreats, the living hard coral cover averaged39 %, with a maximum of 80 % (predominantlyPocillopora). Water turbidity was high at allsites. Patches of coral substrate were widelyspaced and interspersed with mud and softsediment. However, living coral is are able topersist in small patches around the capital andvery close to the port area.

29

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

The status of the coral habitats at Iles desSept Frères is was good. Live coral cover for theislands averaged 34 %, and although not veryhigh, observations of general substrate diversityindicated that most parts of the archipelago hadbalanced and healthy reefs. Impact was difficultto attribute to any specific cause and possiblyreflects long-term environmental disturbance.No indications of a COTS epidemics, eithercurrent or recent, were recorded during the 1998study. Most of the reefs located in the Gulf ofTadjoura showed no signs of bleaching. In someareas, such as the offshore Ile Maskali, degradedreefs were observed, but the causes ofdegradation could not be determined. The onlysites with notable bleaching are were the Iles desSept Frères located in the Red Sea portion ofDjiboutian waters. These islands are quiteunique because rising cold waters contribute tohigher ecosystem productivity (hence importantfishing grounds). The Trois Plages was in apristine state and had extensive reefs containing

one of the highest numbers of butterflyfishspecies recorded in the survey (OBURA & DJAMA2000).

Coral Diversity

A total of 167 coral species (including threespecies of black coral) were identified in 1998(OBURA 1998), dominated by Acroporahemprichii, Echinopora fruticulosa and Poritesnodifera. Only 10 % of species were found atall sites, while 40 % were present at severalsites. Nearly 50 % of the coral species wererestricted to a handful of sites. Acropora sp.suffered high mortality in Khor Ambado and offMaskali.

In 1998, Obura identified the highestdiversity (93) at Arta Plage. Grande Isle in theIles des Sept Frères had the second highest

30

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Region Site # species Sample time (min)Iles des Sept Frères Ile Grande 84 45

Tadjoura, south Trois Plages 75 55Iles des Sept Frères Ile Sud 71 100Tadjoura, south Arta Est 70 45

Iles des Sept Frères Ile Est 69 35Iles Moucha and Maskali Moucha Est 67 35

Tadjoura, south Arta Ouest 66 20

Iles Moucha and Maskali Maskali Buoy 64 40Tadjoura, south Khor Ambado 64 45Tadjoura, north Ras Duan-flat 63 30

Iles Moucha and Maskali Maskali Lighthouse 62 40

Tadjoura, north Sable Blanc 58 40

Tadjoura, north Ras Duan-Fringing Reef 57 35Iles des Sept Frères Ile Double 52 60Tadjoura, north Tadjoura 49 25Iles Moucha and Maskali Moucha N 43 30Iles Moucha and Maskali Moucha S 21 30Iles Moucha and Maskali Maskali S 19 20

Table 6: Coral species diversity and length of survey at each site (OBURA 1998)

diversity of corals (84 species), followed byTrois Plages in the Gulf of Tadjoura (75 species)(Tables 6 & 7). Only one coral species wasrecorded at every site, Porites lutea, and only10 % of the species identified were recorded at14 or more sites.

Coral Cover

Seventy-two quadrats (10 m by 10 m) wereassessed visually for percentage cover ofvarious life forms and abiota. Living hard coralwas absent from only two of the 72 quadrats.Percentage cover ranged from 5 % (offshore ofthe main tourist beach on Ile Maskali) to 90 %(at Hamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères). At thislatter site the dominant coral was Acropora,forming a coral garden. In 26 samples,percentage cover of live hard coral was equal to,or greater than, 50 %. In reef edge swims,percentage cover of living hard coral rangedfrom 5 % to 70 %, and exceeded 20 % in allbut three samples (PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).

Macroalgae were recorded in 38 of 72 reefassessment quadrats. The percentage cover in aquadrat ranged from 1 % at Sable Blanc to60 % at the Fish Market site, Djibouti City. Acover of 50 % was recorded in the vicinity of

Ile Moucha at two sites. No macroalgae wererecorded during quadrat assessments performedaround Iles des Sept Frères. Algal turf wasobserved in 13 of 72 quadrats. Percentage coverranged from 5 % (at Khor Angar) to 25 % (atthe Radio Mast site at by Djibouti City).Coralline algae were observed in 62 of 72quadrats. Values ranged from 5 % (at 17 sites)to a maximum percentage cover of 60 %. Inreef edge swims, macroalgae were recorded in24 of the 34 reef edge assessments. Percentagecover ranged from 1 % at Sable Blanc to 60 %at a site near the Navigation Buoy off IleMaskali. Macroalgae were not recorded duringreef edge swims at Iles des Sept Frères. Algalturf was observed in six of the 34 reef edgeassessment swims, with percentage coverranging from 5 % (at Khor Angar) to 20 %(Fish Market, Djibouti City). Coralline algaewere observed in 27 of 34 reef edge swims. Thehighest percentage cover recorded was 48 % (atSable Blanc). A further 13 reef edge swims hada percentage cover of 20 % or more(PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).

Dead coral was observed in only one samplequadrat. However, dead coral with a covering ofalgae was observed in 25 quadrats. Valuesranged from 4 % to 20 %. Dead coral wasobserved in only one reef edge swim (at Sable

31

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

Table 7: Coral species diversity and length of survey for each area (OBURA 1998)

SiteRegion # species Sample time (min)

ArtaTadjoura, south 93 65Ras DuanTadjoura, north 90 65GrandeIles des Sept Frères 84 45Ile MaskaliMoucha and Maskali 84 100Ile MouchaMoucha and Maskali 82 95Trois PlagesTadjoura, south 75 55SudIles des Sept Frères 73 100EstIles des Sept Frères 69 35Khor AmbadoTadjoura, south 64 45Sable BlancTadjoura, north 62 40DoubleIles des Sept Frères 52 60TadjouraTadjoura, north 49 25

Blanc). However, dead coral with algae wasnoted in 21 reef edge swims, with percentagecover ranging from 5 % to 25 % (at KhorAmbado) (PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).

Soft coral was observed in 19 reef quadratsamples. The maximum cover was 40 % (atKadda Dabali and Rhounda Dabali). In the reefedge swims, soft coral was observed in 10samples. Percentage cover ranged from 1 % (atIle Moucha) to 35 % (at Rhounda Komayto,Iles des Sept Frères) (PERSGA/ALECSO2003).

Fish communities

Sharks were observed at in six of the samp-lessurvey sites. Four sharks were sighted atHamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères and singleindividuals were observed in the remainingsamples.

Angelfish were observed at all sites. Countsranged from six to 31 (around Ile Moucha).Twenty-eight samples contained 10 or moreangelfish. Holocanthus xanthotis andPomacanthus imperator were observed at threeand five sites respectively. H. xanthotis wasobserved in a group of 11 individuals atRhounda Komayto, Iles des Sept Frères.P imperator was only observed as singleindividuals. Genicanthus caudovittatus was notobserved at any site. Pomacanthus asfur wasobserved at all but one site (at Kadda Dabali,Iles des Sept Frères). Counts ranged from one to20 (at Ile Maskali). Pomacanthus maculosuswas observed in 31 of 34 samples. Countsranged from one to 15 (at Godoria), but 21samples contained less than 10 individuals.Pygoplites diacanthus was observed in 21samples. Counts ranged from one to 15, with 14samples containing less than 10 individuals.

Total butterflyfish counts (i.e. the sum ofcounts for all species) ranged from eight (atSable Blanc and Fish Market, Djibouti City) to110 (at Ile Moucha). Fifty or more butterflyfishwere observed in 15 of 34 samples. The mostfrequently observed butterflyfish wereGonochaetodon larvatus (a total of 510individuals) and Heniochus intermedius (a totalof 45 individuals). H. intermedius was alsoobserved in all samples. Counts ranged fromone (at Fish Market, Djibouti City) to 48 (atHamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères). Eighteensamples contained 10 or more individuals, whilesix samples contained more than 20 individuals.Chaetodon semilarvatus was observed in allsamples, with counts ranging from one to 65 (atIle Moucha). Twenty-two samples contained 10or more fish, and nine samples contained morethan 20 individuals. Chaetodon auriga andChaetodon austriacus were not observed in anysamples (PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).

The total number of groupers observed (i.e.sum of all counts for grouper species) rangedfrom zero (at Fish Market, Djibouti City) to 56(at Godoria). Twenty-eight samples contained10 or more groupers, while 17 samplescontained 20 or more. Two species of grouper ofcommercial interest, Variola louti andPlectropomus truncatus, were not observed inany sample. Cephalopholis miniata was onlyobserved in one sample at Khor Ambado, whilea fourth species, Epinephelus tauvina, was onlyobserved in two samples (at Rhounda Komayto,Iles des Sept Frères and Sable Blanc). Nospecies was ubiquitous to all samples. The mostfrequently observed species, both in number ofsamples it occurred in and total number ofindividuals, was Cephalopholis hemistiktos.This species was absent from only two samples(at Ile Moucha and the Fish Market, DjiboutiCity). Counts of C. hemistiktos ranged fromtwo to 27.

32

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Six species of snapper were assessednumerically during the PERSGA/ALECSOsurvey. One species, Lutjanus argentimaculatus,was not recorded in any sample, while Macolorniger was only observed in one sample (at IleMaskali). Lutjanus kasmira was observed in 20assessments and counts ranged from one to 260individuals (at Ile Maskali). Lutjanusmonostigma was observed in 29 samples.Counts ranged from one individual (at IleMoucha) to a maximum count of nearly 2000 (atKadda Dabali, Iles des Sept Frères). A furthersample (at Hamra Island, Iles des Sept Frères)also contained more than 1000 individuals; 10swims recorded counts above 100.

Only one species of wrasse, the humpheadCheilinus undulatus, was assessed numerically.This fish was recorded in 14 samples. Thehighest count was five, observed at Ile Maskali.In total 28 individuals were observed during allof the 34 reef edge assessment surveys.Pre-spawning of this species was observed inthe vicinity of the Maskali reserve.

Thirteen species of wrasse were recorded aspresent or absent. Of those, three species,Gomphosus caeruleus, Thalassoma lunare andLarabicus quadrilineatus, were present in allsamples and Halichoeres hortulanus was absentfrom only two samples. In contrast, Thalassomaklunzingeri and Macropharyngodon bipartituswere absent from all samples. AlthoughHalichoeres marginatus was only present in 15samples, the remainder of the species wererecorded in more than 20 swims(PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).

One species of sparid, Acanthopagrusbifasciatus, was assessed numerically. Thisspecies was observed in nine samples. Countsnever exceeded 10 individuals in a singleassessment swim. The maximum of 10 wasrecorded at Ile Moucha. The total number ofsparids for all assessments was only 31(PERSGA/ALECSO 2003).

The presence or absence of six species ofdamselfish was noted in reef assessment swims.Plectroglyphidodon spp. were not observed inany sample. Chromis dimidiata was onlyobserved in one sample at Hamra Island, Ilesdes Sept Frères. The most frequently observeddamselfish were Abudefduf spp., which werepresent in all assessments.

Five parrotfish species were assessed forpresence or absence. Scarus ferrugineus waspresent in all samples and Scarus sordidus wasabsent from only one sample (RhoundaKomayto, Iles des Sept Frères). Scarus frenatuswas absent from all samples. Scarus niger wasobserved in 26 samples and Cetoscarus bicolourwas present in 20 samples.

Of the four species of surgeonfish recordedfor presence-absence one species, Zebrasomaxanthurum, was ubiquitous,. while Zebrasomaveliferum was found in all but three samples.Ctenochaetus striatus and Acanthurus sohalwere recorded as present in 31 and 18 reef edgeassessment swims respectively.

Invertebrate Communities

Anemones were observed in 13 samples butthe number of anemones was low (a maximumof seven at Rhounda Dabali at Iles des SeptFrères). The number of crown-of-thorns starfishwas also low. Aggregations of COTS were notobserved. The maximum number of COTSfound was 14 (Ile Moucha), with 12 individualsin Rhounda Dabali, Iles des Sept Frères. Elevenstarfish were observed in a further threesamples. In total, 96 crown-of-thorns starfishwere observed in 34 reef assessment swims.Giant clams were observed in all but threesamples. Samples from Godoria, Djibouti CitySouth, Fish Market and Djibouti City did notcontain giant clams. The number of clamsranged from 1 to 52 (Sable Blanc). Thirteensamples contained more than 10 clams and in

33

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

total 348 clams were observed in the swims. Intotal, 15 lobsters were were observed in sixswims. The maximum number observed in anysample was six (Hamra Island, Iles des SeptFrères). Sea cucumbers were observed in all butthree swims and 10 swims recorded 10 or more.Counts ranged from one to 30 (Ile Moucha). Intotal, 284 sea cucumbers were observed duringthe swims. The highest recorded count for thelong-spined (or needle spined) sea urchin(Diadema) was 81 individuals (Radio Mast,Djibouti City). A further 80 individuals werealso recorded during a reef swim at Sable Blanc.A total of 374 urchins was observed during reefedge assessment swims. No large aggregationsof Diadema were observed. Slate pencil urchins(Heterocentrotus) were recorded in only five of34 samples. A maximum of 17 slate pencilurchins was counted at the Navigation Beaconon Ile Maskali. A further 11 were counted atSable Blanc. Nine urchins were distributedbetween the remaining three samples. Top shellswere absent from all but one sample, at IleMaskali, which contained two shells (PERSGA-ALECSO 2003).

Coral Reef Fisheries

The major economic sectors in the coastalzone are maritime transport and port-relatedactivities. At present, fisheries play a limitedrole, although subsistence fisheries are locallyimportant. There are about 90 artisanal fishingboats, of which 75 are small open boats (6 to8 m) powered by outboard engines. Each boatoperates with an average of three fishermen onone-day trips. Some 15 of the boats are longer(10 to 14 m) and equipped with inboardengines. These carry an average of fivefishermen each, and go out for four days. Mostof the fisheries are at subsistence level andfishing effort is generally low.

The majority of the catch is landed by hookand line. To a lesser extent gill nets andthrowing nets are used. Catches consist almostentirely of large food fish, which are marketedfresh. There is no processing of anysignificance. About 75 % of the catch is landedat Boulaos. Other small landing places areEscale (5 %), Tadjoura (5 %) and Obock(10 %). Club Nautique is entirely used by sportfishermen, and accounts for 3 % of landings.The remaining 2 % are consumed on board.

Catches are composed of grouper (23 %),Spanish mackerel (14 %), red snapper (13 %),antak (12 %), blackspot snapper (10 %), bonito(5 %) and jack (4 %). All other species are ofless importance. Fisheries production increasedfrom 200 tonnes in 1980 to 400 tonnes in 1984and 700 tonnes in 1988. Between 1988 and 1991the increase in production slowed down due topoor marketing efforts. From 1991 to 1994 theproduction decreased dramatically, due topolitical unrest in the north of the country.

The majority of the catch is landed by hookand line. To a lesser extent gill nets andthrowing nets are used. Catches consist almostentirely of large food fish, which are marketedfresh. There is no processing of anysignificance. Fishery production is highest inMay, June and September. During the five-yearperiod, 1986 to 1990, when production wasfairly stable, the highest yields were recorded inMay (44,522 tonnes) and the lowest in February(25,110 tonnes).

BARRATT & MEDLEY (1988) indicated thatthere is a substantial market for aquarium fishfrom the Red Sea and Western Indian Oceanwaters of Djibouti, with the USA, Hong Kong,Germany, Japan and other European countriesas the main export markets. No major tradeexists at present.

34

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

Although parts of the coast and territorialwaters are still in a largely pristine state, the fewstudies that have been conducted show indicatethat in several areas there are alarming signs ofdegradation and threats are increasing rapidly.Pressure from humans is particularly severe inthe vicinity of the capital. The major threats toreefs in Djibouti are tourism and sewagedischarges. Coral bleaching needs to bemonitored more closely to determine its impacton reefs.

Habitat DestructionExtensive coastal development, which

includes dredging and landfilling, destroys largetracts of coral reefs. Urban, industrial and portdevelopment takes place with inadequateenvironmental planning and little or noenvironmental assessment. The lack ofmanagement and awareness, in addition to lackof enforcement of regulations, results inphysical damage to coral reefs, a loss of coralhabitat and a decline in reef-associated fauna.This is also brought about by anchor damage,ship groundings and tourism related activities.Poor navigational control systems and a lack ofmoorings throughout the area compound theseproblems.

Damage to corals that was unequivocallycaused by anchoring was noted in nine reef edgeassessments in 1998. Two of these sites werearound Ile Maskali; three were off the beach atSable Blanc; three were situated around IleMoucha and signs of minor anchor damage werenoted at Rhounda Dabali, Iles des Sept Frères.Suspected damage from small anchors was alsoobserved outside the samples at locations to thesouth of Iles Maskali and Moucha, and the reefflat at Sable Blanc exhibited damage most likelyto have been caused by small anchors ortrampling.

Exploitation of Living Marine ResourcesThere is potential overfishing of game fish

resulting in a decrease in average catch size, asthe level of fishing effort exceeds the MaximumSustainable Yield. The lack of surveillance andenforcement of existing regulations, such as thatregulating the use of spearguns in capital aroundurban areas and in MPAs is widespread. Inaddition, the fisheries data collection systemcollapsed in late 1990, holding back thedevelopment of any fisheries managementplans. The illegal shark fishery supplying theOriental shark fin market has resulted in adecline in shark stocks. There is also a largebye-catch of turtles, manta rays, dolphins,dugongs and finfish, and damage to reefs fromnets.

Navigation and Maritime RisksMaritime transport is a major commercial

sector in Djibouti. Activities at Djibouti Porthave developed rapidly. The port offerscontainer-handling facilities at two berths with atotal length of 400 m and with depths alongsideof up to 12 m. A 780 km railway links Djiboutiwith Addis Ababa and goods coming from andgoing to Ethiopia are shipped via Djibouti. Theincome of the International Autonomous Port ofDjibouti is a very important contribution to thenational economy.

There are risks of ship collisions andgroundings due to limited navigational controldevices and poorly separated traffic. Maritimetraffic is heavy and the area has complexnavigational hazards, the extensive coral reefsystems at the entrance to the port being oneexample. Marine vessel sewage and dischargeof solid waste is localized, washing up on theshores and along the mangroves. There isinadequate on-board treatment, a lack of portreception and disposal facilities, and inadequatesurveillance and enforcement throughout thearea.

35

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

Petroleum Development and TransportSmall oil spills (< 20 tons) cause beach

contamination and damage to the coastal andmarine biota. These occur from undergroundpipelines or from the discharge of ballast andbilge water, waste oil, or bunker oil spills. Thelack of reception facilities at the port,inadequate control and lack of enforcementcompound the problem.

Medium oil spills (20 to 100 tons) also causebeach contamination and damage coastal andmarine biota. These occur through dischargesfrom terminals and small accidents at sea. Thereis inadequate control and monitoring ofprocedures, equipment, personnel and training.

Large oil spills could cause widespreaddestruction of coastal and marine habitats andbiota and devastation to beach habitats. Thesecould occur with the rupture of oil tanks throughcollision or wreckage. Poor navigation aids area major contributory factor.

Industrial ActivitiesExcessive exploitation of surface and

groundwater for industrial use and excessivepumping, coupled with inadequate concern forwater conservation and poor regulation of waterexploitation could affect natural water dischargepatterns. Industrial pollution has led to a declinein water quality through the chronic release ofpollutants; lack of enforcement and inadequatetechnology compound the problem.

Urban DevelopmentThe discharge of untreated or insufficiently

treated sewage in coastal areas alters the marineenvironment and is a threat to public health. Thelack of sewage treatment plants, lack ofmaintenance of existing plants and inadequatepollution control regulations, monitoring andenforcement result in severe damage to coastaland marine life. Sewage discharges may causealgal booms.

Natural PredatorsIn early May 2000, large numbers of crown-

of-thorns starfish were found at Khor Ambado.A survey of an area about 5000 m2 at IleMoucha also found large numbers of COTs.However, at present it was not believed thatthese were in plague densities at the time, andtheir impact on the reefs is was minimal.

BleachingMost of the reefs in the Gulf of Tadjoura

showed no signs of bleaching. At Ile Maskali,degraded reefs were encountered in 1998(OBURA & DJAMA 2000) but the causes ofdegradation could not be determined. The onlysite with significant bleaching was at Iles desSept Frères, in Djibouti’s Red Sea waters. Inearly 1998 there was no evidence Obura andDjama did not find any of evidence of bleachingat any of the survey sites, either inshore oroffshore (OBURA & DJAMA 2000). In late 1998 atthe same sites, coral mortality was estimated at30 % at Iles des Sept Frères, but there was nomortality at other sites. Observations byrecreational SCUBA divers since that time(early 1999) suggest that bleaching mortalityhas increased to 40 % at Iles des Sept Frères,affecting principally tabular corals in theshallow water zones that are not affected bylongshore currents. However, OBURA (1998)found a low incidence of bleached corals in late1998; less than 1 % at the Iles des Sept Frères,none in the Gulf of Tadjoura or around IlesMoucha and Maskali.

Marine Protected Areas and Level ofManagement

Djibouti has two declared Marine ProtectedAreas, which have been established for morethan ten years. There are several additional areasproposed for protected status, one of which is ofregional importance.

36

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

MPAs Declared

Moucha Territorial Park: Established in1972 by regulation 72-1363/SG/CG, the Parkcovers an area of about 10 km2 at 11°43’N43°12’E and includes extensive coral reefs, arich reef-associated fish and invertebrate fauna,and mangroves. The regulation prohibits thecollection of corals and molluscs.

Decree 80/062/PR/MCTT (1980) extendedthe protection to the Maskali reserve. This latterDecree was then modified by Decree85/103/PR/AG (1985) to strengthenconservation of the two areas. The SouthMaskali Islands Integral Reserve covers an areaof about 3 km2 at 11°40’N 43°10’E andcontains coral reefs and rich reef-associated fishand invertebrate fauna (PERSGA/GEF 2001).

Only artisanal fisheries of edible species areallowed in these zones. Protection is supposedto prevent all extractive utilization except forartisanal fishing, which is defined as fishingusing traditional techniques on trips not longerthan a day or two.

The islands and reefs within and outside thereserves are used extensively for weekendrecreation, including picnicking, swimming,snorkelling, diving, water-skiing and camping.There are severe pressures from reef trampling,collection of souvenirs and spearfishing.

De facto and Planned MPAs

Godoriya: This is an extensive mangrovearea (Rhizophora and Avicennia), rich inmangrove-associated fauna. There are no coralreefs within the proposed area.

Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyyan: Lyingat the junction of the Red Sea and the Gulf ofAden, this is a group of high-aspect islands andan adjacent coastal stretch with a mangrove-fringed bay. There are diverse coral reefs andrich reef-associated fish and invertebrate fauna.There is a significant level of recreation,fishing-related pressure, and sedimentation fromnearby shipping activities.

Current Monitoring andManagement Capacity to ConserveCoral Reef Resources

At present the number of environmentalinitiatives in Djibouti is limited. The mostimportant ones are a contingency plan for theGulf of Aden developed in 1990, through whichan oil spill response centre was established forDjibouti, Yemen and Somalia; and the rules forthe management of marine protected areas andthe exploitation of reef associated species,issued in 1992 by the Maritime Administration.

Several institutions in Djibouti are involvedwith coastal and marine area and resourcemanagement. These are:

the Ministry of Agriculture andHydraulic through the Directorate ofStock-farming and Fisheries,

the Ministry of Transport andTelecommunications through itsDirectorate of Maritime Affairs,

the National Office for Tourism, Arts andCrafts,

the Presidency of the Republic, throughthe Institute of Higher Studies, Scientificand Technical Research,

37

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

the Service for Management andEnvironment, the Inter-ministerialCo-ordination Commission on theProtection of the Marine Fauna and theSeabed and

the National Council of the Sea.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policy Pertinent to ReefConservation

The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory to anumber of international conventions for theprotection of the marine environment and for theprevention of pollution, and it has enactedseveral national instruments through whichconservation and management of coral reefs aredirectly or indirectly addressed.

International Agreements

The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory tothe London Convention (modified 1954) whichis applicable through National Law No. 64/83.The following were approved by National LawNo 94/AN/89 2ºL in 1989:

the London Convention (1971) oninternational compensation funds,

the London Convention (1973, modified1978) with the exception of annexes (III,IV, & V) and

the Brussels Convention (1969) onintervention on the High Seas.

The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory tothe United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea (UNCLOS 1982).

The Republic of Djibouti is also a signatoryto the CITES Convention. Decree80-62/PR/MCTT of 25 May 1980 provides forthe protection of the seabed and the marinefauna, whereby the capture of marine mammalsand turtles is illegal, as well as the trade with orexport of these animals. Spearfishing is alsoillegal in Djibouti.

At the regional level, an agreement wassigned by Yemen, Djibouti and Somalia on theestablishment of a centre to combat oil pollutionin the Gulf of Aden. Oil spill responseequipment is stored at facilities in Djibouti.Yemen and Djibouti are currently negotiating abilateral agreement regarding the use of thisequipment. On 20 January 1986 Djibouti andSomalia signed a bilateral fishing agreement.

National Legislation

National regulations on the protection of themarine environment include provisions onmarine pollution, protection of endangeredspecies and the creation of protected areas(summarised in Table 8). Regulations on theprevention and combat of marine pollutioninclude:

Law 76-599 (1976) - Enacted byregulation 675/SELAG concerning ship-and aircraft aircraft-based pollution, aswell as the combat of accidental marinepollution.

Law 76-600 (1976) - Enacted byregulation 676/SELAG regardingpollution by incineration operations.

Laws 9/AN/82 (1982) and 137/AN/851ºL (1985) on oil pollution.

Ordinance 86-042/PR/PM (1986)containing regulations on action to be

38

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

taken in case of abandonment of shipsthat pose a threat to the environment interritorial waters.

Decree 89-085/PR/AE (1990) providingfor the implementation of a contingencyplan in the case of pollution by oil spills.

Decree 89-085/PR/PM (1989) andRegulation 90-0534/MPAM (1990)concerning the passage of foreign shipsthrough territorial waters in order toprevent pollution and the dumping ofhazardous wastes.

Code of Maritime Administration - Thepresent fisheries law was drafted beforeindependence, with the exception ofsome articles, and is now part of theCode. Articles 148, 149 and 220 to 225

(enacted by law 212/AN/82) and Articles16 to 19 of Law No. 52/AN/78 (1979)regulate the fishery. Certain fishingtechniques, such as the use of explosivesand poisons, are illegal. They determinethe conditions for the exploitation offishery resources including fishing zonesand closed seasons. They also includesanctions in case of violation of theseregulations by fishermen.

National Law No. 64/83 (1983) includesthe approval of four internationalconventions on maritime navigation.

Coastal Zone Regulations: Regulation86-0717/PR/MCTT (1986) concerns thewaste from camping on islands andbeaches; Ordinance 77-038/PR (1977)regulates registration of pleasure boats;

39

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

Law, Ordinance, Regulation Year (inforce)

Government Agency Concerned

Regulation 72-1363/SG/CG, establishment of MouchaTerritorial Park

1972 Maritime Administration

Law 76-599 on ship based pollution 1976 Maritime Administration

Law 76-600 on pollution caused by combustion 1976 Maritime Administration

Ordinance 77-038/PR on registration of pleasure boats 1977 Maritime Administration

Law 52/AN/78 article 16-19, fisheries regulations 1979 Maritime Administration

Decree 80-062/PR/MCTT on protection of the seabed andthe marine fauna, establishment of South Maskali IslandsIntegral Reserve

1980 MCTT

Law 9/AN/82, on hydrocarbon pollution 1982 Maritime Administration

Law 212/AN/82, fisheries regulations 1982 Maritime Administration

Law 137/AN/85, on hydrocarbon pollution 1985 Maritime Administration

Regulation 84-0969/PR/PM, on security of pleasure boating 1984 Maritime Administration

Decree 85/103/PR/AG on Marine Protected Areas 1985 Maritime Administration

Ordinance 86-042PR/PM, regulating abandoned ships 1986 Maritime Administration

Regulation 86/0717/PR/MCTT on camping huts on beachesand islands

1986 National Office for Tourism, Artsand Crafts

Decree 89-085/PR/PM on passage of foreign vessels 1989 Maritime Administration

Decree 89-085/PR/AE on oil spill response 1990 Maritime Administration

Regulation 90-0534/MPAM on passage of foreign vessels 1990 Maritime Administration

Table 8: National laws and regulations related to coastal and marine environments and resources (PERSGA2001)

and Regulation 84-0969/PR/PM (1984)concerns security of pleasure boatingand beach activities.

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

The two major requirements in Djibouti arestaff (with expertise in coral reef biology andecology, and an understanding of research andmonitoring practices), and funding to undertakeconservation work. The lack of trained staffstems largely from the lack of a highereducation system and the funding avenues forpost-graduate study of Djiboutian nationals.

Institutional CapacityOnly a few personnel are qualified for

managing marine resources. Recently thePERSGA/ALECSO-funded project and theNational Biodiversity Project have initiatedtraining of national counterparts in coral reefsurvey techniques. At present there are nomonitoring or conservation programmes forcoral reefs. The Environment Department wascreated recently (1996) and finalised theNational Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) inApril 2000 and a National Strategy forBiodiversity Conservation with financialsupport from the GEF. These include a NationalFramework Law, which will requireEnvironmental Impact Assessments for allprojects concerning the marine environment. Itis assumed that with the adoption of the NEAPand Biodiversity Strategy, the EnvironmentDepartment will be involved in all developmentprojects. There is a need for the managerial staffof the key national institutions to be trained incoral reef survey techniques and the biology andecology of coral reef ecosystems.

FinancialFinancial constraints are a major obstacle to

the conservation of coral reefs. There have beenno funds for surveys to assess the status and

health of coral reefs in Djibouti, except forforeign-based research. The EnvironmentDepartment has had to rely on the GEF andfinancial support through PERSGA to conductthe first assessments of coral reefs since 1988. Itis possible that financial resources could beraised through levying of fines and fees forinfringements of national laws. The NEAP callsfor the creation of an Environmental Fund,which should be established in the near future. Itis expected that this fund will be used forconservation of key ecosystems such as coralreefs.

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

Natural and anthropogenic stresses on coralsin Djibouti are limited in extent and scope.Several key actions at the national level in theform of legislation and implementation couldreduce the risks of ship-based pollution and oilspills. A dedicated research and monitoringprogramme that fed back into coastal areamanagement plans would contribute greatly toefficient conservation actions.

LegislationIt is recommended that decrees on

biodiversity conservation and protected areasshould be put into force. Related laws andregulations should also be revised. It isimportant to strengthen enforcement of existingregulations relating to the management ofcoastal and marine areas and resources. Anational Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementPlan is urgently needed. Annexes III, IV, and Vof the MARPOL Convention 73/78 should beratified to bring Djibouti into line withinternational efforts at combating oil pollution.

40

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Coastal Area ManagementInstitutions involved in the management of

coastal and marine resources and in lawenforcement need support. A framework andprogramme for visitors to coral reef areas has tobe developed. This will should includeguidelines and moorings for boats.

Reef ConservationA coral reef monitoring, protection and

management programme should be developed.Management programmes should be developedfor the existing Marine Protected Areas and afeasibility study for the conservation andmanagement of additional marine protectedareas should be conducted. These might includeIles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyyan. Stocks ofreef fish populations should be assessedproperly before the collection of ornamental fishfor the aquarium trade is developedcommercially.

Research and MonitoringMarine habitats and biota should be studied

and monitored on a regular basis. Theestablishment of a marine biology department

and the training of Djiboutians in marinebiology is recommended once a university isestablished. An environmental data basecontaining information on biological resourcesshould be developed. A monitoring programmeshould be set up to support management andenforcement activities. Institutions involved inapplied research need strengthening.

Shipping and NavigationMonitoring of vessels passing through

territorial waters of Djibouti, communicationwith vessels and the installation of navigationalmarkers, particularly along major shippingchannels, should be improved. The national oilspill response contingency plan should beupdated and implemented. The responsecapacity needs to be upgraded and wastereception facilities installed at ports. Afeasibility study on waste management and thedevelopment of port reception facilities andwaste management systems are also needed.

41

Coral Reefs of Djibouti

42

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Introduction

Djibouti possède 372 kilomètres de côtesbordées en certains endroits de vastes récifscoralliens. La côte nord, près de l’Érythrée, faitface au détroit de Bab el-Mandeb; côtesablonneuse aux eaux généralement peuprofondes, elle présente des formationscoralliennes à Ras Siyyan et à Kadda Gueini.L’archipel des Sawabi (Sept Frères), à l’est deRas Siyyan, est également entouré de récifsfrangeants. La côte du sud-est vers la Somalie, ades eaux peu profondes, avec plusieurs estuaireset des récifs coralliens peu développés en raisondes remontées d’eaux froides (upwelling) quiproviennent de l’océan Indien. La majeurepartie du littoral djiboutien se trouve le long duprofond golfe de Tadjourah (883 m). LeGhoubbet al-Kharab, bassin semi-fermé defaible profondeur séparé du golfe de Tadjourahavec lequel il communique par une passe étroite,contient des récifs coralliens de faible diversité.À l’entrée du golfe de Tadjourah, au nord deDjibouti-ville, se trouvent les îles Moucha etMaskali, qui sont entourées d’importants récifscoralliens (Figure 7).

Situé à la convergence de trois zonesbiogéographiques, Djibouti possède unassemblage unique de récifs coralliens dediverses espèces. La combinaison de biotesd’eaux tropicales chaudes de l’océan Indien etde la mer Rouge et des habitats d’eaux froides,des régions somalienne et arabe est inhabituelleet rare sont les points du globe où elles setrouvent.

Djibouti est située dans une zone chaudesemi-aride où le climat subit l’influence de lamousson de l’océan Indien. Les températuresatmosphériques moyennes vont de 25 ºC enhiver à 35 ºC en été. Les précipitationsannuelles varient de 50 à 215 mm. Au cours dela mousson du sud-est, de juin à septembre, lesvents du nord poussent les eaux de surface dugolfe d’Aden dans la mer d’Arabie. Lephénomène s’inverse d’octobre à mai pourramener des eaux froides à proximité des côtes.Le taux de salinité varie de 36 à 39 ppt, avecdes augmentations pendant la mousson du sud-ouest, et la température de l’eau varie de 25 ºCà 29 ºC.

L’agriculture, l’élevage et la pêche apportentmoins de 2,5 % au revenu national. Lacontribution du port international de Djibouti àl’économie nationale, en revanche, estsignificative.

Les menaces qui pèsent actuellement sur lesrécifs coralliens proviennent du trafic maritime,du développement du littoral et du tourisme, cedernier étant toutefois encore à un stadeembryonnaire. Un plan d’action pour laconservation de la biodiversité nationale, tantterrestre que marine, a été préparé dans le cadred’un projet appuyé par le FEM.

Études

En 1998, une équipe nationale dirigée parDavid Obura a étudié les îles Moucha etMaskali, Khor Ambado, les Trois Plages, SableBlanc, Ras Duan, les Sept Frères, le récif

43

Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

d’Ambouli et un site au large de Tadjourah(OBURA & DJAMA 2000). Une étude distinctemenée en avril 1998 par Hunting AquaticResources pour le PERSGA a porté sur lesressources côtières et marines des îles Mouchaet Maskali, de Khor Ambado, de Djibouti-ville,de Sable Blanc, de Godoria, de Khor Angar, desîles des Sept Frères et de Ras Siyyan, où un totalde 185 sites ont été examinés(PERSGA/ALECSO). Une étude plus détailléea également été réalisée de novembre àdécembre 1998 sur 21 sites du golfe Tadjourah,des îles Moucha et Maskali et des îles des SeptFrères dans le nord (OBURA 1998).

Dans l’étude d’Obura & Djama, le nombreet le pourcentage de couverture des coraux mouset durs a été évalué a l’aide de quadrantscirculaires, et il a été procédé à desdénombrements des principaux invertébrés.Tous les signes de prolifération algale ont éténotés.

Dans l’étude PERSGA/ALECSO, il a étéprocédé à des évaluations visuelles par plongéeen apnée sur des quadrats de 10 × 10 m, centréssur une ligne de démarcation entre le bord desrécifs et la face récifale, pour déterminer l’étatdes principaux invertébrés sessiles et évaluer lesimpacts des activites humaines. En outre, desobservations de la périphérie à la nage pendant20 minutes ont été effectuées le long des récifsentre les quadrats d’échantillonnage, pourévaluer le taux de couverture des différentsorganismes sur une bande de 10 m de large. Desdénombrements ont également été effectuéspour des espèces indicatrices telles que lespoissons-papillons, les poissons-anges, lenapoléon Cheilinus undulatus et plusieursespèces commerciales.

Les caractéristiques des espèces benthiquesont été évaluées pour déterminer le taux decouverture, selon ENGLISH et al. (1997), àl’exception de la « pellicule algale » termegénérique désignant toutes les formes d’alguesnon calcaires trop petites pour être distinguées àl’œil nu. Certaines composantes ont étécomptées au lieu d’indiquer leur pourcentage decouverture, en particulier les macro-invertébréstels que les langoustes et les couronnes d’épines(Acanthaster planci). Un certain nombred’espèces indicateurs de poissons ont étédénombrées selon les méthodes d’ENGLISH et al.(1997).

Dans l’étude réalisée par Obura à la fin del’annee 1998, des données ont été recueillies parplongée en apnée dans les eaux de moins de 5 mde profondeur et en plongée avec bouteille dansles profondeurs de plus de 5 m. Les zones

44

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Djibouti

Yemen

Somalia

G o l fed'Aden

La MerRouge

Bab al Mandab

Ras Siyyan

Iles des Sept Frères

Khor Angar

Godoria

Ras Bir

TadjourahSable Blanc

Iles Moucha& Maskali

Sharm TadjourahDjibouti

Khor Ambado

GhoubbetKharab

Figure 7: Carte de la République de Djiboutiindiquant l’emplacement des principales airesmarines.

d’échantillonnages étaient des quadrantscirculaires d’un rayon de 5,6 m (superficie de100 m2). Le pourcentage de couverture a étéestimé pour trois types de substrats et six typesde couvert biologique. L’objectif principal ainsivisé était de procéder à des relevés rapides surles fonds et non pas d’obtenir des mesuresdétaillées sur de petites superficies, comme enfournissent les techniques des transects et desquadrats.

Récifs coralliens – Benthos

Les récifs situés au large de la grande plagede Maskali (actuellement démarqués par desbouées de mouillage) étaient en très mauvaisétat. Vers la pointe sud-ouest de l’île, près duphare de navigation, les récifs étaient aussi enpiètre état et la turbidité très élevée. Enrevanche, la plupart des autres récifs au large deMoucha et de Maskali présentaient une trèsbonne couverture de coraux vivants (estimée àplus de 30 %). Les sites d’échantillonnage surles platiers de corail et les bancs coralliens ausud de Maskali avaient eux aussi une très bonnecouverture de coraux vivants avec leur fauneichtyologique associée. La couverture de corauxvivants des récifs frangeants au nord de Mouchaet Maskali était de modérée à bonne (25 à 40%) et la structure corallienne paraissait robuste.Par ailleurs, les platiers de coraux étaientraisonnablement bien développés dans le chenalséparant Maskali et Moucha. Les récifsfrangeants au nord de Moucha et Maskaliprésentaient une couverture relativement élevéed’Acropora brisés maintenant colonisés par desalgues coralliennes, qui est peut-être le résultatd’un épisode de blanchissement, suivi de lacassuré des coraux sous l’effet des vagues. Laprésence d’un substrat vivant importantconstatée sur ces sites peut indiquer unprocessus de régénération.

La couverture des coraux durs des récifsfrangeants de Khor Ambado était de 52 %, taux

élevé par rapport à nombre d’autres sites àDjibouti et ailleurs dans la mer Rouge, malgréune forte turbidité au moment de l’observation.La diversité des espèces benthiques et sessilesétait faible par comparaison aux autres sitesétudiés, et Porites et Pocillopora étaient lescoraux bâtisseurs dominants en bordure et surles pentes des récifs. Les coraux et autresespèces fauniques étaient relativement rares surl’arrière-récif et le platier. Le récif frangeantsitué en face de la plage touristique de SableBlanc présentait de vastes cascades de Poritessur une pente récifale abrupte descendantjusqu’à un fond sablonneux à environ 20 m deprofondeur. Il a été relevé des signes d’impactsmineurs sur la plupart des colonies, ce qui peutêtre dû à la maladie ou à la sédimentation.

Vers l’est, le long de la côte, l’état du récifétait de modéré à bon avec une couverturecorallienne atteignant 80 % dans les zonesd’échantillonnage. L’état général du récifsemble conditionné davantage par des facteursextérieurs tels que l’épandage de matériaux et leruissellement d’eau des pluies en provenancedes wadis (rivière non permanente) que par lespressions des visiteurs.

Le platier de Sable Blanc présentait unegamme plus large de petites coloniescoralliennes et de substrats vivants que le récifde Khor Ambado. L’espèce de corail dominanteobservée sur le platier était Pocillopora. Il aégalement été noté la présence de petitescolonies d’Acropora sur le platier, en particulierà l’ouest de la principale plage touristique. S’iln’y avait pas de signes notables deblanchissement récents, des cicatrices decouronnes d’épines ont été relevées sur la facerécifale et le platier.

Les récifs de Djibouti sont soumis à despressions provenant de nombreuses activitéshumaines. Malgré cela, le couvert de corauxdurs vivants s’établit en moyenne à 39 %, avec

45

Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

un maximum de 80 % (avec dominance dePocillopora). La turbidité de l’eau était élevéesur tous les sites. On observe des platiers desubstrat corallien largement espacés, séparés parde la vase et autres sédiments mous. Néanmoins,les coraux vivants persistent en petitesformations aux environs de la capitale et àproximité immédiate de la zone portuaire.

L’état des habitats coralliens aux Sept Frèresétait bon. La couverture corallienne vivante desîles était en moyenne de 34 % et lesobservations de la diversité générale du substratont indiqué que la majorité de l’archipelpossédait des récifs équilibrés et sains. Il estdifficile d’attribuer les impacts à une causeprécise quelconque et il s’agit peut-être deperturbations environne-mentales à long terme.Il n’a pas été constaté d’indications d’épidémiesde couronnes d’épines actuelles ou récentes lorsde l’étude de 1998. La plupart des récifs dugolfe de Tadjourah ne présentaient pas de signes

de blanchissement. Dans certaines zones,notamment au large de l’île Maskali, on aconstaté la présence de récifs dégradés, maissans que l’on puisse déterminer les causes decette dégradation. Les seuls sites où il a étérelevé des signes de blanchissement notablessont les îles des Sept Frères situées dans les eauxdjiboutiennes de la mer Rouge. Ces îles doiventleur spécificité aux remontées d’eau froide quicontribuent à accroître la productivité desécosystèmes (et elles constituent de ce fait deszones halieutiques importantes). Le site desTrois Plages était remarquablement intact etpossédait de vastes récifs contenant l’un desplus grands nombres d’espèces depoissons-papillons relevés au cours de l’étude(OBURA & DJAMA 2000).

Diversité des coraux

Au total, l’étude de 1998 a recensé 167espèces de coraux, dominés par Acropora

46

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Région Site Nbred'espèces

Tempsd'échantillonnage

(mn)Sept Frères I. Grande 84 45Tadjourah, sud Trois Plages 75 55Sept Frères I. Sud 71 100Tadjourah, sud Arta Est 70 45Sept Frères I. Est 69 35Moucha et Maskali Moucha Est 67 35Tadjourah, sud Arta Ouest 66 20Moucha et Maskali Maskali Buoy 64 40Tadjourah, sud Khor Ambado 64 45Tadjourah, nord Ras Duan-Platier 63 30Moucha et Maskali Phare de Maskali 62 40Tadjourah, nord Sable Blanc 58 40Tadjourah, nord Ras Duan-Récif frangeant 57 35Sept Frères I. Double 52 60Tadjourah, nord Tadjourah 49 25Moucha et Maskali Moucha N 43 30Moucha et Maskali Moucha S 21 30Moucha et Maskali Maskali S 19 20

Tableau 9 : Diversité des espèces coralliennes et temps d'échantillonnage sur chaque site(OBURA 1998)

hemprichii, Echinopora fruticulosa et Poritesnodifera. Seules 10 % d’entre elles étaientprésentes sur tous les sites; 40 % étaientprésentes sur plusieurs sites et près de 50 %étaient limitées à quelques sites.

Un total de 167 espèces de coraux (dont troisespèces de corail noir) ont été identifiées en1998 (OBURA 1998). La plus forte diversité a étéenregistrée à Arta Plage (93), Grande Ile dansl’archipel des Sept Frères se plaçant au secondrang (84 espèces), suivie par les Trois Plagesdans le golfe de Tadjourah (75 espèces)(tableaux 9 et 10). Seule une espèce de coraux,Porites lutea, a été identifiée sur tous les sites et10 % seulement des espèces identifiés ont étérecensées sur 14 sites ou plus.

Couverture corallienne

Soixante-douze quadrats de 10 sur 10 m ontfait l’objet d’une évaluation visuelle pourdéterminer les taux de couverture par diversescomposantes biotiques et non biotiques. Les

coraux vivants durs n’étaient absents que deuxdes 72 quadrats, leurs taux de couverture variantde 5 % (au large de la grande plage touristiquede Maskali) à 93% (sur l’île Hamra des SeptFrères). Sur ce dernier site, le corail dominantétait Acropora. Sur 26 sites-échantillons, le tauxde couverture de coraux vivant était égal ousupérieur à 50 %. Les taux de couverture descoraux durs vivants relevés lors desobservations à la nage sur les périphéries desrécifs varient de 5 % à 70 % et dépassaient20 % sur tous les sites observés sauf trois(PERSGA/ALECSO).

La présence de macroalgues a été notéedans 38 des 72 quadrats évalués, avec un taux decouverture par quadrat variant de 1 % à SableBlanc à 60 % au site du marché au poisson àDjibouti-ville. Un taux de 50 % a été noté prèsde Moucha sur deux sites. Il n’a pas été observéde macroalgues au cours des évaluations dequadrats autour des Sept Frères. La présenced’une pellicule algale a été observée dans 13 des72 quadrats, avec un taux de couverture variantde 5 % (à Khor Angar) à 25 % (au site de

47

Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

Région Site Nbre d'espèces Temps d'échan-tillonnage (mn)

Tadjourah, sud Arta 93 65

Tadjourah, nord Ras Duan 90 65

Sept Frères Grande 84 45

Moucha et Maskali Maskali 84 100

Moucha et Maskali Moucha 82 95

Tadjourah, sud Trois Plages 75 55

Sept Frères Sud 73 100

Est Sept Frères Est 69 35

Tadjourah, sud Khor Ambado 64 45

Tadjourah, nord Sable Blanc 62 40

Sept Frères Double 52 60

Tadjourah, nord Tadjourah 49 25

Tableau 10 : Diversité des espèces coralliennes et temps d'échantillonnage dans chaquezone (OBURA 1998)

l’antenne radio près de Djibouti-ville). Desalgues coralliennes ont été observées dans 62des 72 quadrats, le taux de couverture variant de5 % (sur 17 sites) à un maximum de 60 %.Lors des observations sur le bord des récifs, laprésence de macroalgues a été constatée sur 24des 34 évaluations. Le taux de couverture va de1 % à Sable Blanc à 60 % sur un site proche duphare de navigation de Maskali. Il n’a pas été vude macroalgues lors des observations à la nagele long de la périphérie des récifs aux SeptFrères. La présence d’une pellicule algale a étéconstatée lors de six des 34 évaluations desbords des récifs, les taux de couverture allant de5 % (à Khor Angar) à 20 % (marché aupoisson, Djibouti-ville). Des algues coralliennesont été observées dans de 27 de ces 34évaluations. Le taux de couverture le plus élevéqui ait été constaté était de 48 % à Sable Blancet dans 13 autres de ces évaluations à lapériphérie des récifs, le taux de couvertureatteignait ou dépassait 20 %(PERSGA/ALECSO en préparation).

Il n’a été observé de coraux morts que dansun seul quadrat. En revanche, la présence decoraux morts couverts d’algues a été relevéedans 25 quadrats, à des taux variant de 4 % à 20%. Lors des observations à la périphérie desrécifs, il n’a été vu de coraux morts qu’à SableBlanc. En revanche des coraux morts couvertsd’algues ont été observés lors de 21 évaluationsà la périphérie de récifs, à des taux allant de 5 %à 25 % à Khor Ambado (PERSGA/ALECSO enpréparation).

Des coraux mous ont été observés dans 19quadrats, avec un taux de couverture maximumde 40 % (à Kadda Dabali et à Rhounda Dabali).La présence de coraux mous a été constatée lorsde 10 observations en bordure des récifs, à destaux de couverture allant de 1 (à Moucha) à35 % (à Rhounda Komayto, Sept Frères)(PERSGA/ALECSO).

Peuplement ichtyologique

Des requins ont été observés sur six des sitesétudiés. Quatre requins ont été vus à l’île Hamra(Sept Frères) et des individus solitaires ont étéobservés sur les autres sites.

Des poissons-anges ont été observés sur tousles sites, leur nombre allant de six à 31(Moucha). Vingt-huit sites contenaient 10poissons-anges ou plus. Holocanthus xanthotiset Pomacanthus imperator ont été observés surtrois et cinq sites respectivement. H. xanthotis aété observé dans un groupe de 11 individus àRhounda Komayto (Sept Frères). Seuls desindividus isolés de P. imperator ont étéobservés. Genicanthus caudovittatus n’a été vusur aucun site. Pomacanthus asfur a été observésur tous les sites sauf un (Kadda Dabali, SeptFrères), en nombres variant de un à 20(Maskali). Pomacanthus maculosus a étéobservé dans 31 sites-échantillons sur 34. Lesnombres relevés varient de un à 15 (à Godoria),mais 21 sites contenaient moins de 10 individus.Pygoplites diacanthus a été observé sur 21 sites-échantillons, en nombres variant de un à 15,avec 14 sites contenant moins de 10 individus.

Le nombre total de poissons-papillonsobservés (à savoir la somme desdénombrements pour toutes les espèces) variede huit (à Sable Blanc et au marché au poissonde Djibouti-ville) à 110 (à Moucha). Sur 15 des34 sites-échantillons, il a été observé 50poissons-papillons ou plus. L’espèce la plusfréquemment observée est Gonochaetodonlarvatus (510 individus au total) et Heniochusintermedius (45 individus au total). H.intermedius a également été observé sur tous lessites, ses nombres allant de un (au marché aupoisson à Djibouti-ville) à 48 (à l’île Hamra desSept Frères). Dix-huit sites échantillonscontenaient 10 individus ou plus et six siteséchantillons en contiennent plus de 20.Chaetodon semilarvatus a été observé sur tousles sites, ses nombres allant de un à 65 (àMoucha); 22 sites contenaient 10 individus ouplus et neuf sites plus de 20 individus.

48

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Chaetodon auriga et Chaetodon austriacusn’ont été vus sur aucun site(PERSGA/ALECSO).

Le nombre total de mérous observés (toutesespèces confondues) va de zéro (au marché aupoisson) à 56 (à Godoria). Vingt-huit sitescontenaient 10 mérous ou plus et 17 sites encontenaient 20 ou plus. Deux espèces de méroucommerciales, Variola louti and Plectropomustruncatus, n’ont été observées sur aucun site.Cephalopholis miniata n’a été observé qu’àKhor Ambado et une quatrième espèce,Epinephelus tauvina, ne l’a été que sur deuxsites (Rhounda Komayto, Sept Frères ; et SableBlanc). Aucune espèce n’est pésente sur tous lessites. L’espèce la plus fréquemment rencontrée,par le nombre de sites où elle est présente et lenombre total d’individus observés, étaitCephalopholis hemistiktos. Cette espèce n’étaitabsente que de deux sites (Moucha et le marchéau poisson). Les nombres de C. hemistiktosobservés varient de 2 à 27.

Six espèces de vivaneaux ont fait l’objetd’une évaluation numérique au cours de l’étudePERSGA/ALECSO. Une espèce, Lutjanusargentimaculatus, n’a été observée dans aucunsite et un seul individu de Macolor niger l’a été(à Maskali). Lutjanus kasmira a été observédans 20 sites, en nombres variant de 1 à 260individus (Maskali). Lutjanus monostigma a étéobservé dans 29 sites, en nombres allant de un (àMoucha) à près de 2 000 (à Kadda Dabali, SeptFrères). Un autre site (Hamra, Sept Frères)contenait plus de 1 000 individus et dixobservations à la nage en ont relevé plus de 100.

Une seule espèce de labre, le Napoléon,Cheilinus undulatus, a fait l’objet d’uneévaluation numérique. Sa présence a été notéedans 14 sites. C’est à Maskali qu’il en a étéobservé le plus grand nombre (cinq individus),un total de 28 ayant été observé dans les 34évaluations de la périphérie des récifs. Desactivités de pré-fraye de cette espèce ont étéobservés aux environs de la réserve de Maskali.

Une espèce de sparidés, Acanthopagrusbifasciatus, a fait l’objet d’une évaluationnumérique. Elle a été observée dans neuf sites.Les nombres observés ne dépassent pas 10individus au cours de la même sortied’évaluation. Ce nombre maximum a été relevéà Moucha. Le nombre total de sparidés recenséspour toutes les évaluations effectuées n’a atteintque 31 (PERSGA/ ALECSO).

La présence/absence de six espèces dedemoiselles a été notée lors des évaluations desrécifs à la nage. Plectroglyphidodon spp. n’a étéobservé nulle part. Chromis dimidiata n’a étéobservé qu’à Hamra, aux Sept Frères. L’espècede demoiselle la plus fréquemment observée aété Abudefduf spp., qui était présente dans tousles sites.

Cinq poissons perroquets ont fait l’objetd’évaluations pour déterminer leurprésence/absence. Scarus ferrugineus étaitprésent dans tous les sites et Scarus sordidusn’était absent que dans un site (RhoundaKomayto, Sept Frères). Scarus frenatus étaitabsent de tous les sites. Scarus niger a étéobservé que dans 26 et sites Cetoscarus bicolourdans 20 sites.

Sur les quatre espèces de poissons-chirurgiens dont la présence/absence ont étédéterminées, une seule, Zebrasoma xanthurum,était présente dans tous les sites, et Zebrasomaveliferum dans tous les sites sauf trois. Laprésence de Ctenochaetus striatus etAcanthurus sohal a été notée dans 31 sites etlors de 18 évaluations à la nage à la périphériede récifs.

Treize espèces de labres ont fait l’objetd’évaluations pour déterminer leurprésence/absence. Trois de ces espèces,Gomphosus caeruleus, Thalassoma lunare etLarabicus quadrilineatus, étaient présentes danstous les sites et Halichoeres hortulanus n’étaitabsent que dans deux sites. En revanche,Thalassoma klunzingeri et Macropharyngodonbipartitus étaient absents dans tous les sites.

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Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

Bien que la présence de Halichoeres marginatusn’ait été observé que dans 15 sites, les autresespèces ont été observée lors de plus de 20observations à la nage à la périphérie de récifs(PERSGA/ALECSO).

Peuplements d’invertébrés

Des anémones ont été observées dans 13sites-échantillons, mais leur nombre était bas(avec un maximum de = sept à RhoundaDabali). Le nombre de couronnes d’épines(CdE) était bas lui aussi. Il n’a pas été vud’agrégats de CdE et le nombre maximumd’individus observés est de 14 (Moucha). DouzeCdE ont été observées à Rhounda Dabali, auxSept Frères, et 11 sur trois autres sites-échantillons. Au total, il a été dénombré 96 CdElors des 34 évaluations de récifs. Des tridacnesgéants ont été observés dans tous les sites sauftrois. Les sites de Godoria, Djibouti-ville sud,marché au poisson et Djibouti-ville n’encontenaient pas. Le nombre d’individusobservés va de un à 52 (Sable Blanc). Treizesites contenaient plus de 10 individus et un totalde 348 tridacnes ont été observés lors desévaluations à la périphérie des récifs. Un total de15 langoustes a été observé lors de sixobservations à la nage; le nombre maximumobservé dans tous les sites est de six (Hamra).Des concombres de mer ont été observés lors detoutes les observations à la nage sauf trois etdans 10 sorties, il en a été observé 10 ou plus.Les nombres vont de un à 30 (Moucha). Autotal, 284 concombres de mer ont été observéslors des sorties à la nage. Le nombre maximumd’oursins-diadèmes observés est de 81 (antenneradio, Djibouti-ville). Également, lors d’uneévaluation en bordure de récif à Sable Blanc, ilen a été dénombré 80; un total de 374 oursins aété observé lors de ces évaluations à la nage,sans que soient observés de grands agrégats decette espèce. La présence d’oursins crayons(Heterocentrotus) n’a été relevée que sur cinqsites sur 34. Un maximum de 17 oursins crayonsa été dénombré à la balise de Maskali et 11 à

Sable Blanc. Neuf oursins étaient répartis entreles trois autres sites. Les troches étaient absentsde tous les sites-échantillons sauf un, Maskali,où il en a été observé deux (PERSGA/ ALECSOen préparation).

Pêcheries des récifs coralliens

Les principaux secteurs d’activitééconomique dans la zone côtière sont lestransports maritimes et les activités portuairesconnexes. Les pêcheries ne jouent actuellementqu’un rôle limité, mais la pêche de subsistanceest importante au niveau local. Il y a environ 90bateaux de pêche artisanale, dont 75 sont depetites embarcations non pontées de 6 à 8 m,propulsées par un moteur hors-bord. Cesbateaux ont un équipage de trois hommes enmoyenne et sortent pour la journée. La flottillecompte également une quinzaine de bateaux de10 à 14 m, dotés de moteurs in-bord Cesbateaux ont généralement un équipage de cinqhommes et effectuent des sorties de quatre jours.La plupart des activités de pêche se situent auniveau de la subsistance et l’effort de pêche estgénéralement bas.

La pêche se fait en majorité à la ligne, lesfilets maillants et les éperviers étant égalementutilisés mais dans une moindre mesure. Lesprises consistent pour leur quasi totalité depoissons comestibles de grande taille qui sontcommercialisés frais. Il n'existe pas detraitement significatif. Il n'y a aucun traitmentd'importance. Environ 75 % des prises sontdébarquées à Boulaos, les autres points dedébarquement étant Escale (5 %), Tadjourah(5 %) et Obock (10 %). Le Club Nautique estutilisé exclusivement pour la pêche sportive etreprésente 3 % des débarquements. Les 2 %restants sont consommés à bord.

Les prises se composent de mérous (23 %),thazards (14 %), rougets (13 %), antaks(12 %), dorades (10 %), bonites (5 %) et

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

carangues (4 %). Les autres espèces sont demoindre importance. La production halieutiquea connu une progression, 200 tonnes en 1980,400 tonnes en 1984 et 700 tonnes in 1988. De1988 à 1991, cette progression a marqué unralentissement, du fait de la médiocrité desefforts de commercialisation. De 1991 à 1994, laproduction a connu une diminution substantiellecausée par les troubles politiques dans le norddu pays.

La pêche est pratiquée essentiellement à laligne et, dans une moindre mesure, au filetmaillant et à l’épervier. Les prises consistentpresque entièrement de grands poissonscomestibles qui sont commercialisés à l’étatfrais. Il n’existe pas d’activités de traitementsignificatives. La production halieutique atteintson maximum en mai-juin et en septembre. Aucours de la période de cinq ans de 1986 à 1990,où la production a été relativement stable, lesplus hauts rendements ont été enregistrés en mai(44,522 tonnes) et les plus bas en février (25,110tonnes).

BARRATT & MEDLEY (1988) indiquent qu’ilexiste un important marché d’aquariophilie pourles poissons de la mer Rouge et de l’océanIndien occidental. Les principaux importateursétant les États-Unis, Hong-Kong, l’Allemagne,le Japon et divers pays européens, mais il n’ypas actuellement d’échanges commerciauximportants dans ce domaine.

Menaces pour la biodiversité desrécifs coralliens

Bien que certaines parties des eaux côtièreset territoriales soient encore essentiellementintactes, les quelques études qui ont étéeffectuées indiquent qu’il existe des signesalarmants de dégradation et de menaces enrapide expansion. Les pressions anthropiquessont particulièrement intenses aux alentours dela capitale. Les principales menaces qui pèsentsur les récifs djiboutiens sont le tourisme et les

rejets d’eaux usées. Il faut également surveillerplus attentivement le blanchissement des corauxafin de déterminer l’impact du phénomène surles récifs.

Destruction des habitatsUn développement intensif du littoral, avec

dragage et remblayage, détruit de vastessuperficies de récifs coralliens Les travauxd’aménagement urbain, industriel et portuairessont effectués avec une planificationenvironnementale insuffisante et desévaluations environnementales limitées, voireinexistantes. L’absence de gestion et desensibilisation, en sus de la non-application desrèglements, a pour effet d’infliger des dégâtsaux récifs qui se traduisent par des pertesd’habitats coralliens et une diminution de lafaune récifale. Les dégâts causés par les ancres,les échouages de navires et les activités liées autourisme ont le même effet. La médiocrité dessystèmes de contrôle de la navigation etl’insuffisance de mouillages viennent aggraverle problème.

Neuf évaluations coralliens en bordure derécifs effectuées en 1998 ont noté des dégâtscausés incontestablement par les ancres. Lessites sont les suivants:

deux sites près de Maskali,

trois au large de la plage de Sable Blanc,

trois aux alentours de Moucha et

des dégâts mineurs ont été relevés àRhounda Dabali, aux Sept Frères.

Il est également suspecté que des dégâtsobservés hors des sites d’échantillonnage au sudde Maskali et de Moucha sont dus à de petitesancres, de plus le platier récifal de Sable Blancprésente des zones vraisemblablementendommagées par de petites ancres ou parpiétinement.

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Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

Exploitation des ressources marinesbiologiques

Il y a un danger de surpêche espèces depoissons ciblé par la pêche sportive, et l’on noteune réduction de la taille moyenne des prisesindiquant que l’effort de pêche dépasse lerendement maximal soutenu. L’absence desurveillance et la non-application desrèglements, notamment l’interdiction des fusilsde plongée aux environs des zones urbaines etdans les AMP, sont en cause. En outre, lesystème de collecte de données sur les pêcheriesest devenu inopérant à la fin des années 1990 cequi constitue un obstacle à l’élaboration de toutplan de gestion dans le domaine. La pêcheillicite de requins a destination du marchéoriental des ailerons de requins s’est traduite parune diminution des stocks. Il y a égalementd’importantes prises accessoires de tortues, deraies manta, de dauphins, de lamantins et depoissons et des dégâts causés aux récifs du faitde l’emploi de filets.

Activités et risques liés à la navigation Le transport maritime est un important

secteur commercial à Djibouti. Les activités duPort de Djibouti se sont développéesrapidement. Le port possède des installations demanutention de conteneurs à deux postesd’accostage d’une longueur totale de 400 m etd’une profondeur de quai de 12 m. Une voieferroviaire relie Djibouti à Addis-Abeba et lesmarchandises venant d’Éthiopie ou destinées àce pays transitent par Djibouti. Les recettes duPort international autonome de Djibouticonstituent un apport très important pourl’économie nationale.

Il y a des risques de collision et d’échouagedes navires en raison de l’insuffisance des aidesà la navigation et de la séparation du trafic. Letrafic maritime est intense et les problèmes denavigation sont complexes : la présence d’unrécif corallien à l’entrée du port en étant unexemple. Les rejets d’eaux usées et de déchetssolides provenant des navires sont localisés,mais polluent les rivages et menacent les

mangroves. Ces problèmes sont dus auxinsuffisances du traitement des déchets à bord, àl’absence des déchets d’installations portuairesde réception et de mise au rebut des déchets, etde la surveillance et de l’application desrèglements dans toute la région.

Exploitation et transport des hydrocarbures De petits déversements (moins de 20 tonnes)

causent une contamination des plages etoccasionnent des dégâts aux biotes côtiers etmarins. Ils se produisent à partir de canalisationssouterraines ou du fait du rejet des eaux deballast et de cale, des huiles usées, ou dedéversements de fuel de soute. L’absenced’installations portuaires de réception desdéchets et l’insuffisance de la surveillance et del’application des règlements compliquent leproblème.

Il se produit aussi des déversements de taillemoyenne du fait de rejets aux terminauxpétroliers et de petits accidents en mer. Lecontrôle et la surveillance des procédures envigueur présentent des faiblesses.

De grands déversements d’hydro-carburespourraient provoquer une destructiongénéralisée des habitats et biotes marins etdévaster les plages. Ces accidents peuvent êtrecausés par la rupture de réservoirs consécutiveaux collisions ou aux naufrages. L’insuffisancedes aides à la navigation constitue un facteur derisque majeur.

Activité industrielleLa consommation excessive des eaux de

surface et souterraines à des fins industriels etles prélèvements excessifs couplés à un manqued’attention portée à la conservation de l’eau etaux carences de la réglementation relative à saconsommation pourraient se répercuter sur lescaractéristiques du régime hydrographiquenaturel. La pollution industrielle s’est traduitepar une baisse de la qualité de l’eau du fait durejet chronique de polluants; la non-application

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

des règlements. Les insuffisancestechnologiques viennent aggraver le problème.

Développement urbain Les rejets d’eaux usées non traitées ou

insuffisamment traitées dans les zones côtièresportent atteinte à l’environnement marin etconstituent une menace pour la santé publique.Le manque de stations d’épuration, les carencesde l’entretien de la station existante, desurveillance et de l’absence d’application desrèglements relatifs à la lutte contre la pollutioninfligent de graves dommages à la faune et à laflore côtière et marine. Les rejets d’eaux uséesprovoquent la prolifération d’algues.

Prédateurs naturelsAu début de mai 2000, on a constaté la

présence en grands nombres d’étoiles de mer(couronne d’épines CdE) à Khor Ambado. Lamême constatation a été faite lors d’une étuded’une zone d’environ 5 000 m2 aux îlesMoucha. Toutefois, au vu des densités relevés, ilne s’agissait pas là d’un phénomèned’infestation caractérisée et l’impact des CdEsur les récifs était minime.

Aires marines protégées et niveau degestion

Djibouti possède deux aires marinesprotégées (AMP) qui ont été établies il y a plusde dix ans. Il existe plusieurs autres zones qu’ilest envisagé de déclarer également, dont l’uneest d’importance régionale.

AMP déclarées

L’AMP de Moucha a été établie la premièrepar le règlement 72-1363/SG/CG (1972), quiinterdit le prélèvement de coraux et demollusques. Le décret 80/062/PR/MCTT (1980)a étendu cette protection à la réserve de Maskali.

Ce décret a été modifié par le décret85/103/PR/AG (1985) qui renforce laconservation de ces deux aires. La protectionvise à prévenir toute utilisation extractive desressources, à la seule exception de la pêcheartisanale d’espèces comestibles, celle-ci étantdéfinie comme la pêche pratiquée selon desméthodes traditionnelles avec des sorties nedépassant pas un jour ou deux. Les îles et récifssitués dans les réserves et hors des réserves sonttrès fréquentés en fin de semaine et font l’objetd’une utilisation récréative : pique-niques,baignade, plongée en apnée ou avec desbouteilles, ski nautique et camping.

Parc territorial de Moucha : Établi en 1972,il est situé à 11°43’ N et 43°12’ E et couvre unesuperficie d’environ 10 km2; il comprend devastes récifs coralliens avec leurs richespeuplements de poissons et d’invertébrés et demangroves. Il subit de graves pressions du faitdu piétinement des récifs, du prélèvement desouvenirs et de la pêche sportive au harpon.

Réserve intégrale de Maskali sud : Établieen 1980, la réserve est située à 11°40’ N et43°10’ E et couvre environ. 3 km2; elle contientdes récifs coralliens et leur riches peuplementsde poissons et d’invertébrés. Elle subit de gravespressions du fait du piétinement des récifs, duprélèvement de souvenirs et de la pêche sportiveau fusil de plongée.

AMP potentielles

Godoriya : Il s’agit d’une vaste zone demangrove et de la faune qui y est associée, maisil n’y a pas de récifs coralliens dans cette AMPproposée.

Iles des Sept Frères et Ras Siyyan : Situé àla jonction de la mer Rouge et du golfe d’Aden,cette future AMP est un groupe d’îles à hautrelief et de la côte continentale adjacente, avecune baie bordée de mangroves. Elle possède desrécifs coralliens diversifiés avec de richespeuplements de poissons et d’invertébrés. La

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Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

zone fait l’objet de pressions résultantd’importantes activités récréatives et de pêche,et l’on y relève une sédimentation résultant desactivités de transport maritime.

Impacts actuels et potentiels deschangements climatiques

Il n’existe pas de signes de blanchissementdes coraux dans le golfe de Tadjourah. ÀMaskali, des récifs dégradés ont été signalés en1998 (OBURA & DJAMA 2000) mais les causes dela dégradation n’ont pas pu être déterminées. Leseul site où des signes importants deblanchissement ont été relevé est celui des SeptFrères, dans les eaux djiboutiennes de la merRouge. Au début 1998, il n’y avait de signe deblanchissement sur aucun des sites étudiés, nisur les côtes, ni au large (OBURA & DJAMA2000). À la fin 1998, sur les mêmes sites, lamortalité corallienne était estimée à 30 % auxSept Frères, mais seuls les sites des Sept Frèresétaient touchés. Les observations d’amateurs deplongée sous-marine depuis cette époque (début1999) suggèrent que le blanchissement et lamortalité ont augmenté et atteignent 40 % auxSept Frères, où ils touchent principalement lescoraux tabulaires des zones de faibleprofondeurs qui ne subissent pas l’influence descourants côtiers. En revanche, à la fin 1998,Obura a constaté une faible incidence deblanchissement corallien (OBURA 1998).

Capacités actuelles de suivi et degestion pour la conservation desressources des récifs coralliens

Les initiatives environnementales sontactuellement en nombre limité à Djibouti. Lesplus importantes d’entre elles sont un pland’urgence national de lutte contre la pollutionpar les hydrocarbures pour le golfe d’Aden,élaboré en 1990, grâce auquel un centred’intervention en cas de déversements

d’hydrocarbures a été institué pour Djibouti, leYémen et la Somalie, et des règles de gestiondes aires marines protégées et d’exploitation desespèces récifales associées, ont été émises parl’Administration maritime en 1992.

Plusieurs institutions de Djibouti prennentpart à la gestion des ressources des airesmarines. Ce sont le ministère de l’Agriculture etde l’Hydraulique par l’entremise de la Directionde la Pêche, le Ministère des Transports et desTélécommunications par l’intermédiaire de saDirection des Affaires maritimes; l’Officenational du Tourisme, des Arts et de l’Artisanat,la Présidence de la République parl’intermédiaire du Centre de Recherche deDjibouti et le Ministere charge del’Environnement par l’intermediaire de laDirection de l’Aménagement du Territoire et del’Environnement.

Législation, stratégies et politiquesrelatives à la conservation des récifs

La République de Djibouti est signataire deplusieurs conventions internationales pour laprotection de l’environnement marin et laprévention de la pollution et a adopté plusieursinstruments nationaux visant directement ouindirectement la conservation et la gestion desrécifs coralliens.

Accords internationaux

La République de Djibouti est signataire dela Convention de Londres de 1954 (modifiée)applicable sur son territoire en vertu de la Loinationale 64/83. Les conventions suivantes ontété approuvées par

la Loi nationale 94/AN/89 2º L en 1989,

la Convention de Londres de 1971 sur lefonds international d’indemnisation,

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

la Convention de Londres de 1973modifiée en 1978, à l’exception desannexes III, IV et V et

la Convention de Bruxelles de 1969 surl’intervention en haute mer.

La République de Djibouti est signataire dela Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit dela mer (UNCLOS 1982).

La République de Djibouti et égalementsignataire de la Convention CITES. Le Décret80-62/PR/MCTT du 25 mai 1980 porte sur la

protection de la faune et des fonds sousmarins etinterdit la capture de mammifères marins et detortues, et le commerce ou l'exportation de cesanimaux. La chasse sousmarine au fusil deplongée est également interdite à Djibouti.

Au niveau régional, un accord a été conclupar le Yémen, Djibouti et la Somalie concernantl’établissement d’un centre d’interventionrégional pour lutter contre la pollution en cas dedéversement d’hydrocarbures dans le golfed’Aden. Le matériel d’intervention est stocké àDjibouti. Une évaluation technique et financière

Loi, ordonnance, règlement Année d’entrée envigueur

Organisme gouvernementalconcerné

Règlement 72-1363/SG/CG, portant création du Parcterritorial de Moucha 1972 Administration maritime

Loi 76-599 sur la pollution en provenance des navires 1976 Administration maritime

Loi 76-600 sur la pollution causée par l’incinération 1976 Administration maritime

Ordonnance 77-038/PR sur l’inscription desembarcations de plaisance 1977 Administration maritime

Loi 52/AN/78, articles 16-19, réglementant lespêcheries 1979 Administration maritime

Décret 80-062/PR/MCTT sur la protection de la fauneet des fonds sous-marins, établissant la Réserveintégrale de Maskali sud

1980 MCTT

Loi 9/AN/82 sur la pollution par les hydrocarbures 1982 Administration maritime

Loi 212/AN/82, réglementant les pêcheries 1982 Administration maritime

Loi 137/AN/85 sur la pollution par les hydrocarbures 1985 Administration maritime

Règlement 84-0969/PR/PM sur la sécurité de lanavigation de plaisance 1984 Administration maritime

Décret 85/103/PR/AG sur les Aires marines protégées 1985 Administration maritime

Ordonnance 86-042PR/PM réglementant les naviresabandonnés 1986 Administration maritime

Règlement 86/0717/PR/MCTT sur les cabines decamping sur les plages et les îles 1986 Office national du tourisme de

DjiboutiDécret 89-085/PR/PM sur le passage des naviresétrangers 1989 Administration maritime

Décret 89-085/PR/AE sur le déversementd’hydrocarbures 1990 Administration maritime

Règlement 90-0534/MPAM sur le passage des naviresétrangers 1990 Administration maritime

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Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

Tableau 11 : Lois et règlements nationaux relatifs à l’environnement et aux ressources côtières et marines(PERSGA 2001)

de ce centre a été réalisée par la composanteRéduction des Risques de la Navigation etDjibouti et a été soumis au Conseil desMinistres du PERSGA pour approbation.Aucune decision n’a ete prise a ce sujet. Le 20janvier 1986, Djibouti et la Somalie ont concluun accord de pêche bilatéral.

Législation nationale

Les différentes dispositions législatives etréglementaires visant la protection del’environnement marin portent sur la pollutionmarine, la protection des espèces menacées et lacréation d’aires protégées (voir le sommairetableau 11). Parmi les textes relatifs à laprévention de la pollution marine et à la luttecontre cette pollution figurent :

La Loi 76-599 (1976), promulguée parl’arrêté 675/SELAG, relative à lapollution par les navires et les avions,ainsi qu’à la pollution marineaccidentelle.

La Loi 76-600 (1976), promulguée parl’Arrêté 676/SELAG, relative à lapollution causée par les opérationsd’incinération.

Les Lois 9/AN/82 (1982) et 137/AN/851º L (1985) relatives à la pollution par leshydrocarbures.

L’Ordonnance 86-042/PR/PM (1986)portant réglementation des dispositions àprendre en cas d’abandon de naviresprésentant un danger pourl’environnement marin dans les eauxterritoriales.

Le Décret 89-085/PR/AE (1990)concernant la mise en œuvre d’un planPolmer en cas de pollution accidentellerésultant d’un déversement d’hydro-carbures.

Le Décret 89-085/PR/PM (1989) etl’Arrêté 90-0534/MPAM (1990) relatifsau passage des navires étrangers dans leseaux territoriales visant à prévenir lapollution marine et le déversement dedéchets dangereux.

Le Code de l’Administration maritimeconstitue l’actuelle loi portant code des AffairesMaritimes. Hormis certains articles, cette loi aété élaborée avant l’indépendance. Les articles148, 149 et 220 à 225 (promulgués par la loi212/AN/82) et les articles 16 à 19 de la loi52/AN/78 (1979) régissent l’exercice de lapêche. Certaines techniques de pêche, tels quel’usage d’explosifs et de poison, sont interdites.Ces dispositions prévoient les conditions del’exploitation des ressources halieutiques etdéfinissent les zones et les saisons de pêche.Elles prévoient également des sanctionsapplicables en cas de violation des règlementspar les pêcheurs.

La Loi nationale 64/83 (1983) porteapprobation de quatre conventionsinternationales sur la navigationmaritime.

Plusieurs règlements concernent égalementla zone côtière :

le Règlement 86-0717/PR/MCTT (1986)porte sur les déchets provenant desvisiteurs des îles et des plages,

l’Ordonnance 77-038/PR (1977)concerne l’inscription des embarcationsde plaisance et

le Règlement 84-0969/PR/PM (1984)porte sur la sécurité de la navigation deplaisance et des activités sur les plages.

56

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Manques de capacités et ressourcesnécessaires pour améliorer laconservation

Djibouti a besoin de ressources humaines(personnel spécialisé en biologie et écologie desrécifs coralliens et comprenant les pratiques enmatière de recherches et de suivi) et deressources financières pour entreprendre lesactivités de conservation. La pénurie depersonnel formé provient essentiellement desfaiblesses de l’enseignement supérieur àDjibouti et de la non disponibilité de fonds pourpermettre aux ressortissants djiboutiensdiplômés de poursuivre des études avancées.

Capacités institutionnelles Djibouti manque de personnel pour assurer

la gestion des ressources marines. Récemment,toutefois, le projet financé parPERSGA/ALECSO et le projet de labiodiversité nationale ont entrepris la formationd’homologues nationaux aux techniques d’étudedes récifs coralliens. Il n’y a pas actuellement deprogrammes de suivi ou de conservation de cesécosystèmes. Le Département del’Environnement a été créé récemment (1996) eta élaboré le Plan d’Action National pourl’Environnement (PANE) en avril 2000 et uneStratégie nationale pour la conservation de labiodiversité avec l’appui financier du FEM. Cesdispositions comprennent notamment une loi-cadre qui exigera que des études d’évaluationsd’impact environnemental soient menées pourtous les projets touchant à l’environnementmarin. Avec l’adoption du PANE et de laStratégie sur la biodiversité, il est à prévoir quele Département de l’Environnement sera associéà tous les projets de développement. Il est doncnécessaire de former du personnel de gestion ausein des institutions nationales clés dans lesdomaines des techniques d’étude des récifscoralliens et de la biologie et de l’écologie deces écosystèmes.

Ressources financièresIl n’y a pas de fonds disponible pour

financer les études de courte durée visant àévaluer l’état et la santé des récifs coralliens deDjibouti. Le Département de l’Environnement adû recourir au FEM et à l’appui financier duPERSGA pour effectuer les premièresévaluations des récifs coralliens depuis 1988.On pourrait envisager de mobiliser desressources financières par le biais d’amendes etde redevances imposées en cas de violation deslois nationales. Le PANE prévoit la créationd’un Fonds environnemental, qui devrait êtreétabli dans un avenir proche. Les ressources dece fonds seront utilisées selon toutevraisemblance pour la conservation desécosystèmes clés tels que les récifs coralliens.

Recommandations pourl’amélioration de la conservation desressources des récifs coralliens

Les pressions naturelles et anthropiques quis’exercent à Djibouti sur les coraux sont deportée limitée. Plusieurs mesures clés prises auniveau national sous forme de législation et dedispositions d’application pourraient réduire lesrisques de la pollution provenant des navires etde déversements d’hydrocarbures. Unprogramme de recherches et de suivi spécialisédont les données serviraient le plans de gestionà élaborer des plans de gestion.

Il conviendrait spécifiquement de prendre lesmesures suivantes :

Mesures législatives Il est recommandé de veiller à l’application

de décrets sur la conservation de la biodiversitéet des aires protégées. Les lois et règlementsvisant ces domaines devraient également êtrerévisés. Il est important de renforcerl’application des règlements existants relatifs àla gestion des zones et des ressources côtières etmarines. Il faut également formuler et adopter

57

Récifs Coralliens à Djibouti

d’urgence un plan de gestion intégrée de la zonecôtière. Il conviendrait aussi de ratifier lesannexes III, IV et V de la Convention MARPOL73/78, de manière à ce que Djibouti aligne sesefforts sur ceux qui sont déployés au niveauinternational pour lutter contre la pollution parles hydrocarbures.

Gestion de la zone côtière Les institutions associées à la gestion des

ressources côtières et marines et à l’applicationdes dispositions législatives et réglementairesdoivent bénéficier d’un appui. Il faut élaborer uncadre et un programme à l’intention desvisiteurs qui se rendent dans les zones des récifscoralliens, avec notamment la formulation dedirectives et l’installation de mouillages pourles bateaux.

Conservation des récifsIl conviendrait d’élaborer un programme de

suivi, protection et gestion des récifs coralliens.Il faudrait formuler des programmes de gestionpour les Aires marines protégées actuelles etmener une étude de faisabilité sur laconservation et la gestion d’Aires marinesprotégées supplémentaires, lesquellespourraient comprendre les Îles des Sept Frères etRas Siyyan. Les peuplements de l’ichtyofaunerécifale Les populations de l’ichtyofaunerécifale devraient faire l’objet d’une évaluationen bonne et due forme avant que soit formulé etmis en œuvre un programme de prélèvement depoissons d’ornement pour le marché del’aquariophilie.

Recherche et suivi Les habitats et les biotes marins devraient

être étudiés et suivis périodiquement. Il estrecommandé, une fois qu’une université aura étéfondée, d’établir un département de biologiemarine et de former des Djiboutiens dans cedomaine. Il conviendra d’établir une base dedonnées environnementales sur les ressourcesbiologiques. Un programme de suivi devrait êtremis en place pour appuyer les activités degestion et d’application des règlements. Lesinstitutions qui mènent des activités derecherche appliquée doivent être renforcées.

Transport maritime et navigationLa surveillance des navires qui transitent par

les eaux territoriales de Djibouti, lescommunications avec les navires et le systèmede balisage, notamment le long des grandesvoies de navigation, devraient être améliorés.Le plan national d’intervention en cas dedéversement d’hydrocarbures devrait êtreactualisé et mis en application. Les capacitésd’intervention doivent également êtrerenforcées et les ports doivent être dotésd’installations de réception des déchets. Ilconviendra aussi de mener des études defaisabilité sur la gestion des déchets,l’établissement d’installations portuaires deréception des déchets et la mise en place desystèmes de gestion des déchets.

58

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Introduction

Somalia has 3,300 km of coastline, ofwhich 1,300 km face the Gulf of Aden fromRas Aser (or Raas Casayr in Somali) in the eastto the border with Djibouti. The coast to thewest between Zeila (Saylac) and Berbera isshallow with exposed, high-energy sandybeaches. The central portion between Berberaand Bosaso (Boosaaso) consists mainly ofshallow, sandy shorelines, broken occasionallyby protruding rocky outcrops and cliffs thatextend into the shallow water. Along the easternsection between Bosaso and Ras Aser, highmountains meet the sea. The area ischaracterised by rocky shores with steep cliffs,often interspersed with short segments ofnarrow sandy beaches.

There are no perennial rivers along thenorthern coast and freshwater reaches the seaonly during irregular flash floods followingtorrential rains. The surface run-off from landhas no significant influence on the marineenvironment. Most nearshore subtidal areas areshallow with sandy substrate, occasionallyinterspersed with fields of cobbles or bouldersand by rocky outcrops. Steep rocky cliffsusually give way to shallow sandy areas underthe water surface. Coral growth is limited, partlyby a lack of suitable substrates and partly byhydrographic conditions. However occasionalcoral growth has been observed in both theeastern and western part of the coastline.Extensive coral reefs, possibly the largest in theGulf of Aden, occur in the vicinity of Sa’adadinIsland (Sacdadiin). Smaller coral reef areas existwest of Xabo and between Buruc and Bosaso.

The continental shelf rarely exceeds 15 kmin width, except at the extreme north-westernsection near the border with Djibouti, where it ismuch wider. There are only two island groupsalong the Gulf of Aden shore of Somalia. TheSa’adadin group near Zeila consists of six small,low-lying, exposed islands with sandy beaches.Mait Island (Jazirat Maydh), in the central partnear Ras Khatib, is a steep-faced rock a littleover 1.5 km in length and with an averageheight of 100 m.

The climate is arid with an average annualrainfall less than 300 mm. Seasonal variation ismainly influenced by the monsoon winds, whichalso determine the coastal currents. From Mayto August, the south-west monsoon drives astrong current from the vicinity of Socotra(Yemen) to the east. It influences the watermasses in the Gulf of Aden where, during thisperiod, the main current direction is eastwards.Along the north-eastern coast however there is acounter-current that flows westwards, fed bywater passing between Socotra and themainland into the Gulf of Aden. From Octoberto March, during the north-east monsoon,waters flow from the Arabian Sea into the Gulfof Aden. The main current direction along theSomali coast is westwards, but in the north-eastthere is a counter-current that flows east.

During the south-west monsoon there areupwellings of cold water in the north-east thatare rich in nutrients, but generally low inoxygen. These upwellings generate phyto- andzooplankton blooms. They break down duringthe north-east monsoon when the water in thearea is warmer, less nutrient-rich and saturated

59

Coral Reefs along the NorthernCoast of Somalia

with oxygen (SWALLOW 1991). Nutrient levelsare largely determined by variable currentpatterns and annual fluctuations in upwellingintensity. In terms of primary productivity, thearea is thought to fall in a transition zonebetween the richly productive water to thenorth-east and the East African shelfenvironment to the west.

Along the Gulf of Aden coast three areashave been proposed for protection. The DalohForest Reserve (terrestrial), which lies to thenorth of Erigavo; Mait Island, which liesadjacent to Daloh Forest Reserve; and Aibat(Ceebaad), Sa’adadin and Saba-wanag(Sabawanaag) - two islands and an adjacentstretch of coastline near Zeila. This latter areahas the largest mangrove stands and coral reefsalong the entire Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia.

The largest town on the coast is Berbera.Other larger settlements along the coast areZeila, Las Korey (Laas Qoray), Qandala(Candala), Xabo and Alula (Caluula). Despiterich living marine resources, fisheries accountfor only a very small percentage (2%) of GDP(PERSGA/GEF 2001). Other marine basedactivities, such as tourism and maritimetransport, are even less important.

Surveys

Three short surveys were carried outbetween 1996 and 1999 on the north coast ofSomalia.

Geographical Scope and SurveyTechniques

In April and May 1996, representatives fromthe Regional Organization for the Conservationof the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden (PERSGA) carried out a rapid assessmentof the marine habitats of Somalia, whichincluded coral reef investigations(PERSGA/GEF 2001).

In 1997, a rapid ecological assessment of theSaardin Islands (Aibat, Sa’adadin and reefs) innorth-west Somalia was carried out by IUCN.The objectives of this survey were:

to provide a preliminary assessment ofthe ecological status,

to identify and describe the principalterrestrial and marine habitats andecological indicator species,

60

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Hargeisa

Bosaso

Qandala

RasAser

Erigavo

Zeila

RasKhansir

Ras Maskan

RasKhatib

MaitLas Korey

RasAlula

Xabo

Eilayo

43° 45° 47° 49° 51°

10°

12°

DJIBOUTI

SOMALIA

Gulf of Aden

JaziratMait

TurultatAibat

Filfil

Sa'adadin

Djibouti

Zeila

Siyara

44° 52°50°48°46°

11°

Fig. 8: Map of Somalia indicating location of major urban areas and coral reefs

to identify any human-based utilizationof resources,

to quantify fish and coral diversity,including commercial and conservationvalue (IUCN 1997).

General observations were made of coralreef and soft substrate habitats, and of reefdevelopment and health. Quantitativeassessments of biodiversity were made forscleractinian corals and bony fish usingunderwater visual census techniques. For corals,species sightings were recorded in six 5-minuteintervals to give a measure of frequency atlocation, with a varying period of time used tosearch for new species records. Fish specieswere recorded during 15-minute intervalsamples, with two to three replicate intervalsrecorded at each site (IUCN 1997).

In 1999, a coastal biodiversity survey wasundertaken on the northern Somali coast from15 km west of Berbera to the mangrove knownas Khoor Shoora approximately 150 km to theeast. The aims of this survey were to determinethe status of the marine resources in the region,the threats to the biodiversity, and thusdetermine appropriate measures for thesustainable use and conservation of theresources (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999). Datawere collected on the nature and biodiversity ofthe shoreline, mangrove, seaweed, coral reefand pelagic environments. A record was alsokept on the abundance of turtles, dolphins andseabirds, as well as of the extent of turtle nestingon beaches.

Coral Reefs – Benthos and Fish

There are coral reefs of limited extent nearRas Khansir (Raas Khansiir), of fairly limitedextent at Ras Cuuda and Siyara, and ofconsiderable extent off El Girdi and west ofBerbera. Reefs formed on fossilised beach rockwere found at depths from 1 to 10 m. The coral

communities on the reefs varied considerably incondition. All had been affected by bleaching tosome degree. The shallow reefs (1 to 2 m) to thewest of Berbera were slightly bleached andthose in water less than 1 m deep appeared tohave died from tidal exposure. The shallowreefs to the east of Berbera were affected farmore severely by bleaching and, in manyinstances, had suffered nearly total mortality.Deeper reefs (2 to 5 m) were in bettercondition. Patchy reefs subject to sedimentationwere dominated by Faviids, while moreestablished reefs were dominated by Poritesspp. Foliose Montipora spp. and Astreoporaspp. were conspicuous on the deepest reefs (5 to10 m). A total of 69 species of scleractiniancoral, 11 species of alcyonacean coral and twospecies of fire coral were found along the northshore reefs (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999). It issuggested that a more thorough coral-dedicatedsurvey would substantially increase this number.In general, the area is both productive andrelatively pristine apart from the harmful effectsof coral bleaching and, to a lesser extent,predation by COTS on the coral reefs.

At Sa’adadin the structure and complexity ofreefs was high. Scleractinian coral and fishdiversity and abundance were found to beextremely high, comparable to the healthiestreefs seen in the western Indian Ocean and theRed Sea, potentially with higher diversity due tothe mixing of species from different origins(Table 12). It is possible that the Sa’adadinIslands have a unique coral reef fauna and flora,at the mixing point of three regions - the IndianOcean, Red Sea and Arabian Sea (IUCN 1997).As a result of low demand and low fishingpressure on coral reef fish, populations andindividual fish sizes were large.

Coral Diversity

A total of 74 species of scleractinian coral,11 species of alcyonacean (soft) coral and twospecies of fire coral were found during the 1999

61

Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia

survey (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999). Other reeforganisms encountered during the survey weresparse and included only five Panulirusversicolor, two specimens of two species ofanemones, five specimens of Tridacna spp. andvarious sponges, ascidians, holothurians,echinoids, crinoids, molluscs and zoanthids.(See also IUCN 1997 for a record of coralspecies encountered.)

Coral Cover

Living coral cover varied from zero to 80 %on reefs affected by the bleaching and COTSphenomena, the average being between 2 and5 %. Reefs not affected by bleaching had a coralcover ranging between 60 and 80 %. Theseconstituted a fairly narrow fringing band on theouter perimeter of the reefs and there wasrelatively little healthy coral.

Fish Communities

Reef fish were diverse and the presence oflarge schools of fish, as well as an abundance oflarge fishes, indicated a relatively un-exploitedresource and pristine environment (SCHLEYER &BALDWIN 1999, FAO 1996). The reef fishcommunity differed considerably from that ofthe eastern Arabian Peninsula to the north, thefish communities of eastern Africa to the south,

and the Red Sea to the west, particularlyregarding the Chaetodontidae, Acanthuridae andBalistidae.

Compared to areas with a rocky or sandysubstratum, or algal dominated assemblages, thecoral reef environments showed the greatestdiversity of fish fauna (140 species), thepresence of large schools (Lutjanidae andCarangidae) and an abundance of largeindividuals (Serranidae and Plectorhynchidae).Degraded reefs colonised by filamentous andcoralline algae had a greater proportion ofherbivorous fish which, in some instances, werenumerous and formed large shoals.Surgeonfishes were conspicuous in this regard.(Also see IUCN 1997 for list of coral reef fish,presence and abundance.)

The following are generalised sitedescriptions from SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999:

Berbera Harbour (10º 24.88’N 44º57.55’E): low cliffs (2 to 3 m), with a shorelineof fossilized seabed; subtidally, rock bouldersand rubble with scattered coral communities andalgal beds at 1 m to 4.5 m, sloping gently tosand. Up to 32 species of corals, scattered andmostly dead with a maximum of 5 % live coverof small colonies (most being < 20 cm indiameter). Silt conditions favouring Faviids,

62

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Sites Exposure/WaterClarity

Coral SpeciesNo. per 30 minutes

Fish SpeciesNo. per 30 minutes

Total Species

AibatWindward/high 61.0 66.5 127.5Leeward/low 55.0 51.5 106.5

FilfilWindward/High 51.0 62.5 113.5Leeward/High 46.0 53.0 99.0

Sa’adadinWindward/Low 21.0 49.3 70.3Leeward/Low 35.0 49.7 84.7

Turultat Windward/Low 37.0

AverageWindward 44.3 59.4 103.8Leeward 45.3 51.4 96.7

Table 12: Number of species of coral and coral reef-associated fauna at Sa’adadin reefs (IUCN 1997)

which were dominant. Coral rubble includedAcropora cf. formosa (or A. nobilis). Fish werenotably abundant (32 species), mostly Scarusand Epinephelus. Invertebrates: Xestospongiasp., Dysidea cf. herbacea, Cryptodendronadhaesivum, Palythoa cf. natalensis, Lambistruncata, Pinctada margaritifera. Turtles: onegreen Chelonia mydas and one hawksbillEretmochelys imbricata.

Ras Khansir (10º 49.01’N 45º 44.79’E)approximately 1 km west of Karin village: ascattered Porites ‘bommie’ field on sand at adepth of 2 to 4 m, apparently extendingwestwards from Karin to the next headland andpossibly beyond. Corals scattered on a sandysubstratum, with a maximum of eight speciesrepresenting 5 % live cover. Porites solidaformed small bommies under silted conditions.Fishes were notably abundant, but low indiversity (17 species).

Ras Cuuda (10º 42.98’N 45º 33.37’E): areef comprising a flat and algal covered areainterspersed with mats of pale and darkzoanthids (Zoanthus sansibaricus); someappeared a deep blue in the dim light. Coralsvery sparse in their distribution and small insize, with a few Faviids and Stylophorapistillata. A relatively productive area withregard to fishes; extremely abundant juvenileLutjanus sp., two sandbar sharks (Carcharhinusplumbeus) and one guitar shark(Rhynchobates sp.). Other invertebrates:Xestospongia sp., Zoanthus sansibaricus.

1 km west of Ras Cuuda (10º 42.21’N 45º31.30’E): shallow reef composed largely ofstands of Millepora squanrosa and Porites luteabommies ranging from 0.54 m in diameter; alsoconsiderable Pocillopora verrucosa. Most of thecoral (27 species) was dead apparently frombleaching, and the mortality ranged from 60 to100 %. Millepora and Porites were 99 % dead,apparently from a bleaching event. Two small

Acropora colonies were totally bleached and acolony of Galaxea and a small Montiporacolony were partially bleached. Fish wererelatively abundant (35 species). Otherinvertebrates included Xestospongia sp.,Acanthella sp., Dysidea cf herbacea, Panulirusversicolor (4), Palythoa sp. and a singleTridacna sp.

From 10º 41.55’N 45º 31.46’E to 10º40.63’N 45º28.37’E: sparse rubble (with veryfew corals - only eight species) interspersedwith sand inhabited by numerous holothuriansat a depth of 4 to 5 m. A few live and deadspecimens (40 cm) of Lobophyllia cf.corymbosa were conspicuous. One Acanthasterplanci (40 cm) was observed under a smallbommie and one (30 cm) was moving rapidlyacross the sand. A large, almost mono-specificstand of Pocillopora verrucosa with somePorites lutea ranged in depth from 2 to 5 m.Patches were dead and overgrown with turfalgae; the average cover being + or - 60 %. Asingle A. planci (35 cm) was associated with adead patch but no feeding scars were observed.The approximate size of the outcrop was 50 mx 50 m. The outcrop was inhabited by a richfish fauna. It gave way to a shallower (1 to 2 m)area of broken reef consisting almost entirely ofdead coral with very few faviids, a singleStylophora pistillata, a few specimens ofMontipora stellata and sponge (Haliclona sp.).The dead coral community was mixed butmostly unidentifiable as it was largely encrustedby coralline algae.

Between Ras Cuuda and Ras Xaatib (10º39’91’N 45º 25’27’E): coral and rock rubble,with some bedrock under coarse sand veneer ata depth of 6.5 m. Very scattered live corals,including Platygyra daedalea, Favia sp.,Porites solida, P. lutea, Coscinarea sp. Fisheswere very abundant (particularlySphyraena sp.), but low in diversity (7 species).Invertebrates included Dysidea sp., Plakortissp., Xestospongia sp. and Sepia pharaonis.

63

Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia

Between Ras Cuuda and Ras Xaatib (10º39’65’N 45º 25’04’E): coral rock rubble at 2 to3 m (14 species). Scattered live corals forminga maximum 1 to 2 % live cover in very siltedconditions; abundant fish life (28 species).Invertebrates included Holothuria edulis, Sepiapharaonis and unidentified sponges.

Siyara (10º 36.09’N 45º 15.85’E): a reefoff the village at the base of a cliff. The reefcommenced with exposed rock immediatelyoffshore from Siyara and sloped to a depth of10 m where the substratum again became sand.The reef covered more than 40 % of theseafloor and generally consisted of bouldersovergrown with coral and small bommies. Therocks at a depth of 1 to 3 m had a fewencrusting algae and sponges. Scattered spongesand some Litophyton cf. iiltveldi were found upto a depth of 6 m with a number of hard corals,the average coral cover being 40 %. The extentof the rock cover decreased from 6 to 10 m,averaging 30 % of the seafloor, with a coralcover greater than 40 %. The coral cover wasdiverse (33 species) and uniformly mixed up to6 to 7 m, whereafter Astreopora mounds with afew Montipora plates were conspicuous. Manyof the former bore old COTS feeding scars;those that had not been entirely eaten wereshowing good recovery. Fish life was abundantand diverse (70 species). Invertebrates includedXestospongia, Dysidea cf. herbacea andPalythoa cf. natalensis.

El Girdi (10º 33.65’N 45º 13.1 5’E): a reefadjacent to a narrow dune belt on the shorebacked by a steeply sloping mountain. Thesubtidal sand gradually gave way to broken,submerged rock that developed into reef,approximately 11 km2 in extent. From 1 to 2 mto the reef top, the reef consisted of regularspurs raised up to 2 m above the interveningpatches of sand. The rock had been overgrownby coral so that the reef tops were flat and thesides vertical. The deeper margin of the reef(23 m to the reef top) formed a complete

fringing reef that gave way to patch reef, withPorites and Astreopora bommies ranging indepth from 5 to 10 m, giving way to sand.The shallower regions of the reef were almostentirely dead and encrusted and accreted withcoralline algae. There were only very fewsmall fragments of Montipora stellata on thereef and isolated colonies of Pocillopora andStylophora. The mortality was uniform andcomplete, and probably resulted frombleaching at an earlier date. More coral hadsurvived on the outer fringe of the reef andPorites bommies of up to 3 m wereconspicuous. These gave way to a coralcommunity similar to that found in the deeperwater at Siyara. Plates of Montipora weremore conspicuous and there were no COTSfeeding scars. The reef cover ranged from 40to 100 % and the average coral cover on thereef ranged from 0 to 60 %. Fish fauna wasdiverse and abundant (65 species), especiallysurgeonfishes and parrotfishes. Invertebratesincluded Tridacna sp., Holothuria scabra,grey holothurian, Haliclona cf. tulearensisand several large Lambis truncata.

Coral Reef Fisheries

Artisanal fisheries have a long tradition inSomalia. Important landing sites along the coastare Alula, Xabo, Qandala, Las-Korey, Berbera,Lughaye and Zeila. Though stillunderdeveloped, artisanal fisheries are essentialfor the livelihood of a large portion of thecoastal population (PERSGA/GEF 2002). Mostcommercial operations are carried out byforeign vessels (mainly from Yemen) thatprovide no catch or effort statistics. Reports ofup to 70 boats at a time in the Zeila region alonesuggest that this is a widespread occurrence.Somali fishermen target a limited number ofdemersal stocks (constrained by fishing gearlimitations), and a range of coral reef fish.

64

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

The northern Somali fishing industry iscentred at Berbera, with Siyara and Karinparticipating at a smaller scale. At Karin, atemporary fishing village, fishing is carried outin small canoes which either set a limitednumber of 7, 15, or 30 cm stretched mesh sizegill nets or, occasionally, using handlines. Only20 canoes were reported to operate betweenZeila and Karin (SCHLEYER & BALDWIN 1999).Turtles are harvested opportunistically, both byjigging and harpooning at sea and through thecapture of nesting turtles. Gill nets arepermanently set around the coral reefs at Siyara,targeting sharks. Sharks are landed at Zeila andon Aibat Island. Fishermen report landingsharks of 3 to 4 m TL [total length], butcarcasses littering the beaches rarely exceed 1 m(IUCN 1997). Throughout the summer,intensive shark fishing takes place at thefollowing sites: Xabo, Butiyalo and Hantara inthe eastern (Bari) region, Eilayo (Ceelayo), LasKorey and Mait in the central (Sanag) region,and Geeri and Lughaye in the western (Awdaland Sahil) regions.

Much of the commercial catch is made up ofshark for the sharkfin industry. No total catchrecords exist, but up to 800 kg per month(300 kg of fins, wet weight) are caught in theZeila district alone. Other catches include up to10 mt of Spanish mackerel, 12 mt of assortedbenthic species, 50 kg of crabs, 100 kg oflobster and a number of sea cucumbers, clamsand oysters (IUCN 1997). Major sharks and raystargeted by the fisheries include hammerheadsharks (Sphyrnidae), largetooth sawfish (Pristispectinata), whitetip shark (Triaenodon obesus),tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and guitarfishes(Rhinobatidae). Spanish mackerel, tuna(yellowfin, skipjack and frigate), jacks andtrevallys are also sought. Benthic catchesinclude parrotfish, snappers, goatfish, sardinesand groupers. The most abundant species is theIndian oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps). Thehighest concentrations are found in the Ras Aserarea, while stocks decrease graduallywestwards. Round herring (Etrumeus teres),

anchovies (Engraulididae) and scads (Alepesspp., Atule mate) are important resources thatare fished seasonally in the Gulf of Aden. Forthe entire Somali coast the MSY [maximumsustainable yield] of small pelagics has beenestimated at 70,000 to 100,000 mt. In addition,up to 200 turtles are caught each month duringthe nesting season.

Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

The area is productive and relativelyunspoiled. However, there has been coralbleaching and COTS predation on the coralreefs. The effects of human activity on theenvironment appear to be minimal, the onlyexceptions being the relatively heavy,opportunistic exploitation of turtles and sharks.Fisheries and transport are only a smallcomponent of the national economy, and are notsignificant threats to coral reefs. Other coastalactivities, such as salt mining and the collectionof guano are only of local importance. There isneither oil nor gas exploitation nor tourism inthe area. Given the above, this section identifiespotential rather than actual threats to coral reefs.

Urban DevelopmentBerbera and Bosaso are the two main ports

along the Gulf of Aden coast. The urbanpopulation is growing rapidly and is largelyuncontrolled. Adjacent to major populationcentres, domestic sewage is a locally significantsource of marine pollution. In the absence ofany monitoring, it is not possible to estimate theamount of toxic leachates and pathogenicorganisms entering coastal waters. It issuggested that at present coral reefs are notovertly threatened. However, the pressures fromexpanding urban settlements close to coral reefsare expected to increase.

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Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia

Oil and Gas ExplorationDuring the 1980s offshore oil exploration

was conducted and results indicated that thecontinental shelf of Somalia may contain oil andgas reserves. Elf-Somalia and Agip weregranted concessions for the eastern and centralparts of the Gulf of Aden coast. No reserves ofeconomic importance have been found so farand at present there is no exploitation of oil orgas. Should this come about however, therewould be risks of spills and coastalcontamination, in addition to the increase inpopulation and related pressures that wouldoccur.

Marine and Coastal TourismTourism has never played an important role

in Somalia, even though the five-yeardevelopment plan (1982-86) placed an emphasison the development of a tourism infrastructure(SHEPPARD & WELLS 1988). There isconsiderable potential for the development oftourism in Somalia, including coastal andmarine activities which, with sufficient attentionto conservation aspects, could contributesignificantly to the economy.

Habitat Degradation and DestructionPhysical damage to coral reefs, which

results in the loss of coral habitat and decline ofreef associated fauna, is low. In the north-west,corals are collected occasionally and shipped toDjibouti for sale to tourists, but the extent of thisactivity is not known. The establishment ofcollecting stations for reef fishes is presentlybeing considered by a private entrepreneur. Ifnot managed properly, this may have negativeeffects on the reef habitat.

Marine Protected Areas and Levelof Management

Three areas have been proposed forprotection along the Gulf of Aden coast.

However, only one of these (the Aibat,Sa’adadin and Saba-wanag area) encompassessignificant coral growth, the others (the DalohForest Reserve and Mait Island) being chosenmore for their terrestrial and wildlife attributes.

MPAs Declared

There are no declared marine protected areasin Somalia.

De facto and Planned MPAs

Aibat and Sa’adadin Islands, SabahWanak: Extending over an area of some300 km2, the proposed protected areaencompasses low lying mangrove islands withpossibly the largest coral reef area in the Gulf ofAden. It is an important nesting site for marineturtles and seabirds, which are currentlythreatened through collection of eggs. Corals arealso collected from the area.

Mait Island, (about 1 km2) is a rock islandwith up 100,000 breeding seabirds, notablynoddy terns.

Current Monitoring andManagement Capacity to ConserveCoral Reef Resources

Regional and District Councils, andCouncils of Elders have taken up the role ofprincipal co-ordinating organisations for theinflow of aid to their respective jurisdictions.International agencies and NGOs work inco-ordination with the Councils of Elders in thedevelopment of a sustainable institutional base.Institutional co-ordination is achieved throughthe District and Regional Councils to ensure areasonable level of public accountability. In thecase of research, extension or creditaccountability has to be established. One of the

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

institutions of North West Somalia is calledthe Ministry of Fisheries and CoastalDevelopment. Created in 1993, this Ministry isin charge of encouraging public and privateinvestment for the exploitation of marineresources; increasing fisheries productionwithin the MSY; protection of the coastline andsea from environmental degradation; initiationand development of research and trainingfacilities for the fisheries sector; and thedevelopment of employment opportunities inthe marine sector.

Monitoring CapacityThere are currently no long-term monitoring

programmes in Somalia.

Management CapacityIn the present political situation the national

laws and regulations are not enforced and thenational institutions are not operational.However, in 1988, prior to the current politicalsituation, there were a number of institutionscharged with activities that indirectly addressedcoral reef protection. It is hoped that withcontinued stability these institutions will be re-established.

National Marine Affairs Committee:Established to oversee the overalldevelopment of the maritime sector. TheCommittee included Minerals and WaterResources, Fisheries and MarineResources, Foreign Affairs, Educationand Defence Ministries.

Ministry of Marine Transport andPorts: Mandated with the developmentof maritime transport and theimprovement of port facilities, andresponsible for environmental control ofcoastal areas including ports, preventionof marine pollution and safety ofnavigation. The Ministry was responsiblefor the implementation of the Maritime

Code, other laws and regulations relatedto the marine environment applicable toships in ports, and the implementation ofregional and international conventions.

Ministry of Fisheries and MarineResources: Established in 1977 todevelop and manage Somalia’s fisheriesresources. Basic marine fisherieslegislation is contained in the MaritimeCode of 1959.

National Range Agency and Ministryof Tourism: Responsible for NationalParks and establishing MPAs.Legislation was prepared for a networkof protected areas before the politicalunrest.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policies Pertinent to ReefConservation

Although signatory to a host of internationalagreements and protocols, Somalia’s ability toeffectively implement them is limited.

International Agreements

Somalia is a signatory to the BamakoConvention on the Ban of the Import into Africaand the Control of Trans-boundary Movementand Management of Hazardous Wastes withinAfrica (1993)1 and has ratified the followingconventions and protocols which are relevant tothe marine environment:

Convention for the Protection,Management and Development of theMarine and Coastal Environment of theEastern African Region (1988),

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Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia

1 Year in brackets gives the date Somalia became aParty to the Convention.

Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora (1985); the Convention on theConservation of Migratory Species ofWild Animals (1986),

Protocol Concerning Co-operation inCombating Marine Pollution in Cases ofEmergency in the Eastern AfricanRegion (1988); the Protocol ConcerningProtected Areas and Wild Fauna andFlora in the Eastern African Region(1988),

Regional Convention for theConservation of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Environment (1988),

Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oiland other Harmful Substances in Casesof Emergency (1988), and the

United Nations Convention on the Lawof the Sea (1989).

National Legislation

National environmental legislation is poorlydeveloped and inadequate for environmentalmanagement and conservation. Somalia has notformulated a national policy for the exploitationof marine resources.

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

The two key requirements for improvedconservation are funding and personnel. Thereis a clear need for strengthening the skills of themanpower base to improve assessment,planning and management of coastal and marineenvironments. Manpower development must bean integral component of all conservationactivities. Long-term research, monitoring andconservation activities will not take place

without first, or simultaneously, addressing thepoverty and socio-economic situation faced bythe people of Somalia.

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

Conservation of coral reefs in Somalia iscurrently given a lower priority than therebuilding of the nation and the eradication ofpoverty. However, if measures can beimplemented in tandem with this development,coral reefs will not be lost to future generations.These include the development of a system ofmarine protected areas, the adoption of oil spillresponse measures, broad-scale environmentaleducation and continued research andmonitoring for early detection of reefdeterioration.

Establishment of MPAsThe establishment of other small reserves or

Marine Protected Areas between Ras Xaatib andRas Cuuda, west of the lighthouse near BerberaAirport and around the coral reefs oppositeSiyara, would provide protection forrepresentative coral reefs and turtle nestingbeaches.

Research and Monitoring A more detailed investigation is needed to

assess marine resources, in particular those ofcoral reefs and their exploitation. This should becarried out in collaboration with the localfishermen to develop an understanding ofseasonal exploitation, ultimately leading toresource management procedures. Monitoringof the coral reefs for further deterioration, orrecovery from COTS outbreaks and bleaching,should be carried out on a regular timeframe.Studies should expand the coral reef and turtlesurveys to both the west and east, furtherinvestigate the biodiversity of the reef fishes,

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

and extend the work into a regional study oftheir zoogeography. There is also a need forbaseline surveys upon which to base the effectsof oil, toxic chemicals, pathogens and otherforms of pollution. A database containinginformation on biological resources andenvironmental information should bedeveloped.

Review of Legal and InstitutionalFramework

There is a need to review existing legal andinstitutional mechanisms that address coral reefconservation and management. These shouldmake provision for co-operation betweengovernment, non-government and privatesectors. There must be a review of relevantinternational and regional conventions and theoptions for participation in international andregional initiatives. The existing environmentalimpact assessment policies concerning themarine and coastal environment need to bereviewed, developed and implemented.

Environmental EducationThere is a need to integrate environmental

education into existing community andeducational programmes and curricula. An

environmental education programme targetedtowards all levels of society is needed toincrease public awareness of the value, interestand vulnerability of the Somali coastal andmarine environment, and to promote publicparticipation in environmental initiatives.

FundingAdequate funding mechanisms need to be

developed for biodiversity conservation effortsin Somalia, which take into account the presentpolitical environment and the socio-economicconditions under which the people of Somalialive.

Pollution ControlAn oil spill response contingency plan needs

to be developed and implemented withreference to the Oil Spill Response Stockpileheld in Djibouti.

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Coral Reefs along the Northern Coast of Somalia

70

Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Introduction

The Republic of Yemen lies in the south-western corner of the Arabian Peninsula andincludes the Socotra Island Group (Suqutra).The coastline is about 2,200 km long, roughlyone third of which faces the Red Sea and theremaining two-thirds the Gulf of Aden (Fig. 9).

Along the Red Sea, the climate is dry withan average annual rainfall of 100 to 200 mmand a humidity of about 60 %. No perennialsurface streams discharge into the Sea.However, flash floods are a widespread featurefollowing torrential rains. The Gulf of Aden isdominated by the Indian Ocean monsoonsystem. The highest annual rainfall occursbetween January and March (north-eastmonsoon). Between May and September thesouth-west monsoon generates winds blowingin a north-easterly direction and the relativelywarm surface water of the north-eastern Gulf ofAden and Arabian Sea is blown offshore andreplaced by cooler, nutrient-rich waters fromdeeper layers, limiting coral growth.

True coral reefs developed on biogeniccalcium carbonate are most widely distributedin the Red Sea, fringing the mainland coast andoffshore islands. The southern Red Sea reefshave a markedly different geomorphology tothose of the northern and central Red Sea, withcomparatively limited reef developmentresulting from differences in bathymetry,topography, turbidity and sea temperature. TheGulf of Aden and Socotra have even lessHolocene reef development than the southern

Red Sea, mostly supporting coral communitiesdeveloped directly on non-reef substrates orrelict reef deposits.

Coral growth along Yemen’s Red Sea coastis found both as coral reefs and as coralcommunities on a variety of substrates. Thereare two principal reef types:

fringing reefs of the southern Red Seacoast and some offshore islands, and

semi-submerged patch reefs, found westof Al Hodeidah and south of the Ras Isapeninsula.

Yemeni reefs and coral communities havedeveloped in some of the most extremeenvironments known for corals, ranging fromhigh sea temperatures, minimal tidal movementand relatively calm sea conditions in thesouthern Red Sea, to seasonal cool waterupwelling and large oceanic waves in parts ofthe Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea. Areasexposed to the upwelling share a unique mix oftropical and temperate species and have highlyproductive fisheries.

About 75 % of the coastline consists of softsediments and more than half of the shores arecovered by sabkhas (dried mud flats) and saltmarshes. The scarcity of hard substrates and thehigh turbidity along the wide and shallowcontinental shelf create unfavourable conditionsfor coral growth and only about 25 % of themainland coastline supports coral reefs. Southof Al Khaukha, nearshore reefs are more

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Coral Reefs of Yemen

extensive and diverse than further north. Thebest-developed reefs occur offshore, mainly inthe vicinity of the large number of islands thatcharacterise the Yemeni Red Sea (IUCN 1987,SHEPPARD & WELLS 1987, SHEPPARD et al.1992).

The Gulf of Aden coast has a length of about1,400 km and a continental shelf area of20,225 km². The southern extent is characterisedby rocky cliffs that normally terminate inshallow water, alternating with stretches ofsandy beaches. Seasonally low temperatures, asa result of the upwellings, and large expanses ofunfavourable sandy substrate limit coral growth.Only 5 % of the coast is known to supportfringing coral communities or reefs. Corals havebeen reported at Perim Island, near Aden (KhorUmairah, Little Aden), Ghuraira and Shuqra.More extensive areas of coral growth occurfurther east, towards Al Mukalla, particularly atBelhaf and Burum, and a group of six smallislands lying off Bir Ali (WATT 1996,DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press).

The Socotra Island Group has long beenisolated from the mainland, surrounded by deepwaters, in places exceeding 3,000 m in depth. Itlies 400 km south of the Arabian Peninsula andis highly exposed to the monsoon climate of the

Indian Ocean. Annual rainfall is around200 mm, mainly falling in June, November andDecember. Average air temperature ranges from17 °C in January to 37 °C in July. Most of thecoast consists of cliffs or sandy beaches, withoccasional gravel shorelines. Corals arewidespread throughout the archipelago, withcover varying from less than 5 to 80 %(UNDP/GEF 1996). Most of the coastal andmarine areas surrounding these islands are stillin a pristine state and, in 1996, the Governmentof Yemen declared Socotra a special natural areain need of protection.

Surveys

Several major projects have recentlyassessed the distribution, composition and statusof living marine resources around much of thecoastline; the Red Sea coast (TURAK & BRODIE1999), the Gulf of Aden (WATT 1996) and theSocotra Island Group (CHEUNG et al. in press).Additional studies at key sites along the Gulf ofAden and Red Sea have been undertaken bymembers of the Arabian Seas Expedition(J. KEMP, U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.) and as part ofsmaller projects (e.g. assessment of coralbleaching in the north-east Gulf of Aden;DEVANTIER and HARIRI in press).

Survey Techniques

Methods have ranged from remote sensingusing satellite imagery (Socotra), rapidecological and impact assessments (Red Sea,Gulf of Aden and Socotra), to more detailedbiodiversity studies (Red Sea and Socotra).Most recently, these studies have culminated inthe initiation of long-term monitoringprogrammes at selected sites in the Red Sea andSocotra Island Group.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Sana'a

Al Mucka

Al Hodeidah

SOMALIA

Al Ghaydah

SAUDI ARABIA

RedSea

Bab al Mandab Gulf of Aden

ArabianSea

Socotra

Al Mukalla

DJIBOUTI

IndianOcean

Aden

Nishtun

YEMEN

Fig. 9: Map showing major urban areas andcoastline of Yemen

Remote Sensing: Distribution andcomposition of coastal and marine biotopesaround Socotra were assessed using Landsatimages, combined with extensive ground-truthing. These data have been used to provideunsupervised and supervised biotopeclassifications of the coastal and marine habitatsof Socotra (J. TURNER & R. KLAUS pers.comm.). In combination with biodiversity data(see later) the biotope classifications were usedin planning the zone boundaries of the recentlyproclaimed Socotra Multiple Use MarineProtected Area.

Rapid Ecological Assessment: The broaddistribution of different coastal and marinehabitat types along Yemen’s Red Sea, Gulf ofAden and Socotra coastlines has beendocumented using several rapid assessmentmethods (MACALISTER ELLIOT & PARTNERS1996, WATT 1996, TURAK & BRODIE 1999,DEVANTIER et al. in press a-c). These and otherongoing studies have begun to fill the previouslylarge gaps in knowledge of Yemen’s coastal andmarine habitats (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991).

The biological resources, resource uses andimpacts along the 1,365 km coastline ofsouthern Yemen were assessed at 91geographically discrete sites (MACALISTERELLIOT & PARTNERS 1996, WATT 1996). The siteswere selected every 15 km along the shoreline,from west to east, on 1:100,000 scaletopographical maps. Sites were located usingGPS (WGS 84 map datum; EC/MFW 1995).Each sample comprised a 500 m × 500 mquadrat bisecting the beach, covering theimmediate terrestrial, supratidal, intertidal andimmediate subtidal zones. Within the quadrat,the abundance or magnitude of biologicalresources and resource uses/impacts wereestimated and recorded semi-quantitatively. Theabundance of biological resources were scoredusing a ranked 0 to 6 scale and scores werebased on estimates of the relative abundancewithin each quadrat.

A rapid assessment was also made of thecoastal and marine environments of the SocotraIsland Group in 1995 (MACALISTER ELLIOT &PARTNERS 1996, KEMP 1998). The subtidalappraisal, conducted using snorkel or SCUBA,included general observations of benthic coverand more detailed assessments of coral and fishbiodiversity (KEMP 1998). A 9-point habitatcode was used to classify sublittoral habitats,with observations of the dominant biotaproviding an overview of the distribution andcomposition of coral and fish communities.

Further rapid assessments have beenundertaken since 1995. These includeassessments of levels of reef development,benthic cover and various environmentalattributes on the Socotra Island Group(DEVANTIER et al. in press a) and in the Red Sea(TURAK & BRODIE 1999). The surveys wereconducted at 65 sites around the coasts ofSocotra and adjacent islands and 51 sites alongthe Red Sea coast and offshore islands. Inmeandering SCUBA swims of 30 to 45 minutesduration, ecological and substratum attributeswere assigned to standard ranked categories,based on an assessment integrated over thelength of the swim (see DEVANTIER et al. 1998for details).

Biodiversity Assessment: Taxonomicinventories of some key elements of reef faunaand flora have been undertaken in the Red Sea(corals: TURAK & BRODIE 1999; fish: BRODIEet al. 1998, 1999), Gulf of Aden (corals:DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press; fish: ARABIANSEAS EXPEDITION, J. KEMP pers. comm., KEMP &BENZONI 2000) and Socotra Island Group (fish:KEMP 1998, F. KRUPP, U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.;corals: DEVANTIER et al. in review; crustaceans,molluscs and other fauna and algae, variousauthors in GEF-UNDP Socotra BiodiversityProject Progress Reports).

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Coral Reefs of Yemen

For corals, bio-inventories of the Socotraand Red Sea fauna were undertaken duringSCUBA swim searches at each site. Eachorganism was identified to species levelwhenever possible and to genus and growth-form for taxonomically difficult species. Stonycorals that could not be readily identified in thefield were photographed, collected and bleachedfor detailed study.

Reef fish composition and abundance in theRed Sea, Gulf of Aden and Socotra IslandGroup have been assessed using bothquantitative (belt transects, collecting stations)and semi-quantitative (visual census) fieldmethods (KEMP 1998, BRODIE et al. 1998, 1999;U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.).

For quantitative assessments, numbersand/or log abundance estimates and/or sizes offishes were made in single or replicated belttransects of known volume (e.g. 50 m length,5 m width, 5 m height above sea bed). InSocotra, fish surveys were undertaken jointlywith the coral surveys, allowing combinedcommunity analyses. Fish species compositionaround the Socotra Island Group was alsoassessed at point sampling stations, where thefish-narcotizing agent, Rotenone, was used tocollect fishes (U. ZAJONZ pers. comm.).

For semi-quantitative assessments, fishspecies lists and abundance estimates werecompiled at point census stations or duringSCUBA swims, using standard rapid assessmentmethods (see ENGLISH et al. 1997).

Sea Surface Temperature Studies - RedSea

As part of the GEF-UNDP Yemen Red SeaProject, a sea temperature monitoringprogramme was established in 1998. Theprogramme is presently monitoring sea surface

temperature using submerged temperatureloggers (Dataflow 392 loggers). These havebeen deployed at Mayun Island near theentrance to the Red Sea and a further twologgers were deployed near Al Luhayyah in thenorth, recording temperature every 30 minutes(ROUPHAEL et al. 1999, M. AL SAFANI pers.comm.).

Benthos and Fish Monitoring - SocotraIsland Group

A long-term monitoring programme wasestablished around the Socotra Island Group inthe year 2000. Selection of monitoring sites wasbased on initial surveys of benthos and fishconducted in 1999. The 11 monitoring sites thatwere selected are distributed widely around thearchipelago, with seven sites on Socotra Islandand one site each on four of the smaller outerislands of Abd Al Kuri, Samha, Darsa and KalFarun. The sites were located in a variety ofbenthic community types, from those dominatedby mono-specific coral stands to thosesupporting diverse coral assemblages to thosedominated by macroalgae with sparse corals.These communities had been affected to varyingdegrees in 1998 by the global coral bleachingevent. Several of the sites had experiencedmajor bleaching-induced declines in cover andshifts in community composition whereas othershad been little- or unaffected, and representednear-pristine reef habitats in terms of cover andcommunity structure.

Field methods followed Global Coral ReefMonitoring Network (GCRMN) standards,employing sets of replicated line intercepttransects (5 x 20 m length for benthos) and belttransects (3 x 50 m length, 5 m width andheight for fish). The special nature of coralhabitats around the Socotra Island Group, withlittle true reef development and often small coralpatches with little or no reef slope, requiredmodification of the GCRMN protocol. The lackof reef slope precluded establishment of two sets

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

of transects (at two depths) per site. Instead eachsite was at a single depth range (3 to 5 m or 8 to11 m). Further, transects were aligned roughlyparallel to each other approximately 15 m apart.

Coral Reefs - Benthos and Fish

More than 300 species of reef buildingcorals and more than 600 species of reef-associated fishes have been identified fromYemen’s reefs and coral communities. Inparticular, coral and fish communities of theSocotra Island Group are surprisingly diversegiven that there is little reef development. Theislands lie at a crossroads between differentfaunal provinces and sub-provinces, and thecoral and fish fauna show biogeographicaffinities with Arabia, east Africa and the greaterIndian and Indo-Pacific regions.

Some of Yemen’s reefs have been adverselyaffected by various disturbances over the pastdecade. This has caused major declines in livingcoral cover and shifts in communitycomposition at the worst affected sites which arelocated in the northern part of the Yemeni RedSea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999), the north-eastGulf of Aden (DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press),and along the north coast of Socotra(DEVANTIER et al. in press b). Bleaching hasadversely affected reefs and coral communitiesin all three areas, most recently during 1998.Other more localised disturbances includepredation by the crown-of-thorns starfish andgastropod snails, sedimentation, storm damageand flood run-off. Although these disturbanceshave had adverse impacts in some locationsparticularly in the Red Sea, other Yemeni reefsin more exposed clear water areas of thesouthern Red Sea and the outer islands of theSocotra group remain in good to excellentcondition, with little or no local human impact.

In Socotra, preliminary results indicate thatthere had been little change in coral cover orcommunity composition from 1999 to 2000,other than an apparent increase in coralrecruitment at sites badly impacted by bleachingin 1998. The rapid growth of coral recruitssuggests that very small juvenile corals survivedthe 1998 bleaching-induced mortality. Somerecent (post-bleaching) coral mortality hadoccurred at several sites, possibly caused byflood run-off during intense rains in December1999. Most outer island sites were in good toexcellent condition, and presently have lowlevels of human use. These sites give theSocotra islands international importance as acoral reef monitoring centre, as such sites arebecoming rare in many countries with coralreefs, where human impacts are causing loss ofvalued reef attributes.

Coral Diversity

Yemen’s reefs support some 300 species ofscleractinian stony corals from 60 genera and 16families (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,SHEPPARD 1997, TURAK & BRODIE 1999,DEVANTIER et al. in review), the high richnessreflecting the wide range of habitat types,oceanographic and environmental conditions.

A total of about 176 species of stony coralsare presently known to occur in Yemen’s RedSea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Richness atindividual sites ranged from 1 to 76 species. Of51 Red Sea bio-inventory sites, almost 50 %had more than 40 coral species and 12 % ofsites had over 50 species, similar to counts atreefs in the central and northern Red Sea(DEVANTIER et al. 2000). TURAK & BRODIE(1999) identified at least 19 new distributionrecords for the southern Red Sea, based on thelist compiled by SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1991)and further coral specimens await identification.

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Coral Reefs of Yemen

Diversity appears to be lower along themainland Gulf of Aden coast, which is thoughtto support some 100 coral species (SHEPPARD &SHEPPARD 1991, DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press),but remains relatively poorly studied. Bycontrast, the Socotra Island Group supports adiverse fauna of about 250 stony coral species,placing it among the richest sites in the westernIndian Ocean (Table 13). The high diversity isrelated to the co-occurrence of a composite coralfauna from different biogeographic provincesand sub-provinces, including species with wideIndo-Pacific ranges, species from the IndianOcean, species previously known only fromEast Africa, Arabia or the Red Sea (DEVANTIERet al. in press) and species not yet described(VERON 2000, DEVANTIER et al. in review).

A high degree of similarity in stony coralrichness and composition between the Red Seaand Socotra Island Group exists at family andgeneric levels, whereas the Gulf of Aden isrelatively depauperate at generic and specieslevels (Table 13). At individual sites in the RedSea, Gulf of Aden and Socotra, coral richnessranges from less than 5 species to more than 70species. Low diversity sites include thosecomposed of large monospecific coral stands(covering thousands of square metres), sites oncoralline algal reefs, or sites whereenvironmental characteristics are suitable onlyfor tolerant corals (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Sparse coralassemblages (with several notable diverseexceptions) are common along the exposedsouthern coastlines of the Socotra Island Group,where monsoon upwelling and high biomass ofmacroalgae and other benthos tend to limit coralgrowth. High diversity assemblages are morecommonly found in areas of moderate watermovement and clarity, notably on the offshoreislands of the Red Sea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999),north-east Gulf of Aden and protected northerncoasts of the Socotra Island Group.

Reef distribution and coral communities

For Red Sea coastal and island fringingreefs, live coral cover was generally higher(about 10 %) in the south than in most of thenorthern and central areas (TURAK & BRODIE1999). There were more large colonies (up to 3to 4 m diameter) at the southern end of SabaIsland in the Zubayr group and at Mayun Islandin the straits of Bab al Mandab. There is a longfringing reef from just north of Al Khawthahdown the coast to opposite Mayun Island. Thisreef continues in patches around the rockyheadland on the Gulf of Aden coast. The widthvaries from less than 100 m to more than 1 kmenclosing a shallow lagoon (0.2 to l.5 m deep).Observations showed that the seaward margintypically dropped to around 3 m, except southof Al Mulbah, where there was a healthy patchof Platygyra colonies on a sandy bottom atdepths of 5 to 6 m. Acropora spp. were moreevident than farther north and formed stands ofbranching colonies. Porites spp. and Stylophorapistillata colonies were found at all sites. Othercommon species were Montipora spp.,Acropora valida and A. humilis, Poritesnodifera, Pavona cactus, Galaxea ascicularis,Acanthastrea echinata, Hydnophora spp., Faviafavus, Goniastrea retiformis, Platygyradaedalea, Leptastrea purpurea and Echinoporagemmacea (TURAK & BRODIE 1999).

Fringing reefs around the islands were in theform of extensive patches with gradual slopesand intermittent sand areas. Some of the coralpatches and ridges were formed by coral rubbleaccumulations from storm activities. Theserubble ridges were often covered with thickmats of the brown alga Dictyota sp. In additionto Stylophora pistillata and Porites spp.,Psammocora contigua was very common onone reef. Most Acropora corals were dead,including numerous tabular colonies.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Mayun Island, at the mouth of the straits ofBab al Mandab and subject to the effects ofperiodic nutrient-rich cold water upwelling fromthe Indian Ocean, had distinct coral reefformations. The island is of volcanic origin withreef growth on basal volcanic rock. On thenorthern side, extensive reef flats with diverseand healthy coral growth had developed. Theeastern and western sides supportpredominantly monospecific Stylophoracommunities. Bays on the southern side hadhealthy growth of corals dominated by largePorites colonies up to 4 to 5 m in diameter, allof which survived the 1997/1998 bleachingevent (TURAK & BRODIE 1999).

Red Sea Submerged Patch Reefs: In termsof surface and volume, these reefs may be themost dominant (TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Largepatches are found west of Al Hodeidah, south ofthe Ras Isa peninsula and scattered in thesouthern Farasan Islands in the inter-islandwaters. The shallower parts generally are 6 to8 m deep, although some reefs in the southernFarasan group grow to just below sea surface.Several large patches appeared not to be markedon current hydrographic charts. The dominantcorals were Porites spp.

Red Algal Reefs and Associated CoralCommunities: Red algal reefs occur in theshallow coastal waters from the Saudi Arabianborder south to the Ras Isa peninsula and aroundmany nearshore islands, in waters less than 6 m(typically 2 to 4 m deep). On these reefs coralgrowth ranged from a few small colonies ofsome hardy species to extensive coralcommunities with high substrate cover. These

reefs were essentially built by red corallinealgae of the genera Porolithon andLithothamnium, and supported limited coral reefdevelopment (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,TURAK & BRODIE 1999). They were generallyfound in semi-sheltered, low energyenvironments with high temperature, salinityand sedimentation levels. The corals moretolerant to these conditions were thePocilloporidae, Porites spp. (massive growthforms) and Siderastrea savignyana. Coralcolonies on these reefs do not attain large sizes,reaching a maximum of around 50 cm diameter.In addition to corals, fleshy macroalgae werealso associated with the coralline algal reefs.The main algae were Caulerpa sp., Sargassumsp. and Padina sp.. At times dense Sargassummats, which could have fronds growing morethan 2 m long totally obscured the underlyingcoralline red algal growth.

Coral Communities on Volcanic Rock:The offshore islands of the Hanish and Zubayrgroups and At Tair Island supported some areasof extensive coral development and a highdiversity of scleractinian corals (TURAK &BRODIE 1999). Porites species were thedominant corals. A similar diversity of hardcoral species was also found in coralcommunities on mid water pinnacles of volcanicorigin, such as Six Foot Rocks south of TiqfashIsland and Avocet Rock south of Al Hodeidah.These pinnacles, rising from 40 to 60 m,support rich and abundant fish fauna. Thehighest recorded coral species diversity (76species, TURAK & BRODIE 1999) was at acommunity on Six Foot Rocks and wascomparable to diversity levels in other areas ofthe Red Sea.

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Table 13: Species diversity of reef-building stony corals from Yemen's Red Sea,(TURAK & BRODIE 1999), N.E. Gulf of Aden (DEVANTIER & HARIRI in press) andSocotra Island Group (DEVANTIER et al. in review)

Taxonomic level Red Sea NE Gulf of Aden Socotra islandsFamily 14 14 16Genus 56 38 58Species 176 100 253

Around At Tair and islands of the Zubayrgroup, small coral colonies of massive growthform, mostly Porites, grew unattached to the flatvolcanic rock. Other common corals weremassive Goniastrea retiformis, encrustingAcropora, Montipora and Leptastrea andCyphastrea species. Under the volcanic ashcliffs of At Tair Island, where fine sedimentspredominated, very large Siderastreasavignyana colonies were developed, reachingseveral metres in diameter and typicallypartially buried in shifting sediments.

Although Yemen’s Red Sea reefs haveproven surprisingly diverse in speciescomposition, the main structural elements aremassive corals of the genus Porites. These areby far the most common genus of reef-buildingcoral and the main reef framework builder ofcontemporary coral reefs in this region. Theother two most common corals are Stylophorapistillata and Platygyra daedalea, both speciesfound in a wide range of habitats.

Gulf of Aden: Until recently, descriptions ofcoral communities from the northern coast ofthe Gulf of Aden were sparse (SHEPPARD &SHEPPARD 1991). More recent surveys havedemonstrated that there are at least six discreteareas where coral communities are developedalong the Gulf of Aden coast, concentrated fromthe entrance of the Red Sea to Aden in the westand from Belhaf to Al Mukalla in the east. Coraldiversity is higher to the west of Al Mukallawhere there are approximately 40 genera(Table 13). East of this point growth is limited toisolated colonies of a few genera, principally themore hardy or massive forms such asStylophora, Porites and various faviids, afinding echoed by studies in southern Oman(SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991). Low sea watertemperatures associated with upwelling andcompetition for light from algae probably limitgrowth, while grazing by urchins andherbivorous fish are important in determininglarval settlement rates.

Generally, coral communities in the Gulf ofAden grow as a veneer over a rocky substrate ofinorganic origin, usually discernible betweencolonies. Thus these are coral communitiesrather than true reefs. Cold water upwelling andthe limited distribution of available habitat arethe two principal factors limiting coral diversityand growth in the area, although other factorssuch as turbidity and scouring also may beimportant.

Along the north-west Gulf of Aden coast,key sites include:

Khor Umairah: This is a semi-enclosedlagoon cut off from the sea by a largespit and an ideal habitat for seagrasses(HIRTH et al. 1973). Large coral areasoccur in the lagoon, where the shelteredconditions favour coral growth byreducing wave energy.

Crater, Aden: The coral fauna at thissite forms a veneer over steeply slopingvolcanic rocks and boulders down to 8 mdeep, where a gently sloping sandybottom prevents further colonisation.Live coral cover is high on average (30to 50 %) although it reaches 100 % inplaces. Massive growth forms of Poritescolonies dominate and at least 20 othergenera were also present, including largecolonies of Lobophyllia, Galaxea, thesolitary coral Fungia, and Turbinaria indeeper water. ROSEN (1971) reports atotal of 32 genera for the Aden area.

Shuara: The area is relatively diverseand supports two examples of a largerreef complex. Corals at the Shuara siteshowed evidence of forming a truefringing reef (typical reef profile withreef flat, reef crest and slope; thedevelopment of a massive, wave-resistant structure composed of biogeniccarbonate). Live coral cover ranged frombelow 5 % on the reef flat, to 30 to 40 %

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

at the sample site 20 km east of Shuara.Both sites were dominated by Stylophoraand Porites, with a range of other generain lower abundances, with faviids andacroporids being well represented.

Further to the east, in the north-east Gulf ofAden, coral communities are developed fromBelhaf to Al Mukalla, and including the islandsoffshore from Bir Ali. These coral communitiesare of moderate to high diversity (about 100 spp.Scleractinia) with a wide range of coral cover(< 10 to > 75 %, DEVANTIER & HARIRI inpress).

Community structure at individual sitesranges from monospecific coral stands(including Pocillopora damicornis, Stylophorapistillata, Goniastrea retiformis, Porites spp.,KEMP & BENZONI 1999, DEVANTIER & HARIRI inpress) to moderately diverse assemblages oftabular and branching acroporids, massive andencrusting faviids, mussids and poritids. Despitethe general lack of reef development, the areasupports some large corals estimated to becenturies old.

Belhaf: The area around Belhaf isvolcanic with extensive lava fieldsleading to the coast in places andproviding a suitable substrate for coralcolonisation. Conditions are favourablefor reef formation and have resulted inthe growth of a mature fringing reef,dominated by Porites colonies andoccasional large Acropora tables,staghorn beds and foliose Montiporastands. This site was particularly badlyaffected by coral bleaching in 1998, withmajor reduction in living coral cover(KEMP & BENZONI 2000, DEVANTIER &HARIRI in press).

Bir Ali and Offshore Islands: The BirAli area supports the most concentrateddistribution of coral communities known

from the northern Gulf of Aden, withlarge coral patches developed offshorefrom the village and coral communitiesfringing the offshore islands.Community structure at individual sitesvaries from large monospecific stands ofpocilloporids, faviids and poritids tomoderately diverse assemblages (about50 spp. Scleractinia). Coral and fishcommunities on the islands offshorefrom Bir Ali are particularly welldeveloped, share interestingbiogeographic affinities and may beimportant in maintaining gene flowalong the Gulf of Aden coast (KEMP &BENZONI 2000).

Burum: Coral growth forms only aveneer over the volcanic outcrop andboulders in the shallow sublittoral. Atthis site the more fragile foliaceous andbranching forms of Montipora dominatethe live coral cover. Porites and othermassive corals also contributesignificantly. Wave energy significantlyinfluences the composition of coralassemblages along this stretch of coast.

Al Mukalla: The area supports bothshallow (1 to 10 m) and deep water (15to 25 m) coral communities, mostlydeveloped directly on terrigenous rock.Shallow water assemblages werecomposed of massive poritids, faviidsand mussids and tabular Acropora spp.,with cover of live coral approaching50 % at several locations. Theseassemblages were adversely affected bybleaching in June 1998, with the loss ofaround half the live coral cover at theworst affected sites. Deeperassemblages, composed predominantlyof encrusting and massive faviids,mussids and siderastreids, were lessaffected by the bleaching event, withliving coral cover remaining at about10 %.

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Ras Fartak and Ras Fantas: The areaaround Ras Fartak and Ras Fantas isinfluenced by seasonal upwelling. Thesublittoral epifauna is dominated byascidians, sponges and large populationsof urchins. Small encrusting coralcolonies covered 1 to 5 % of thesubstrate, composed mainly of faviids,Porites and Stylophora species and smallbranching colonies of Acropora.

Socotra Island Group: Coralcommunities are distributed patchilyaround the islands, with most extensivedevelopment on the northern coasts. Thesouthern coasts are more stronglydominated by macroalgae, althoughsome sites supported assemblages ofstony and soft corals interspersed amongmacroalgae, turf and coralline algaeand/or barrel-foliose sponges (e.g.Socotra: Qatanin, Qaara, Bidholan; AbdAl Kuri: Bandar Salih, east RasLubaynah ‘Trident Bay’; and south-westSamha). Trident Bay, south-west Abd AlKuri, was exceptional for a south coastlocation in terms of the cover andspecies richness of the coral assemblageand sizes of individual coral colonies.

The communities were developed from lowtide level to depths exceeding 20 m, with mostoccurring on gentle slopes (less than ten degreesto the horizontal), and usually surrounded bysand or merging into sand at their deeper extent.With some exceptions on the northern coasts,the communities were small (1 to 5 ha). Mostcommunities occurred in semi-shelteredenvironments, although they were distributedover the full range of exposures, from shelteredto highly exposed (south coasts).

At most sites there was little to no recent(Holocene) reef development. Around two-thirds of sites were classified as incipient reefswith some accretion and one third as coralcommunities developed directly on rock, sand

or rubble (mostly on the south coasts). Somecommunities were growing on relict ‘spur andgroove’ structures that probably represent earlier(pre-Holocene) periods of reef development.

There was great variety in the coralcommunity structure around the archipelago.Individual sites were characterized by low tohigh coral diversity (13 to 90 spp. Scleractinia)and variable coral cover (< 1 to > 75 %,average 22 %). Most coral communities weresmall (1 to 5 ha) and developed on the northcoasts. Coral cover and diversity were higherthan in macroalgal dominated south coastlocations (north coasts average 27 % coralcover, 46 spp.; south coasts average 5 %,35 spp.).

The outer islands (Abd Al Kuri, Samha,Darsa and Kal Farun) were on average morediverse than Socotra for both corals and fish. Aswith the Gulf of Aden, some corals attainedgreat size, although there is little recent biogenicreef accretion. The lack of Holocene reefdevelopment is likely to be related to recurrentmass mortality from intense monsoon upwellingor ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) events,competition with macroalgae, episodic burialunder sediments, high rates of bio-erosion andthe recent initiation of reef growth late in theHolocene. Some communities, notably on thenorthern coast of Socotra Island and north-eastGulf of Aden, were adversely affected byelevated sea temperatures (> 31 °C) in May toJuly 1998. This caused mass coral bleaching andmortality and resulted in major reductions incover and shifts in community composition atthe worst-affected sites (DEVANTIER & HARIRI inpress, DEVANTIER et al. in press b). Other sites,particularly on the outer islands of the Socotragroup, were little affected, exhibiting high livingcover and little damage. These communitiesalso support other reef-associated species ofhigh conservation value and/or economicimportance.

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Coral Cover

Cover of stony corals, dead corals, softcorals and algae were all highly variable amongdifferent sites within the Red Sea, Gulf of Adenand Socotra Island Group. Ratios of live to deadcoral cover at individual sites ranged fromstrongly positive to negative, related largely tothe differential effects of recent disturbance,notably coral bleaching in 1998.

Red Sea: In the northern Yemeni Red Sea,extensive coral mortality over the past decade(probably caused by elevated sea temperaturesand predation by crown-of-thorns starfish) hadresulted in major reductions in living coral coveron some reefs (TURAK & BRODIE 1999). Reefs ofthe southern Red Sea, and those fringingoffshore islands, were less disturbed, supportinghigher living coral cover.

When surveyed in the mid-1990s, semi-protected island reefs in Yemen’s northern RedSea had, on average, low live-coral cover(17 %), high dead-coral cover (34 %) and highmacroalgae cover (20 %). These reefs hadrelatively high average species richness(44 spp.). The northern and central Yemen coastand nearshore islands, from north of AlKhawkhah to Midi near the border with SaudiArabia, had very low live-coral cover (3 %) andvery high dead standing coral cover (averaging34 %). Macroalgal cover was also high(average 34 %) with Sargassum, Turbinaria,Padina and Dictyota spp. being dominant.These communities were also characterized byvery low coral species richness (average9 spp.).

Clear water communities facing the open sea- the Zubayr group, At Tair in the north, andMayun Island in the south - had the highest livecoral cover (29 %) and lowest dead coral cover(14 %). Macroalgal cover was also among thelowest, while coral species diversity was high

(46 spp.) with some of the largest coloniesencountered in the surveys. Deep waterpinnacles and submerged patch reefs had highoverall coral cover (average 52 %), with similarlevels of live (24 %) and dead coral (28 %).Outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish mayhave caused this extensive mortality. The mostcommon distinguishing characteristic of thesesites was high coral species richness (56 spp.)including 76 species at one site.

Most exposed reefs with algal crests andmonospecific stands of coral also had high coverof dead coral, often in the form of mounds orridges of branching coral rubble but also deadmassive and tabular Acropora colonies. Reefs inthis group had a very high percentage of totalcoral cover (averaging over 50 %), although itwas mostly dead standing coral (average 44 %)at the time of survey. Southern fringing reefs(south of Yakhtul to Dhubab) also had higheraverage cover of dead corals (23 %) than livecorals (15 %) and substantial cover ofmacroalgae (average 14 %).

Gulf of Aden: Despite the lack of majorbiogenic reef accretion, some sites support highlive-coral cover (> 50 %, and large sizes ofindividual coral colonies). Examples include theislands offshore from Bir Ali. These sites havehigh regional significance, as communities withhigh coral cover (whether forming true reefs ornot) are known to occur only very rarely in theArabian Sea (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,SHEPPARD et al. 1992, WATT 1996, KEMP &BENZONI 2000).

Socotra: Cover of stony corals (includingthe reef-building hydrozoan ‘fire coral’Millepora) ranged from less than 1 % to morethan 75 %, and in large patches (about1,000 m2) attained about 100 %. When assessedover all sites, living stony coral cover averagedabout 20 %, with highest cover (about 35 %)on the Brothers (Samhah, Darsa and including

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Sabuniyah Rocks). Stony coral cover was muchhigher on the north coasts (about 25 %) than onthe south coasts (about 5 %).

Sites of high stony coral cover (> 50 %)included Medina (north-west Socotra - largemonospecific beds of Pavona maldivensis andGoniopora stokesi), Ras Anjara Bay (east ofAbd Al Kuri: tabular and staghorn Acroporaspp., massive and encrusting faviids, poritids,mussids), north Samha (large monospecific bedsof staghorn Acropora formosa), and north-eastSamha (tabular and staghorn Acropora spp.,massive and encrusting faviids, poritids,mussids). Other notable locations were Diham-Qubbah and Hawlaf Port (Socotra) and the smallouter island rock stacks of Kal Farun andSabuniyah Rocks, all with living coral cover(about 50 %), composed predominantly bylarge (1 to 4 m diameter) massive corals of thegenera Porites or Galaxea.

All the above sites remained largelyunaffected by the mass coral bleaching eventthat caused major reductions in live cover atother sites in May and June 1998. Most southcoast sites had stony coral cover less than 10 %,being dominated by macroalgae, with thenotable exception of south-west Abd Al Kuri.Here cover of both living and dead corals waseach about 20 %, composed predominantly ofmassive corals, some of which had dead colonysurfaces consistent with injury during the 1998bleaching event.

Previous coral surveys reported that mostsites were in good to excellent condition(MACALISTER ELLIOTT AND PARTNERS 1996, seealso KEMP 1998). Although high cover of deadAcropora spp. (about 50 %) was reported fromone site on the north-east coast of Socotra, nocause of the mortality was identified. Coralmortality following bleaching in 1998,particularly among tabular and staghornAcropora, foliose Montipora, fire corals and

soft corals, caused reductions in average coralcover from about 50 to about 20 % at somelocations. Following the 1998 bleaching event,overall dead coral cover averaged 8 %, withlittle variability among islands. Cover of deadcorals was lowest at the Brothers (about 5 %)and on the southern coasts, reflecting thegenerally low coral cover there.

Special Characteristics of Yemeni Reefs

One of the important features of mostYemeni Red Sea coral reefs is the very limitedor complete lack of an intertidal zone. The maintidal movements in the Red Sea are diurnal tidesof limited magnitude, seasonal tides of moresignificance and, at times most importantly, sealevel fluctuations due to strong persistentonshore winds (EDWARDS 1987). Most reefs inthe Yemeni Red Sea either do not have anintertidal reef flat development or they aredevoid of live corals.

From the shallow coastal waters of southernSaudi Arabia, SHEPPARD (1985) described reefformations built essentially of crustose red algaeand named them Algal Reefs. Such formationsalso occur along the north coast of Yemen andsouth to A1 Urj. Algal reefs also occur in theshallow nearshore waters north of Al Hodeidah.They are often covered by dense macroalgalgrowth and may also be surrounded by seagrassbeds. Associated biota are usually poor and mayinclude some sea urchins and a variety of algalspecies. Fish diversity and abundance weregenerally low.

Coral communities of the Socotra IslandGroup and north-east Gulf of Aden were notablefor the occasional co-occurrence of largemonospecific coral stands immediately adjacentto highly diverse coral assemblages, developedin similar environmental conditions of depth,light, sea temperature, and sediment type.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Coral Reef Fisheries

Fishing is a traditional profession forthousands of Yemenis. Total annual catches varybetween 90,000 and 95,000 mt. Most of thelandings come from trawling in the Red Sea andthe pelagics fishery in the Gulf of Aden. Reef-based fisheries are, for the most part,underdeveloped and at a subsistence level.

Fishery Distribution

Coral reef fisheries are based primarily inthe Red Sea and around the Socotra IslandGroup. There are five main landing centres onthe Red Sea coast: Midi, Khoba, Hodeidah,Khaukha and Mokha. Reef-based fisheries inthe Gulf of Aden are minor, with the majority ofthe fishing industry targeting pelagics. OnSocotra, reef-based fishing activities take placealong the entire coastline, but only oneprocessing plant exists to market catches on acommercial scale. Other catches arepredominantly at a subsistence level. Thetrawling grounds of the Red Sea cover about6,200 km2 of which 550 km2 are shrimp fisheryareas (SANDERS & KEDIDI 1981).

Fishery Composition and Trends

For the Red Sea, data date back to the 1970sand early 1980s and focus on demersal fishesand shrimps. SANDERS & MORGAN (1989)estimated the standing stocks in the Yemeni RedSea at roughly 23,000 to 32,000 mt. No morerecent data on stocks are available. Statistics aregenerally unreliable because catches areauctioned and sold as individual fishes (for largespecies), or in bundles for fish of smaller size,often without being weighed. Furthermore,there are no accurate figures on fishing effort.

In the Gulf of Aden several surveys haveprovided valuable resource information ondemersal and pelagic stocks, but little on

artisanal fisheries. Among the exploitablestocks, pelagics are more abundant thandemersal resources. Large pelagics includetunas, Spanish mackerels, sharks, jacks andmarlins. Data on the distribution of demersalstocks and their densities are given in EDWARDSet al. (1984). Catches of the Spanish mackerelScomberomorus commersoni amount to about1,000 mt annually; horse mackerels (Trachurusand Decapterus sp.) ranged between 5,000 to8,000 mt annually during the 1980s. There hasbeen a slow but gradual decline in catches ofpelagic species following a peak in 1989, whiledemersal fish stocks have been declining sharplysince 1987. Sharks (mostly Carcharinidae andSphyrnidae) are also fished, using trolling andsurface long-lining. During the 1980s annualcatches were in the order of 7,000 mt.

There is an artisanal fishery for spinylobsters (Panulirus spp.) in Hadhramut andMahra and around the Socotra Island Group.Catches were about 200 mt between 1972 and1983, rose to a peak of 1,150 mt in 1987 anddropped to around 600 to 700 mt 1991. Only5 % came from Socotra. Management measuressince 1970 have restricted the lobster fishingseason to the period between October and April,limited tail lengths to greater than 7 cm andcatching females with eggs was forbidden.Since 1983 fishermen have been encouraged touse lobster traps, which have now largelyreplaced nets.

Resource surveys in the 1960s and 1970sreported rich fishery resources in the waterssurrounding the Socotra Island Group.KESTEVEN et al. (1981) estimated biomass fordemersal resources at 55,000 to 116,000 mt andfor pelagics at 112,000 to 24,000 mt, with yieldestimates of 10,000 to 20,000 mt and 39,000 to78,000 mt respectively. Fish, turtles andlobsters are important resources in thearchipelago and abalone is a resource ofpotential future exploitation. More recentinformation is provided in UNDP/GEF (1996).

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Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

Coral reefs have not ranked highly on theprotection agenda in Yemen. Development ofurban centres and industry carry a higherpriority, and only in recent years has theprotection of coral reefs been addressed. Threatsto Yemen’s reefs include those from oil and oil-related industries, shipping and harbouractivities, ballast water discharge, fishing, urbandevelopment and sewage discharge, litter,catchment pollution and sedimentation,chemical pollution, tourism, coastal industries,coral predators and global climate change(PERSGA/GEF 2001, BRODIE & TURAK 1999).Threats to biodiversity range from local (e.g.coral collecting), regional (e.g. bleaching) toglobal (e.g. changes in ocean alkalinity fromincreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide). Afledgling tourism industry poses a small threatto reefs from anchor or diver damage.

Coastal DevelopmentCoastal cities and towns are expanding at

accelerating rates and unplanned settlementsaround cities such as Al Hodeidah may result inthe loss of coral reefs. The proposeddevelopment of Aden Port and Aden Free Zoneare expected to have a major impact on theenvironment. Reclamation for port developmentand expansion and for construction of industrialareas is already underway in Aden, wherelagoons and intertidal areas are being reclaimed.In Socotra, harbour and airport development are

planned. Unless appropriate environmentalprecautions are taken, this development is likelyto cause considerable local adverseenvironmental impact.

TourismReef-based tourism is still in its infancy and

impacts on the reefs by visitors are low. Thismight become an important issue in the Gulf ofAden where corals are already under stressfulconditions and particularly sensitive to distur-bance.

Shipping and Navigation

Yemeni waters are major shipping routes.About 16,000 ships pass through the Straits ofBab al Mandab each year and many call atYemen’s main ports (Table 14; ADEN PORTDEVELOPMENT 1996). Ships are known to dumptheir wastes and ballast water into Yemeniwaters. Ballast waters result in the formation oftar balls, which have been found all along thecoastline of the Gulf of Aden (EC/MFW 1995)and some parts of the Red Sea coast (RUSHDIet al. 1991). Additionally, solid waste from ship-based sources may be found on beaches. Thepotential threat of a major accident is significantand may result in major habitat destruction andoil pollution. Main ports lack reception facilitiesand there is limited oil spill contingencyplanning.

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Portnumber of

shipsOil cargo number of

shipsOil cargo number of

shipsOil cargo

Aden 878 2,548,563 1164 4,201,809 696 4,112,120Al Hodeidah 523 1,350,524 583 1,326,711 392 108,807Al Mucka 84 263,447 97 230,254 159 19,304Mukalla 224 229,100 186 248,404 183 116,084Ras Isa 83 7,639,899 84 7,411,011 46 3,543,541

Table 14: Number of ships calling at Yemeni ports and volume of oil cargo in metric tonnes (PERSGA 1997)

1994 1995 First half 1996

Shark Fishery Catches of sharks from the Red Sea

increased to 1993 (peak of 6,537 mt) anddropped gradually to 3,556 mt in 1996. Sharksare mainly caught for their fins, which areexported and fetch high prices on internationalmarkets.

Oil PollutionOil and oil-related industries pose a threat to

coral reef biodiversity. Oil originates fromballast water discharge or from spills whileloading or unloading. A 409,000 tonnesdeadweight, floating storage and off-loadingvessel is moored 4.8 nautical miles offshorefrom Ras Isa on the Al Salif Peninsula. This shipis supplied with crude oil by a pipeline from theshore, which is then transferred to crude oiltankers. Oil spill risks associated with theseprocedures are considered significant. Over 200tar balls per 10 m transect were recorded atBandar east of Aden (RUSHDI et al. 1991).Current daily bunker supplies in the Port ofAden are around 40,000 mt. Poor maintenancehas resulted in low level, but locally significant,leaks from bunkering facilities into the port.One bunker barge sank in 1995, causingconsiderable localized oil pollution in theTawahi area (ADEN PORT DEVELOPMENT 1996),and a thick layer of oil covering the intertidaland lower supralittoral zones is still evident.

BleachingBleaching has caused extensive recent coral

mortality on many Yemeni reefs, includingthose in the northern nearshore area of the RedSea (since 1990), in the southern Red Sea(within the last 2 to 4 years), and Socotra IslandGroup and north east Gulf of Aden (1998). Anumber of the Red Sea sites with near totalmortality had been reported as having healthycoral growth in the 1980s (IUCN 1987).

Bleaching effects in 1998 were patchilydistributed around the Socotra Island Group and

north-east Gulf of Aden. At the worst affectedsites, more than half of the species were injuredand about half of the live coral cover was killed.Species were affected differentially.Pocilloporids, table and branching Acroporaspp. and fire corals Millepora sp. were the mostbadly affected and changes occurred in speciescomposition and relative abundance.

The bleaching followed a period of elevatedsea surface temperatures greater than 1 °Cabove mean monthly averages (as derived fromNOAA ‘hotspot’ satellite imagery). On the northcoast of Socotra, sea surface temperatures werewarmer than 31 °C in May to June 1998,followed by rapid cooling (< 24 °C) in July1998 (DEVANTIER et al. in press b). Warmingoccurred in June in the north-east Gulf of Aden.

Crown-of-Thorns Starfish - Offshore RedSea Reefs

Recent extensive coral mortality on offshoreRed Sea reefs was similar in appearance to thatfollowing outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish.Nearly all the acroporid corals, the preferredfood of Acanthaster planci, were dead,including large (4 to 5 m diameter) colonies.Some starfish remained feeding in the area.Small scale starfish outbreaks have also beenreported previously from other parts of the RedSea and it is believed that the present level ofdamage is comparable to that caused byA. planci in Sudan in the late 1960s (ORMOND &CAMPBELL 1974).

Drupella MortalityThe coral-feeding snails Drupella were

present at most Red Sea and Socotra sites. Theyoccurred with a varying degree of abundance,most commonly on compact branching forms ofAcropora, tabular Acropora and pocilloporids,in order of preference. Generally damage was ata sub-lethal level, with most infected coralsshowing partial mortality ranging from 10 to70 % of the colony.

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Bio-ErosionThe urchins Echinometra and Diadema spp.

occur in moderate to high abundance (> 10 m2)at some sites and, with the grazing parrot fishes(Scaridae) and boring sponges, are majorcontributors to bio-erosion of the reef substrate.Bio-erosion was particularly noticeable at sitesbadly affected by the 1998 bleaching event.

Storm WavesCoral assemblages at some sites around

Socotra had been affected by storm waves.Large tabular colonies of Acropora clathratahad been overturned or toppled and somebranching corals had been fragmented. Deadcorals that had been killed by the 1998bleaching or other agents, and where theskeletons had been weakened by bio-erosion,were particularly susceptible to breakage.

Coral DiseasesThere is little known of the distribution and

effects of coral diseases in Yemeni waters. In thenorthern Red Sea several diseases have beenidentified as killing or injuring corals. In theSocotra Island Group, diseased corals wereuncommon or absent from most sites, although‘white band’ disease was causing injury totabular colonies of Acropora clathrata, a speciesbadly affected by the 1998 bleaching event.

Coral Collecting Coral collecting for lime and building

materials (indicated by piles of coral boulderson the coast) occurs at many locations aroundthe Socotra Island Group. However, mostcollecting is of dead corals that have beendeposited on beaches by storms. At present thereis little evidence of subtidal collecting of livecorals from any of the islands. However,increasing export demand may prompt live coralcollecting in the future.

OverfishingOverfishing of reef-associated species has

the potential to produce secondary effects on theecosystem. Shark resources are depleting andcatches by local fishermen are declining due tolarge-scale shark fishing. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish are suspected to be caused byoverfishing of reef-associated fish predators inthe families Lethrinidae, Balistidae andTetraododontidae (ORMOND et al. 1990).

Aquarium TradeAt present two companies are licensed to

collect coral reef fishes for the aquarium trade,and more licences are expected to be issued inthe future. There are limited catch records. Fishcollecting for the aquarium trade should bemonitored carefully to prevent damage to thereef habitat and decline in reef-associated fauna.

Industrial and Urban Development Waste waters from the main coastal cities

and industries are discharged directly into thesea. Only about 30 to 40 % of large coastalcities are served by public sewage networks. InAden, raw organic matter is discharged directlyinto the sea, and problems of bacterialcontamination are apparent (EC/MFW 1995). InMukalla and the smaller towns, sewage is alsodirectly discharged into the sea without anytreatment. Power stations at Mokha, RasKatheeb and Hiswa (Aden) discharge salinehigh-temperature water directly into the seacausing temperature increases in surroundingwaters.

Marine Protected Areas and Levelof Management

There is one marine protected area inYemen. Six other areas have been proposed forprotected area status. The establishment ofmarine protected areas is a relatively newprocess in Yemen, with funding and technical

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input from IUCN, the Global EnvironmentFacility and PERSGA.

MPAs Declared

Socotra Islands Group: The archipelagooccupies some 3,625 km2 and is home todiverse terrestrial plant and animal life with ahigh degree of endemism. Socotra (12°30’N54°00’E) is the main island, the others beingAbd Al Kuri, Samha and Darsa. There are alsosmaller rock islets, Kal Farun and Sabuniya.Funding and logistical support has beenprovided through the GEF-Socotra BiodiversityProject. It was established as a protected area in1996.

De facto and Planned MPAs

Belhaf and Bir Ali Area: This is a coastalstretch and group of high aspect islands withextensive fringing coral reefs and rich fishingareas (14°00’N 48°10’E). The area is also animportant seabird and marine turtle nesting site,and contains a saltwater crater with fringingmangroves.

Ras Isa and Kamaran Island: Theheadland/island complex (15°16’N 42°44’E)contains mangroves and coral reefs with diverseassociated fauna. Habitats are threatened bychronic pollution from the nearby oil terminal,and reef fisheries for the aquarium trade.

Khor Umaira: Mixed seagrass and coralreef habitat; the area is a semi-enclosed lagoonthat supports marine turtle feeding grounds(12°40’N 44°10’E). There are no coral reefs.

Ras Sharma: Important (regionally andpossibly globally) nesting site for green turtles(13°00’N 43°40’E). There are no coral reefs.

Dhobba (Shihr): Considered as it is amarine turtle nesting site (14°45’N 49°40’E).There are no coral reefs.

Bab al Mandab and Perim Island:Contains extensive seagrass beds and mangrovestands, and is an important waterway feedingthe Red Sea (12°30’N 43°30’E). There are nocoral reefs.

Current Monitoring andManagement Capacity to ConserveCoral Reef Resources

Monitoring Capacity The Department of Oceanography,

University of Sana’a, which was established inthe late 1970s, has more than 10 staff membersspecialized in marine ecology, chemistry,geology, and fish biology. Its mainresponsibilities are teaching, research andadvising the government on marine issues. It hasa capacity for and is carrying out research andtraining in coastal surveys, pollution monitoringand analysis. The University of Aden, withcolleges in Hodeidah and Mukalla, also hasseveral departments which are involved inresearch and training in marine sciences. In1996, this university organised the firstinternational symposium on Socotra Island.

The Marine Science Research andResources Centre (MSRRC) in Aden is theadvisory body to the Ministry of Fish Wealth(MFW). The centre advises the ministry onaspects of fish stock assessment andmanagement, data on fish landing, fishingseasons etc. It consists of Fisheries,Oceanography and Benthos departments andhas a newly established small pollution controlcentre at Al Buriekah (Little Aden), anexperimental mariculture station, and a smalllaboratory in Mukalla. The MSRRC operates a

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Coral Reefs of Yemen

37 m research vessel, which is currently in needof maintenance. The centre receives sometechnical assistance from Yemen’s FourthFisheries Development Project and hascollaborated in the execution of a coastal habitatsurvey of the Gulf of Aden.

Staff from the Socotra Biodiversity Projectundertake annual monitoring of coral and fishcommunities around the archipelago.

Management CapacityA number of governmental agencies have

responsibility for the coastal and marine areas.There is no authority solely in charge of themanagement of the coastal zone in Yemen.

Environment Protection Council(EPC): The EPC was established in1990 by Prime Ministerial Decree94/1990. The Technical Secretariat (TS)co-ordinates and monitors the planningand implementation of environmentalprotection policies. Implementation atfield level is under the responsibility ofthe line ministries. There are threedepartments under the TS: EnvironmentProtection, Planning and Data, andAdministration and Financial Affairs.The EPC is the official governmentagency in charge of the development andimplementation of nationalenvironmental protection and controlpolicies. (The EPC has now beenrenamed as the Environment ProtectionAgency.)

Ministry of Fish Wealth (MFW): TheMFW regulates fishing, issues licencesand supervises processing and marketingof fish and fisheries products for localconsumption and export. Imports and/ormanufacturing of fishing gear and otherrelevant equipment must be inaccordance with specifications of theMFW. The ministry is responsible for the

management and development ofYemen’s fish resources. The MFW,through the Department of Monitoringand Surveillance, is responsible for theenforcement of laws and regulationsconcerning marine resources.

Public Corporation for MaritimeAffairs (PCMA): This is the maingovernmental body concerned withmaritime safety and marine pollutioncontrol. It also plays an important role indeveloping a legislative framework toprotect the marine environment.

Maritime Training Centre: The Centrewas established in Aden in 1989. Itconducts training courses in portoperations and maritime transport,maritime safety and pollution control. Itoffers courses on the MARPOLConvention and oil spill response. Itcurrently receives assistance fromUNDP.

General Tourism Authority (GTA):The GTA is responsible for tourismactivities throughout the countryincluding eco-tourism. Permission forbuilding tourist villages along the coastor on islands is issued by the GTA. In1995, the GTA issued a set of regulationsand guidelines for tourists whilesnorkelling or/and diving.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policy Pertinent to ReefConservation

The Republic of Yemen is a party tointernational conventions, agreements andtreaties that have implications for the marineenvironment. Similarly, a number of nationalinstruments exist at various government levels,which concern coral reefs either directly orindirectly.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

International Agreements

Treaties or conventions that were signed byex-YAR and ex-PDRY Yemen are still in forceaccording to the unification decree. Yemen isparty to The Regional Convention for theConservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenEnvironment (1982); the Protocol ConcerningRegional Cooperation in Combating Pollutionby Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency (1982); the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea (1982); theVienna Convention for the Protection of theOzone Layer (1985); the Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the Ozone Layer(1987); the Basel Convention on the Control ofTrans-boundary Movements of HazardousWastes and their Disposal (1989); theConvention on Biological Diversity (1992); andthe United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (1992).

Yemen has signed, but not yet ratified theMARPOL Convention due to lack of funds topurchase the necessary port waste receptionfacilities. At present Yemen co-operates withDjibouti and Somalia in combating oil spills. Oilpollution control equipment for the Gulf ofAden area (Yemen, Somalia and Djibouti) hasbeen stored at facilities in Djibouti. Yemen andDjibouti are currently negotiating a bilateralagreement regarding the use of these facilities.

National Legislation

In recent years Yemen has established anumber of significant instruments, laws andregulations, which concern coral reefs(Table 15). These include:

Prime Ministerial Decree No. 4 (1996):Established Socotra as a protected areaand developed a High Committee forDevelopment of Socotra headed by theDeputy Prime Minister and Minister ofPlanning and Development.

Law No. 11 (1993): Established for theprotection of the sea from pollution, it ismainly concerned with pollution by oiland pollution from passing ships. Thelaw determines procedures forprosecuting, penalizing and requestingcompensation from ships that violate thelaw. It gives the Public Corporation forMaritime Affairs the legislative power todeal with oil pollution at sea. In itsArticle No. 35, the law prohibits anyform of discharge of pollutants of anykind and from any source into the seawithout prior treatment.

Law No. 4, Article 10(d) (1993):Prohibits any activities or practicescarried out in contradiction to specialdirectives regarding the protection of theenvironment.

Fisheries Law No. 42 (1991): This isthe main legal framework fororganisation, exploitation and protectionof fishing and aquatic resources. Thislaw deals with the protection of fisheriesresources and regulation of fishingactivities. The law prohibits the use ofdestructive fishing methods such aspoisons, chemicals, etc. The law alsoindicates means of limiting and/ordealing with pollution.

Law No. 37 (1991): Defines theterritorial waters, the boundaries of theislands, and the exclusive economiczone of 200 nautical miles. It alsoregulates free passage in the Straits ofBab al Mandab. It emphasizes theprohibition of dumping any wastes intothese zones.

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Coral Reefs of Yemen

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

The major gap in effective coral reefconservation is the lack of funding to establishand implement regulations in marine protectedareas. These will also need strict enforcementand further research to acquire baselineinformation. There is a general lack of fundingfor marine research activities and most researchis currently funded through GEF, World Bank orUNDP projects. Specifically, the Republic ofYemen needs to address the following issues:

ResearchResearch needs to be carried out in order to

update baseline environmental conditions andfollow-up monitoring should refer to thesebaselines to detect changes in environmentalquality.

Networking There is a need to integrate current research

into global initiatives such as ICRI(International Coral Reef Initiative) andGCRMN (Global Coral Reef Monitoring

Network) and regionally among the PERSGAmember states.

Planning and Coastal DevelopmentDirect use and indirect development

activities that affect reef systems need to becarefully evaluated in the design stages and besubject to continued monitoring through theimplementation stages.

Community Education There is a need to develop community

education programmes that highlight the role ofpeople play in reef ecology, including reefdegradation.

LegislationYemen needs to take further steps in the

establishment of marine protected areas and tomonitor the implementation of legislationconcerning these areas with special regard tocoastal development, fisheries and tourism.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Law, Ordinance, Regulation Year Government Agency concernedPresidential Resolution on the Territorial Sea, Adjacent Waters,the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf (LawNo. 37)

1991 Ministry of Defence, MFW

Presidential Resolution on Fishing, Exploitation and Protectionof Living Aquatic Resources (Law No. 42) 1991 Ministry of Fish Wealth

Free Zone Law (Law No. 4) 1993 Free Zone Authority

Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution(Presidential Decree No. 11) 1993 Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs

The Maritime Law for the Republic of Yemen (Presidential Decree No. 5) 1995 Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs

Environment Protection Law 1995 Environment Protection CouncilMinisterial Decree for Specifications of Fishing Vessels andGear (No. 101) 1995 Ministry of Fish Wealth

Prime Ministerial Decree No. 4 of 1996 establishing Socotraas a protected area 1996 Ministry of Planning and Development

Table 15: National Laws and Regulations related to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources

Funding and ExpertiseA larger proportion of funds allocated to

protected areas and environmental researchneeds to be appropriated for marineconservation efforts. With the EPC for instance,this would also require the expansion of marineresearch and conservation activities.

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

The key recommendations are centredaround the development of national capacity forplanning and implementation of relevant controlmechanisms, be they legislative or procedural.This would include development of maritimelaws, ICZM plans, EIA methods, port facilities,pollution management strategies and appliedresearch activities.

LegislationDevelop the regulations and human

resources to implement the existing MaritimeLaw and the Law for the Protection of theMarine Environment from Pollution. Thisshould take place alongside the developmentand implementation of environmentalassessment procedures and guidelines, includingthose that develop and implement a protectedarea law.

Institutional StrengtheningStrengthen the institutional capacity of the

Environmental Protection Council to co-ordinate and monitor activities affecting themarine environment. Strengthen the capacity ofthe Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs toenable it to carry out its duties in the fields ofprotecting the marine environment frompollution, safety of shipping, including Port andFlag State Control duties. Strengthen

institutional capacity for the enforcement ofenvironmental and fisheries regulations.

Environmental ManagementDevelop and implement a master plan for

conservation and sustainable development ofthe Socotra Island Group. Prepare andimplement a coastal zone management plan.Strengthen the capacity of GTA and the FreeZone Authority for environmental management.Develop and establish a system of marineprotected areas with effectively implementedmanagement plans.

Habitat ConservationDesign and conduct inventory surveys,

habitat mapping and sensitivity analyses of theentire coastline including distribution of rareand endangered species.

Petroleum Development and TransportDevelop and implement an oil spill

contingency plan.

Industrial DevelopmentEstablish a framework for development and

operation of the Aden Free Zone in anenvironmentally sound manner. Develop andimplement a port reception facilities plan.

Urban DevelopmentUpgrade the waste-water collection and

treatment in coastal areas, including Aden,Hodeidah and Mukalla. Upgrade solid wastemanagement and disposal in coastal areas,including Aden, Hodeidah and Mukalla.

Applied ResearchDevelop a database of biological resources

and environmental information and establish a

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monitoring programme to support operationsand enforcement activities. Develop trainingprogrammes for marine resource surveys,monitoring and management and GISapplications. Design and implement aprogramme to evaluate potential impacts fromagricultural chemicals on the Tihama coastalzone.

Environmental Education and PublicParticipation

Conduct public awareness andenvironmental education programmes for alllevels of the coastal population. Promote thebroad-based participation of NGOs.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Introduction

Saudi Arabia’s Red Sea coastline extendssouthwards approximately 1,840 km from theJordanian border north of Haql (29°30'N) to theborder with Yemen at Oreste Point (16°22'N).The continental shelf extends offshore fordistances of < 1 km in the Gulf of Aqaba to> 100 km on the Farasan Bank.

The climate is extremely arid and much ofSaudi Arabia’s biological productivity isconfined to a narrow coastal strip where coralreefs, mangroves and seagrass communitiespredominate. Average rainfall is less than70 mm/year along the broad coastal Tihamaplains of the Red Sea (Al-Wajh: 16 mm/year;Jeddah: 63 mm/year; Jizan: 63 mm/year).Inland, above the coastal escarpment, it mayexceed 200 mm/year.

Over 15 % of the population lives in theRed Sea coastal zone; urban and industrialdevelopment have had severe impacts on thecoastal lands and waters, particularly adjacent tothe major coastal towns and cities. Much of thisdevelopment involved extensive landfill sitesand dredging, which has destroyed substantialareas of the intertidal and subtidal nearshorehabitats (CHIFFINGS 1989). In Jeddah, theCorniche development and other urbanexpansion projects continue this destruction ofhabitat and natural resources (CHILD &GRAINGER 1990).

The central Red Sea, including the OuterFarasan Bank, contains many species that areabsent from the northern and southern reachesof the Red Sea. There is evidence that coralabundances and temperature regimes areimportant in explaining species distribution inthis zone. The southern Red Sea has manyspecies that are more suited to sediment-loadedwaters, which occur because of terrigenousinput and water mixing across the wide shallowcoastal shelf. The highest sea temperatures arefound in this zone restricting coral development.

The Red Sea coast and islands support avariety of coastal and marine habitats, relatedlargely to oceanographic regime, degree ofexposure and particularly to topographicfeatures which support the development of coralreefs, mangrove stands and seagrass beds. Thearea has a complex tectonic history of uplift andsubsidence, related to the rift development ofthe Red Sea from the movements of the Arabianand African tectonic plates. The present series ofliving coral reefs are the latest in a chronologicalsequence of raised (uplifted) and submergedreefs that have developed at various times overthe past several hundred millennia. In manycases the present reefs are developed on earlierreef structures. Detailed descriptions of thegeology, physical environment, climate,hydrology, oceanography and habitats of theRed Sea and wider Arabian Region arepresented by FISHELSON (1971), MERGNER(1971), SCHEER (1971), ORMOND et al. (1984a),EDWARDS & HEAD (1987), CROSSLAND et al.(1987), IUCN/UNEP (1988), BENTHOUX (1988),SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1985, 1991), BEHAIRYet al. (1992) and SHEPPARD et al. (1992), PURSER& BOSENCE (1998).

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

The Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast is divisibleinto three relatively homogenous areas in termsof the variety and distribution of coastal andmarine habitats and reefs:

the Gulf of Aqaba in the north,

the northern-central section fromimmediately south of the Gulf of Aqabato Jeddah,

the central-southern region from south ofJeddah to the border of Yemen andincluding the Farasan Bank and Islands.

The Gulf of Aqaba is deep and relativelynarrow. It is characterised by its geographicalisolation and the number of species that areeither restricted to or from the area, includingseveral species of reef-building corals and fish.The extreme north of the Gulf contains speciespresently known from nowhere else in the RedSea (MEPA/IUCN 1987). A dispersal bottle-neck into and out of the Straits of Tiran and coolsea temperatures may be important factors inthese species distributions. Reefs are typicallynarrow, fringing the steep mainland coast.

The northern-central Red Sea has a muchhigher diversity of reef and coastal habitat typesthan the Gulf of Aqaba. It has large expanses ofcoastal marshes (sabkha), seagrasses, macro-algae, mangrove stands and reefs that fringe themainland, islands, offshore patch and barrierreefs. The area is renowned for the presence ofthe Al-Wajh Bank, a large, relatively shallowarea bordered by a barrier reef system on itsseaward edge and incorporating many islandsand reefs. The Bank is unique in several respectsand is the current focus of marine protected areaplanning by the National Commission forWildlife Conservation and Development(NCWCD). With the exception of reefs in thevicinity of coastal towns and cities, most remainin good condition (NCWCD-JICA 2000,DEVANTIER et al. in press).

The central-southern area, including theOuter Farasan Bank and islands, has a differentbio-physical and geomorphological character tothe northern area and Gulf of Aqaba. It containsspecies that are better suited to more turbid,sediment-loaded waters that occur here becauseof terrigenous input and water mixing across thewide, shallow, coastal shelf. The highest seatemperatures are found in this zone and coraldevelopment is restricted. The Farasan Islandsand surrounding waters and reefs have beendesignated as a protected area.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

SUDAN

YEMEN

DJIBOUTI

EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA

JORDAN

Red Sea

ERITREA

Aqaba

Duba

Al Wajh

Port Berenice

Um Lajj

Yanbu

Rabigh

Jeddah

Port Sudan

Al Lith

Qunfidha

Jizan

Al Hodeidah

Sana'a

Al Mukha

DahlakArchipelago

Az Zuqu

Hanishal Kabr

FarasanIslands

FarasanBank

> 8 % reef coverage

4-8 % reef coverage

< 4 % reef coverage

Suez Canal

Gulf of Suez

Gulf of Aqaba

Fig. 10: Map of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coastindicating coral reef densities: shading representsareas of a 500 m by 500 m quadrat which was reef,(MEPA/IUCN 1992b)

Coral reefs fringe much of the entire lengthof the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coastline and theoffshore islands (Fig. 10) and are generally ingood condition, with the exception of those nearJeddah and Yanbu (PERSGA 1998). Five areasin particular have been noted for their coralreefs: the Tiran Islands, the Al-Wajh Bank, thereefs north of Yanbu, the reefs between Obhurand Thuwal north of Jeddah, and the outerFarasan Bank (MEPA/IUCN 1987b).

The near-continuous coral reef tract of theRed Sea has high local, regional and globalconservation significance. With the exception ofreefs in the immediate vicinity of coastal citiesand towns (particularly Jeddah and Yanbu),these reefs generally have low levels of humanuse and impact. The region includes most of theworld’s major reef types, including mainlandfringing reefs, island fringing reefs, platformpatch reefs, pinnacles and barrier reefs. Reefsare often developed in sharms along themainland coast, a characteristic reef-formlargely restricted to the Red Sea. Most of thereefs are actively accretional. The level of reefdevelopment varies widely. There aresubsurface patch reefs with no reef flat (mostlyin the Al-Wajh Bank and southern area), narrowcontour fringing reefs with reef flats < 30 mwide (in the Gulf of Aqaba), large platform andbarrier reefs with reef flats often > 100 m wideand tower reefs similar to atolls (on the FarasanBank). These reef types support coralcommunities with highly variable levels of livecoral cover and species diversity. There areunique communities including species endemicto the region and others not yet described. Thecommunities support other reef-associatedspecies of high conservation value and/oreconomic importance.

Surveys

Geographical Scope

Several major research initiatives have beencarried out over the past few decades (seeMERGNER 1984, SHEPPARD et al. 1992 forreviews). The first major broad-scale surveys ofcoastal and marine habitat types andbiodiversity of the Red Sea coast wereundertaken in the 1980s (ORMOND et al. 1984a-c). These surveys identified about 70 key sitesfor conservation and recommended theestablishment of five larger, multiple-use,marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Gulf ofAqaba, the Tiran Island chain, the Wedj Bank(herein Al-Wajh Bank), the Outer Farasan Bankand part of the Farasan Islands. To date, only theFarasan Islands have been designated as a MPA.

Reef types and composition of the coralfauna of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea wereassessed in the early to mid 1980s (SHEPPARD &SHEPPARD 1985, 1991, ANTONIUS et al. 1990),producing a comprehensive coral speciesinventory for the Saudi Arabian Red Sea.Subsequently, during 1987-88, a monitoringprogramme was conducted investigating coralreef health and surrounding water quality alongthe Red Sea coast (AWAD 2000). Black andwhite band diseases, shut-down-reaction andtissue bleaching were taken as pathogenicindicators, while more than twentyhydrographic, chemical and pollutionparameters were used for describing thesurrounding environment.

More recently (1997-99), the distributionand composition of coastal and marine habitatsof the central-northern Red Sea were assessed,from north of Jeddah to Haql in the Gulf ofAqaba. A joint study was conducted between theNational Commission for Wildlife Conservationand Development (NCWCD) and the JapaneseInternational Co-operation Agency (JICA). This

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

study produced detailed site bio-inventories forcorals, fish, other benthos, algae, seagrass,coastal vegetation and birds, and assessed thedistribution and abundance of marine mammalsand turtles. Combined with socio-economicassessments of patterns of human use anddetailed habitat mapping prepared from aerialphotos and satellite images, the data were usedto define key reefs and larger reef areas of highconservation significance for MPA planning(NCWCD-JICA 2000, DEVANTIER et al. inpress).

Further south in the Farasan Islands MarineProtected Area (FIMPA), abundances of livecoral, dead coral, coral-feeding Crown-of-Thorns starfish Acanthaster planci and muricidsnails Drupella spp.. were assessed in 1999(AL-YAMI & ROUPHAEL 2000).

Survey Techniques

Methods have ranged from broad scalehabitat mapping using colour aerial photos andsatellite imagery, rapid ecological and impactassessments, biodiversity studies of a variety oftaxonomic groups and studies of coral cover,abundances of predators and diseases.

Habitat Mapping: Distribution andcomposition of coastal and marine habitats ofthe central-northern Red Sea were assessedusing high-resolution aerial photos and satelliteimages, combined with extensive ground-truthing (ORMOND et al. 1984a-c, NCWCD-JICA 2000). The NCWCD-JICA data wereincorporated into detailed GIS habitat maps ofthe distribution of coral reefs, seagrass and algalbeds, mangroves and sabkha along the central-northern Red Sea coast and offshore islands.

Rapid Ecological Assessment: Thedistribution of different coastal and marine

habitat types, including coral reefs, along theRed Sea has been documented using severalrapid assessment methods (IUCN 1984,DAWSON SHEPHERD & ORMOND 1987, PRICEet al. 1998, ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI 1999,DEVANTIER et al. in press).

The biological resources, uses of theresources and any impacts along the coastlinewere assessed at about 1400 geographicallydiscrete coastal and offshore sites (PRICE et al.1998). The sites were selected at 10 kmintervals along the shoreline and offshoreislands. Each site comprised a 500 m by 500 mquadrat bisecting the beach, covering theimmediate terrestrial, supratidal, intertidal andimmediate subtidal zones. Within the quadrat,the abundance of ecosystems and species groupsand the magnitude of resource uses or impactswas estimated and recorded semi-quantitativelyon ranked scales. The abundance of biologicalresources was also scored using a ranked 0 to 6scale and scores were based on estimates of therelative abundance within each quadrat. Similarmethods were used subsequently on the YemeniRed Sea and Gulf of Aden coasts, providing auniform broad-scale assessment.

Further rapid assessments of coral reefs(levels of reef development, benthic cover andvarious environmental attributes) of the Red Seawere undertaken in 1998-99 (DEVANTIER et al.in press). The surveys were conducted at 145sites along the central-northern Red Sea coastand offshore islands. In meandering SCUBAswims of 30 to 45 minutes duration at each site,ecological and substratum attributes wereassigned to standard ranked cover categories(see DEVANTIER et al. in press for details).

Distribution and status of coral reefs aroundthe Farasan Islands were assessed using semi-quantitative methods in the early 1990s. Theaim was to develop a management plan for the

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Farasan Islands MPA (GLADSTONE 1994a).Follow-up surveys of the reefs in the area wereundertaken in 1999 (ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI1999).

Biodiversity Assessment: Taxonomicinventories of some key elements of reef faunaand flora have been undertaken in the Red Sea(e.g. corals - SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,DEVANTIER et al. in press).

SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1991) compiled acomprehensive inventory (including ataxonomic revision of previous records andsynonymies) of corals in the Saudi Arabian RedSea. These authors made extensive fieldcollections and reviewed the many previoustaxonomic lists published from the broader RedSea (e.g. SCHEER & PILLAI 1983). More recently,further coral bio-inventories were compiled inthe central-northern Red Sea (DEVANTIER et al.in press). Inventories of reef-associated fish,benthos, algae and seagrass were also made in1998-99 (NCWCD-JICA 2000). Reef fishcomposition and abundance have been assessedusing both quantitative (belt transects, collectingstations) and semi-quantitative (visual census)field methods (ORMOND et al. 1984a-c,NCWCD-JICA 2000). In the quantitativeassessments, numbers and-or log abundanceestimates and/or sizes of fishes were made insingle or replicated belt transects of knownvolume. In the semi-quantitative assessments,fish species lists and abundance estimates werecompiled at point census stations or duringSCUBA swims, using standard rapid assessmentmethods (e.g. ENGLISH et al. 1997).

Long-term Monitoring: Baselinequantitative data on percentage live and deadcoral cover (replicated line transects) and fishabundances (replicated belt transects) werecollected using the Reef Check protocol(HODGSON 1999) in the Al-Wajh Bank in 1999(NCWCD-JICA 2000, DEVANTIER et al. in

press). Follow-up monitoring surveys will beundertaken at these sites by NCWCD in thefuture. GLADSTONE (1994b) maderecommendations for the development of amonitoring programme in the Farasan Islands.ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI (pers. comm.) plan toestablish baseline monitoring stations usingreplicated line transects (benthos) and belttransects (fish) in the area.

Coral Reefs – Benthos and Fish

In 1998-99, living cover of reef-buildingcorals at individual reefs ranged from < 10 to> 75 %, while soft corals ranged up to 50 %cover. High percentage cover of dead coral(> 20 %) occurred on some reefs followingcoral bleaching or predation. High percentagecover of living corals was associated with reefsof relatively high exposure to wave energy andhigh water clarity. High percentage coral coverwas usually present on the shallow reef slopes ofexposed fringing, patch and barrier reefs. Withsome important exceptions, deeper reef slopes(> 10 m), in low wave energy environmentsand reefs with low water clarity usually had alower percentage living coral cover than theirshallow, more exposed counterparts.

The Red Sea coral communities werecomposed of at least 260 species of reef-building stony corals from 68 genera in 16families of Scleractinia. The coral communitieswere composed predominantly, both in terms ofcomposition and percentage cover, by thefamilies Acroporidae, Faviidae and Poritidae. Adiverse mix of soft corals, hydrozoan fire corals,corallimorpharians, gorgonians and zoanthidswere also present.

Species diversity of scleractinian stonycorals at individual sites in the central-northernRed Sea ranged from about 20 to 100 species(the regional average was 61 species). There

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

were four major coral community types,predominantly related to the degree of waveexposure, water clarity, depth and steepness ofreef slope. Notably, there was only minorvariability in species composition among theassemblages. The entire region exhibited a highdegree of homogeneity in terms of coralcommunity composition, both latitudinally andlongitudinally.

Reefs with moderate to high speciesdiversity and abundance and percentage livingcoral cover were widely distributed, with noclear latitudinal or longitudinal trends. Suchreefs have high significance for replenishmentbecause of their potential as sources of largenumbers of propagules of coral and other reef-associated taxa.

Disturbances

Overall, most reefs of the central-northernRed Sea of Saudi Arabia were in good toexcellent condition in 1998-99 (DEVANTIERet al. in press). There was little to no directhuman impact (e.g. destructive fishing, anchordamage, coral mining or pollution) on the greatmajority of reefs. The exceptions were the reefsin urban areas, which were subject to reeffishing, land reclamation, urban run-off orlittering. Coral communities on some reefs(about 10 % of those surveyed) had also beenadversely affected to a greater or lesser extentby coral bleaching or predation.

Bleaching was patchy and highly variable inintensity. It was most intense on reefs nearRabigh, where more than two thirds of totalcoral cover was bleached or recently dead(about 20 to 40 % cover). On worst affectedreefs, bleaching occurred to the base of the reef-slopes (> 20 m depth), but was usually mostintense in depths < 6 m, where more than halfof all coral species had been affected. Highmortality (> 90 %) occurred within the most

susceptible taxa, notably fire-corals Milleporaspp., soft corals and a wide variety of stonycoral taxa (DEVANTIER et al. 2000).

The bleaching occurred in July to September1998, when sea surface temperatures wereelevated by > 1 ºC above mean monthlyaverages for a period of about one month(NOAA ‘Hotspots’ satellite imagery). Patternsof mortality to upper coral colony surfacessuggest that radiation effects may also havebeen implicated at some locations.

Other forms of recent coral mortality in theSaudi Arabian Red Sea included predation bycrown-of-thorns starfish and muricid snails.Such predation had no noticeable effect on coralcover or community composition on most reefs,where starfish and snail populations were at lowlevels. However, coral cover and communitystructure had been affected by largerpopulations of the starfish on some patch reefson the Al-Wajh Bank and Farasan Islands. Thelarger starfish population on the Al-Wajh Bankmay be related to over-fishing of predatoryfishes in the families Lethrinidae, Balistidae,Labridae, Serranidae and Lutjanidae.

Conservation Value

On a global scale, the area spanning theFarasan Islands to Haql in the Gulf of Aqaba isone of the most important coral reef areas formarine protected area management. At present,there is little local human impact in most of theregion, other than in the vicinity of coastal citiesand towns as mentioned.

The Red Sea has many reefs with a highconservation value in terms of uniqueness,quality and those which are representative of thearea (i.e. reefs with high species diversity, highpercentage coral cover and those important asreservoirs of biodiversity and replenishment).

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

The reefs are widely distributed, from the Gulfof Aqaba and Tiran areas in the north, Duba toAl-Wajh, the Al-Wajh Bank, Umluj (Umm Lajj)to Ras Baridi, Yanbu to Rabigh and the FarasanBank in the south.

Four sub-regions are of special conservationimportance:

The Gulf of Aqaba: The Gulf is notedfor its high levels of percentage coralcover and species diversity, includingspecies that are rare or apparently absentfrom other parts of the region (e.g.Cantharellus doerderleini, Caulastreatumida). Of particular note are thecharacteristic narrow contour reefs(< 50 m wide) which are present on steepcoastal slopes. These narrow reefs areamong the most species-rich of the entireregion. The high species diversity isparticularly significant given therestricted reef area, cool seatemperatures and that the Gulf of Aqabais at the north-westernmost extent of reefdevelopment in the Indo-Pacific region.

The Tiran Area: This area extends fromthe mainland coast north of Duba to theentrance to the Gulf of Aqaba It isimportant for the wide variety ofdifferent biotopes and reef types,forming unique reef complexes withhigh zoogeographical significance.These reef complexes support a highspecies diversity including Red Seaendemic corals, presently undescribedcoral species and species with restricteddistributions which are otherwise rare orabsent in the Red Sea.

The Al-Wajh Bank: This bank supportsthe greatest range of reef types (andother marine and coastal habitats) in theregion. As with the Tiran area, reefs ofthe Al-Wajh Bank support Red Seaendemic corals, undescribed coral

species and species with apparentlyrestricted distributions. The size of theBank, the diversity of reef habitats andlikely high level of ecologicalconnection in terms of larval dispersal inocean currents, both within the Bank andwith other parts of the Red Sea, afford itgreat conservation significance.

The Farasan Islands and FarasanBank: This area supports a wide varietyof reef types, including tower reefs(ORMOND et al. 1984a) and other marineand coastal habitats not present in otherareas.

Reef Distribution

The central-northern area of the Red Sea,from north of Jeddah to Haql in the Gulf ofAqaba supports a near-continuous coral reeftract composed of a wide range of reef types.The area supports relatively complex reefgeomorphology. It is comprised of mainland andisland fringing reefs and various forms of patchreef, coral pinnacles and ribbon barrier reefs(ORMOND et al. 1984a, provide a review of thegeomorphology and distribution of these reeftypes).

Mainland fringing reefs are distributed alongmuch of the coastline and are often developed inthe entrances and on the sides of sharms, acharacteristic reef-form largely restricted to theRed Sea (ORMOND et al. 1984c). Extensivemainland fringing reefs occur around Rabigh,Ras Baridi, Umluj, Al-Wajh to Duba and in theGulf of Aqaba, the latter often being narrow(< 30 m wide), developed as contours on therelatively steep sub-littoral topography(FISHELSON 1973). Island fringing reefs arecommonly developed in the Tiran area and fromDuba to Al-Wajh Bank to Umluj.

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

Circular/elongate patch reefs are alsowidespread in offshore waters (< 50 m deep).Some patch reefs support sand-coral islands(cays), while others are submerged andresemble coral carpets (RIEGL & PILLER 1999).Both forms are common in the Al-Wajh Bankand south from Umluj to Rabigh. ‘Reticulate’patch reefs (‘labyrinths / mazes’ ORMOND et al.1984a), composed of interconnected networksof reef matrix separated by sand and formingintricate reticulate patterns, are particularly welldeveloped in shallow waters (< 10 m deep) ofthe Tiran area and southern Al-Wajh Bank.Pinnacles (individual corals and coral‘bommies’ surrounded by sand) are present inshallow waters (< 10 m deep), particularly inthe Al-Wajh Bank and Tiran areas (DEVANTIERet al. in press).

Barrier reefs composed of platform andribbon reef structures are developed furtheroffshore, on the edge of the continental slope,where water depths increase from < 50 to> 200 m. The best-developed barrier reef systemoccurs along the seaward margin of the Al-WajhBank. The barrier is composed of a continuousline of reefs stretching for about 100 km andseparated by several narrow (< 200 m wide)channels (ORMOND et al. 1984a, DEVANTIERet al. in press). Another barrier reef system ofdifferent gross geomorphological structure, the‘Little Barrier Reef’, occurs further south nearYanbu (ORMOND et al. 1984a, SHEPPARD &SHEPPARD 1985). The central-northern Red Seain Saudi Arabia does not support atoll-like ortower reefs, more characteristic of southernareas and the outer Farasan Bank (ORMOND et al.1984a).

South of Jeddah, reefs become less welldeveloped along the mainland coast.Differences in topographic features, sedimentand turbidity tend to restrict coastal reef growthprogressively towards the Yemen border (PRICEet al. 1998). Further offshore however, complexreef structures are developed on the Farasan

Bank and islands (ORMOND et al. 1984a). Theseinclude tower reefs which are similar in grossgeomorphology to atolls and are rare or absentin other areas of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea.

Levels of reef accretion among the variousreef types range from small (< 1 ha) subsurfacepatch reefs and thin coral layers which blanketwide areas with no reef flat, to narrow fringingreefs with reef flats < 50 m wide, and largefringing, platform and barrier reefs with reefflats often > 100 m wide.

Coral Diversity

SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD (1985) identified 116coral species or species groups in 13 coralassemblages in the central-northern area of theRed Sea. The most distinctive assemblages fromexposed locations dominated by species ofAcropora and from sheltered locationsdominated by species of Porites (see alsoANTONIUS et al. 1990). Reefs around Yanbuwere notable in supporting both a higher coraldiversity and number of assemblage types thanhad previously been reported from the Red Sea.In the early 1980s, 194 species of corals wererecorded from the entire Saudi Arabian Red Seacoast, with the greatest diversity in the centralportion (MEPA/IUCN 1987). SHEPPARD &SHEPPARD (1991) and SHEPPARD (1997) revisedthis species list, recording 140 species from theGulfs of Aqaba and Suez (54 genera, 15families) and 150 species (49 genera, 14families) from the central Red Sea.

More recent surveys have expanded this listsubstantially, with approximately 260 species in68 genera of 16 families of reef-buildingScleractinia now known to occur in SaudiArabian Red Sea waters (Table 16). Of these, 26species were previously undescribed (VERON2000) and about 50 species were distributionrange extensions into the Red Sea. Severaladditional species had been described from the

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Red Sea in the 19th century, but had either beensynonymised or lost from recent species lists,for example the branching Acropora variolosa(KLUNZINGER 1879), Favites vasta(KLUNZINGER, 1879) and Echinoporaforskaliana (MILNE EDWARDS & HAIME, 1849,WALLACE 1999, VERON 2000). A further 16species synonymised by SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD(1991) are considered herein as valid species inthe Red Sea (VERON 2000, DEVANTIER et al. inpress).

About a further 30 taxa of soft corals, firecorals, zoanthids and gorgonians were recordedin the NCWCD-JICA study (2000). However,because of difficulties of field identification andlack of taxonomic expertise in the non-scleractinian taxa, actual species diversity issubstantially higher (DEVANTIER pers. obs., andsee REINICKE 1998 for comprehensive review ofthe soft coral family Xeniidae). At individual

sites in the central-northern Red Sea, stony coralspecies richness ranges from about 20 to 100species, with a further 5 to 15 non-scleractiniantaxa (DEVANTIER et al. in press). Averagediversity for scleractinian corals per site was 61species, with deep sites usually slightly morespecies-rich than shallow sites.

There were no clear latitudinal orlongitudinal trends, although reefs in thenorthern Gulf of Aqaba were particularly richgiven their high latitude location at the extremenorth-west of reef distribution in the Indo-Pacific Region (along with the adjacent Gulf ofSuez). Some species in the coral assemblageshave very widespread Indo-Pacific distributions,others appear restricted to the Red Sea (VERON1986, 1993, 1995, 2000; HOEKSEMA 1989, 1993;SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991, SHEPPARD 1997,WALLACE 1999). The Saudi Arabian Red Seasupports a unique composite fauna of coral

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

Family GenusSpecies Species

N - C Red Sea Red Sea N - C Red Sea*

N - C Red Sea Red Sea N - C Red Sea*

Astrocoeniidae 1 1 1 2 2 2Pocilloporidae 4 4 4 8 8 11Acroporidae 4 4 4 32 32 64Poritidae 4 4 3 10 10 27Siderastreidae 4 4 4 6 7 10Agariciidae 4 4 4 16 16 21Fungiidae 6 6 7 21 21 26Oculinidae 1 1 1 1 1 2Pectinidae 3 3 3 3 3 7Mussidae 5 5 5 8 8 15Merulinidae 2 2 2 3 3 3Faviidae 15 15 16 40 41 61Caryophylliidae 6 8 2 6 9 2Dendrophylliidae 4 4 3 6 7 10Trachyphylliidae 1 1 0 1 1 0Rhizangiidae 2 2 0 2 2 0Total 66 68 59 174 180 261

Table 1: Taxonomic composition of Red Sea scleractinian coral fauna, based on SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD(1991), SHEPPARD (1997) and the NCWCD-JICA study (2000) (source: DEVANTIER et al. in press).

species known from the followingbiogeographic provinces or sub-provinces:

Widespread across the entire Indo-Pacific, e.g. Pocillopora damicornis andGardineroseris planulata,

Widespread in the Indo-west Pacific, e.g.Stylophora pistillata, Acropora muricata(previously A. formosa, WALLACE 1999),

Previously known only from the PacificOcean, e.g. Cantharellus noumeae,

Widespread in the Indian Ocean, e.g.Coscinaraea monile and Siderastreasavignyana,

Widespread in the western Indian Ocean,e.g. Acropora hemprichii,

Red Sea endemics, e.g. Symphylliaerythraea, Merulina scheeri andCantharellus doederleini,

Species not yet described.

Several corals thought to be endemic to theRed Sea are well represented and widelydistributed within the central-northern areanotably Echinopora fruticulosa, Echinoporaforskaliana, Merulina scheeri, Stylophorawellsi, Symphyllia erythraea and Acroporavariolosa (SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991,DEVANTIER et al. in press); all occurred at morethan a third of sites (DEVANTIER et al. in press).Others were relatively uncommon (at about10 % of sites: Stylophora mammilata, Favitesvasta and Erythrastrea flabellata) or rare (< 2 %of sites: Cantharellus doerdeleini andAlveopora ocellata).

Some of these differences in abundance maybe explained by habitat preferences. Forexample, S. mammilata prefers reef slopes> 20 m deep which have not been extensivelysampled. Erythrastrea flabellata was found only

in the northern area (north of Umluj), consistentwith previous studies (although one colony hasbeen reported from the Gulf of Aden, SHEPPARD& SHEPPARD 1991). Cantharellus doederleini isconsidered endemic to the northern Red Sea(CHADWICK-FURMAN & LOYA 1992, HOEKSEMA1993). Alveopora ocellata was recorded fromthe Al-Wajh Bank and adjacent waters. Three ofthese species (Stylophora wellsi, Favites vastaand Symphyllia erythraea) are now known tooccur outside the Red Sea, their distributionextending into the Arabian Sea (DEVANTIERpers. obs., VERON 2000). Conversely, most ofthe undescribed species are presently knownonly from the central-northern Red Sea (VERON2000), although further work in the largerArabian and western Indian Ocean regions mayextend their distribution ranges.

Coral Communities

Within the central-northern Red Sea region,10 coral communities encompassing about 20coral assemblage types have been described(Table 17, SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991). Theauthors, whilst differentiating these assemblagetypes, noted a high degree of similarity inspecies composition within the region. Speciesat most individual reefs were a subset of thelarger regional species-pool.

More recent studies in the area (DEVANTIERet al. in press) have confirmed the high degreeof homogeneity in species composition withinthe region. There were, however, majordifferences in abundance of particular taxa incertain biotopes, and thus clear zonationpatterns in the structure of coral communities.These were related largely to the degree ofphysical exposure, water clarity (irradiance),depth and steepness of reef slope (DONE 1982,SHEPPARD 1982). Most of the assemblage typespreviously described for the central-northernRed Sea (Table 17) are represented in the fourmajor community types described above (ReefDistribution). These community types form part

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of a continuum, with particular speciesexhibiting differences in occurrence andabundance related to site-specific habitatcharacteristics and disturbance histories.

Coral Cover

There is considerable variability inpercentage cover of stony and soft corals inresponse to reef-specific characteristics anddisturbance histories, and species-specifictolerances to stress, particularly exposure, levelsof sedimentation, turbidity and illumination.

In 1998-99 in the central-northern Red Sea,percentage cover of living stony corals(including Millepora spp.) ranged from < 10 %

to > 75 %, with an average of about 35 %(DEVANTIER et al. in press). Approximately17 % of sites had high percentage cover ofliving stony coral (> 50 %), particularly onshallow reef slopes, where large mono andmulti-specific stands of Acropora, Porites andMillepora were often conspicuous. Percentagecover usually declined on the deeper slopes.

Dead standing corals and rubble wererelatively minor components of cover at mostsites (average about 7 %). Highest levels ofdead coral (30 %) occurred following intensecoral bleaching in August-September 1998(DEVANTIER et al. 2000). Mass coral mortalityfollowing the bleaching was patchy andrestricted to < 10 % of reefs surveyed.Bleaching and subsequent coral mortality were

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

Reef type, exposure and habitat Dominant coral species Location inRed Sea

CharacteristicAssemblages

Shallow patch reef, exposed in sandyplain

Acropora horrida, A.formosa Suez None

Shallow exposed fore-reef slopes Acropora hyacinthus, A.humulis

North -central None

Shallow - mid - depths, moderateexposure None North None

Sheltered fringing reefs, backs of patchreefs Porites lutea North -

central None

Shallow - mid - depths in north, mid -deep in central region, moderate exposure None North -

centralA) Millepora, B) None,C) Goniopora

Moderately turbid and exposed mid-depths None North - south None

Mid-depths, patch-reefs in sandPocillopora damicornis,Acropora eurystoma, A.clathrata

Central None

Patch and barrier reefs, mid-depths Pocillopora verrucosa,Acropora hemprichi Central None

Barrier and exposed fringing reefs,shallow

Acropora hyacinthus, A.digitifera, A. humilis A.danai,A. hemprichi,Pocillopora verrucosa

CentralA. hyacinthus, A. danai, P. verrucosa

Barrier, patch and fringing reefs, mid-depths Porites Central -

southMontipora circumvallataGoniastrea pectinata

Table 17: Major coral communities of northern-central Red Sea (source: SHEPPARD & SHEPPARD 1991)

most intense on reefs near the town of Rabigh,where up to 90 % of total coral cover wasbleached or recently dead (20 to 40 % absolutecover). Bleaching occurred down to the base ofthe reef-slopes (> 20 m), but was most intenseat depths < 6 m, where more than half the coralspecies had been affected (DEVANTIER et al.2000). Further high coral mortality occurred onpatch reefs in the Al-Wajh Bank followingpredation by crown-of-thorns starfish(DEVANTIER et al. in press).

Cover of soft corals in the central-northernRed Sea ranged up to 50 %, but was usuallyless than 30 % (average about 9 %). Largebeds of Xenia spp. and stands of Sinularia cf.capitalis, covering hundreds of square metres,were characteristic features of some sites.Sinularia cf. capitalis formed large tree-likecolonies up to 2 m in height and contributedsubstantially to reef accretion (also seeREINECKE 1998, SCHUHMACHER 1997). Cover ofturf including coralline and macro-algae wasusually low (< 10 %) in these coral dominatedareas. Cover of algae usually increased on theinner reef flats.

Some reefs with a high percentage of livingcoral cover occurred in sheltered habitats,particularly subsurface patch reefs on theAl-Wajh Bank. However, high percentage coverof stony corals, soft corals and crustose corallinealgae were all most common on shallow reefswith high exposure, steep slopes and high waterclarity.

Further south, in the Farasan Islands MarineProtected Area, abundances of live coral, deadcoral and other benthic life-forms also variedgreatly among sites. Percentage cover of liveAcropora, Porites and other corals increasedwith distance from the mainland, whileabundance of dead coral declined with distancefrom the mainland (AL-YAMI & ROUPHAEL2000). Significant levels of coral mortality were

observed close to the mainland. For example,coral coverage at the Abalat Islands declinedfrom approximately 80 % in 1993 to about10 % in 1999. Porites colonies, some in excessof 1.5 m in diameter, suffered 100 % mortality.Mean monthly sea surface temperatures werefound to be unusually high (> 32 ºC) threemonths prior to the first report of coral mortalityin 1996.

Damage and Coral Mortality

Overall, most reefs (about 90 %) of thecentral-northern Red Sea were in good toexcellent condition in terms of the ratio of liveto dead coral cover and levels of injury to coralspecies in 1998-99 (DEVANTIER et al. in press).There was little to no direct human impact (e.g.destructive fishing, anchor damage, coralmining or pollution) on the great majority ofreefs. The exceptions were reefs in urban areas,which were subject to land reclamation, urbanrun-off and pollution or littering. Most damagedreefs occur in the immediate vicinity of themajor coastal cities and towns.

At most sites outside these areas, levels ofinjury and death of corals were low (< 10 %cover of dead corals), with < 20 % of speciespresent exhibiting injury and < 20 % averageinjury to those species. Coral communities onabout 10 % of reefs surveyed had beenadversely affected by bleaching, by coralpredation (mostly by crown-of-thorns starfish)or by sedimentation (DEVANTIER et al. in press).

Coral Bleaching: No evidence of massbleaching or other forms of major coralmortality were found during surveys in thecentral-northern Red Sea in May to June 1998.Most reefs appeared to be in good condition. Nobleaching was reported from other areas ofSaudi Arabia at the time, although reefs furtherto the south in the Arabian Sea and greaterIndian Ocean had already been bleached

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

extensively (WILKINSON et al. 1999). By October1998, bleaching was patchily distributedthroughout the Saudi Arabian Red Sea,extending north from the Farasan Islands to reefsaround Jeddah and Yanbu (NCWCD pers.comm.). Reefs offshore from Rabigh and northto Yanbu experienced intense bleaching, causinghigh levels of coral mortality, while others (RasBaridi, Al-Wajh Bank, Gulf of Aqaba) were littleaffected or unaffected possibly due to coastalupwelling of cooler water. Minor bleachingoccurred at some locations near Haql in the Gulfof Aqaba, and minor to moderate bleachingoccurred in the Tiran area near Jazirat Muksoor.Bleaching was most widespread and intense inthe shallower coral communities (depths < 6m), where recently dead and bleached coralsaccounted for up to 90 % of the total cover ofhard corals, soft corals and fire-corals(Millepora spp). Deeper communities had alsobeen affected, with coral mortality of about 15% of the species present (DEVANTIER et al.2000).

Of the 325 zooxanthellate anthozoan taxarecorded during the pre- and post-bleachingsurveys in May to June and September toOctober 1998, 124 taxa exhibited injury at oneor more of the sites (84 species pre-bleachingand 101 species post-bleaching). Both theproportion of coral species with injury and thelevel of average injury per species increasedfrom the pre to post-bleaching surveys. As withcoral cover, levels of injury to individualspecies were most intense on reefs aroundRabigh, where over half of all species had beenaffected, with coincident high mortality (about90 %) to the worst affected taxa (DEVANTIERet al. 2000). Coral species that were worstaffected by bleaching-related injury representeda wide range of genera and growth forms. Manyof the worst affected taxa were uncommon,occurring at low abundance in few sites. Suchspecies may be particularly susceptible to localextinction.

Extensive coral bleaching was reported tohave occurred on reefs of the Farasan Islands,although the level of subsequent mortality andspecies affected are not known at present(NCWCD, pers. comm.). Precise timing of thebleaching at the Farasan Islands is not known.ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI (1999) suggested thatextensive coral mortality in the nearshore AbalatIslands occurred in 1996, following elevated seasurface temperatures.

Coral Predation: Predation by crown-of-thorns starfish and muricid snails had nonoticeable effect on percentage coral cover orcommunity composition on most reefs in theSaudi Arabian Red Sea, where starfish and snailpopulations were at low levels. However, coralcover and community structure has beenadversely affected by larger populations of thestarfish (about 100 A. planci ha-1) on patch reefsin the Al-Wajh Bank (DEVANTIER et al. in press).At the patch reef sites in the Al-Wajh Bank, thestarfish had caused substantial reductions inliving coral cover and coincident increases indead coral cover and shifts in relative abundanceand community structure. Starfish and snailswere also implicated in coral mortality in theFarasan Islands (ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI 1999).

Fish Communities

Numerous studies have documented speciescomposition and abundance of reef fishes in theRed Sea. Recent diversity estimates varygreatly. RANDALL (1983) lists 325 species,although this was not a comprehensivesystematic account, rather a pictorial account ofcommon taxa. ORMOND & EDWARDS (1987)recorded 508 species, substantially less thanBOTROS (1971) with 776 species, DOR (1984)with 1,000 species or GOREN & DOR (1994) with1,248 species. Differences among these variousestimates are in part due to distinctions in thedefinition of reef fishes. Although many RedSea reef fishes have distribution ranges thatextend outside the Red Sea, to the Gulf of Aden,

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

Arabian Sea and greater Indian Ocean and Indo-Pacific regions, others are presently consideredendemic to the Red Sea (KLAUSEWITZ 1987).Levels of endemism vary among differentgroups of fishes, being particularly notable inthe Chaetodontidae. These endemics and otherArabian and western Indian Ocean species givea characteristic structure to Red Sea reef fishassemblages in comparison with their centralIndo-Pacific and eastern Pacific counterparts.

Coral Reef Fisheries

Until 1981, artisanal fishermen from smallboats and larger sambouks exploited SaudiArabia’s fishery almost exclusively. SaudiFisheries, an industrial fishery companyestablished in 1991, currently lands around1,500 metric tonnes of shrimp and a similaramount of finfish. Despite this, landings remaindominated by the artisanal sector.

Coral reef-based fisheries are distributedalong the length of the Red Sea, with the highestproportion of fishing boats being based in thesouth (Table 18). It must be noted, however, thatthe greater number of boats in the south does notrepresent an increase in fishing pressure on coralreefs, rather it represents the greater number oftrawlers that make up the prawn and non-coralreef-based fisheries.

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Location Number of Boats

Tabuk 16Wejh 50Umm Lajj 199Yanbu 259Rabigh 215Jeddah 254Al-Lith 95Qunfudhah 117Jizan 470

Total 1675

Table 18. Distribution of fishing boats along theSaudi Arabian coast in 1983/84

Region Number ofFishermen

Annual Landings(tonnes)

Catch per Unit Effort (tonnes per fisherman

per year)

Production (tonnes per km of

shoreline)

Haql - Duba 29 80 2.758 0.3

Duba - Wejh 39 90 2.307 0.6

Wejh - Umm Lajj 86 250 2.903 1.4

Umm Lajj - Yanbu 225 670 2.978 4.4

Yanbu - Rabigh 320 1,030 3.218 5.9

Rabigh - Jeddah 303 880 2.904 6.1

Jeddah 284 1,180 4.140 ---

Jeddah - Lith 174 460 2.644 4.1

Lith - Qunfudhah 176 580 3.294 6.6Qunfudhah -Suquayq 156 1,030 6.606 7.3

Suquayq -Jizan 50 320 6.400 2.9Jizan - YemenBorder 371 2,390 6.442 35.7

Farasan Islands 195 1,250 6.441 7.7

Total/Average 2,408 10,210 4.08 10.72

Table 19: Distribution of Red Sea catch and effort (source: KEDIDI et al. 1984)

Although fishery statistics have beenanalysed for different sectors (Table 19),differences between the various sources do notallow for standardisation or comparisons. Asignificant problem is that fishery statistics arenormally aggregated for both the Red Sea andArabian Gulf fisheries. A reliable long-termseries of catch and effort data, required forspecific management suggestions, is notpresently available.

There is an increasing trend in productivityfrom north to south. Over 74 % of the annualRed Sea landings come from the southernsection between Al-Lith and the Yemen border(MAW 1989). This is indicated both byincreasing production per km of shoreline andper fisherman. This increase is based onproductivity and size of the fishing grounds.

Red Sea landings are evenly dividedbetween benthic species associated with coralreefs and the continental shelf and pelagicspecies (Table 20).

Major threats to diversity and abundance offishes in the Red Sea include increasing fishingpressure and development pressures near coastaltowns and cities.

Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

Local threats to Saudi Arabia’s coral reefsoriginate primarily through industrialdevelopment and maritime transport. With theseare associated risks of oil spills, land-filling,pollutant discharges, effluents from desalinationactivities and a number of other major impacts.Most acute damage to reefs is localised andrestricted to and around major urban areas.Global threats include potential mass bleachingevents associated with a global warming trend(WILKINSON et al. 1999) and possible reductionsin reef building through loss of calcificationlinked with changes in ocean alkalinity fromcarbon dioxide increases (KLEYPAS et al. 1999).

Oil PollutionPhysico-chemical, chemical and pollution

levels in water and sediment, oil and itsderivatives (persistent carcinogens) werecorrelated with coral disease in the Red Sea.Coral reef health was not affected south ofJeddah but to the north there were significantlevels of diseases, especially black band disease(AWAD 2000).

Industrial DevelopmentAlong the Red Sea coast, industrial

development is concentrated at Jeddah, Yanbu,Rabigh and Jizan. Oil refineries and otherpetroleum facilities have been constructed at

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Coral Reefs of Saudi Arabia

Species Percentage of TotalLandings

Species Percentage of TotalLandings

Spanish Mackerel 30.4 Sharks 2.0Jacks 12.0 Mullets 2.0Cutlass Fish 3.0 Parrotfishes 1.0Cobia 0.1 Wrasses 0.1Indian Mackerel 3.0 Sea Breams 0.03Emperors 13.9 Surgeon Fish 0.02Groupers 13.0 Rabbit Fish 0.02Snappers 8.0 Goat Fish 0.01Barracudas 7.0 Miscellaneous 4.4

Table 20: Species composition of Saudi Arabian Red Sea landings (source: MAW 1996)

Yanbu where the Trans-Arabian Pipeline(TAPLINE) terminates. Desalination, waste-water treatment, cement, and power plants aresited intermittently along the coast.

Marine TransportationAn estimated 25,000 to 30,000 ships transit

the Red Sea annually (LINTNER et al. 1995).Much of this is associated with transport ofcrude oil and petrochemical products betweenthe northern Red Sea port of Yanbu, the SuezCanal and the Egyptian oil pipeline from theGulf of Suez to the Mediterranean. The Red Seareceives many times more pollution frommarine transport and refinery inputs than theglobal average. It is inherently dangerous tomaritime traffic because of its narrow andcongested navigation routes, which are boundedon either side by very restricted anchorages andcoral reefs. Shipwrecks and collisions continue,despite advances in safety and navigationalsystems. Even at a major port such as Jeddah, 5to 10 spills and maritime accidents occurannually.

Commercial and Residential DevelopmentCommercial and residential development is

clustered around urban areas. On the Red Seacoast, the expansion of urban or residential areasalso has a considerable effect on the coastline.The major areas of urban and relateddevelopment are found around Jeddah, Yanbu,Rabigh and Jizan.

Land-filling Land-filling is one of the most disruptive

activities to coastal and marine resources. Land-filling has caused severe and permanentdestruction of coastal habitats and has changedsedimentation patterns that have damagedadjacent resources. Changes in water circulationcaused by land-filling have altered thedistribution of plant and animal communities.On the Red Sea coast the seabed drops off toover 20 m immediately following the reef edge,

creating a boundary for fill operations.However, land-filling has taken place mostlyaround Jeddah (causing the death of large tractsof fringing reefs), Yanbu and Jizan.

DredgingDredging causes destruction of the resources

in the dredged area and often has indirectimpacts from increased sedimentation. On theRed Sea coast, dredging has been concentratedaround Jeddah, Yanbu and in Sharm Jubba(north of Duba).

Water PollutionThere are numerous sources of coastal water

pollution, including discharges of oil and otherchemicals, and effluents from industrial andresidential sources. Some urban areas havewaste-water treatment facilities, but in manyplaces these are inadequate or non-existent. Onthe Red Sea coast, Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabighare the main areas with pollution problems.

DesalinationThere is extensive use of desalinated water

to meet demands of the population and industry.As of 1992 there were eighteen desalinationplants operating along Saudi Arabia’s Red Seacoast (Table 21), with a total combined capacityof 726,343 m3/day (SWCC 1992). In Jeddah thedesalination plant produces a major portion ofthe NO2 and SO2 emissions and contributesheavily to the particulate and trace metalemissions load. Discharges into the marineenvironment from the Jeddah plants includechorine and anti-scaling chemicals and 1.73billion m3 of brine at 51 ppm and 41 °C.

Recreation and Tourism ActivitiesRecreation and tourism have caused

significant disturbances to coastal and marinehabitats. Collection of corals and other souvenirspecies, a widespread practice in the 1970s and1980s, has contributed to the loss of coral reef-

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

associated fauna. Along parts of the SaudiArabian Red Sea coast, particularly near Jeddahand Yanbu, the reefs have been damaged byextensive food and souvenir collecting and byspearfishing.

BleachingAs discussed, the most recent mass

bleaching event in 1997-98, the largest everrecorded, affected reefs world-wide. There arenow widespread concerns that the incidence andintensity of bleaching are increasing, perhapslinked with a trend in global warming (HOEGH-GULDBERG 1999, TIMMERMAN et al. 1999,WILKINSON et al. 1999).

Marine Protected Areas and Levelof Management

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia hasestablished a number of extensive terrestrialprotected areas, but lags behind in thedevelopment and implementation of marineprotected areas. Many areas have been proposedand suggested, dating back to the mid and late1980s, and remain that way to date. With theexception of the Farasan Islands, protected in1996, no other marine protected areas have beenestablished.

Background

Protection of marine habitats in SaudiArabia has a fairly recent history. In 1977, thesmall island of Umm al-Qamari was given defacto protected area status by the nationalhunting regulations of 1977. The Ministry ofAgriculture and Water (MAW) established AsirNational Park in 1981 (CHILD & GRAINGER1990). Following this, MEPA identified 46coastal areas for inclusion in a system of coastalprotected areas (MEPA/IUCN 1987). UnderSaudi Arabia’s Environmental ProtectionCoordinating Committee (EPCCOM) thesewere designated Environmentally SensitiveAreas. In 1987, the National Commission forWildlife Conservation and Development(NCWCD) was formed with the express missionof handling the Kingdom’s wildlife andconservation management issues, using its ownclassification system (Table 22).

By 1989, this programme had placed 2.4 %of Saudi Arabia’s total area (51,405 km2) underprotected status, none of which encompassedmarine habitats. In 1990, the NCWCDpublished its ‘Plan to Protect Areas in SaudiArabia’ that presented a system of protectedareas, which, if designated, would place 12.8 %of Saudi Arabia’s land-mass under conservationmanagement.

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Location Capacity m3/day Location Capacity m3/day Start Up Date

Haql 3,785 1989 Jeddah II 37,850 1978Duba 3,785 1989 Jeddah III 75,700 1979Al-Wajh II 473 1979 Jeddah IV 189,250 1982Al-Wajh IIa 825 1986 Jeddah ROI 48,827 1989Al-Wajh IIb 1,032 1989 Shu'aybah 181,800 1989Umm Lajj 3,785 1986 Al-Birk 1,952 1984Yanbu 95,000 1980 Assir 75,700 1989Rabigh 1,204 1982 Farasan Isl. 430 1979Aziziah 3,870 1987 Farasan Isl. 1,075 1989

Table 21: Seawater desalination plants on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia (source: PERSGA 1998)

Start Up Date

MPAs Declared

Yanbu Royal Commission ProtectedArea: Protected by the Royal Commissionthrough an agreement with the Meteorologicaland Environmental Protection Administration(MEPA). It covers an area of about 5 km2 andencompasses fringing reefs, mangroves andseabird nesting sites, including ospreys.

Umm al Qamari: Established in 1977 andcovering an area of only 2 km2, this smallprotected area in the southern Red Sea has twoislands with surrounding fringing reefs and is animportant habitat for thousands of seabirdsespecially doves, herons, pelicans, gulls andsooty falcons.

Farasan Islands: Established in 1996 andcovering an area of 3,310 km2, this terrestrialand coastal reserve is an archipelago of smallislands at the southern extreme of SaudiArabia’s Red Sea shores. It supports severalimportant habitats and species, includingmangroves, seagrass, coral reefs with highbiological diversity, marine mammals, marineturtles, seabirds and endemic gazelle. It isthreatened by fishing, development andrecreation activities.

De facto and Planned MPAs

Straits of Tiran: Straddling the SaudiArabia/Egypt border, it encompasses islandsand extensive coral reefs with diverse reef-associated fauna in the transition area betweenthe Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea. It is animportant habitat for marine turtles and dugong.There is tourist activity on the Egyptian side.

Ras Suwayhil: Proposed to cover an area of267 km2, the site encompasses pristine anddiverse coral reefs and reef-associated fauna andis a prime example of the Gulf of Aqaba reefsand high cliffs. It provides habitat for seabirdsand dugong.

Sharm Zubayr: Proposed to cover 80 km2,the area encloses open coastline and a sharmwith fossil reef cliffs, narrow fringing reefs andthe northernmost mangroves in Saudi Arabia. Acauseway has been proposed to cut through thearea.

Ghubbat Bal’aksh: Covering 33 km2, thisis a sharm and open coastline with coral reefswith particularly high species diversity, seagrassbeds and seabirds, but is subject to unregulatedrecreation activities.

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NCWCD Category IUCN Equivalent(s)Special Natural Reserves 1. Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Park

2. National Park4. Nature Conservation Reserve or Managed Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary

Natural Reserves 1. National Park4. Nature Conservation Reserve or Managed Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary

Biological Reserves 1. Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Park4. Managed Reserve

Resource Use Reserves 5. Protected Landscape or Seascape6. Resource Reserve8. Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area.9. Biosphere Reserve

Controlled Hunting Reserves 8. Managed Resource Area.

Table 22: NCWCD conservation categories and their IUCN equivalents (source: CHILD & GRAINGER 1990)

Sharm Dumagyh and Sharm Antar:Covering an area of 70 km2, these two inletscontain fringing reefs, seagrass beds, andmangroves and are habitats for green andhawksbill turtles and seabirds. The area issubject to fishing and recreation pressures.

Al-Wajh Bank: Including Sharm Habbanand Sharm Munaybirah, this protected area willcover 2,840 km2. It is home to the mostextensive coral reef system of the entire RedSea, diverse reef-associated fauna, seagrassbeds and mangroves. It is inhabited by marineturtles and seabirds and is a key area for dugong.

Qalib Islands: Actually included in the Al-Wajh Bank, these islands are surrounded byfringing reefs and are important nesting sites forseabirds and marine turtles.

Al-Hasani and Libanah Islands: These arehigh-aspect islands with extensive fringing coralreefs and are important nesting sites for seabirdsand marine turtles.

Ras Abu Madd and Sharm Hasi: Theseare scenic sharms and have high quality fringingcoral reefs, fossil reef terraces and are animportant seabird area. To be combined with theAl-Hasani and Libanah Island protected area.They are threatened by fishing activities.

Ras Baridi and Sharm Al-Khawr: Thearea (30 km2) encompasses sand beaches, smallislands, high quality coral reefs and seagrassbeds. It is the most important marine turtlenesting site in the Red Sea. It is threatened byunchecked fallout from a nearby cement factory.

Sharm Yanbu: Enclosing 50 km2, thesharm is a deep, bi-lobed lagoon that contains

mangrove and seagrass beds and fringing reefsand is an important seabird area.

Shi’b al-Qirin: Extending over 15 km2, thisis a high quality inshore reef complex that isalso an important seabird area.

Marsa as-Sarraj: Proposed to cover 200km2, this is the largest land-locked lagoon on theSaudi Arabian Red Sea coast. Seasonallyinundated, it contains mangroves, halophytes,seagrass beds and high quality coral reefs. It isthreatened by agricultural development andfishing activities.

Ras Hatiba: Covering about 450 km2, thisis a large shallow lagoon with sandy andcoralline spits, small mangrove stands,extensive offshore reefs and is a prime site forenvironmental and education programmes. It iscurrently threatened by recreation andunregulated development.

Jeddah Salt Marsh: Proposed to cover100 km2, this is a marshland area with extensiveoffshore reefs, but is threatened by oil pollutionand other waste disposal.

Ash-Shu’aybah and Mastaba: Proposed tocover about 100 km2, this is a large lagoon withextensive mangroves, fossil reef terraces andgood quality offshore reefs. It is a key site forseabirds, but is threatened by unregulateddevelopment, mangrove felling and a possiblemajor highway project.

Qishran: A complex of coral reefs, coralspits, seagrass beds and extensive mangroves. Itprovides important seabird and dugong habitat.

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Outer Farasan Bank: A major reef andisland system contiguous with the FarasanIslands. It has diverse mangrove, seagrass andcoral reef habitats, and is an important turtle andseabird nesting area.

Khawr Nahoud: Proposed to cover about33 km2, this is a lagoon with fringing corals,seagrass beds and mangroves. It providesimportant dugong and seabird habitat.

Khawr Itwad: Proposed to cover about70 km2, this is a lagoon with fringing corals,seagrass beds and mangroves.

Shi’b Abu al-Liqa and Shi’b al-Kabir:Proposed to cover about 140 km2, these are twolagoons with abundant fringing corals andmangroves.

Other proposed sites include the InnerFarasan Bank, Marsa al-Usalla and MarsaTawil, Mastura beach, Marsa Umm Misk andHaramil Island, Marka Island, Ras Tarfa, KhawrWahlan, Duwayyimah, and Khawr Amiq. Theseareas do not contain important coral reef sites,but have been selected for their halophytes,mangroves, seagrass beds or their importancefor species such as dugongs or turtles.

Monitoring and ManagementCapacity to Conserve Coral ReefResources

Monitoring CapacityFaculty of Marine Science, King Abdul

Aziz University: The objectives are teachingand research. The main geographic area ofresearch is the Red Sea. Research is practical innature and relates to resource exploitation,including fisheries, aquaculture, mangroves,microfaunal distribution, coastal processes,pollution, circulation, mixing and fronts and

other related subjects. The faculty has sites atObhur on the Red Sea coast north of Jeddah andon the University campus. Facilities includeresearch laboratories (3,000 m2), aquarium (17tanks), a small museum, workshop, computers,a research vessel, a well-established library andteaching facilities.

King Fahd University of Petroleum andMinerals Research Institute: This universitycarries out research projects related to theprotection of the Saudi Arabian environment.These include research and studies of theecology of the marine environment. Facilitiesinclude laboratory space (2,200 m2), researchvessels, aquarium, museum, library andteaching facilities. The Arabian Journal ofScience and Engineering is published by theUniversity (four issues a year). It hascooperative programmes with many institutionsincluding the Austrian Academy of Science,Kuwait Institute of Science and Research(KISR), MEPA/ROPME and UNESCO.

The geographic scale of the reef tracts ofSaudi Arabia (both in the Red Sea and ArabianGulf) are such that an adequate long-termmonitoring programme would require aminimum of four dedicated NCWCD personnel.Following training and technology transfer(DEVANTIER et al. in press, VOGT & AL SHAIKH2000, ROUPHAEL & AL-YAMI pers. comm.),sufficient expertise exists within the NCWCD todevelop such a team. This would facilitate coralreef monitoring and research within theKingdom, essential adjuncts to future MPAmanagement.

Management Capacity The key to any efforts to reconcile

environmental concerns with economic andpopulation expansion in Saudi Arabia will be theestablishment of the institutional basis for co-ordination and implementation of necessaryeconomic expansion in a sustainable manner.

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Several institutions in the Kingdom aremandated through a variety of mechanisms tocarry out conservation tasks that in one way oranother impact coral reefs:

National Commission for WildlifeConservation and Development(NCWCD): NCWCD is responsible forthe management of protected areas(Royal Decree No. M/22, dated12/9/1406). The NCWCD’s main role isto preserve, protect and develop thewildlife within the Kingdom. Specificobjectives are to develop and implementprojects to protect wildlife and theirhabitats, conduct surveys and promoteresearch and public interest inenvironmental issues related to thewildlife in Saudi Arabia and co-ordinatedifferent ministries, authorities andnational and international institutions toaccomplish these objectives.

Meteorology and EnvironmentalProtection Administration (MEPA):Established by Council of Ministersdecision No. 157, Dated 20/11/1411 andRoyal Decree No. 7/505M, dated28/3/1406, MEPA has jurisdiction for theprevention of pollution in the territorialseas. MEPA is the central environmentalagency in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.However, the Kingdom distinguishesbetween the establishment ofenvironmental criteria, such asstandards, and actual operationalmanagement. Thus operational agenciessuch as the Ministry of Petroleum,Ministry of Agriculture, and Ministry ofIndustry and Electricity retain regulatorycontrol over activities carried out undertheir respective mandates. MEPA setsenvironmental performance standards,monitors the activities of operationalagencies and serves as a co-ordinator forenvironmental management, includingcoastal zone management. Despite this,institutionalisation of authority for

centralised coastal zone management hasnot been achieved, and each individualagency operates under its own specificmandate and numerous overlaps andpotential conflicts abound. Day-to-dayco-ordination mechanisms and a centralplanning authority specific to the coastalzone are lacking. MEPA also hasjurisdiction for oil spill response (co-ordination mechanism established underRoyal Decree 7/B/13307, dated22/7/1411) and for prevention ofpollution including effluent fromlandfills (Royal Decree No. 7/505M,dated 28/3/1406). MEPA is responsiblefor setting standards for the environment(Royal Decree No. 7/M/8903, dated2/14/1401) and for carrying out aprogramme of environmental impactassessment. It is also the designatedcoastal zone management agency.

Saudi Arabian Coast Guard:Established by Royal Decree No. 33,dated 27/7/1377, the coast Guard hasjurisdiction between the border of theterritorial seas (12 miles offshore) and10 km inland.

Ministry of Transport: Hasresponsibility for marine navigation interritorial waters.

Sea Ports Authority: Has responsibilityfor ports (Royal Decree No. 7/505M,dated 28/3/1406) and has been directedby Royal Decrees to enforce amoratorium on landfill in ports (RoyalDecree No. M/9, dated 27/3/1408).

Ministry of Agriculture: Hasjurisdiction over fishery activities (RoyalDecree No. 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406).

Royal Commission for Jubail andYanbu: Responsible for industrialdevelopment within the two industrialcities. It is also responsible (under a

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memorandum of understanding withMEPA) for environmental managementwithin the two industrial cities.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policy Pertinent to ReefConservation

Saudi Arabia is signatory to regional andinternational agreements that place obligationsupon it for the prevention of pollution and pro-tection of resources, including coral reefs.Among these are a number of internationalagreements and memoranda of understandingand a series of national laws and royal decreesthat are pertinent to coral reef conservation.

International Agreements

Among others the Kingdom of Saudi Arabiais a signatory to:

the Regional Convention for theConservation of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Environment (1982)

the Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oiland other Harmful Substances in Casesof Emergency (1982)

National Legislation

A number of national decrees and lawsaffect coral reef conservation measures in theKingdom, including:

Environmental Protection StandardsDocument No. 1401-01 (1402 H)

National Oil Spill and HazardousSubstances Contingency Plan

resolutions adopted by EPCCOM andproposed to the Council of Ministers for

their consideration (in particular thoseconcerning the designation of coral andsandy islands as marine protectorates)

Council of Ministers Decision No. 271(23.11.1404) obliging the use of bestavailable technology to reduce pollutantemissions (such as cement dust)

Rules and Regulations for Saudi ArabianSeaports

draft national Fisheries Regulations

establishment of the NationalCommission for Wildlife Conservationand Development (NCWCD)

Royal Decree 7/B/13307 (22/7/1411)concerning oil spill response activities

Royal Decree No. 7/505M (28/3/1406)concerning effluent from landfill ports

Royal Decree No. 7/M/8903 (2/14/1401)concerning standards for theenvironment

Royal Decree No. M/9 (27/3/1408)establishing a moratorium on land-fillingin port areas

Royal Decree for jurisdiction of fisheryactivities.

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

Many of the environmental problems facingthe Kingdom require an integrated approach toprovide a solution. Such an approach has beendifficult due to the strongly sectoral organisationof its government. Recent efforts in creatingadvisory councils and a national coastal zonemanagement plan may begin to address thisissue.

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Research

Research needs to be carried out in order toupdate baseline environmental conditions, andfollow-up monitoring should refer to thesebaselines to detect changes in environmentalquality.

Networking

There is a need to integrate current researchinto global initiatives such as ICRI andGCRMN, and regionally among the PERSGAMember States.

Planning and Coastal Development

Direct use and indirect developmentactivities that affect reef systems need to becarefully evaluated in the design stages and besubject to continued monitoring through theimplementation stages.

Community Education

There is a need to develop communityeducation programmes that highlight the role ofcommunities in reef ecology, includingdegradation.

Legislation

The Kingdom needs to take bold steps in theestablishment of marine protected areas andmonitor the implementation of legislationconcerning these areas with regard to coastaldevelopment, fisheries and tourism. Thedesignation of marine protectorates needs tobecome a priority issue within the country.

Funding and Expertise

A larger proportion of funds allocated toprotected areas and environmental researchneeds to be appropriated for marineconservation efforts. Within the NCWCD forinstance, this would also require the expansionof the Marine Department, which is currentlystaffed by only three people with limitedresearch funds and equipment.

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

Saudi Arabia has carried out a number ofprogrammes and adopted a number of legalmeasures to conserve coral reefs. These includelaws on pollution discharges and theestablishment of protected areas. However, anumber of issues remain unresolved or poorlyaddressed. Foremost, these include theenforcement of existing emission standards,control over industrial development, whichincludes land-filling, and integration of thepublic and private sectors in reef conservation.

The Kingdom would also see a markedimprovement in the conservation of coral reefsthrough a comprehensive system of marineprotected areas. This will need strictenforcement and further research andmonitoring to acquire or update baselineinformation.

Legislation and Environmental Management There is a need to strengthen enforcement of

legislation related to management of coastal andmarine areas. The Kingdom must effectivelyimplement the Coastal Zone Management Plan;improve mechanisms for co-ordination ofenvironmental activities among sectoralministries and review each institution’smandates; and expand the EIA requirements for

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industrial, municipal and private sectors.

Habitat and Biodiversity Conservation Saudi Arabia must implement a management

programme for the Farasan Islands and developand implement a management programme formarine protected areas at Al-Wajh Bank, theStraits of Tiran and other areas in the Red Sea.For coral reef resources, the Kingdom mustestablish measures to control spearfishing andintensive collection of fish and invertebrates onreef flats. It also needs to update its currentfisheries management programme.

Tourism ManagementSaudi Arabia should further enforce

regulations and develop public awarenessprogrammes for coral reef conservation,including control of overfishing, anchordamage, littering and souvenir collection.

Navigation RisksThere is a need to improve navigational aids

and radio communication in Saudi Arabianwaters, especially on major shipping channels,and to implement the current Oil SpillContingency Plan. This should include thedevelopment of site-specific plans,improvement in the capacity to respond to spills

of oil and other hazardous materials, and includea review and upgrading of port receptionfacilities for solid and liquid waste.

Industrial DevelopmentSaudi Arabia needs to improve the

management of air pollution, brine disposal andthermal discharges (from desalination plants)and improve the control of emissions fromcement plants such as the one at Ras Baridi.There is a need to control dredging and land-filling in the development of ports.

ResearchSaudi Arabia should strengthen its current

programme for development of a nationaldatabase of biological resources andenvironmental information, and furtherstrengthen and expand monitoring programmesto support operations and enforcementactivities.

Environmental EducationThere is a need to expand environmental

education activities in both public and privatesectors, and to encourage public participation inconservation efforts, as they were invited toparticipate in wildlife rescue efforts after the1991 Gulf War.

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Introduction

The coastline of the Hashemite Kingdom ofJordan extends approximately 27 km along thenorth-eastern reaches of the Gulf of Aqaba(Fig. 11). The climate in the region is arid, withan annual rainfall of 20 to 30 mm and meandaily air temperatures ranging from 14 to 32 ºC.The Gulf of Aqaba is a semi-enclosed systemwith limited water circulation (residence time oftwo to three years). The coast is home toJordan’s only seaport and is a centre of industry,tourism and transportation. Approximately 30 %of the coast is used for port facilities.

Fringing reefs border up to 50 % of thecoast and support a high diversity of coral andassociated fauna. It has been reported that thereefs support 158 coral species from 51 genera(AL-MOGHRABI 2000) and over 280 species offish (PERSGA/GEF 2001). Overall, Jordan’scoral reefs are in good condition supporting upto 90 % cover of scleractinian corals. Nobleaching events were recorded following the1997-98 global warming event, possibly due tothe extreme northern latitude.

Pollution from industry, primarily in theform of phosphates and fertilisers, constitutesthe major threat to coral reefs. The influx ofnutrients smothers the coral polyps andpromotes the growth of opportunistic speciessuch as Stylophora pistillata, which ultimatelyalters the ecological balance on the reefs. Theslow water circulation patterns in the Gulf ofAqaba exacerbate these problems.

Natural impacts on coral reefs includepredation, such as that from the snail, Drupellacornus, disease and extreme low tides.

There are currently no official marineprotected areas in Jordan, although one isproposed that will encompass coral reefs at thenorthern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, throughfunding by a GEF-Jordan initiative.

Several efforts are underway to developregulatory and institutional mechanisms forpromoting sustainable development in theAqaba region, however, coral reef conservationin the Gulf of Aqaba will only come about bylimiting the effects of industry, maritimeactivities and tourism.

Surveys

Current research involves studies on thecoral communities near the fertiliser factories (acritical site), and along the entire coastline (anational programme). This involves themonitoring of biological and physicalcharacteristics including currents, temperatureand nutrients levels. Studies are also aimed atidentifying temporal and spatial changes in reefstructure, coral coverage, fish populationdiversity and density, and addressing theimpacts of industry, diving and tourism.

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Coral Reefs of Jordan

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Coral Reefs – Benthos and Fish

Information for this review is drawnprimarily from AL MOGHRABI 2000 andPERSGA/GEF 2001. These reports indicate thatreefs are in relatively good condition, with over90 % coral cover with no evidence of bleachingobserved after the 1997-98 climatic event.

Coral Health

A high number (212/m2) of muricidgastropod, Drupella cornus, was recorded in1994. Black band disease was also found toinfect 61 colonies in a survey area of 10 mdiameter at reefs near the Industrial Area, andonly six colonies in a similar sample in the defacto protected area immediately offshore fromthe Marine Science Station in 1997. The reef

flats are subjected to extreme low tides that dryout the entire zone during February andSeptember each year.

Coral Cover

An estimated 50% of the shoreline is fringedwith coral reefs (PERSGA/GEF 2001).

Fish Communities

According to conservative accounts, 268species of tropical and semi-tropical fish arefound in the Gulf of Aqaba but the actualnumber could be as high as 1,000 species.Blacktip, hammerhead and whale sharks as wellas pelagic fish species including skipjack tunaand bonito can be found in the Gulf of Aqaba’sopen waters (PERSGA/GEF 2001). It isinteresting to note that, in general, Gulf ofAqaba fish assemblages are unique incomparison to other neighbouring regions(SHEPPARD et al. 1992). For example, a numberof deep water fishes found elsewhere in the RedSea are found living close to the surface in theGulf of Aqaba (e.g. the flashlight fish,Photobleraphon palpebratus), while manyshallow water species are found closer to thesurface in the Gulf than elsewhere. In addition,species resident at the mouth of the Gulf appearunable to live within it. Furthermore, there arespecies in the Gulf not found in any other part ofthe Red Sea/Gulf complex. These changes inecological structure have been attributed todiffering temperature regimes (ORMOND et al.1984), although the argument is still underdebate (SHEPPARD et al. 1992).

Coral Reef Fisheries

The fishing industry in Aqaba is small andartisanal, consisting of approximately 85fishermen and 40 boats (1995 data). Total catchin 1995 was 15 metric tonnes, down from the103 metric tonnes recorded for 1993 and the

JORDANMarine Science Station

Tourism Area

Industrial Area

Container Port

Power Station

Main Port

Aqaba Town

Aqaba Airport

Gulf ofAqaba

Saudi Arabia

Somalia

Egypt

Jordan

Djibouti

Sudan

Fig. 11: Map showing the coastline of Jordan in theGulf of Aqaba

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Coral Reefs of Jordan

maximum of 194 metric tonnes in 1966. Thereare no cold storage facilities and catches are soldupon landing (PERSGA/GEF 2001).Recreational SCUBA divers are reported tocollect a small number of aquarium fish, but nodata regarding volume are available.

Threats to Coral Reef Biodiversity

The Gulf of Aqaba is highly susceptible topollution. At present, however, pollution islimited and localised. The main threats are oilspills, industrial discharges, municipal and ship-based sewage, and solid waste. Thedevelopment of the tourism sector may threatencoral reef habitats in the future.

Fertiliser DischargesAqaba's main manufacturing facility is the

Jordan Phosphate Mines Company fertiliserplant in the Industrial Area, producing 740,000metric tonnes (mt) of diammonium phosphate(DAP) and 432,000 metric tonnes of phosphoricacid annually. The fertilisers account for 10 %of Jordan's annual export commodities. Asecond plant is under construction (NipponJordan Fertiliser Company), which will increasethis industry sector significantly, with anestimated production of 300,000 metric tonnesof nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium fertiliser(NPK) destined for the Japanese market. Aconcern is the cooling discharge (warm,chlorinated brine) which is released 140 mfrom shore at a depth of 30 m. Small quantitiesof sulphur and DAP are routinely spilled duringship loading operations.

Power GenerationThe Jordan Electrical Authority operates two

power stations (260 megawatts and 14megawatts) and is constructing a third (130

megawatts). The primary concern with thesepower generation installations is the highvolume of cooling water discharges (warm,chlorinated brine). At present some 38,000cubic metres per hour are discharged 200m fromshore at a depth of 20 m. Discharge water is3 ºC above ambient temperature.

Port Related ActivitiesThe Port of Aqaba is a major regional

shipping centre (second only to Suez andJeddah), and exports from 1989 to 1993 rangedfrom 6.6 to 10 million metric tons per year(PERSGA/GEF 2001). During this period,more than 2,300 vessels entered the port andplans aimed to double the volume by 2000.Rock phosphate is the primary export, rangingfrom 3.6 to 6.4 million metric tonnes (mt)between 1989 to 1993. In the same period, 1.2 to1.4 million mt of potash and 0.4 to 0.7 millionmt of phosphate fertiliser were also handled.One concern is the possibility of reef-damagingrunoff from an accumulated stockpile offluorine-containing gypsum during flash floods.Waste oil is occasionally discharged from bulkcargo transport trucks in sensitive tidal areas,eventually reaching the sea.

TourismTourism is an important sector of Jordan’s

economy. The number of tourists has risensteadily over the last two decades, with over 1.5million people in 1995. Although tourism hasnot reached the levels attained in neighbouringEgypt and Israel, the number of divers risessteadily each year. Current operations are able tohandle 160 divers per day, with directdestruction occurring through walking onexposed reefs, souvenir collection, aquariumfish collection, fin and anchor damage.

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Oil PollutionThe ports in Aqaba have no reception

facilities for oil-contaminated bilge or ballastwater. Contamination risks from small spillscome from:

bilge or ballast water from freighters (0to 2 mt),

spills from bilge or ballast water from oiltankers (2 to 20 mt),

release of oil as a result of defectiveequipment or procedures (100 mt);major spills from a bunker tank rupture(> 500 mt),

complete sinking of a cargo vessel(> 1,500 mt),

tanker collisions (> 7,500 mt) and

wreckage and loss of a fully loadedtanker (>100,000 mt).

Given the slow cycling period for water inthe Gulf of Aqaba, oil spills might remain forseveral years, with a severe risk to coral reefsthrough smothering or the uptake ofhydrocarbons by polyps.

SewageDischarges into the Gulf of Aqaba have

resulted in the proliferation of algae, limitingcoral growth in the northern reefs. Sewage fromthe 1.2 million passengers who use the ArabBridge Marine Company vessels is dischargeddirectly to the sea.

BleachingNo evidence of bleaching was observed after

the 1997-98 climatic event, and the northernlatitudes of the region were considered to havemoderated to some degree any surface waterwarming. However, the generally rising sea

surface temperatures, may at some point resultin bleaching and mortality of scleractiniancorals, which could compound anthropogeniceffects on coral reef environments. The slowlyrising sea levels may also affect a coral reef’sability to act as a natural erosion barrier, giventhat current models indicate the upward growthof low lying coral cays is insufficient to keeppace with predicted rates of sea level rise.

Marine Protected Areas and Levelof Management

An initial feasibility study for theestablishment of a MPA was carried out byIUCN through PERSGA in the late 1980's and amanagement plan developed following a seriesof studies and consultations. The officialdesignation and establishment of the AqabaMarine Park (AMP) was issued on 29 July 1997by Decree No. 5 of the Aqaba RegionalAuthority Board of Directors.

The AMP is located in the southern portionof the Jordanian Gulf of Aqaba. It extends northto south for approximately 7 km, from thesouthern boundary of the passenger terminal tothe southern boundary of the Public SecurityOfficer's Club, equivalent to the stretch marked'Tourism Area' on the previous map. Itsdevelopment has been supported by the GlobalEnvironment Facility.

Current Monitoring andManagement Capacity to ConserveCoral Reef Resources

Monitoring Capacity The Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) is

responsible for monitoring industrial dischargeson a semi-monthly basis to ensure compliancewith Jordan Standard Specifications (JSS) 212.

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To date, monitoring has not taken place at thisfrequency and enforcement actions based onJSS 212 are rare. At present, no standards orguidelines are currently in force regarding thetreatment of sewage sludge under JSS 893,which sets maximum limits for pollutants insewage plant discharges.

The Aqaba Marine Science Station (MSS)monitors trends on coral reefs and providesfacilities for training and research. Studies areconducted on water quality, impacts ofpollutants and baseline coral reef ecology. MSSalso administers the Aqaba Marine ScienceCentre, which occupies 500 m of the coastline(de facto protected).

Three NGOs also address marineenvironmental concerns in Aqaba: The RoyalSociety for the Conservation of Nature, whichfunds an inspector to patrol merchant vessels;the Jordan Environment Society, whichintroduces awareness programmes, and theJordan Royal Ecological Diving Society, whichorganises underwater clean-ups, awarenessprogrammes and monitoring of coral reefs.

Management CapacityThe responsibility for development of the

Aqaba region is borne by the Aqaba RegionalAuthority (ARA), with conservation workscarried out through the ARA Environment Unit(established in 1994). ARA supervises townplanning, tenders and public works, finance,administration, regional planning and researchand studies.

The Ports Commission is responsible for theconstruction, operation and maintenance ofAqaba port facilities. The commission alsoaddresses environmental protection concernsand, through its Marine Department, the safetyof shipping operations. This department doesnot monitor environmental law compliance of

ships, but if ships are observed discharging oil,the Department works with the Royal JordanianNavy (which patrols port areas and anchorageareas) to keep vessels in custody until the case isheard in a court of law. Court hearingsinvariably take place within 48 hours but finesonly range from USD 1,000 to 16,000. No caseswere heard between 1993 and 1995.

Government Legislation, Strategiesand Policy Pertinent to ReefConservation

In recent years Jordan has improved thelegal and regulatory framework forenvironmental protection at a national andinternational level. The country is party to eightinternational conventions or treaties that directlyor indirectly have an impact on the conservationof coral reefs.

International Agreements

Jordan is party to eight internationalconventions that are relevant to the conservationof coral reef resources. These are theInternational Convention for the Prevention ofPollution of the Sea by Oil, the Convention onthe Prevention of Marine Pollution by DumpingWastes and other Matter (London Convention),the Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna or Flora(CITES), the International Convention for thePrevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL);the Regional Convention for the Conservationof the Red Sea and the Gulf of AdenEnvironment (Jeddah Convention) andProtocol; the Convention for the Control ofTrans-boundary Movements of HazardousWastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention);the United Nations Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD); and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change.

Coral Reefs of Jordan

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National Legislation

Several national laws exist that are eitherdirectly or indirectly relevant to reefconservation (Table 23), in particular the Law ofEnvironmental Protection.

Law of the Aqaba Regional AuthorityNo. 7 (1987) - delegates the power toplan and execute tourism, industrial andagricultural projects in the region. TheLaw has been the key instrument forstrengthening environmental controlsincluding the use of EIAs and coastalzone management guidelines.Regulations for the Jordanian Red SeaMarine Park are being developed underthis Law.

Law of Environmental Protection No.12 (1995) - establishes a nationalframework for environmental policy,including the formation of a HigherCouncil for Environmental Protection(HCEP). The HCEP sets nationalenvironmental policy and reviewsproposed laws, specifications andstandards prepared by the GeneralCorporation for EnvironmentalProtection (GCEP). The GCEPimplements pollution prevention

regulations including inspection andmonitoring. The Law also harmonisesexisting laws and settles jurisdictionalconflicts.

Law of Environmental Protection(Article 35) - bans the removal, damageto and use of corals and shellfish fromthe Gulf of Aqaba.

Jordan Standard Specifications No. 212(1982 updated 1991) - establishesmaximum allowable limits for pollutantdischarges into streams, wadis or the sea,and includes standards for the protectionof aquatic life.

Jordan Standard Specifications No. 893(1994 updated 1995) - sets maximumlimits for pollutants in sewage plantdischarges, which include publiclyowned waste water works operated bythe WAJ.

Shipping Law No. 51 (1961) - bansships from dumping soils, stones, sand,scum, toxic and chemical waste or anyother material into the sea. Spills thatoccur during the loading and unloadingof ships are also classified under thisLaw.

National Laws and Regulations Year(in force) Government Agency Concerned

Shipping Law No. 51 1961 Ports Corporation

Aqaba Port Quarantine Law No. 32 1972 Ports Corporation

Agricultural Law No. 20 1973 Ministry of Agriculture

Port Services Fees Law No. 49 1976 Ports Corporation

Jordan Standard Specifications No. 212 1982 Water Authority of Jordan

Law of the Aqaba Region Authority No. 7 1987 Aqaba Regional Authority

Port Services Fees Law No. 20 1987 Ports Corporation

Jordan Standard Specifications No. 893 1994 Water Authority of Jordan

Law of the Environmental Protection No. 12 1995 Higher Council for Environmental ProtectionGeneral Corporation for Environmental Protection

Table 23: National Laws and Regulations pertinent to coral reefs (PERSGA/GEF 2001)

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Aqaba Port Quarantine Law No. 32(1972) - bans the discharge of ship-basedpollution including bilge water. The Lawmay impose fines and order remediationworks.

Agricultural Law No. 20 (1973) - issuesfishing licences and prohibits theremoval of corals.

Gaps in Capacity and Requirementsfor Improved Conservation

Most of Jordan’s departments andorganisations appear to be well staffed. Certainareas, including coastal zone management andcomputerisation, need to be strengthened tomeet the demands of effective development andimplementation of legislature, and for theestablishment of a marine park.

Institutional Capacity BuildingA training programme should be developed

and implemented to strengthen the capacity toregulate industrial performance. Essential forthe development of this programme are anindustrial pollution prevention specialist and anenvironmental monitoring technician. Theindustrial pollution prevention specialist willimplement the new permitting process, conductfacility inspections and review specific industrydocuments and practices relevant to the controlof industrial pollution. The environmentalmonitoring technician will be responsible forthe collection and analysis of both air and watersamples. At the same time, coastal zonemanagement efforts need strengthening tointegrate current conservation measures withdevelopment plans.

Computer/GIS Database CapabilityThere is a need to determine the information

technology appropriate to support the work ofthe Aqaba Regional Authority (ARA)Environment Unit. The information technology

system chosen must be designed to promoteplanning, monitoring and enforcement actions.This initiative must acquire a computer/GISsystem and conduct staff training in informationtechnology applications for specific projects.

Recommendations to Improve theConservation of Coral ReefResources

The institutional capacity of Jordaniangovernment agencies could be strengthened bythe hiring and training of extra staff, the fullimplementation of environmental protectionlaws, and enhanced regional coordination.Jordan has improved its capacity forenvironmental protection through theestablishment of the new national environmentallaw, and the creation of the ARA EnvironmentUnit. Several additional measures are needed ifcoral reefs are to be protected, including thedevelopment of an integrated coastal zonemanagement strategy, capacity building at thelegislative, management and operational levels,the establishment of a marine protected area andthe harmonisation of existing regulations at thenational and international level.

PollutionTo meet its obligations under MARPOL,

Jordan is expected to develop and implementstandards and regulations for management ofoily waste (bilge and ballast water and tankwashings), noxious liquid substances, solidwaste and sewage. The option of establishing acoordinated (Jordan-Egypt-Israel) waste oilrecovery scheme should be assessed.

Oil SpillsThe present contingency project, targeting

spills of up to 600 metric tonnes of oil, does notaddress the risk of potentially catastrophic spills(up to 150,000 metric tonnes) from tankercollision or grounding.

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Coastal Zone Management PlanImplementation

Regulations, standards, coastal zonemanagement and environmental auditingprocedures should be implemented for coastalindustries, including the adoption andimplementation of guidelines for industrialpollution prevention. This effort should monitorair and water discharges, compile and analyseinspection data, review industrial emergencypreparedness plans and assist industries in thepreparation of industrial environmental audits.

Monitoring Marine Water QualityA monitoring project is needed to assess

current marine water quality and to establishmeasures for maintaining and improving waterquality. The monitoring programme mustinclude monthly baseline testing to assess thehorizontal and vertical distribution andmovement of nutrients, inorganic components,algae, oxygen, salinity and other parameters.

Legislation and ImplementationCoastal Zone Management and

Environmental Impact Assessment proceduresneed to be implemented as do guidelines for

new construction, coordinated withrequirements that may be developed by theGCEP. The capacity to implement newregulations needs to be developed.

Gulf of Aqaba Marine ParkLegislation for Park management has been

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Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

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