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Cosmos redefined by Mohammed Abubakr
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MOHD ABUBAKR"…This book is an answer to all those who believed that my sleepless nights and disturbed days had no meaning. Iquestioned and I kept questioning, the people on my planet were busy making money and killing each other, I was left tofind answers on my own, thus the new science was born. The journey has just begun and the pursuit appears to be endless."
WITNESS THE REVOLUTION
COSMOS REDEFINED
1
COSMOS
REDEFINED
witness the revolution
MOHD ABUBAKR
2
NOT FOR SALE
Copyright © 2008 Mohd Abubakr.
All rights reserved with the Author. No part of this book
should be translated or reproduced in any form, Electronic,
Mechanical, Photocopy, Recording or any information
storage and retrieval system for any commercial purpose
without prior permission in writing from the author.
3
Dedicated to my parents
For their patience,
love and unending prayers.
For me without you both,
the world is nothing but a dead planet.
4
"I have made a discovery. I shall no longer worship the sun, nor the
moon, nor the stars. There must be some mighty power behind them
that orders them to shine, the sun by day and the moon and stars by
night. That great power shall be my God."
“I have made a discovery. I shall no longer accept the General theory
of relativity, nor the quantum mechanics. There must be some mighty
logic behind them that makes them work, the general theory of
relativity at macroscopic level and the quantum mechanics at
microscopic level. That great logic shall be my “Theory of
Everything”.
5
Preface
Hi Everyone,
I am not a scholar, not a professor, not a physicist and certainly not a
mathematician. I am just a kid, who is immensely interested in
science. Probably, the interest in science began because of my
isolation from the world. During my teenage, I went through
something called as “Inferiority complex”, which forced me to stay
away from lot of so called “teenage activities”. Science gave me an
opportunity to have fun within my closed room, it helped me to
develop confidence in myself and it made me a person what I am
today. The bonding with science has been intimately deep! My
journey of knowing science has just begun and the pursuit appears to
be endless.
This book is a product of my sleepless nights and disturbed days in
finding the secrets behind the existence of universe. There have been
many moments when people have made fun of me and after going
through all of it, I rather became resistant to losers. My early lessons
on facing the world arrived during the beginning of my 11th
standard
when I was mentally tortured based on communal remarks by some
students. I knew from then that world is a dirtier place to live and that
particular realization led me into the world of stars, galaxies and
atoms. That was world of science is world ruled by truth and
persistent hard work. Every time I read something new, I shared it
with my friends. When they were just about disgusted with my
constant scientific lectures, I found Wikipedia. It gave me a platform
to anonymously write-up all that I have learnt in science. Today when
I read the articles I have edited on Wikipedia, it gives me pleasant
feelings as most of them still remain intact. I started working on my
own theories from 2002 and it almost took 4 years until I reached
something concrete called as “Construction Theory” in 2005. In all
those 4 years, I tried my best to understand, envision and enhance the
existing theories, but somewhere I felt there is a missing link.
Construction theory is all about figuring out that missing link to take
the world of science one step ahead. And then happened this book!
6
Few highlights of the this book include, formulation of a framework
for the Grand Unified Theory, the discovery of a new fundamental
quantity called as “Chakr”, the discovery of a new branch of
mathematics called as “Calpanic Numbers”, formulation of a theory
called Construction theory to explain Bigbang, black holes, dark
matter, dark energy and many more in parallel with the basic
happenings inside the atom like nucleus, atoms etc. The book also
points out that Mass, Charge (current) and Temperature are not
fundamental quantities. I don‟t want to give away too many secrets
here, as I really want you to read the book in whole. I hope you would
like it.
I am in debt to the people who have lent their support and continue to
do so in making my passion for science easy and pleasurable. First
and foremost, I would like to thank my parents for handling me so
well and surviving in doing so. I know, it‟s not easy to withstand a
person like me (24/7) and I am sure God will certainly recognize their
efforts. There have been fights, there have been tears, but I only have
love in my heart for them, it‟s just that effect of science doesn‟t let me
speak out my emotions. As you can see, from last two years I am
trying hard to be a normal person but I think they know the
disappointment burning inside me.
There have been some great people who have inspired me to do
persistent hard work, think high and achieve truth in life. The list
includes Prophet Mohammed, Sir Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein,
Michael Faraday, Grigori Perelman and few others. I call all these
gentlemen as “Men of Science”. I have been questioned by my friends
that “why do I include Prophet Mohammed in the list of men of
science”, the answer is his teachings are more based on science than
philosophy. These people have had a great impact on my life, the way
I perceive things and the way I want to live my life. The world is a
poorer place to live without these outstanding inspirations.
I am thankful to all my teachers for being so kind with me, for all the
knowledge you have given me and for making me walk on the right
path. Your patience in explaining not just science but also life has
helped me greatly. I have also been fortunate to receive guidance and
7
support from some good professors. To name a few, Prof. APN Rao
(the man behind the Soliton Effect in my life), Prof. E.G. Rajan (for
giving me the first break to present at an international conference),
Prof. Milo Wolff (for encouraging me through emails), Prof. Vijay
Prakash (for his persistent effort in making me normal) and all those
professors who have guided me during conferences, talks and chats.
I am thankful to all my friends, especially Vinay and Kiran for their
patience and tolerance. I shall always remember those endless
discussions in bakeries, first benches and on house terraces. I hope
you both didn‟t get bored during all those discussions. There‟s one
more person who motivated me in formulating the theory presented in
this book, unfortunately we are no more the friends that we used to be,
but all I can say is that “I miss her‟. There have been many friends
who have helped me in getting right frame of mind for science, I am
very much thankful to them. I am also thankful to Hafeez Basha for
being a great friend and for helping me publish this book.
Above all, I am thankful to Almighty Allah for blessing me with
science and innovation and for being so much merciful on me. I don‟t
think my prayers have enough strength and I know it‟s all due Allah‟s
kindness.
Mohd Abubakr.
8
Index
Introduction
Chapter1: Flaws in present physics
Geocentric theory to Gravitational theory
Maxwell laws
Relativity
Quantum mechanics
Quantum fields and gauges
Superstrings and M-theory
Chapter2: Calpanic Numbers (beyond imaginary numbers)
Real numbers
Imaginary numbers
Beyond imaginary numbers
r - Convention
Properties of numbers
Chapter3: Compact discrete theory
What is sensible mathematics?
The two postulates
Chapter4: Construction material of universe
International system of units
Redundancy
Fundamental law of conservation
Chapter5: Construction theory
Minkowski‟s space derivation
Relativity derivation
Dimensional analysis
Schrödinger‟s wave equation derivation
Planck‟s law derivation
Calpanic Universe proof
Chapter6: Answers
9
Introduction
“God invented the universe and it is the responsibility of human
beings to discover it”
From the moment humans started thinking, there was an
opposition from the non-thinkers. The non-thinkers always have
problems with thinkers since they just can‟t digest the innovation
happening around. To crush down the thinking abilities of people
around them, the non-thinkers started the notions of superstition,
pagan rules, etc. I hope most of you are aware of so many
superstitions happening around us especially in countries like India.
For that matter, superstition is also there in the field of science. Yes,
that‟s true. There are hundreds of false notions and beliefs existing in
our science and yet we drag them along without raising questions.
Some of which have become sacred and when one raises a question
against it, there are bunch of non-thinkers ready to cause harm. The
gangs of non-thinkers are like those terrorists who speak about liberty
and yet don‟t give independence to poor nations.
Fortunately, science is not the slave of these non-
thinkers, though there are many people who are under a wrong notion
about this. I think they should wake up, the world is rediscovering
itself and soon the maps are going to change. The best thing about
science is, here only the truth sustains over a period of time though the
non-thinkers will desperately try to crush it down. Sometimes I feel
the presence of non-thinkers has done some good to science as I see so
much of refinement of science occurring due to finger pointing of
non-thinkers. Over the years, hundreds of real scientists have suffered
due to problems created by non-thinkers. There are instances recorded
in the history that say that the non-thinkers went on to kill scientists.
Long back when I was discussing this issue of non-thinkers with my
father, he calmly told me that “if you are real scientist, you won‟t
complain about it”. I didn‟t understand then what that answer meant.
Today, I stand at cross-roads of my life with a theory I believe has the
potential to redefine physics. I have two ways in front of me, either to
abandon my theory or stand up to face the non-thinkers. I understand
10
that there is a finite chance that my theory might just be fundamentally
wrong and I am unnecessarily overacting about it. Yes, I might be
wrong but I am writing this book because I am trying. I am trying to
take science ahead, I have spent my four years on this and for me it‟s
not important to know that how much my theory is correct, I am
looking at what can be improved. From all those million criticisms I
have received in life and with billion yet to come, I have learnt one
strong lesson in life and that is to “never give up”.
Before I proceed further with my ideas about science,
my theories and thoughts, I wanted to share few things with all my
readers. Basically, I am not a writer and my English writing skills are
not so good. As a true Indian, I am against the idea of feeling proud
about knowing English and I never appreciated my fellow friends who
used to mug up English dictionaries. Anyhow, everyone has a right to
choose their own life and this is how I chose my life to be. One of the
reasons I selected English as language for this book was due to the
availability of large contemporary scientific vocabulary compared to
any other Indian language I have known. Probably while reading the
book you might find spelling mistakes and grammatical errors, forgive
me for that. While writing I tend to use the word “I” excessively,
sometimes it gives a very negative feeling about me but I would like
to clarify that it‟s only because of my inability to frame sentences
without “I”. And for all other literary mistakes and for my stupid
sense of humor, please forgive me as I am just a teenager and not yet
reached to state of being a good and matured writer. This book is all
about a new theory that has a potential to replace lots of our existing
physics with bold and new ideas. The ideas are innovative, simple and
yet very intriguing. I have adopted a different approach in framing
theories and you shall witness it as you read on the book.
The current scenario in the world of physics is that the
majority of theories just explain the “way the things are happening but
not why the things are happening”. From relativity to quantum
mechanics, each theory just concentrates in explaining how the things
are happening. Paul Dirac once said that
“… Some physicists may be happy to have a set of working
rules leading to results in agreement with observation. They may think
11
that this is the goal of physics. But it is not enough. One wants to
understand how Nature works”.
When I set out to understand physics, my aim was to
understand “how Nature works”. The most amazing thing about nature
is that it works under specific rules. Some call it “laws of nature” and
I believe they call it correctly. The “laws of nature” are designed
beyond perfection. There are specific rules that everything around us
follows. Our responsibility as human beings is not just to understand
those rules but also know how those rules evolved, what‟s the purpose
of each rule and reach to a state where we can understand the whole
universe in reality. This task is not as simple as it sounds and probably
it might take another thousand years to accomplish. Probably some
day, humans will be able to explore different galaxies, walk on them
and hopefully settle down there. I am sure there will be Cricket
matches held between teams from different galaxies and there might
be a regular Universe Cup (something like World Cup) as well.
However, to reach to this stage we need to improve lots of our
technologies, invent new machines and above all take science ahead.
Theoretical sciences form the soul of majority of new
inventions. From cell phones to spaceships, there is a scientific theory
behind their functioning. The best thing about a scientific theory is
that it‟s not just confined to one or two inventions. The utilization of a
scientific theory is solely dependent on us. The theory says “nuclear
energy can be generated”, it depends on the intensions of human
beings on how to utilize the theory. There are some idiots around the
world who blame the scientists for the discovery of Nuclear Bombs,
damn, why don‟t they have guts to oppose the politicians who used it
for their own benefits? Our responsibility as scientists is to create a
scientific theory and showcase its applications. It‟s the sole
responsibility of you people to use it for the benefit of human beings.
Majority of the scientists won‟t use science for destruction, because
they know how difficult it is to create even a single cell of a micro-
organism. Above all, it is due to science that today you are living in a
sheltered home else you would have been either a wild animal running
across the planet or a prey to deadly diseases.
12
Returning to our actual discussion on “Laws of Nature”,
our pursuit to understand the creation of universe has just began.
Today we have high-powered telescopes to look at galaxies, advance
laboratories to look inside an atom and the high spirits to know
beyond our technological limitations. It is very important that we have
the curiosity to understand the creation of universe because it lets us
know about our existence. Ofcourse, we can live just like a dog in the
street, satisfied with food thrown by its owner and not bothered about
what‟s happening beyond the street its living. But do you want to live
like that? If “yes” is your answer then this book is not meant for you.
Fortunately, majority of the people have thirst for knowledge and
curiosity to understand beyond our planet. That‟s the reason science
has been blossoming.
Because of our limitations in reaching out at every
corner of the universe, we create theories to understand them virtually.
We cannot go back and witness how earth was formed but we can
accurately formulate a theory that describes how earth was formed.
Stephen Hawking in his book “The brief history of time” quotes
defining a theory as
“ …in order to talk about the nature of the universe and to discuss
questions such as whether it has a beginning or an end, you have to be
clear about what a scientific theory is. I shall take the simple minded
view that a theory is just a model of the universe, or a restricted part
of it, and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to
observations that we make. It exists only in our minds and does not
have any other reality (whatever that might mean). A theory is a
good theory if it satisfies two requirements: it must accurately
describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that
contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite
predictions about the result of future observations.”
I slightly disagree with Hawking on definition of a
theory. First I would like to say that a scientific theory not just exists
in our mind but also in the reality. If it doesn‟t exist in reality then it is
not a scientific theory. If I propose a scientific theory that states 1 + 2
= 4, no one is going to agree on it because it doesn‟t exist in reality.
Later Hawking modifies his definition and points out certain
13
necessary requirements for a theory. As per Hawking, a good theory
should accurately model the large class of observations that we
witness and also extrapolate the results to understand future
observations. Are the two mentioned requirements by Hawking are
enough for a theory to be called as correct? After giving a deep
thought, the answer I got was „no‟. The theory should not just
accurately describe a large class of observations but also should
describe accurately „all‟ classes of observations. This is the reason
why today physics is facing a huge problem due to the fact that
gravity is not fitting with quantum mechanical ideas. „General
Relativity‟ explained large class of observations accurately and same
is the case with quantum mechanics. But both of these theories cannot
explain individually all classes of observations. That is why all the
effort of combining these two theories is going on. When I say all
class of observations, it means it should accurately define everything
that we know. There shouldn‟t be any ambiguity in explanation
obtained from the theory regarding the well-established facts of
science. Further, the theory should also make definite predictions
about the future observations. Let me re-iterate their lies a huge
difference between “large class of observations” and “all classes of
observations”. It is not easy for a theory to explain “all classes of
observations”, right at the moment it was formulated. However, a
good theory will provide a room for improvement. If it gets saturated
at a point, it should either explain all classes of observation or else we
need to discard it and hunt for better theories.
It is important for a theory not to get saturated at point, it
should give scope for polishing and then there is a possibility that such
theory can finally end up being a theory that accurately defines “Laws
of Nature”. Keeping in mind the Dirac‟s words and necessary
requirements for a theory, I have designed a theory that presents brief
analysis of LAWS OF NATURE. The coolest thing about
“CONSTRUCTION THEORY” (name of the theory) is much more
than a theory defined by Hawking. As you read on this book, you will
find how General relativity can be combined with quantum
mechanics. As the theory develops through this book, you would be
witnessing how General relativity and quantum mechanics forms the
two branches of this theory. It can be said that until and unless the
roots are defined, the branches of a tree cannot be unified. Our physics
14
has been only taking about the branches (relativity & quantum
mechanics) and remained totally unaware of the stem and roots of the
tree called “NATURE”. I know most of you are curious to know what
CONSTRUCTION THEORY is, my fellow physicists would be eager
to criticize it, a non-physicist would be excited to see how a theory
written by a kid can explain the biggest headache of existing physics
and some of you might be thinking its just another prank from some
fool, have a little patience, you all will soon come to know what it is.
On a serious note, I have said science as “branches, stem
and the roots”, as you read on this book you will come to know why it
has been said that way. Understanding “roots and stem” of the
universe requires whole new definition of physics, that‟s why the
name of the book has been kept as “COSMOS REDIFINED”. In this
book “COSMOS REDEFINED” the attempt is made to explain
universe from a new angle. Probably the highlight of this book is the
fresh ideas that I am going to put forward. It‟s my humble plea to the
readers that while reading this book please read it with a fresh mind
and thoughts. The reason for this is if you read this book with
quantum physics, relativity (etc) revolving in mind, then it is
extremely difficult to grasp the fresh ideas present in this book.
Imagine it this way, quantum physics, relativity, super strings etc are
all the beautiful (not sure) flowers in the garden of physics and the
new theories that I am presenting in this book are the newly arriving
flowers in the garden of physics. In order to know the smell of newly
arrived flowers you have to smell them separately and judge its smell
with the older ones. But it‟s up to the future, which will decide
whether my newly created flowers are worth keeping in the garden of
physics or not.
When I decided to write this book my initial plans
regarding the look of this book were completely different. I wanted to
use most complicated scientific vocabulary and notations for
describing each phenomenon. Then I realized the difficulties I faced
in knowing the elementary concepts of relativity, quantum field
theories, etc especially notations used in tensor calculus, indices, etc.
Even though this was my turn to take revenge, I followed a simpler
notation and Layman‟s English. As once Paul Dirac said
15
“…In science one tries to tell people, in such a way as to be
understood by everyone, something that no one ever knew before. But
in poetry, it's the exact opposite”
I have avoided complicated mathematics because I wanted my
dear readers to understand the way universe has been built from the
scratch. Another point is that I am introducing a new branch of
mathematics called as “beyond imaginary numbers” or “Calpanic
numbers” and visualization of any new concept takes certain time. So
having complicated mathematical analysis will simply scare the
reader. With introduction of “beyond imaginary numbers” I think we
will be in a position to define a “Complete number”. You may ask me
“why there is necessity of such numbers?”
Newton used calculus to explain gravity, Maxwell used
Vector Calculus to explain electromagnetic waves, Einstein used
tensor calculus to explain space-time curvature, Schrödinger used
complex mathematical operators to explain quantum mechanics and
recent super string physicists are using some kind of strange
mathematics which I prefer saying “I don‟t understand”. So, every
great theory required a new kind of mathematics to explain it
effectively. The other reason for introduction of such new numbers is
that there is one inconsistency in our present mathematics, which has
been ignored so far. Resolving this inconsistency not only improves
mathematics but also its practical significance opens new doors in
understanding Nature. Don‟t think that “beyond imaginary numbers”
requires some “beyond imaginary” thinking to understand them. It is
just a name, to be frank, I had no other option left, since the words real
and imaginary were already associated with numbers. The only word
left out for me was “beyond imaginary”, so I used it. However, I
prefer calling them “Calpanic Numbers” rather than “beyond
imaginary numbers”.
The way imaginary numbers took mathematics one-step
ahead in giving practical reasoning of various phenomena; similarly
Calpanic numbers also helps in giving practical reasoning for many
events unexplained so far. From the applied point of view beyond
imaginary numbers are useful in solving the mysteries such as the
singularity of a black hole, space-time symmetry, big bang evolution,
16
sudden disappearance of mass within nucleus (binding energy
principle), radioactive decay of nucleus, huge numbers of short-lived
heavy particles found using High-energy accelerators, understanding
gravity, anti matter and many more. It should be noted that the above
events have no proper explanation in today‟s physics.
In total this book consists of 6 Units (chapters), the first
one being “flaws in present physics”. This chapter is an overview
about how I got motivated towards physics and various questions that
arose in my mind in understanding physics. I don‟t claim that I fully
understand physics but I am for 100% sure that none on this planet
will be able to successfully withstand that particular claim. I have
spent around 4 years on understanding physics starting from my 11th
standard. Though my favorite subject happens to be chemistry,
physics was running in background always in my mind. Actually, I
always faced a strange situation in life that whatever I love, I never get
it. But I have been fortunate that, whatever I get is much better than
what I love. Ah, let me not get carried away here, the first chapter also
describes about the flaws in various theories starting from good olden
days.
The second chapter is about “Calpanic Numbers”, I can
promise that this chapter is going to be an interesting read. It
introduces a new quantity called as Calpanic Index represented by
“ ”. Right from my school days, I always complained to my teachers
about the excessive usage of Greek symbols in science and about not
finding even a single Indian alphabet. The only answer my teachers
had was “when you discover something, use Indian Symbols”. Yes,
finally my turn has come. Greeks have done their bit of work and now
it‟s my turn. “ ” happens to be a Sanskrit alphabet (also a Hindi
alphabet) and it is pronounced as “ka”. There is a trend in India that
any movie name that starts with alphabet becomes a box-office hit,
however I strongly don‟t believe in superstitions. I choose because
when you write “Calpanic” in Sanskrit, it starts with . By the way,
the word “Calpanic” in Sanskrit means “imaginary”. For the rest of
info on Calpanic numbers you got to read the second chapter. I was
told by my friends that excessive usage of equations will scare the
people reading it, believe me, I am not writing a philosophical book. I
17
have used the equations because I want you to know that whatever I
am writing is mathematically supported.
The third chapter is about “Compact discrete theory”. It‟s a
strange theory, I had my doubts about it whether I have to include it in
this book or not. Finally I came to a decision that I should include it
purely because it helped me formulating the main theory. No doubt,
some of the physicists will be criticizing me for “compact discrete
theory”, however, it‟s like a wild card from my side. It‟s a small
chapter with some interesting thought examples, two postulates and
also builds up some excitement towards the main theory.
The fourth chapter is called as “Construction Material of Universe”.
Yes, if God is the builder of this Universe, then probably God used
Construction Material to build this universe. Read this chapter to find
out what that construction material possibly is. This chapter is my
attempt to explore the roots of the universe, starting right from the
basics. If the roots of the theory are not properly defined, the theory
will ultimately collapse. That‟s the problem today Quantum
Mechanics and General Relativity is facing, the roots are not properly
defined.
The fifth chapter is the core of the book, its titled “Construction
Theory”, the main theory I am presenting in this book. The theory
constitutes of 7 postulates. I don‟t want to give away any information
about this Construction theory at this stage as I want you to read the
book and find out.
The final chapter of this book is mischievously called as “Answers”.
This chapter is meant to answer most of the question that arise in your
mind after reading construction theory. I have taken up each question
and answered it briefly using Construction theory. To be frank, I
wrote this chapter to make a point that Construction theory gives
answers to the questions that do not have substantial explanation with
present physics. That‟s one of the major advantages of the
Construction theory.
Well, my dear readers, I am happy that you are taking out your time to
read my book. I am thankful to you all. Let me say you that, I have put
18
lots of effort in compiling this book and I hope this book will be a
great read for you all. “Witness the Revolution” is the phrase I said
very proudly to my friends when I asked them to read my book. A
moment has arrived where I am saying you all “Witness the
Revolution”, the physics is not going to be the same after you finish
reading this book. (InshaAllah)
19
UNIT #1 COSMOS REDEFINED
Flaws in present physics
I never understood physics, frankly I never did. I always found
physics as an incredibly complex subject and I was never comfortable
with the ideas of physicists. May be it was due to my lack of interest
in the subject or due to the superposition of too many assumptions
involved in physics which leads to confusion. This doesn‟t mean that I
am showing any disrespect to today‟s existing physics. I was just
confused and I was blaming others for my miserable state. My lack of
understanding of physics was the reason for my failure in the entrance
exam for engineering in IIT, though I believe I wrote the entrance
exam extremely well. My story sounds very similar to that of Einstein
(no comparisons though). Even he failed an entrance exam for
engineering. After that he quoted in an essay that:
“…If I were to have the good fortune to pass my examinations, I
would go to Zurich. I would stay there for four years in order to study
mathematics and physics. I imagine myself becoming a teacher in
those branches of the natural sciences, choosing the theoretical part
of them. Here are the reasons which lead me to this plan. Above all, it
is my disposition for abstract and mathematical thought, and my lack
of imagination and practical ability”.
So in search of good fortune I didn‟t go to Zurich but joined
another engineering college (GRIET, Hyderabad) to study electronics
and communication engineering. I thought electronic engineers would
study Quantum Electrodynamics but I only found out after joining the
college that syllabus is just confined up to semiconductor theories and
radio waves. This disappointed me immensely and intensely because I
wanted to study physics, just physics. I wanted myself to be called as
a physicist, a true physicist whose only interest is in developing
science. In order to express my frustration I became a sort of scientific
20
poet (Someone who uses scientific words in the poetry is called as
scientific poet). I am writing one of poem here called as “what is
physics?” I hope you will enjoy reading it.
What is physics?
Why does this happen?
Why mass-mass attraction?
Why not repulsion?
What is gravitation?
Neither you know nor I!
Why does this happen?
What is magnetism?
I find no reason!
Why poles don‟t undergo separation?
Neither you know nor I!
What is relativity?
Why space performs curvature activity?
Why there no explanation?
Why there is constant velocity propagation?
Neither you know nor I!
I just want to know
Am I in a casino?
Or in Quantum mechanics class!
Uncertainty of ideas!
Neither you know nor I!
How gravity emanates?
From where magnetism originates?
Are they left to their fate?
These singularities!
The quantum probabilities!
Why should I consider them as realities?
Then comes quantum fields
God knows what it yields!
With mathematical operators shield
21
Is it a microscopic battle field?
Neither you know nor I!
With loops and approximations
The unwanted chromic revolution
Perturbations and weaknesses
Did it really cure electroweak illness?
Neither you know nor I?
What are superstrings?
The eleven dimensional happenings!
What are dualities and branes?
Do we have brains?
Neither you know nor I!
It explains sometimes
It confuses many times
Yet we follow it blind folded
Why are we so molded?
Neither you know nor I!
Why I am so confused?
Which direction should I choose?
Minkowski or Euclidean!!!
Sometimes it explains the logic!
Sometimes it looks like magic!
I don‟t understand what really is physics!!
Neither you know nor I!
After sometime I lost interest in poetry because I felt my
poetry signified that “I am a loser” which I never wanted to be. For
two months I was in the worst state of frustration, humiliation and
isolation. There was “empty space in my hollow dreams”, I don‟t
know what that means but I love saying that. I left all my hopes of
being a physicist and started concentrating at my engineering subjects,
even though I had little interest in them. But my life took a turn when
I read a small paragraph about Michael Faraday. Let me quote that
beautiful summary of his life that I read in Encyclopedia Britannica,
22
“Michael Faraday (1791-1867), English physicist and chemist. Son
of a blacksmith, he received only a basic education in a church
Sunday school, but went to work as an assistant to Humphry Davy,
from whom he learned chemistry. He discovered a number of new
organic compounds, including benzene, and was the first to liquefy a
"permanent" gas. His major contributions were in the fields of
electricity and magnetism. He was the first to report induction of an
electric current from a magnetic field. He invented the first electric
motor and dynamo, demonstrated the relation between electricity and
chemical bonding, discovered the effect of magnetism on light, and
discovered and named diamagnetism. He also provided the
experimental, and much of the theoretical, foundation on which James
Clerk Maxwell built his electromagnetic field theory. In 1833 he was
appointed professor at the Royal Institution. After 1855 he retired to a
house provided by Queen Victoria, but he declined a knighthood.”
-Encyclopedia Britannica
“…he received only a basic education in a church Sunday school” I
couldn‟t believe this. Surely he was one among the great physicists as
well as a great chemist. It is hard to imagine organic chemistry
without benzene. He was the pioneer who set electro-magnetic
principles (Maxwell came later). I started studying more and more
about him, his discoveries, his experiments and his spiritual nature.
This inspired me so much that I was no more frustrated with life.
Faraday proved that “you need not have a PhD in physics to be a
physicist, but if you have the real zeal and dedication of being a
physicist then there are no barriers”. Thoroughly inspired from
Faraday‟s work, I once again reconstructed my dreams of being a
physicist. I decided that every Sunday I should study only physics. I
had no professor to guide me in physics but the zeal to understand
physics never allowed me to think of barriers.
“I am going to tell you about is what we teach our physics students in
the third or fourth year of graduate school... It is my task to convince
you not to turn away because you don't understand it. You see my
physics students don't understand it... That is because I don't
understand it. Nobody does.”
- Richard P. Feynman
23
May be that‟s another reason why I didn‟t require a
professor to understand physics. Most of the physics I have learnt is
on my own through self-study. I used to collect books from library, e-
data from web, etc and just study them. Many of my friends used to
say me that “an electronic engineer doesn‟t require all that physics”
but it never discouraged me. It was like a young mind falling in love
with a beautiful lady. When I started, physics was only on Sunday;
soon it became Saturday plus Sunday and after some time even Friday
joined. At times I felt it was not enough so I decided to study physics
for five days of a week and the remaining two days for my electronic
subjects. Things worked well and it was as if good fortune was
arriving. I topped my class in the first year of engineering. There were
failures as well. I failed to obtain “diode current equation” from
quantum mechanical principles after days of hard work. I made an
unsuccessful attempt to explain semiconductor physics without the
concept of „holes‟. Even though the theory was unsuccessful but the
name of the theory became quite famous among my friends. I called it
as “Whole theory of Semiconductors” and when it was proved wrong;
my friends started teasing me by calling “there are holes in the Whole
theory of Semiconductors”. I still feel semiconductor physics has to be
redefined because there is nothing called as “holes”. Anyhow with
„Construction theory‟ I hope we can redefine not just theoretical
physics but also practical physics like semiconductor physics.
Actually there is no difference between practical physics and
theoretical physics, it‟s just that one has found practical applications
and other is waiting to be found.
Before really talking about new concepts, one needs to know
why we are talking about new concepts. Einstein was first to
recognize this need, that‟s why he emphasized on reconstruction of
physics in later parts of his life. Two essential reasons why we are
going for whole new understanding is that
1) Our present physics has no explanations for many observations
2) And whatever it explains is too complicated to understand
“The modern physicist is a quantum theorist on Monday, Wednesday,
and Friday and a student of gravitational relativity theory on
Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. On Sunday he is neither, but is
24
praying to his God that someone, preferably himself, will find the
reconciliation between the two views.”
-- Norbert Wiener
“Physics is becoming so unbelievably complex that it is taking longer
and longer to train a physicist. It is taking so long, in fact, to train a
physicist to the place where he understands the nature of physical
problems that he is already too old to solve them.”
-- Eugene Wigner
“Physics is becoming too difficult for the physicists.”
-- David Hilbert
You can still ask me “why should we go for a new
theory, can‟t we just combine and modify our present theories to a
simplified form”. Answer is that we have been doing it for a long time
which only resulted in mere complication of physics and mathematical
dominance. In fact theories of physics are getting so much
complicated that “only person who understands the theory is the one
who created it” and I really doubt whether he himself understands it or
not. Modification of our present theories is even difficult task because
their foundation itself is very weak. If you are not convinced by my
words then let us have a quick look at the flaws present in our current
physics. To be clearer I am giving the flaws present in the various
theories starting from geocentric theory to superstring theory. If I am
missing some of the theories then I apologize for that. (I am only
giving the drawbacks of the theories; if you want their description and
advantages then please refer to the concerned physics textbook.)
Though from some unreliable sources I read that Ancient
Egyptians had deep knowledge about physics and astronomy, I prefer
not to quote them. From the accepted point of view, the first major
theory in physics was geocentric model proposed by Claudius
Ptolemaeus. The sun, moon, planets, and stars, he believed, were
attached to crystalline spheres, centered on the earth, which turned to
create the cycles of day and night, the lunar month, and so on. In order
to explain retrograde motion of the planets, he refined a complex
geometrical model of cycles within a cycle, which was highly
successful at predicting the planet‟s position in the sky. For the next
25
1300 years geocentric model had no opposition until Copernican
Heliocentric model replaced it. Even though the idea was of
Copernicus but it was Johannes Kepler who came up with complete
mathematical laws for Copernican model.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
Kepler's first law (1609): The orbit of a planet about a star is an
ellipse with the star at one focus.
Kepler's second law (1609): A line joining a planet and its star
sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
Kepler's third law (1618): The Square of the sidereal period of an
orbiting planet is directly proportional to the cube of the orbit's semi
major axis.
Kepler had no idea why his laws were true. His laws
were purely based on practical observations of planets. Even though
Kepler thought his laws were true and effectively explained planetary
motion but his laws had many limitations. Mostly our school
textbooks don‟t speak about this. Kepler‟s laws are only valid for
lighter bodies revolving around the heavier body. Square of the
sidereal period of a two body system is also proportional to the sum of
the two bodies. Newton later modified Kepler‟s third law as
P2 = 4
2a
3/G(m1+m2)
"The next question was - what makes planets go around the sun? At
the time of Kepler some people answered this problem by saying that
there were angels behind them beating their wings and pushing the
planets around an orbit. As you will see, the answer is not very far
from the truth. The only difference is that the angels sit in a different
direction and their wings push inward."
--Richard Feynman
Then started the era of Newton, probably the greatest scientist ever
born. When I studied Newton‟s Gravitational theory during my school
days, I became one of the biggest fans of Newton. However sometime
later I felt even the gravitational laws lacked certain vital explanations.
Newton‟s Gravitational law states that the gravitational force of
26
attraction „F‟ between any two masses m1 and m2, whose centers are
separated by a distance „d‟, is given by the equation
F = (G m1 m2 ) / d2
where G is the Universal gravitational constant, which is a measure of
the strength of the gravitational force between two bodies and is
usually regarded as a universal constant. This law is simple and quite
easy to understand but the theory severely lacked the information
regarding why mass-mass attraction is present and how the
propagation of force takes place in a medium. Newton called this as
„action at a distance‟ and avoided further complications involved.
Here are the few drawbacks of Newton‟s theory that makes us to
abandon it for accurate calculations and reasoning.
Newton‟s theory doesn‟t give clear picture of why positive
mass attracts another positive mass.
If mass is the source of gravity then why mass is not
decreasing in order to make conservation of energy.
Remember, tides are caused from the gravitational pull of
moon and sun. If I can extract energy from tidal waves, it
would mean there should be some decrease in energy at
moon or sun.
Propagation of gravitational force through different mediums
is not explained by Newton‟s theory but avoided by
proposing it as „action at a distance‟.
Newton gave absolutely no explanation regarding how
gravity is emanating from mass.
Newton‟s theory explains gravity considering only point
masses, later this very concept was extended to 3-dimentional
mass.
For all calculations for gravity in our solar system, we don‟t
apply G (universal gravitational constant) and M (mass of the
sun) individually but as combined product „GM‟. This is also
called as Heliocentric constant; one can easily obtain this
from Kepler‟s laws. As a result, the accuracy to which the
masses of the Earth and the Sun are known correspond to the
accuracy to which G is known.
27
After Newton, for centuries physicists thought gravity has been
fully understood so they shifted their concentration towards two other
mysterious forces namely electricity and magnetism. It was Michael
Faraday who established the relation between the electricity and
magnetism but the show was stolen by James Clerk Maxwell for the
discovery of electromagnetism with the hoax of ether. His major
discovery of "the ether," the vast sea of space that made possible the
transmission of light, heat and radio waves, was nothing more than a
poetic metaphor. But Maxwell's ether, or "sea of space," made it
possible for scientists and engineers who followed Maxwell to think
of "waves," a move that gave them the imaginative model they needed
to proceed with the experiments in electromagnetism that led to the
wireless telegraph, radio, television, radar and the laser.
Maxwell's four equations led to all the advances in electronic
communication that followed. His extension of the electromagnetic
theory of light led directly to Heinrich Hertz's discovery of radio
waves and to related advances in science and technology, which have
transformed the modern world. The electromagnetic equations are
known as Maxwell‟s equations since Maxwell contributed to their
development and established them as a self-consistent set. Each
differential equation has its own integral counterpart; one form may be
derived from the other with the help of Stokes‟ theorem or the
divergence theorem. In summary the equations are as follows,
H =dD/dt+J H . ds = (dD/dt + J) .da
E = -dB/dt E . ds = - dB/dt . da
.D = D . da = dV
. B = 0 B . da = 0
When Maxwell‟s electromagnetic relations were
examined using Galilean relativity in different inertial frames such as
inertial frames having constant velocity, the relations proved to be
non-self consistent. The fact that Maxwell‟s equations for constant
velocity inertial frames are not self-consistent suggests that there
might be something wrong with the underlying principles, that is, with
Newtonian mechanics and the simple Galilean relativity, or classical
28
electromagnetics or both. As per the Newtonian-Galilean logic, if an
observer is measuring the speed of light between two stationary
points, then speed of light measured is also dependent on the speed of
the observer. However, the speed of light remained unchanged with
the velocity of the observer. At the root of this conflict was the
question of the existence of “ether”. Because light waves can
propagate through many kinds of media, including a vacuum, an all-
pervasive ethereal substance called the ether was hypothesized to
exist, and the velocity of light was considered to be relative to this
ether. The question of the existence of ether, and more importantly the
problem of the correct statement of many experiment for the
propagation velocity of light in moving systems, was the subject of
many experiments, of which the Michelson-Morley experiment is
perhaps the most famous.
After experimental evidence such as Michelson-Morley
experiment, a consensus emerged that the speed of light does not vary
with the speed of the observer, and the speed of light must be invariant
(the same) for all observers. This seemed to further conflict with the
principle of relativity. Hedrick Lorentz proposed a resolution by
postulating an ether theory in which objects and observers traveling
with respect to a stationary ether underwent a physical shortening
(Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction) and a change in temporal rate (time
dilation) by introducing the Lorentz factor ( 1 – v2/c
2)
-1/2 . Einstein
tried to fit the idea of an absolute speed of light into Newtonian
mechanics. He found that the transformation from one reference frame
to another had an affect on time. This led to the theory of special
relativity. In special relativity, the velocity of light is special.
Anything moving at the speed of light in one reference frame will
move at the speed of light in all non-accelerated reference frames. The
two postulates of Special theory of relativity were
Postulate1: All physical laws valid in one frame of reference are
equally valid in any other frame moving uniformly relative to the first.
Postulate2: The speed of light (in vacuum) is the same in all inertial
frames of reference, regardless of the motion of the light source.
These two great postulates transformed our common sense regarding
the understanding of moving objects. But was it enough? There were
29
many more questions unanswered even at this stage. Special theory of
relativity was a beginning of a new way of understanding the universe
but it had lot of limitations. It is purely related to non-accelerated
frames. Even though Special theory of relativity was instrumental in
replacing Galilean relativity, but it couldn‟t fit into Newtonian
Mechanics. Naturally this was due to the fact that special theory of
relativity is only applicable in non-gravitational fields. Since special
theory of relativity provided no information regarding accelerated
frames or observations regarding gravitational effects, there increased
a necessity of much better theory that can explain further than STR.
Remarkably 10 years later, Einstein the founder of
special theory of relativity came up with another phenomenal theory
called as General Theory of relativity of which special theory of
relativity is a special case. It was like a miracle in the world of
physics, truly it was one man‟s mastermind that revolutionized the
thinking of all the physicists. For the first time Newton‟s famous
gravity was eliminated with a much better accurate theory. General
relativity has a unique role amongst physical theories in the sense that
it interprets the gravitational field as a geometric phenomenon. More
specifically, it assumes that any object possessing mass curves the
'space' in which it exists, this curvature being equated to gravity. To
conceptualize this equivalence, it is helpful to think, as several author-
physicists have suggested, in terms of gravity not causing or being
caused by spacetime curvature, but rather that gravity is spacetime
curvature. It deals with the motion of bodies in such 'curved spaces'
and has survived every experimental test performed on it since its
formulation by Albert Einstein in 1915.
Again the question arises “Was it enough?” Soon after
the discovery of General Theory of relativity (GTR) evolved another
magnificent theory called as quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics
successfully explained the behavior of matter at microscopic level.
Success of Quantum mechanics led to the Cold War between the GTR
and QM for their dominance in the world of physics. Both the theories
are very successful in their own domains but once they come out of
their domains they simply break down. GTR is not compatible with
quantum mechanics since quantum mechanics has no explanation for
the curvature of spacetime. In fact even General theory of relativity
30
has no explanation for the question “Why spacetime curvature
exists?” As Newton used the term “action at a distance”, Einstein used
“mass wraps spacetime”. There is no answer to the question “why
mass wraps spacetime?”
The foundations of quantum mechanics were established
during the first half of the 20th century by Max Planck, Albert
Einstein, Neils Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Max
Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli and others.
Though Einstein was one of the founder members of quantum
mechanics, he wasn‟t fully convinced with the theory. One of his
major concerns with quantum mechanics is that it doesn‟t allow
definite values to be assigned to the observables. Quantum mechanics
doesn‟t say a particle exists for sure, it just says so and so is the
probability that the particle can occur. Einstein quoted about quantum
mechanics as
“Quantum mechanics is certainly imposing. But an inner voice tells
me that it is not yet the real thing. The theory says a lot, but does not
really bring us any closer to the secret of the Old One. I, at any rate,
am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice”
Neil Bohr replied to the quotation of Einstein as “Don‟t tell God what
to do”.
One of the most interesting aspects of quantum
mechanics is uncertainty principle. As per Uncertainty principle, you
cannot measure accurately the value of two or more observables
simultaneously. For example, for a free particle you cannot accurately
measure its momentum and position at the same time. There is always
a limitation on the accuracy. Hence it can be said for that for any free
particle, one cannot measure position and velocity with definite
precision. This famous principle of quantum mechanics was
formulated by Heisenberg. Uncertainty principle is one of the most
revolutionary ideas of our times, which I consider is no less than the
idea of earth is not flat. Prior to uncertainty principle it was considered
that Universe is deterministic, i.e. if you know the state of universe
exactly at one point of time, then you can find its state at any point of
31
time. With introduction of uncertainty principle it becomes clears that
at no point of time a state of universe can be determined.
During the times of formulation of quantum mechanics,
there was another confusion going on in the world of physics. It was
regarding the nature of light, i.e. whether light is a particle or wave.
The physicists were divided and each had their own strong points and
weak points. At such a juncture, quantum mechanics came up the idea
of “wave-particle duality”. This no just helped in unifying the
physicists around, it also helped in sideling the mystery of dual
behavior of light. The mysterious nature of light is that it sometimes
behaves like a wave and sometimes like a particle. Further
experiments revealed that it‟s not just light but also matter behaves the
same way. The electrons, protons and all particles show dual behavior.
So, the simplest thing quantum mechanics can do is say that matter
exhibits “wave-particle” duality. Considering these effects of matter,
Schrödinger deduced an equation for the matter waves which forms
the foundation of the quantum mechanics
H=i(h/2) /t,
H = -(h/2)2/2m (
2x1+
2x2+…..+
2xn) +V(x1,x2,….xn)
In 1927, Dirac pioneered in unifying quantum mechanics
with special theory of relativity. Note that special theory of relativity
doesn‟t include accelerated frames of references. Hence, it cannot
include gravity. Dirac also pioneered the use of operator theory,
including the influential bracket notation, as described in his famous
1930 textbook. During the same period, John von Neumann
formulated the rigorous mathematical basis for quantum mechanics as
the theory of linear operators on Hilbert spaces, as described in his
likewise famous 1932 textbook. These, like many other works from
the founding period still stand, and remain widely used. Quantum
mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the
features of our world. The individual behavior of the microscopic
particles that make up all forms of matter - electrons, protons,
neutrons, and so forth - can often only be satisfactorily described
using quantum mechanics.
32
Quantum mechanics is important for understanding how
individual atoms combine to form chemicals. The application of
quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry.
Quantum mechanics can provide quantitative insight into chemical
bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are
energetically favorable to which others, and by approximately how
much. Most of the calculations performed in computational chemistry
rely on quantum mechanics. Much of modern technology operates at a
scale where quantum effects are significant. Examples include the
laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance
imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the
diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern
electronics.
Again a question arises “Was that enough?” Again the
answer is no. Quantum mechanics sometimes seems to contradict with
the special theory of relativity. This famous paradox is known as EPR
effect. "EPR" stands for Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan
Rosen, who introduced the thought experiment in a 1935 paper to
argue that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory.
Einstein mocked the quantum mechanical predictions as "spooky
action at a distance." The conclusion they drew was that quantum
mechanics is not a complete theory. It seems likely that quantum
mechanics fails in the vicinity of black holes, or when considering the
observable Universe as a whole. In these regimes, quantum mechanics
conflicts with the predictions of general relativity, the dominant theory
of gravity. Quantum theory is valid only in the domains where gravity
is negligible. In fact quantum mechanics doesn‟t have any explanation
for the existence of the gravity.
The problem with quantum mechanics starts with the
Schrödinger‟s wave equation itself. The wave equation being a second
order w.r.t. space and first order w.r.t. time fails for the particles
traveling near to the speed of light. To resolve this conflict Klein –
Gordon came up with a second order wave equation w.r.t. time and
space. Unfortunately this equation by Klein –Gordon only explained
the properties of spin zero particles. From here the mathematics
overtook physics complicating everything. Dirac invented gamma
matrices to give a wave equation for fermions or spin half particles.
33
For all the research done in quantum mechanics, there were two twin
towers of problem always existing. They were gravity and mass,
quantum mechanics never had any explanation for them.
Few of physicists went on the different route to
understand the creation of the universe; they started exploring the stars
and skies to find the hidden riddles. At the beginning of twentieth
century everyone tried to explain the nature of the universe
considering universe to be static. Einstein went on to predict
hyperphysical concepts like mass-mass repulsion with a beautiful
equation that introduced cosmological constant. When I said the term
„beautiful equation‟ I really meant that the equation had beauty. Most
of the physicists drove crazy when they saw that beautiful equation.
They were so certain about the equation that they went on writing
books describing the beauty of it.
Rab – ½ R gab + gab = -8 GTab‟
This is the equation I am talking about. Here Rab
represents Ricci tensor, R represents Scalar curvature, gab represents
metric tensor, represents cosmological constant, G represents
universal gravitational constant and Tab‟ represents the energy-
momentum tensor. The reason why Einstein had initial success with
this equation was due to involvement of complex mathematical
concepts in physics. I mean to say not many physicists were in a
position to understand the mathematical part of this equation which
involved tensors rather than vectors. And most of them accepted this
equation just because of reputation of Einstein. Believe me even now
many physicists are trying hard to prove the above equation correct. It
was the great man Hubble who came up with practical proof of
expanding universe and brought the end of the above beautiful
equation just like Galileo did to end Ptolemaic theories. The
expanding universe was proved by Hubble who laid foundations to
theories like Big Bang which described the evolution of universe.
In 1940s again the attention shifted to the quantum world with the
advent of quantum electrodynamics. Quantum electrodynamics was
highly successful in describing the interactions between the
elementary particles outside the nucleus of the atom. The magnitude
34
of these interactions can be computed using perturbation theory; these
rather complex formulas have a remarkable pictorial representation as
Feynman diagrams. However, the calculations performed by the QED
are only approximate due to the usage of perturbation theory.
Perturbation theory comprises mathematical methods that are used to
find an approximate solution to a problem which cannot be solved
exactly, by starting from the exact solution of a related problem.
Perturbation theory is applicable if the problem at hand can be
formulated by adding a "small" term to the mathematical description
of the exactly solvable problem. Perturbation theory leads to an
expression for the desired solution in terms of a power series in some
"small" parameter that quantifies the deviation from the exactly
solvable problem. The leading term in this power series is the solution
of the exactly solvable problem, while further terms describe the
deviation in the solution, due to the deviation from the initial problem.
Formally, we have for the approximation to the full solution A, series
in the small parameter (here called ε), like the following:
A = A0 + ε A1 + ε2A2 + …
In this example, A0 would be the known solution to the exactly
solvable initial problem and A1, A2 represent the "higher orders"
which are found iteratively by some systematic procedure. For small ε
these higher orders become successively more unimportant. There is
absolutely no guarantee perturbative methods would result in a precise
and convergent solution. In the QED calculations the „ε‟ mentioned
above is called as fine structure constant or coupling constant given by
= (2e2)/(hc) ~ 1/137. Fine structure constant is also referred as
coupling constant. Surprisingly there is no explanation present in the
quantum electrodynamics for the reason of appearance of coupling
constant that too a product of other fundamental constants. One of the
creator of QED Richard Feynman quotes:
“…There is a most profound and beautiful question associated with
the observed coupling constant, e the amplitude for a real electron to
emit or absorb a real photon. It is a simple number that has been
experimentally determined to be close to -0.08542455. (My physicist
friends won't recognize this number, because they like to remember it
as the inverse of its square: about 137.03597 with about an
35
uncertainty of about 2 in the last decimal place. It has been a mystery
ever since it was discovered more than fifty years ago, and all good
theoretical physicists put this number up on their wall and worry
about it.) Immediately you would like to know where this number for a
coupling comes from: is it related to pi or perhaps to the base of
natural logarithms? Nobody knows. It's one of the greatest damn
mysteries of physics: a magic number that comes to us with no
understanding by man. You might say the "hand of God" wrote that
number, and "we don't know how He pushed his pencil." We know
what kind of a dance to do experimentally to measure this number
very accurately, but we don't know what kind of dance to do on the
computer to make this number come out, without putting it in
secretly!...”
For many years it was believed that Fine structure constant is a
constant, however there have been certain reports contradicting the
“constant” behavior of fine structure constant. Independent
observations of a number of absorption systems in the spectra of
distant quasars (QSOs) seem to indicate that , the fine structure
constant of quantum electrodynamics, is slowly increasing over
cosmological time scales. Specifically, the experiments indicate that
averaged over redshifts 0.2 < z < 3.7, there is a 5.7 deviation of the
fine structure constant from its present value, namely / = −0.57 ±
0.10 × 10−5
(ref: arXiv:hep-ph/0306084). Even the fundamental
constant of QED is found to vary with time.
After reasonable success of QED, the quantum physicists attempted to
explain the structure of nucleus of the atom on the same lines of QED.
With the advent of the quark model by Gell-Mann and George Zweig
in 1964, a new type of quantum field theory evolved called as
quantum chromodynamics. According to quantum chromodynamics,
every quark carries color charge, which comes in three types: "red",
"green" and "blue". These are just names and not related to ordinary
colors. Antiquarks are either "anti-red", "anti-green" or "anti-blue".
Like colors repel, unlike colors attract. The attraction between a color
and its anti-color is especially strong. Particles can only exist if their
total color is neutral (commonly referred to as a color singlet),
meaning that they can either be composed of a (anti-)red, (anti-)green
and (anti-)blue quark (such a particle is called a baryon; protons and
36
neutrons are examples), or of a quark and an anti-quark having the
corresponding anti-color (such a particle is called a meson). The
strong interaction acts between two quarks by exchanging particles
called gluons. There are eight colors of gluons. Each gluon can be
thought of as carrying two color labels. Quantum Chromo dynamics,
based upon the quark model, is just a hypothetical theory, which
approximately gives a fair idea about the existence of the nucleons. In
other words it is equivalent to the geocentric model of Ptolemy. In my
view quark model is just a good recipe model of nucleus. Just have a
look at the below table and decide yourselves.
Particle lab Restaurant: Below is the recipe of a curry called as
“strong soup”. This is today‟s special dish. We hope you enjoy our
delicious meal.
Name Quantity Mass
Overall
taste
Tomato
flavor
Onion
flavor
Gourd
flavor
Water
melon
flavor Lemon 2/3
slice
1.5- 4
1/2
0
0
0
0
Chilly 1/3
slice
4- 8 1/2 0 0 0 0
Tomato 1/3
slice
80- 130
0
1
0
0
0
Onion 2/3 slice
1150-1350 0
0
1
0
0
Gourd 1/3 slice
4100- 4400 0 0 0 1 0
Water
melon
2/3
slice 178000
4300
0
0
0
0
1
Your bill is: $5 billion
Don‟t you think the above recipe is very similar to the quark model? If
you don‟t think then just have a look at quark model.
37
Name Electric
charge(q) Mass
(MeV) Iso
spin
Strange Charm
Bottom Top
Up +2/3 e 1.5 To
4
+1/2
0
0
0
0
Down -1/3 e 4
to 8
-1/2 0 0 0 0
Strange -1/3 e 80
to
130
0
-1
0
0
0
charm +2/3 e 1150 to
1350
0
0
+1
0
0
bottom -1/3 e 4100 to
4400
0 0 0 -1 0
top +2/3 e 178000
4300
0
0
0
0
+1
Amazingly the recipe table as well the famous quark model is one and
the same. One can explain all the properties of QCD using recipe
model as well. Recipe model has an additional advantage than quark
model. If you consider the quark model, then there is always a
question of existence of the individual quarks. But using recipe model
one can say that individual quarks doesn‟t exist because lemons,
chilies are not found in 1/3 or 2/3 slices freely in nature. From the
lemon tree we can only get a full lemon but not a 2/3 slice of it,
similarly is the case with chilies, tomatoes, onions, gourds and water
melons. On the serious note, Quark model predicts two types of
particles namely mesons and baryons. Mesons are intermediate mass
particles that are made up of a quark-antiquark pair. Three quark
combinations are called baryons. Recent experimental evidence shows
the existence of five-quark combinations that are being called
pentaquarks. The pentaquark would be included in the classification of
baryons, albeit an "exotic" one. The pentaquark is composed of four
quarks and an antiquark, like a combination of an ordinary baryon
38
plus a meson. I would say this is just the beginning, don‟t be surprised
if some day you will find hexaquarks ( 2 baryons), heptaquarks ( 2
mesons+1 baryon), octaquarks (2 baryons + 1 meson) and so on. The
only solution to this is “Abandon the quark model and try out for new
methods”.
In order to fill in all these ups and downs caused by quantum field
theories and gravitational theories like GTR, originated a brand new
theory called as superstring theory. Understanding superstring theory
is a nightmare to any student because there is nothing sensible in it to
understand. Only thing that fascinates a young reader about
superstrings is the idea that says universe is made up of one-
dimensional strings. Today almost all the physicists are resting their
hopes on the shoulders of superstring theory in order to solve all
discrepancies in the physics. Many physicists believe that superstring
theory will lead to the “theory of everything”. Superstring theory
combines relativity and quantum in an elegant, intuitive way. First, it
describes the countless quantum particles of nature as a "note" on a
vibrating string.
Think of a violin string. No one says that A or B is more fundamental
than C. What is fundamental is the string itself.
Superstring theory says that, if we had a super microscope and could
peer at an electron, we would see a string vibrating in a certain mode.
The string is extremely small (10-33
centimeters!) so that the electron
looks like a point particle to us. If we shake the string, so it vibrates in
a different mode, then the electron can turn into something else, such
as a quark, the fundamental constitute of protons and neutrons. Shake
it again, and the string could vibrate in the mode which describes
photons (the quanta of light). Shake it again and it turns into a
graviton (the quanta of gravity). Strings can have various kinds of
boundary conditions. For example closed strings have periodic
boundary conditions (the string comes back onto itself). Open strings
can have two different kinds of boundary conditions called Neumann
and Dirichlet boundary conditions. With Neumann boundary
conditions the endpoint is free to move about but no momentum flows
out. With Dirichlet boundary conditions the endpoint is fixed to move
only on some manifold. This manifold is called a D-brane or Dp-brane
39
('p' is an integer which is the number of spatial dimensions of the
manifold).
From here on superstrings can only be understood in terms of higher
dimensions, that too ranging from 26 to minimum of 10. I mean this is
purely like a science fiction. When asked about these dimensions,
string theorists say that they are the curled dimensions or hidden
dimensions. One can hypothesize at maximum 7 dimensions
considering that 3 real spatial dimensions, 1- time dimension and 3
anti-real spatial dimensions, but understanding 26 dimensional space
is simply impossible for me. There is a finite probability that our
physics theories may be fundamentally wrong or we are ignoring
something that is very fundamental. It is our ignorance that is making
us to ponder over 26 dimensions. Once Einstein said:
“Most of the fundamental ideas of science are essentially simple, and
may, as a rule, be expressed in a language comprehensible to
everyone.”
What we are searching in the 26 dimensional universe might be
present in the 3 dimensional universe we live in. And this might be the
simplest thing that we all have ignored. One day while doing an
experiment in the electronics laboratory I noticed that resistors get
heated up when excess current passes through them. My professor told
me that its due to power loss due to the resistance and it is equal to i2R
. Suddenly a thought occurred to me “…how can current flowing
through the resistor somehow increase the temperature of the resistor.
Are not current and temperature two fundamental quantities? If one
fundamental quantity can generate another fundamental quantity then
how can that quantity be called as fundamental? It obliviously
becomes a derived quantity.” Finally I came to a conclusion that there
are some redundant fundamental quantities present in the SI system
whose unnecessary inclusion as fundamental quantities is creating a
nuisance in physics.
When I tried to solve this problem of redundancy, I found that almost
all the fundamental quantities are interrelated. When I was about to
leave the hope of finding the solution, an unknown idea sparked my
brain. I considered a new fundamental quantity in SI system and
40
started analyzing them, this process made me reduce the fundamental
quantities to a figure three. To know what these three actual
fundamental quantities are, you have to do one great heroic act. And
that act is to read this book. Eventually you will see how using this
just three quantities I have formulated a theory called as “Construction
theory” which explains all four forces of nature by some cool ideas.
41
UNIT #2 COSMOS REDEFINED
Calpanic numbers
Before diving into the ocean of fresh ideas, let us first get equipped
with some of the common terms necessary to understand them.
Basically whenever a new theory is brought forward, it is necessary
that mathematics support it. But most of the times, mathematics gets a
boost basing on the concepts of the theory. Newton promoted
calculus; Maxwell used vector calculus; Einstein took the support of
tensors to explain gravity; and the quantum theory uses incredibly
complex operator mathematics and Hilbert spaces and so on. You can
clearly see that from Newtonian mathematics to quantum mathematics
the complexity has continuously increased. Today no physicist can
understand physics without knowing sufficient mathematics.
Before I introduce you to Calpanic Numbers, let us first get an
overview on few elementary concepts of our existing mathematics. In
mathematics we categorize numbers into different types basing on
42
their nature such as integers, real numbers, rational numbers, whole
numbers, natural numbers, prime numbers, imaginary numbers etc.
But genuinely mathematics consists of two forms of numbers namely
real numbers and imaginary numbers. These both numbers are also
referred commonly as complex numbers. Let‟s start from where the
count began.
When the first humans started counting, it started from 1, 2, 3…
i.e. the Natural numbers. It is believed that humans starting counting
using fingers, probably God gave us 10 figures as a hint to use
decimal notation. Natural numbers are also referred as positive
integers. Note that zero is not included in natural numbers, probably
because when humans started counting, they didn‟t use zero in their
calculations. It was only later zero came into existence. (Well, at this
moment I don‟t want to brag that it was Indians who discovered zero
because I know the fact that there are millions of other important
scientific discoveries done by non-Indians) Natural numbers along
with Zero is often referred “Whole Numbers”. Soon the counter parts
of Natural numbers alias positive integers were discovered. Negative
integers evolved as solutions for x = a – b, where b > a. The thrust for
knowledge led us to explore more complicated forms of numbers that
cannot be calculated using fingers. I still prefer using my fingers for
calculations than a electronics calculator. The next few paragraphs
constitute some of the known classifications of numbers.
Any number existing between the range (-, ) is said to be a
real number. There are tens of other advanced definitions given for
real numbers from some of our renowned mathematicians. To keep it
simple, the numbers you apply for all the practical calculations in your
day to day life are real numbers with few exceptions. Real numbers
can be classified into rational and irrational numbers. All the real
numbers that can be expressed in the form „a/b‟, where „a‟ and „b‟ are
integers and b 0. The rest of real numbers are irrational numbers.
Irrational numbers such as 2, 3 etc are numbers which are not
rational, i.e. cannot be expressed as „a/b‟ where „a‟ and „b‟ are integers
and b0. The set of rational and irrational numbers is called the set of
real numbers.
43
There is no real number „x‟ which satisfies the polynomial
equation x2 +1 = 0. To permit solutions of this and similar equations,
the set of complex number as having the form a + bi where a and b are
real numbers and i, which is called the imaginary unit, has the
property that i2 = -1. If z = a+bi, then „a‟ is called the real part of „z‟
and „b‟ is called the imaginary part of „z‟ and are denoted by Re {z}
and Im {z} respectively. The symbol „z‟, which can stand for any of a
set of complex numbers, is called a complex variable. Two complex
numbers „a +bi‟ and „c+di‟ are equal if and only if a =c and b = d. we
can consider real numbers as a subset of the set of complex numbers
when b = 0. Thus the complex numbers 0 +0i and -3 +0i represent the
real numbers 0 and -3 respectively. If a = 0, the complex number 0 +
bi or bi is called a pure imaginary number. The complex conjugate, or
briefly conjugate, of a complex number a +bi is a-bi. The complex
conjugate of a complex number z is often indicated by ž or z*. More
data about complex numbers can be found in any higher grade
mathematics textbook. To be frank some of the above text has been
directly taken from one of my mathematics textbooks. I hate re-
writing the history!
When complex numbers were introduced in mathematics no one
instantly agreed the concept. As Professor Murray R. Spiegel (the
author of one of the mathematics textbooks I followed during
engineering) rightly quoted about complex numbers as
“…..The theory of functions of a complex variable, also called for
brevity complex variables or complex analysis, is one of the most
beautiful as well as useful branches of mathematics. Although
originating in an atmosphere of mystery, suspicion and distrust, as
evidenced by the terms “imaginary” and “complex” resent in the
literature, it was finally laced on a sound foundation in the 19th
century through the efforts of Cauchy, Riemann, Weinstrass, Gauss
and other great mathematics. Today the subject is recognized as an
essential art of the mathematical background of engineers, physicists,
mathematicians and other scientists. From the theoretical viewpoint
this is because many mathematical concepts become clarified and
unified when examined in the light of complex variable theory. From
the applied viewpoint the theory is of tremendous value in the solution
of problems of heat flow, potential theory, fluid mechanics,
44
electromagnetic theory, aerodynamics, elasticity and many other
fields of science and engineering”.
So when I introduce the concept of Calpanic numbers I expect
a similar response. Because people always have shown a mystery,
suspicion and distrust whenever a new concept is introduced. The
coolest thing about the mathematical concept introduced in this book
is that you will find its practical applications such as understanding
the singularity of blackholes, dark energy, space-time symmetry, big
bang evolution, sudden disappearance of mass within nucleus (binding
energy principle), radioactive decay of nucleus, huge numbers of
short-lived heavy particles found using High-energy accelerators,
understanding gravity, anti matter and many more. Note that every
practical application of Calpanic numbers is a mystery so far. In order
to solve these mysteries I have used the concept of beyond imaginary
numbers i.e. Calpanic numbers.
“I was …… studying the binary number system (used in
computers) when all a sudden a thought occurred to me: what‟s the
value of 1 0? I was startled. How can it be, in mathematics there is
no explanation for this. This quantity is simply ignored as undefined.
This simple thought made a deep impression on me. It propelled me
towards the new concept called as Calpanic numbers”.
Since this is the first fresh idea, I request the reader to read it with an
open mind. You can criticize it but have a little patience. At first it
may seem that there is no requirement for something as imaginary as
beyond imaginary but there is no need to get confused. Below is the
definition of a Calpanic number,
1. Calpanic number is given by “ ” and the value of क = ( r/0 )
2. Calpanic - Complex number pair (COMPLETE NUMBER) is
represented as C = r X + Y where X = a+ib; Y = c+id such that
a,b,c,d (0, /0)
The first postulate gives the definition of a Calpanic number. This is
something similar to the definition of imaginary number „i‟ i.e. i = -
45
1. Similarly the value of = ( r / 0). At this initial stage
understanding, interpreting what is „r‟ is bit difficult. For simple
understanding let us consider r = 1 then the value of Calpanic number
equals (1 / 0). Note that Calpanic number " " is equal to one
divided by exact zero.
Let F() = 1/
And when is equal to exact zero the value of F(0) is „not infinity‟ but
a Calpanic number (referred as undefined in today‟s mathematics).
Let F() = 1/ then
[Limit ->0+] F() = +
[Limit ->0-] F() = -
and F(0) =
When imaginary numbers were not discovered -1 was an undefined
quantity, it was only when -1 was considered to be equal to „i‟, the
whole complex variable analysis evolved; similar is the case here.
Further understanding of Calpanic numbers requires the concept of „r‟.
This „r‟ is not some strange thing. Calpanic numbers have a prefix
„ ‟ and imaginary numbers have a prefix „i‟ similarly even complex
numbers are given a prefix „r‟. For all the calculations existing in
mathematics simply „r‟ equals to one.
r-convention:
With the advent of Calpanic numbers, we need to modify some of the
definitions. Now I would like to define “a set of rational and irrational
numbers is called as Pure numbers”. Now you may ask me “What are
real numbers then?” Have some patience soon you will come to know
what real numbers are. A real number has to be represented with a
prefix „r‟ along with a pure number. Then any real numbers can be
represented as r2, r5, -r43, r2.345 etc. This is a similar way we follow
the convention for imaginary numbers i.e. i2, i5, -i43, i2.345 etc. Once
we follow r-convention for real numbers then even the convention of
representation of imaginary numbers changes. Now imaginary
numbers has be represented as ri2, ri5, -ri43, ri2.345 etc.
46
Note that if you are not dealing with Calpanic numbers then
there is no need to follow r-convention. If you do follow r-convention
even in the absence of Calpanic numbers it makes no difference to the
calculations. Just an „r‟ will be present. You can arbitrarily assign the
value of „r‟ to be one and perform calculations.
From r-convention any complex number can be written as
Z = ra + rib
= r (a + ib)
You can clearly see that when there is no Calpanic number present
then simply you can isolate „r‟ and even you can ignore it. But when a
Calpanic number is present it becomes essential because it will
distinguish a real number from a pure number.
Let us now define what „r‟ is:
1. | r | = r
2. r = r2 = r
3 = r
n where „n‟ is non zero integer
The absolute value of „r‟ is „r‟ itself, though „r‟ is neither positive nor
negative. This one involves the concept of pure numbers. If you
replace r with „1‟ you will get | 1 | = 1. It should be noted that
following r-convention doesn‟t affect any of the available
mathematical literature.
Consider a real number R = -r2.718 ,
then | R | = | -r2.718 |
= | r | |-2.718| = r2.718
{ | z1z2 | = |z1||z2|}
(Note that all our old real number laws are valid for pure numbers)
Now consider a complex number C = ra + rib
= r (a + ib)
then | Z | = |ra + rib|
= | r (a + ib)|
= | r | |a + ib|
= r sqrt(a2 +b
2)
The third property valid for r is {r = r2 = r
3 = r
n where „n‟ is non zero
integer} This is the most interesting property of „r‟. The first property
47
of „r‟ i.e. r = 1/r is a part of this property. This property is extensively
used when real numbers are multiplied or divided by another real
number.
Consider two complex numbers C1 = ra + rib = r (a + ib)
C2 = rc + rid = r (c + id)
C1 C2 = r(a + ib) r(c + id)
= r2 (ac-bd + i (bc + ad))
= r (ac-bd + i(bc + ad)) { r = r2 = r
3 = r
n }
C1 C2 = r(a + ib) / r (c + id)
= r (1/r) (a + ib)(c-id)/(c2 + d
2)
Note that we cannot cancel „r‟ since r-1
= r. Cancelling the index „r‟ is
non-allowed operation as the equation can be solved without
cancelling it.
Z1 Z2 = r (r) (ac+bd + i(bc - ad))/(c2 + d
2)
= r2 (ac+bd + i (bc - ad))/ (c
2 + d
2)
= r (ac +bd + i (bc –ad))/ (c2 + d
2)
So it is clear that r-convention doesn‟t change our calculations.
Now let us see the properties of „ ‟ are
1. | | =
2. = 2 =
3 =
n where „n‟ is non zero
integer
These properties are exactly similar to that of „r‟. Reason for this is the
symmetry between real and anti-real numbers. They just are mirror
images of one another. To understand “what is causing this
symmetry” you have to just go through next few paragraphs. Isn‟t that
simple?
Closer examination at r-convention reveals few other important
properties of complex numbers (from now on for complex numbers r-
convention is followed i.e. complex number will written with a prefix
„r‟). These properties will sound a bit absurd initially but as you go on
reading you will enjoy the ride. Let me make it clear that Calpanic
numbers are not the just the extension of numbers like imaginary
48
numbers to the real numbers, they has as much practical importance as
real numbers have. In the presence of Calpanic numbers the domain of
calculations is not confined up to real numbers.
Initially when you do calculations involving Calpanic numbers, it
appears as if it is conflicting with our present mathematics. This
happens with every new concept; once it enters into our brains then
obviously sensible interpretations of calculations do come out. In most
cases the confusion arises due the presence of zero (0) in the
equations. In my view „zero‟ is the most misunderstood number in the
present mathematics. Most of the times I ask myself “what is zero?” I
find various answers such as zero represents nothing, number
subtracted with itself, etc. Anyhow there is no exact definition for
zero.
Have a look at this thought example:
“Suppose there is a bag which contains 5 books and nothing
else. If I ask you “what is not present in the bag then what will be your
answer”? I know this is the most stupid question you have ever
answered but stupid questions sometimes remove our stupidity.
What‟s your answer? Let me repeat the question, what is not present
in the bag? The answer is not so simple. You can say anything except
5 books, which alternatively means there are infinite answers.
Mathematically, this situation can be represented as
bag contains = 5 (book) + (0 X ) …[1]
The question was “what could be the “X” ? What ever you substitute
for X, the equation[1] is satisfied. Isn‟t that surprising? May be or may
not be! Suppose I change my question as “What is present in the bag
other than the 5 books?” There is only one answer and that is
“nothing”. Do you think that‟s the only answer? Some crazy fellow
like me will say there are “X nothings are present in the bag, where X
could be anything”. It is up to you to decide whether that answer had
any sense or not.
Mathematically the second situation can be represented as
bag contains = 5 (book) + (X 0) …[2]
49
The question was “What could be the X?” Whatever you substitute for
X, the equation [2] is satisfied. Isn‟t that surprising? In the first case,
the question referred to (0 X) and the answer satisfied our common
sense, whereas in the second case the question referred to (X 0) and
the answer didn‟t satisfy our common sense. Isn‟t (0 X) =(X 0),
then why confusion is arising? Keep guessing why!”
Redefined Properties of numbers:
1. Set of rational and irrational numbers excluding zero are called as
“Pure numbers” or “Void numbers”. Ex: 2, 123, 23.4353, -34.4242, 3
etc. but not „0‟and „1/0‟;
2. Set of numbers which are prefixed with „i‟ to a pure number is
called “imaginary number” or “Devoid numbers”. Value of i = -1.
Ex: i2, i123, i2.2434, -i34.4234, i3 etc. but not i0 and i(1/0);
3. „0‟ and „1/0‟ are special kind of numbers called as “Avoid
numbers”. They don‟t have any prefix.
The above three types of numbers are called as fundamental numbers.
4. Real numbers are always represented with a Prefix „r‟ to the
fundamental numbers i.e. r123, -r2.718, r3, ri2.443, ri3, r0 etc; note
that r(1/0) is written as 1/(r0) since r = 1/r (from 1st property of „r‟)
and it is called as anti real number;
5. Anti real numbers are called as “Calpanic numbers” which are
represented by prefix „ ‟ to the fundamental numbers. Value of =
1/(r0). Ex: 123, - 4.522, 3, i3
6. It states that “one cannot „cancel‟ or „bring to other side‟ the
prefixes „r‟ or „ ‟ if they are present in an equation”. This is similar
to the way we consider for „0‟ in our present equations.
Ex: consider the equation r 5 = 5
You cannot cancel “ ” from both sides r 5 = 5
50
r 5 = 5 (wrong
operation)
the above method is wrong. Calculations are to be performed
separately for both LHS and RHS
LHS = r 5
= r(r/0)5
= (r2/0)5
= (r/0)5
= ( )5
= 5 = RHS
{ this is similar approch is followed in equations like:
50 = 10
zero is not cancelled out instead LHS and RHS is evaluated
separately }
7. If a calculation results in a number containing both „r‟ and „ ‟,
then priority should be giving to reducing the multiple indexes to a
single index. When there are no „Avoid numbers‟ in the equation (no
0‟s and 1/0‟s) then operations should be performed from right to left
and whenever there are Avoids numbers in the equation ( 0‟s and
1/0‟s), first operate on the index left to it so that index reduction takes
place. Also whenever a zero is introduced in an equation by writing
either =(r/0) or r = ( 0), this „0‟ should not be multiplied with a
pure number.
Ex1: M = r (a+ib) a,b0
= ( 0) (a+ib)
( 0 ) (a+ib))
but it is = ( 0) (a+ib)
= (2 0 )(a+ib)
= ( 0)(a+ib)
= ( r )( a+ib)
hence M = r (a+ib)
Ex2: Simplyfy H = r r rr (a+ib) a,b 0
=r r rr(r/0)(a+ib)
=r r r(r r/ 0)(a+ib)
51
=r r r(r2/ 0)(a+ib)
=r r r(r/0)(a+ib)
= r r (r r/0) (a+ib)
=r r (r2/0) (a+ib)
=r r (r/0) (a+ib)
=r r ( ) (a+ib)
=r r( ) (a+ib)
=r r( 2) (a+ib)
=r r( ) (a+ib)
=r r(r/0) (a+ib)
=r (r r/0) (a+ib)
=r (r2/0) (a+ib)
=r (r/0) (a+ib)
=r ( ) (a+ib)
=r ( ) (a+ib)
=r ( 2) (a+ib)
=r ( ) (a+ib)
=r( ) (a+ib)
=r( 2) (a+ib)
=r( ) (a+ib)
=r(r/0) (a+ib)
=(r r/0) (a+ib)
=(r2/0) (a+ib)
=(r/0) (a+ib)
= (a+ib)
Therefore Simplified value of H is (a+ib)
8. This is the strangest and most interesting property of real and anti-
real numbers which is crucial in applications of Calpanic numbers. It
states that r/0 = 0/r and /0 = 0
proof for: r/0 = 0/r
LHS: r / 0 =
= 1/ since = 1/
= 1/(r/0)
= 0 / r = RHS
from this we get “r 0” is also equal to a Calpanic number क
i.e. r 0 =
proof for: /0 = 0
LHS: /0 = (1/0)
52
= (1/ )(1/0)
= (1/ 0)
= (1/r)
= r
= 0 = LHS
9. This last property helps in solving when a real number is multiplied
with a Calpanic number. It is has been obtained from the above
properties. It is “ r = and r = r”;
proof: consider the first one r =
LHS = r from definition = (r / 0)
= r (r /0)
= r2/0 since r
2 = r prop. 3 of „r‟
= r/0
=
consider the second one r = r
LHS = r
= 0
= 2 0
= 0
= r
After knowing all these properties, let us see how the multiplication
between real and Calpanic numbers takes place.
Ex1: If Z =XY such that X = r(a+ib) and Y = (c+id), Find Z.
Sol:
Given Z = XY ; X = r(a+ib) and Y = (c+id)
Therefore Z = r(a+ib) (c+id)
= r (a+ib)(c+id)
= (a+ib)(c+id) prop.8 i.e. r =
= ((ac-bd) + i(bc+ad))
Hence the value of Z is ((ac-bd) + i(bc+ad))
Ex2: In the above Example if Z = YX then find Z.
Sol:
Given Z = YX ; Y = (c+id) and X = r(a+ib)
Therefore Z = (c+id) r(a+ib)
= r (c+id) (a+ib)
53
= r ((ca-db) + i(cb+da))
Hence the value of Z is r ((ca-db) + i(cb+da))
Ex3: If Z = XY such that X= rA + B and Y = rC + D, then find
Z.
Sol:
Given that Z = XY ; X = rA + B and Y = rC + D
(Note that X and Y contains both Real and Calpanic components)
Therefore Z = (rA + B)( rC + D)
= rA( rC + D) + B( rC + D)
= r r AC + r AD + r BC + BD
since r = & r=r
= r2 AC + AD + rBC + 2BD
= r AC + AD + r BC + BD
= r (AC + BC) + (AD + BD)
Hence the value of Z is r (AC + BC) + (AD + BD)
Ex4: In the above Example if Z = YX then find Z.
Sol:
Given that Z = YX ; X = rA + B and Y = rC + D
(Note that X and Y contains both Real and Calpanic components)
Therefore Z = (rC + D)( rA + B)
= rC( rA + B) + D( rA + B)
= r r CA + r CB + r DA + DB
since r = & r=r
= r2 CA + CB + rDA + 2DB
= r CA + CB + r DA + DB
= r (CA + DA) + (CB + DB)
Hence the value of Z is r (CA + DA) + (CB + DB)
In the Ex3 and Ex4 you can notice that X and Y were complete
numbers (i.e. they had both Real and Calpanic components) then their
product is showing a strange kind of Symmetry
i.e. if Z = XY { Ex3}
54
Z comes out be r (AC + BC) + (AD + BD)
Z = r C(A + B) + D(A+B)
= ( rC + D) (A + B)
= Y (A + B) !!!
If Z = YX { Ex4}
Z comes out be r (CA + DA) + (CB + DB)
= r A(C + D) + B(C + D)
= (rA + B) (C + D)
= X (C + D) !!!
If I go on giving these kinds of examples then it never ends.
Anyhow mathematicians will have good time deriving this kind of
symmetries. In fact I have found many of these kinds of symmetries
while analyzing complete numbers. I am not giving them here, as I
don‟t want to complicate this book. Frankly analyzing complete
numbers is so thrilling that once you start doing it, you may also find
it exciting. With the above algebra of complete numbers even you can
start analyzing about them. Who knows, you might be the next
“Euler” or “Cauchy” of mathematics.
You will find the practical applications of Calpanic numbers in
solving the mysteries like singularity of blackholes, space-time
symmetry, big bang evolution, sudden disappearance of mass within
nucleus (binding energy principle), radioactive decay of nucleus, huge
numbers of short-lived heavy particles found using High-energy
accelerators, understanding gravity, anti matter and many more in the
next few chapters.
In the next chapter I will show you what kind of mathematics
we require to understand physical realities. It is purely based upon
common sense. I call this theory as “COMPACT DISCRETE
THEORY” and this theory is useful in simplifying many things that
we today consider as incredibly complex. So why are you waiting for,
move on to the next chapter.
55
UNIT #3 COSMOS REDEFINED
Compact Discrete theory
“…This is just not sensible mathematics. Sensible mathematics
involves neglecting a quantity because it turns out to be small, not
neglecting it because it is infinitely large and you do not want it! Of
course the inference is that the basic equations are wrong and radical
changes need to be made”
"…I owe a lot to my engineering training because it [taught] me to
tolerate approximations. Previously to that I thought...one should just
concentrate on exact equations all the time. Then I got the idea that in
the actual world all our equations are only approximate. We must just
tend to greater and greater accuracy. In spite of the equations being
approximate, they can be beautiful."
-- Paul Dirac.
In the first quotation Dirac was right, “this is just not sensible
mathematics” and he rightly points out the radical changes to be made
in physics. But later somehow his engineering training diverted him.
Let me say you why Dirac got diverted. The first thing as an engineer
you learn through your physics textbooks is things like “round off
values and significant figures” “precision and accuracy” “errors and
averages”, etc. And the problem arises from here. If you don‟t get
correct results in laboratory, instead of finding mistakes in the theory,
engineers say it as “parallax errors, backlash error, instrumentation
error etc”. Accuracy and Precision for engineers defines its opposite,
56
which is approximation. I am saying this with my own personal
experiences. On many occasions, when I got perfect results in
Laboratory, my professors advised me to do the experiment once
again. That‟s because, you don‟t get perfect results in laboratories,
that‟s the belief of most of the professors.
First quotation of Dirac made me think, “What is sensible
mathematics?” After roaming around like a mad fellow around my
college surroundings, I suddenly found that the answer was in the
question itself. “Sensible mathematics is common sense”. If I say you
that this book has 287.8765 pages, Will you believe it? Obviously no!
The reason is simple; common sense says „if a book has pages then
the number of pages should be a natural number greater than 1‟. If I
argue saying that of the one of the pages is of 0.8765 normal page size
then will you accept? Still you will not accept because whatever might
be the size of the page, number of pages in a book should be a natural
number greater than 1. This is exactly what Dirac referred as „sensible
mathematics‟. One cannot apply mathematics simply because it is
there in mathematics. Our physics has become complicated just
because our current physics doesn‟t use sensible mathematics. The
situation is even worse because here we don‟t talk about 287.8765
page books but we talk about
287.876579277404829040942947984724424029480924749474….…
page books. My next few examples will just prove this.
What is sensible mathematics?
In real number system we consider that there exists infinite
number of numbers present between any two different numbers. This
is something that requires no explanation. But applying real numbers
to physical matter or to any system existing in universe doesn't hold
good. I am neither a mathematician nor a Professor but I can justify
the above statement using a bit of common sense. Can a point (for
example (x, y, z)) exist in a continuous coordinate system? This
question might sound totally ridiculous but that very question has
given me sleepless nights. After a lot of effort I came to a conclusion
that it doesn't exist. A point can exist only in a discrete system. In
order to explain this lets consider a simple experiment. Suppose you
have a rod of length "L" and you have to cut it in pieces as smallest as
57
possible. If I ask you how much time will it take, you would say few
hours or for a large rod few days. And that is where you make a
mistake. The answer is for any valve of „L‟ it would take infinite time.
If you don't agree with me then this thought experiment will convince
you. Imagine you were able to do pieces of millimeter order, and then
still you haven't reached the smallest length. So you again start cutting
and somehow you reached nanometer order, then also you haven't
reached smallest length. So you again start cutting it and even you
reach Fermi level there still exists smallest length because you have
assumed real number system holds good for measuring length. And if
you go on further reaching smaller length dimensions of order 10-20
,
10-25
, 10-30
, 10-40
and further, and further then also real number system
says there exists smaller dimensions. So you can never cut a piece to a
smallest dimension even if you are given infinite time. And you know
the smallest dimension is nothing but a point, and it has been proved
that point can never be obtained. The above paradox can be shown
pictorially as:
In the above picture a point is represented in a 2D – plane (this can
be extended to 3-D plane as well)
58
Magnifying the selected portion of the above plane shows that the dot
we considered as point is not exactly a point.
From the above figure it is clear that we have approximately
considered the dot to be a point which is not a point. Therefore we
shrink this dot once again to a point
59
Now we have obtained the point in a 2D plane.
Is it really a point? Let‟s once again select certain area enclosing the
point as test it out by magnifying the selected region.
Once again we have obtained that our point is not exactly a point but a
big dot. Once again we shrink this dot to point. We get a point. Then
once again we magnify the area enclosing this point then again we
obtain the point which we previously considered as not a point but a
big dot. The process continues forever and ever. We will still not
reach something called as “point”. This is what I meant when I said
60
287.8765792774048290…409429479724424029480924749474….
3840…page book.
If you are not convinced with that then let‟s take another example,
you are given a graph sheet and asked to mark a point exactly 2.5cm
away from origin along X-axis. Can you do it? This would be the
easiest graph you would have ever plotted but I would say not even
the greatest mathematician will be able to plot this. The answer is
simple, it is impossible to have a scale which would measure exactly
2.5cm from origin. And if such a scale exists then the manufacturer
has to spend infinite amount of time for checking that the scale exactly
reads 2.5000000000000000000000...........................................cm (and
these zeros continue up to infinity). Now you will say me somewhere
you have to make an approximation, let‟s check up to 20 zeros after
2.5 and consider it as exact 2.5cm. In other words, anything after 20th
zero is negligible. This indicates that all our calculations are discrete
in nature. This is where the concept of discreteness gets introduced.
Unknowingly we are considering that the length is discrete and
dimensions are discrete.
From the above two examples it is clear that practically we
cannot locate a point lying anywhere in the coordinate system exactly
without approximation unless the coordinate system is discrete. For
the argument sake you may say origin can be considered as a point, so
there lies a point. Yes, origin can be considered as a point but it is
chosen arbitrarily. You cannot locate another point other than origin in
a given coordinate system exactly. When I explained this concept to
my friend, he argued that consider a line, basically line is the shortest
distance joined between two points so it has practically two end points
then how can you say points cannot exist in a real coordinate system
whereas a line clearly has two end points? My answer to this is “can
you draw a line and locate its exact end points without any
approximation?” We cannot measure the exact distance if we
consider that we are living in a continuous real system.
Now consider the definition of a line “joining the shortest path
between two points”. For the time being consider that the points do
exist and you have successfully joined two points, then what is the
breadth of the line? Please I don‟t want to hear an answer called as
61
„negligible‟ from your side. There must be some breadth associated
with line but generally in our most intelligent mathematical textbooks
it is considered as negligible. This is where we are again bringing the
concept of discrete nature of dimensions. Theoretical mathematics
may not have practical significance always. Therefore we must be
careful whether theoretical mathematics can be applied to practical
cases like measuring distances, locating points in free space etc or not.
So far most of our calculations have been approximate and that‟s the
reason the concepts of probability have evolved. Once our calculations
become exact then surely we will come to know “God doesn‟t play
dice with us”.
Is integration a continuous process? Most of us may think Integration
is a continuous process but it is not. While performing integration we
are assuming that the variable quantity doesn't vary over a small
interval say "dx" or "dy" and we consider this interval to be tending to
zero and exactly here again we are bringing discreteness in disguise.
Consider a three dimensional rectangular coordinate system whose
axes are discrete with an incremental „‟. Let the axis be x, y and z.
therefore on x-axis it is ….-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,……. And similar is
the case of y and z axis. Here is not tending to zero but it is a
constant. In such a system any point consists of dimensions of a cube
of side „‟. Hence the point can be exactly located without any
approximation.
The two postulates:
Now I am presenting a theory called as “Compact Discrete theory”
which is just based on common sense. It contains just two postulates,
which are
There are only two types of number systems practically applicable to
physical quantities, they are Integers & Natural Constants number
system
(Natural Constants number system includes all natural constants
like Value of pie, Napier's constant (e) etc)
62
Every physical quantity can be expressed as integral multiple of a
natural constant.
These postulates are simple and have lot of practical sense. When you
apply these postulates you get length as a discrete quantity like charge.
There is the smallest unit of length which we can consider as point. In
the next few chapters we will discuss more about this “sensible
mathematics” when we apply it to various other quantities.
Compact discrete theory leads to quantization of every existing
real quantity. In the next chapter we will see our understanding
towards fundamental quantities i.e. length, mass, time, temperature,
current, moles and luminous intensity and the necessary modifications
to be made. So just read on the next chapter…
63
UNIT #4 COSMOS REDEFINED
Construction material of
Universe
For a construction of a house we require stones, bricks, cement and
water. Similarly for the construction of the universe the material
required is often defined in terms of fundamental quantities. Physics is
essentially a quantitative science. Any quantity that can be measured
is called a physical quantity. In physics we come across a large
number of quantities of different kinds such as length, mass, time,
velocity, acceleration, force, work, power, current, resistance,
temperature etc. Fundamental quantity is an independent quantity
which cannot be expressed in terms of other fundamental quantities.
These fundamental quantities are namely mass, length, time,
temperature, ampere, candela and moles. This system is called as SI
system and it gives internationally accepted units for its fundamental
quantities. Every other quantity present in the universe can be
expressed in terms of these fundamental quantities.
All of sudden a thought came in my mind “are these fundamental
quantities truly fundamental?” After analyzing the data available I
found that the answer is „no‟. Before exploring the drawbacks of the
present fundamental quantities and why they cannot be considered as
fundamental quantities, let‟s first see the way they are defined by
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of
measures).
64
The International System of Units (SI):
Quantity1: LENGTH; Name: meter; Symbol: m;
Definition: “…the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum in
1/299792458 of a second.” (1983)
Quantity2: MASS; Name: kilogram; symbol: kg;
Definition: “…this prototype [a certain platinum-iridium cylinder]
shall henceforth be considered to be the unit of mass.” (1889)
Quantity3: TIME; Name: second; symbol: s;
Definition: “…the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom.” (1967)
Quantity4: ELECTRIC CURRENT; Name: ampere; Symbol:
A;
Definition: “…that constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular
cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to 210- 7 newton per meter of
length.” (1946)
Quantity5: THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE; Name:
Kelvin; Symbol: K;
Definition: “…the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.” (1967)
Quantity6: AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE; Name: mole;
Symbol: mol;
Definition: “…the amount of substance of a system which contains
as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon-12.” (1971)
Quantity7: LUMINOUS INTENSITY; Name: candela; Symbol:
cd;
Definition: “The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of
65
frequency 540 x 1012
hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that
direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.” (1967)
Redundancy:
Defining the proper fundamental quantities is very essential as it lays
foundation for understanding physics. It is quite unfortunate that our
SI units system contains certain redundant fundamental quantities
whose unnecessary inclusion as fundamental quantities is causing a lot
of confusion in understanding physics. The effect is not limited up to
confusion, its also making physics a complete nonsense. There is no
point in carrying on with the redundant fundamental quantities.
Surprisingly many of our physicists know that redundancy of units
prevail in SI units, but their silence is just due to the fact that it
requires a complete redefinition of physics.
“For those who want some proof that physicists are human, the proof
is in the idiocy of all the different units which they use for measuring
energy.”
-- Richard P. Feynman
Even the „Bureau International des Poids et Mesures‟ identified that
the SI units are not truly fundamental and released a diagram which
gives the missing links between fundamental quantities. The diagram
clearly shows that our fundamental quantities are interrelated and
redundant. If a quantity is indeed fundamental then it must not have
any relation with the other fundamental quantities. As per the diagram
only mass, time and temperature are fundamental quantities (this was
based on assumption that arrows only originate from fundamental
quantities). I don‟t want to describe about this diagram much, anyhow
you can judge it yourselves the „amount of idiocy present‟ in our
physics as said by Feynman.
66
(Image Courtesy: www1.bipm.org)
“…The other big fault is the obvious redundancy of units. Although
not very well known to all of us, at least two of the seven base units of
the SI system are known to be redundant, namely the mole and the
candela. These two units have been dragging along, ending up in the
SI system for no reason other than historic ones. The mole is merely a
certain number of atoms or molecules, in the same sense that a dozen
is a number; there is no need to designate this number as a unit. The
candela is an old photometric unit which can easily be derived from
radiometric units (radiated power in Watts) by multiplying it by a
function to describe the optical response of the human eye. The
candela unit, together with its derived units as lux and foot-candelas
serve no purpose that is not served equally well by watt per steradian
and its derivatives. Temperature is yet another base unit that can be
made redundant by adopting new definitions for its unit. Temperature
could be measured in energy units because, according to the
equipartition theorem, temperature is proportional to the energy per
degree of freedom. It is also known that for a monatomic ideal gas the
temperature is related to the translational motion or average speed of
67
the atoms. The kinetic theory of gases uses statistical mechanics to
relate this motion to the average kinetic energy of atoms and
molecules in the system. For this case 11605 degrees Kelvin
corresponds to an average kinetic energy of one electron volt,
equivalent to 1.602E-19Joules. Hence the Kelvin could also be
defined as a derived unit, equivalent to 1.3806E-23Joule per degree of
freedom, having the same dimensions of energy. So for the Kelvin unit
we had to add the three green arrows pointing from Kg, meters and
seconds which are the SI units defining energy. Further more, the
definitions of the supplementary units, radian and steradian, are
gratuitous. These definitions properly belong in the province of
mathematics and there is no need to include them in a system of
physical units. So what are we left with? How many dimensions can
the SI system be reduced to? Looking again at the SI relations
diagram, let us see which units DO NOT depend on others, that is
which are those having only outgoing arrows and no incoming
arrows. We see that in the SI system, only the units Seconds and Kg
are independent. So, this means that the SI system can be reduced to
no more than two dimensions, without loosing any of its physical
significance of all the involved units. But we know that there are a lot
of other combinations that can lead to the same number of
fundamental dimensions and that Kg and Seconds might not be the
most physically meaningful independent dimensions. Strictly speaking
only Space and Time are fundamental dimensions.... so what are the
rest?”
- Unified theory, Blaze labs research
Unified theory by Blaze labs research was a great inspiration for me in
developing my new fundamental quantities. You can find this theory
on www.blazelabs.com. I included the above quotation from Unified
theory because it exactly defined my thoughts regarding moles and
luminous intensity. So, in the next sections I will not be considering
moles and luminous intensity as fundamental units of SI system
because they are simply useless. Before introducing to actual
fundamental quantities of the universe, let me for the first time
introduce to you the fundamental law of conservation. This
fundamental law of conservation is the basic property of any
fundamental quantity. The failure of SI units system is that some of its
fundamental quantities don‟t satisfy fundamental law of conservation.
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FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF CONSERVATION:
“It states that a fundamental quantity of nature can neither be created
nor destroyed”.
This law sounds very similar to law of conservation of energy but
in the later sections of this book I will prove that law of conservation
of energy itself originates from Fundamental law of conservation.
Proof for this fundamental law is common sense. At the beginning of
this chapter I defined Fundamental quantity as “an independent
quantity which cannot be expressed in terms of other fundamental
quantities”. Creating a fundamental quantity obviously means
obtaining a fundamental quantity from other fundamental quantities
which makes that particular quantity a derived quantity rather than a
fundamental quantity. Destroying a fundamental quantity means
transforming a fundamental quantity completely into another
fundamental quantities. This again means one fundamental quantity
expressed in terms of another which is against our definition for
fundamental quantity. Hence a fundamental quantity can neither be
created nor destroyed.
Let us now examine whether the quantities defined by SI units system
satisfies this Fundamental law of conservation or not. Since I have
already said moles and luminous intensity have no role to play as
fundamental quantities and they can be easily expressed in terms of
other fundamental quantities of SI units system therefore I am not
considering them. So, left over fundamental quantities of SI units
system are length, mass, time, thermodynamic temperature and
electric current. Let us consider each of the fundamental quantity and
check whether it satisfies Fundamental law of conservation or not.
Quantity1: Length represents space. As we all know (at least there is
no experimental proof which contradicts) that space is independent in
nature and it can neither be created nor destroyed. So SI system got
their first fundamental quantity right.
Quantity2: “Mass”, that very word excites me. We all know that mass
is a form of energy and there is experimental proof for this. This was
69
proved by Einstein exactly 100 years ago (1905 and I am writing this
in 2005) with the equation of the 20th
century (the equation of this
century will be soon arriving) E = mc2.
This very principle is utilized
in nuclear power stations to generate electricity. Did you read that last
sentence? Mass is converted into energy and that particular energy is
being converted as electricity. A fundamental quantity “mass” is
yielding another fundamental quantity “electric current”!
In fact when mass undergoes E = mc2 principle, it is converted into
radiation i.e. photonic form. And we all know that photon has zero
rest mass. Mass has all of a sudden has vanished? All this signifies
only one thing and that is mass is not a fundamental quantity. So, one
gets eliminated out of five. Let us see the fate of other fundamental
quantities of SI system.
Quantity3: Time, understanding this quantity with the present
science is very difficult. Time simply passes through all of us but it
doesn‟t get destroyed. In order to understand what I meant through
that sentence one has to know about Minkowski space. Usually we
consider Euclidean space for classical calculations and Minkowski
space for relativistic calculations. That‟s why I said understanding this
quantity is very difficult. Anyway so far there has been no proof what
so ever which proves time gets created or destroyed. So we arbitrarily
consider time to be fundamental quantity. So, two survived and one
got eliminated. Let‟s move on further.
Quantity4: Electric current, once again my pulse rate is increasing.
Just now I showed you through Einstein‟s equation that mass is
converted into energy in Nuclear reactors and electricity is obtained
from these reactors. Was that not enough to prove Electric current is
getting created from mass which itself is not a fundamental quantity!
Electricity is even obtained from kinetic energy from the water
molecules in dams. In fact this is the primary method of generating
electricity. Electricity is just a redundant fundamental unit present in
SI system. It doesn‟t satisfy fundamental law of conservation.
Therefore it is not a fundamental quantity. So, two survived and two
got eliminated. Let‟s move on to the last and final one.
Quantity5: Thermodynamic temperature, I am not joking but really I
feel our fundamental quantities are nothing but a joke.
70
Thermodynamic temperature is nothing but a form of energy. I need
not have a nuclear reactor to prove the fact that it is not a fundamental
quantity. Simply I will switch on my geyser (water heater) which
produces heated water. Surprisingly here, geyser consumes current
energy and heats water by raising its temperature. I mean, there should
be a limit for stupidity. One fundamental quantity originates another;
yet remains fundamental in nature. So, out of five fundamental units
of SI system just two survived.
By examining the above results it is clear that fundamental
quantities should be redefined. As I have already said this requires a
complete new definition of physics. Now a question arises “length and
time are the only two fundamental quantities of universe?” To know
the answer of this question one has to closely examine the way mass,
electric current and temperature were proved as non-fundamental
quantities. In all three cases energy was the intermediate form. Mass
was first converted into energy then it was transformed into electrical
energy giving electric current. Current in fact was obtained from either
mass energy or kinetic energy of water molecules. Temperature was
raised or increased using electrical energy. In all cases energy does
remain a mediator. Surprisingly energy also satisfies fundamental law
of conservation if it is considered as fundamental quantity. Then “is
energy a fundamental quantity?” The answer is no. Fundamental law
of conservation is a necessary condition for the quantity to be
fundamental but not sufficient. Let us once again examine the
definition I gave for a fundamental quantity “an independent quantity
which cannot be expressed in terms of other fundamental quantities”.
The clue lies in this very sentence. The fundamental quantity must be
independent quantity. But to define energy we require the concept of
length and time.
For a long time I was stuck at this point. I almost left this concept
abandoned for almost two years. I got the above ideas when I was in
11th
standard (Intermediate, 2002). I needed that Newton‟s apple type
of a thing to happen with me. And it did happen, only that I had to
wait for two long years. One day it happened this way “….my mother
gave me milk, and as usual I refused to drink it; my mother told me
that I am day by day becoming weaker, I need to drink milk because it
gives me energy”. That very word “energy” from by mother ignited
71
the whole new idea with which I went on to explain physics like never
before. I examined the milk; it consisted of Bournvita, sugar and milk,
the three ingredients giving energy as said by my mother. I can
recognize that Bournvita because of its color but I found the presence
of sugar only when I tasted it. Maybe similar is the case with the
“energy”. Length, Time and something unknown, when combined
gives energy.
"There are physical quantities of another kind [in the aether] which
are related to directions in space, but which are not vectors. Stresses
and strains in solid bodies are examples, and so are some of the
properties of bodies considered in the theory of elasticity and in the
theory of double [rotated] refraction. Quantities of this class require
for their definition nine [part of the "27-line"...] numerical
specifications. They are expressed in the language of quaternions by
linear and vector functions of a vector ..."
J.C. Maxwell,
"A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism",
(Vol.1, 3rd Edition, New York, 1954)
Probably this “something unknown” was what Maxwell referring in
the above quotation „unknowingly‟. Assuming this quantity to be
some unknown “x”, I did lot of dimensional analysis. It gave me a lot
of surprising results regarding the derived quantities but I needed
another Newton‟s apple or “Glass of milk” to know what this “x” can
be. So I drank lot of milk only making my mother happy but not
myself. I foolishly drank milk for the sake of an idea. But one day the
miracle happened. Once again the “glass of milk” gave me an
unbelievable idea. I noticed that sugar is getting dissolved in the milk.
It ignited the frozen chambers of my brain, I was thunderstruck.
Suddenly everything became resolved. I found the third fundamental
quantity. Don‟t be anxious, you will come to know about it pretty
soon.
Now I am going to define physics with three fundamental quantities.
In order to understand these quantities and there true definition, for the
time being one has to forget there previous definition of mass,
thermodynamic temperature and electric current since these units are
no longer fundamental.
72
The three fundamental quantities which can be considered as
construction material of the universe are:
1. LENGTH
2. TIME
3. CHAKR
Every other quantity (ex: mass, temperature, current, energy, etc) can
be expressed in terms of these fundamental quantities. Note that from
now onwards mass, temperature and current are derived quantities. I
know that right now how much curious you are to know about
“CHAKR” which I have listed as fundamental quantity. Since I have
defined it as third fundamental quantity, lets us first understand about
the first and the second quantities. Then we will move on to
understand the third fundamental quantity “CHAKR”.
Length represents the space in single dimension and space is nothing
but a medium. With the postulates of Compact discrete theory length
must be a discrete quantity. Therefore there exists a smallest
dimension of length “l” in the space. This means practically length of
any particle cannot be less than “l”. This is similar to the way we
understand the concept of charge. We all know that charge cannot be
less than 1.60217646210-19
Coulomb, generally referred as
elementary charge “e”. So charge increases as 0, e, 2e, 3e, … i.e. in
discrete steps of incremental “e”. Similarly length increases in discrete
steps of incremental “l” i.e. 0,l, 2l, 3l, …. Note that length can never
take negative values like charge.
Time represents duration. Time is something similar to a field
existing in the space. But again postulates of compact discrete theory
state that even time should be discrete quantity. Time is made up of
discrete bubbles which form spherical standing waves of time in
space. In the next chapter you will see that “the amount of time passed
away is proportional to number of discrete bubbles of time absorbed”.
Ignore the above sentence until you study the next chapter.
Here arrives the third special fundamental quantity “CHAKR”. I
am referring it as “special fundamental quantity” just because so far
we had no knowledge regarding it. Intrinsic property of „Chakr‟ is to
continuously spin and they are made up of a substance called as “mab
73
substance”. Now you may ask me “if „Chakr‟ is a fundamental
quantity then how come it is made of something?” In fact Chakr is not
made up of “mab substance” but it is “mab substance” itself. It‟s like
saying length is made up of space and time is made up of duration.
Note that you can even say that space is made up of length and
duration is made up of time. Similarly you can say “Chakr” is made
up of “mab substance”(when the first time I told this concept to my
friends they called it as mad substance but later when they heard the
whole theory the reaction was absolutely opposite). This whole
notation seems to be very strange and confusing but as you go on
studying this book you will understand why I have adopted such a
notation.
From the postulates of compact discrete theory even Chakr should
be discrete in nature (notation: if Chakr are discrete then each
discrete Chakr is referred as „Chakr‟ and on a whole referred as
„Chakras‟). Each Chakr is having a disc type of structure which
continuously spins. This disc structure of Chakr is made up of mab
substance. So from the above knowledge one can say Chakr are the
spinning discs made up of mab substance. So our universe is made up
of length (space) which acts like a medium, time which something
similar to a field and Chakr which are spinning discs made up of a
mab substance.
Now one needs to understand how discrete space is present in the
universe. Space is made up of a discrete structure made up of “spatial
cells”. Yes, like a human body made up cells even space is made up of
cells. Now don‟t misinterpret the above sentence, I just gave it to have
an initial understanding but not to think spatial cells are something
similar to human body cells (no cellulose, nucleus, Lysosomes,
ribosomes, plasma membranes, etc here. In fact D-brane concept of
superstring theory requires this plasma membrane type of
understanding).
If we consider space to be made up of spherical cells the
obviously there are voids formed in between arrangement of cells.
These voids are dimensionless quantities since they are made up of
nothing. However, you can never view the shape of a special cell
because to view it you need smaller length as reference. I understand,
74
it‟s hard to grasp this logic. You cannot say, cells are spherical or
cubic, all we can say is that they are discrete.
If a spatial cell is not available at a particular point, it‟s called as void
space. Note that you cannot measure the distance or volume of a void
space. You can detect it but cannot measure it as it doesn‟t contain
anything called as “length”. These voids can be possible reasons for
the evolution of natural constants like pie (), Napier's constant (e)
etc.
Consider Napier‟s constant (also known as Euler‟s constant) „e‟
e 2.7182818284590452353602874…
This can also be obtained from exponential expansion
e = 1 + (1/1!) + (1/2!) + (1/3!) + (1/4!) +...
e = (n =0 to ) (1/ n!)
Possibly evolution of „e‟ may be due to the discrete addition of some
kind of void space symmetry. Understanding Void space symmetries
at this level is very difficult and even I am not sure about the
possibilities.
The complete structure of spatial cells is called as „real space‟.
Each cell is completely identical to another. There are no distortions
present within the cells since the cell itself is an elementary unit. Each
cell is surrounded by void space as well as other adjacent cells. For
understanding you can consider cells as atoms and the “real space” as
molecule. Keep it just limited to initial understanding because cells
possess many other intrinsic properties.
A single “Chakr” made up of „mab substance‟ also referred as
discs which also possess spin. But the axis of the spin is random. In a
more scientific language „Chakr‟ are similar to „gyroscopes‟. Note that
you should not consider that “Chakr” are like disc that occupy space,
Chakr are independent of space. Each cell has a binary mab
occupation state. In other words each cell can be held with one Chakr
or none. Binary mab occupation state indicates whether a Chakr is
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attached in a cell or not. Usually notation followed is „1‟ for the
presence of a Chakr and „0‟ for absence of a Chakr, that why the word
binary has been used. It should be noted that „Chakr‟ can also be
present in void space.
Time is another mysterious fundamental quantity which seems to
pass through all of us. Even though we cannot feel time but we realize
that time has passed away by looking at the clock or by some other
means. Once the time passes away it never comes back. I cannot get
my childhood back because the time has passed away. Then what
happened to that time? It has passed, alright but where has it passed?
Some physicists defined time as a forth dimension as explained few of
its properties but not all. Now there will be so many questions in your
mind. What is time exactly? How time interacts with cells and Chakr?
In order to explain not just the above two questions but the whole
layout of the universe one has to go through the postulates of
“CONSTRUCTION THEORY”. But before going towards
construction theory, let us once again ask ourselves some of the
questions below. I have answered most of these questions in this book
using construction theory. If you have any other questions left in your
mind then you can answer it yourselves after reading this book.
What the true definition of energy?
Why law of conservation of energy holds well?
Why E = mc2 and what is mass?
Why are the forces originating in nature?
Why magnetism originates?
Why electrical forces originate and what is Charge?
Why magnetic and electric forces combine to form electromagnetic
forces?
Why mysteriously mass is lost in atomic nucleus?
Why are weak forces originating?
Why are strong forces originating?
Why is radioactive decay occurring?
Why was Plank‟s quantum theory so successful?
Why photo-electric effect occurs?
Why electronic structures are formed?
Why was quantum mechanics so successful?
Why Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty principle takes place?
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Why matter has dual nature?
Why are de-borglie‟s matter waves formed?
Why not quantum field and gauge theories?
Why not superstring theory?
Why gravity emanates from mass?
What is Curvature of space?
Why gravitational collapse occurs?
Why black holes form and what is mysterious singularity?
Why is anti – matter not found every where?
Why is this universe expanding?
Will there be any Worm holes present in the universe?
Can all the forces be combined to form a single G-force?
Will the universe collapse at some point of time?
For most of the above questions there are no answers in the
present physics. Because each question asks why a particular event or
a thing happening but not how it is happening. As it is already said our
physics only gives “way the things are happening but not why the
things are happening”.
And if you are a philosopher, then also Construction theory is
going to help you. As quoted at the beginning of the book “God
invented universe and it is the responsibility of humans to discover it”
construction theory proves to be a path of discovering God. Anyhow
being a physicist I haven‟t tried to answer these questions in this book
but most of my friends have told me that construction theory does give
vital understanding about few philosophical concepts.
What could be possible explanation for concept of soul?
Does God really exist?
So, here starts the construction theory…
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UNIT #5 COSMOS REDEFINED
CONSTRUCTION THEORY
The basic purpose of construction theory is to solve all inconsistencies
present in our physics. Construction theory not only gives a whole
new understanding about the universe but also explains most of the
observations of day-to-day physics. My future effort would be
developing construction theory to an extent that it explains anything
and everything. In this book you will also witness how construction
theory combines all forces of nature in a very simple and elegant way.
I always believed that some of the most hidden rules of nature are
often simple and beautiful, hence when I was developing construction
theory somewhere back of my mind the simplicity factor was there. At
this juncture I can claim that Construction theory is far simpler than
most of our present theories and this is the major advantage of this
theory.
Max Planck once said, "New scientific truth does not triumph by
convincing its opponents, but because the opponents die and a new
generation grows up unopposed to the new idea." I am expecting a
similar response to this Construction theory. From microscopic
observations to macroscopic observations, each of them can be
explained by construction theory unlike in our physics where theories
change with the level of observation. Milo Wolff (leading physicist,
creator of a new theory called as „Wave Structure of Matter‟) quotes:
“The origins of the laws had been sought for centuries. Finding all of
them at the same time and place is a philosopher‟s dream come true.
It is of great importance to science because the natural laws and
quantum spin determine the structure of the Atomic Table, which
dictates the varied forms of matter: metals, crystals, semi-conductors,
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and the molecules of life. The deep understanding of basic physics that
is revealed opens a door to broad fields of applied technology such as
integrated circuits, photonics, and commercial energy. It reveals a
universe of real quantum wave structures that we live in but seldom
see”.
Even though Milo Wolff quoted this referring to his theory
“Wave structure of matter (WSM)” but I feel this quotation is
universally valid (those who know about WSM theory will find WSM
theory will become a part of Construction theory and this is the feature
of construction theory that it not only moves forward but it takes most
of our present theories along with it by modulating them).
I would like to point out another quotation of Milo Wolff which gives
even clearer picture of universe and it says“...Human perspective has
many biases. We tend to see space as three rectangular dimensions,
one of which is the vertical gravity vector of Earth, plus two other
vectors perpendicular to it, shaped like the houses we live in. But in
the cosmos, the shape of the enormous universe is spherical whose
important dimensions are inward and outward, the direction of waves
in space. In the vast expanse of the real universe, gravity occurs so
rarely, that its direction is inconsequential in the larger scheme of
things, despite its local importance to us”.
Milo Wolff did recognize the two important dimensions of
universe as inward and outward but he had no mathematical support to
say what happens to a spherical wave when it goes on in an inward
direction. “At some instant it reaches a point and then gets reflected
and this forms a standing wave” and this was the explanation given by
Milo Wolff. If you don‟t know what are spherical waves and WSM
then just ignore the above three paragraphs.
Once Erwin Schrödinger said regarding physics as “Thus, the
task is, not so much to see what no one has yet seen; but to think what
nobody has yet thought, about that which everybody sees”. While
formulating construction theory I haven‟t seen anything special that
has not seen before, it was the mathematical theory and little bit of
common sense (though, my parents believe I severely lack common
sense!) that allowed me to think beyond. You may ask me “How
could an 18 year old boy do this?” Then my friend the honest answer
is „creativity has no relation with age‟. And the advantage I possessed
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was the new concept of mathematics i.e. Calpanic numbers that I had
recently discovered. At first I wanted to announce about my discovery
of Calpanic numbers but I just held it back because I wanted practical
applications of it. So I started applying Calpanic numbers along with
Real numbers to most of our practical observations. Months went by
and I found no success, there were "Eureka" shouts here and there but
quickly they disappeared as foolish mistakes. When I was just about
convinced that there were no observational (theoretical) calculations
that required the use of Calpanic numbers, I stuck gold.
One fine day I was reading a paper on black holes, it had a
beautiful introduction about black holes stating that “…at the center of
a black hole lies the singularity, where matter is crushed to infinite
density, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and space time has
infinite curvature. Here it's no longer meaningful to speak of space
and time, much less space-time. Jumbled up at the singularity, space
and time cease to exist as we know them”. I can't describe you how
much happy and excited I was when I read this. It was like a miracle,
for a moment everything appeared as crystal clear. The Calpanic
numbers that I thought had no practical significance appeared as
hidden solutions of the various mysteries like Singularity of black
holes.
Schwarzschild's calculation clearly shows that space and time
were longer analytically defined at singularities (also called as event
horizon). In other words space and time cease to exist at singularitity.
There is no explanation for why such phenomenon occurs and what
happens beyond singularity. When I was thinking all these, a sudden
thought occurred to me “is Minkowski space a correct representation
of space and time?” For those who don‟t know about Minkowski‟s
space, it is simply a four-dimensional space-time possessing a
Minkowski metric. In other words along with the three spatial
dimensions even „time‟ is considered as forth dimension. The
calculations performed by Schwarzschild uses Minkowski‟s space. In
fact Schwarzschild used relativistic (GTR) calculations, which in turn
use Minkowski‟s space. Lets understand this situation in a very simple
and elementary way. I don't want to scare my precious non-physicist
readers with complicated crap.
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What is a clock? Is it just a device used for measuring time,
usually by means of pointers moving over a dial? Closer examination
reveals clock doesn‟t measure time directly. It just indicates the
present time. And it is „we‟ who measure the time. I am not twisting
words but my words itself have a twist. Let us see what the twist is.
Suppose you saw a clock and it indicated time as 03:20:00PM. What
does it signify? It signifies that at the instant you saw the clock the
time is 3 hours and 20 minutes post meridian. I don‟t see any
measurement involved here. Then after certain duration you saw the
clock again (same day) it showed 03:30:00PM. It again signifies the
instant you saw clock, the time is 3 hours and 30 minutes post
meridian. Again I don‟t see any measurement done by the clock. Then
who is doing measurement? It is „we‟ who are doing measurement
because we took the readings of the clock at two different instants,
calculated the difference between the two, in the above case we get it
as 10 minutes. This is the measurement of time.
Now why am I saying all this? I am saying all this to give you a
brief picture on the behavior of time. What happened to the 10
minutes that we calculated in the above paragraph? Logically one
says, “Time has passed away”. Where has it passed away? And if it
hasn‟t passed away and if it is still there then can we get it back? Also
why time is always passing away? I find no answer for it in present
physics. Physics says time is irreversible. Then why it is irreversible?
The logic that physicists consider is “if time is reversible, then (in the
reverse direction) apple doesn‟t fall from the tree but goes up from
ground to tree and this is against law conservation of energy”. This
sounds a very good explanation for why time is not irreversible like
videotape but what if in reverse direction of time even gravity
becomes repulsive? Then Law of Conservation of energy is satisfied.
Again there is no answer. The above questions made me come to a
conclusion that our knowledge regarding time is insufficient. Hence
came the Construction theory, which utilizes the help of Calpanic
numbers. It not only explains time in detail but also about space,
length, mass etc.
Construction theory uses for the first time “the three fundamental
quantities” and “redefined real numbers along with Calpanic
numbers” which itself is a landmark of Construction theory. Before
we actually start the construction theory, I suggest you to have a
coffee break and fresh up. Let me warn you, the ideas are new and
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innovative. I would specifically like to warn students, please don't
abandon the existing physics because Construction theory just proves
it wrong. Please wait till the whole physics community accepts. Also,
no one has verified construction theory yet; hence there is a slight
possibility of loopholes. As an author, I am very confident about it
however, as a physicist I am open to criticism, drawbacks and general
flattery.
Time is not passing through us but we are absorbing time and
the same instant releasing space. To understand the above statement,
consider this thought example. “A cat is closed in a box that contains
certain amount of oxygen. As the cat breaths, oxygen present in the
box will be converted into carbon dioxide. In other words oxygen is
getting absorbed and carbon dioxide is getting released. This is
exactly the way our universe is behaving. Time is getting absorbed
and space is getting released. That is why we find time as passing and
universe expanding. Before the box turns to be oxygen deficient lets
take the cat out of the box. I am not like Schrödinger!! ”
Similarly time is like „oxygen‟ and we are continuously absorbing
it. Also when we are absorbing time, we are also releasing space
which attributes to the expansion of the universe. Now a question
arises what is making time get absorbed and space get released. Recall
in the last chapter I told universe is made up of three fundamental
quantities. So far in this chapter we have discussed only about two
quantities space (length) and time. But to talk about universe in detail
we require three fundamental quantities. So let‟s see how Chakr
influences our universe. In the last chapter I have told that a single cell
of space can bond with at maximum a single „Chakr‟. We also know
that Chakr possess spin. Whenever there is a „Chakr‟ held in a spatial
cell, then absorption of time and secretion (emanation) of space takes
place.
Understanding “how this phenomenon of absorption and secretion
takes place” involves the concept of real numbers and Calpanic
numbers. Now everything becomes real and anti-real i.e. real and
Calpanic. Therefore even our three fundamental quantities have real
and anti-real counterparts. We can arbitrarily choose that we live in
real universe with real fundamental quantities. So our three
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fundamental quantities can be called as „real length‟, „real time‟ and
„real Chakr‟. Their counter parts are called as „Calpanic length‟,
„Calpanic time‟ and Calpanic Chakr.
“Whenever there is a „Chakr‟ held in a spatial cell, then absorption of
time and secretion (emanation) of space takes place.” This was the
statement I gave in last but one paragraph. Various questions can be
asked regarding the above statement such as “What happens to the
time when it is absorbed?” “How space secretion takes place?” The
answer is, whenever there is a Chakr attached in a spatial cell; the spin
of the Chakr creates a pole-zero pair within the cell. A pole-zero pair
indicates secretion of space takes place through „pole‟ and time is
absorbed by the „zero‟. I know this is bit difficult to understand but as
you read on, the concept will be in front of your eyes. “Absorption
means taking inside” and we know that cell is made up of least
dimensions of length. When “time is absorbed” means it‟s been
pushed to zero. At this point time changes its state from real to
Calpanic.
Let‟s understand this in terms of simple physics. Time is present
over the space, we can speak about “time density” i.e. time(t) per
volume of space(l3). Now, this doesn't mean that Time is dependent on
space or Time cannot exist independently. For a dynamic universe to
exist, the three fundamental quantities i.e length, time and Chakr
needs 0interact with each other. Coming back to the actual discussion,
the denominator of the time density has the limiting factor at volume
equals to Space Cell. Since cell is the smallest possible volume,
further reduction of volume means volume reduced to zero.
Time density = t / V;
'V' denotes for spatial volume
So time density at zero volume stage is
(t /V) = (1/0)t = t
Note that this can also be obtained using r-convention. Since time and
length are volume real quantities implies time = r t ; volume = r V
time density = time/ volume = r t/r V
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r t / r V = r (1/r) t/V
= r.r (t/V)
= r (t/V)
When Volume becomes exact zero
Time density = r/0 (t) = t
Hence Time changes its direction i.e. from real time to Calpanic time.
Now there is another problem. I told in the last chapter that time is
made up of discrete bubbles which form spherical standing waves.
Then you can ask me how you can explain the concept of absorption
of time in terms discrete bubbles?Each bubble of time encloses certain
amount of volume of space. And during absorption this enclosed
volume of the bubble is made exactly equal to zero. This once again
transforms real bubble of time to Calpanic bubble of time. If you are
unable to understand the way time is changing its direction from real
time to Calpanic time without repulsion due to something then closely
examine the figure given below.
Möbius Strip (Image credit: Wikipedia- online
encyclopedia)
The Möbius strip or Möbius band is a topological object with only one
side (one-sided surface) and only one boundary component. It was co-
discovered independently by the German mathematicians August
Ferdinand Möbius and Johann Benedict Listing in 1858. A model can
easily be created by taking a paper strip and giving it a half-twist, and
then merging the ends of the strip together to form a single strip. If
84
you start walking on road which is a made like Möbius strip, even
though you don‟t change your direction, you will still become upside
down. Try imagining this looking at the figure. This is exactly the way
time behaves. If one surface of the Möbius strip is considered as real
and other one as Calpanic then you will never know that you have
changed from real to Calpanic. Similar is the case with time. Note that
in the process of conversion „volume of space‟ ‟ is becoming zero but
not time. The way you will never know on which surface you walking
on a Möbius strip, similarly „time‟ will not know that length has
become zero since both are two independent fundamental quantities.
So for a Calpanic Viewer time is not passing but time is emanating.
For him everything happens in reverse direction with respect to time.
The next big question we have to solve “why secretion of space takes
place?” For understanding this we define the first postulate of
construction theory..
Postulate1: “Space and time exhibit anti-symmetry in the state of
universe they are present”
The above postulate may sound very simple but it requires lot
thinking. Let me first define what is Real universes and Calpanic
universe. Real Universe: In real universe all the fundamental
quantities are real i.e. each fundamental quantity is prefixed with „r‟.
Calpanic Universe: In Calpanic universe all the fundamental
quantities are Calpanic i.e. each fundamental quantity is prefixed with
„ ‟.
There is a possibility of a universe containing fundamental quantities
of both real and Calpanic types. Fortunately these kinds of universes
are unstable and they collapse into either real or Calpanic. You can
derive this once you finish the book. When I say Real and Calpanic
universe, this doesn‟t mean that there are two types of universes, it is
simply signifies two different states of a universe. Next point that
needs to be cleared about the postulate is about anti-symmetry. Here it
signifies “the reciprocal behavior or characteristics of each other”. I
told that secretion of space can be understood from the above
postulate since the direct conclusion of the above postulate is, since
real-time is absorbed from real universe and is converted into
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Calpanic-time; Calpanic space must be absorbed from Calpanic
universe and is converted into real space.
This phenomenon is practically observed as well, that fact that real
universe is expanding and Calpanic Universe is shrinking signifies it.
We obtain a situation here, where space is getting secreted in form of
cells and this is the exact reason why we find Galaxies are drifting
from each other. (More details will be given in the 6th
Chapter)
So far we haven‟t seriously included „Chakr‟ in our discussion
but it‟s their turn now. „Chakr‟ which I called as special fundamental
quantity when I defined them, do have certain special properties. May
be these properties sound special just because so far we are
completely unaware of this „Chakr‟. Since these „Chakr‟ have spin
associated with them intrinsically, most of its properties are associated
with spin. But note that they are also made up of „Mab substance‟,
which does effect some of there properties. In more general terms
microscopic properties of Chakr are generally based upon there spin
function and macroscopic properties are generally due to coagulation
of „mab substance when combined with space and time‟. In order to
define other properties of Chakr lets define the second postulate of
Construction theory.
Postulate2:
“Each Chakr creates a pole-zero pair inside a cell” through which
secretion and absorption of space and time takes place”
This is the most important property of the Chakr. It alternatively states
that the “absorption and secretion of time and space takes place only
when Chakr is present in a spatial cell. This postulate is not as easy as
it sounds. It gives many conclusions that are immensely helpful in
explaining various phenomena. No more absorption of time and
secretion of spatial cells take places in the absence of Chakr.
Postulate2 mathematically defines the reason for the absorption and
secretion of space and time. In Real Universe, poles signify non-
analytic points and in Calpanic Universe Zeros signify non-analytic
points. Intelligent mathematicians can really understand what I mean
by above sentences (Non-intelligent ones can contact the intelligent
ones for explanation because I don‟t want to do mathematical analysis
86
in this book. Hopefully in my next book “Calpanic number analysis” I
will give all the proofs).
Postulate2 gives greater insight about the bubble behavior of time.
Whenever groups of Chakr are enveloped within the bubble then the
bubble bursts into smaller bubbles until each smaller bubble is
absorbed. Continuous absorption of time bubbles results in the flow of
time which is usually indicated by our clocks. In our present day
physics generally time is considered as forth dimension along with the
three dimensions of space. There are few crazy physicists who
helplessly consider our universe is made up of 26 dimensional space.
Fortunately, majority of physicists accept 4 dimension spacetime
layout of the universe. Minkowski was first to give mathematical four-
dimensional spacetime co-ordinate system. Einstein‟s special theory
of relativity is based on Minkowski‟s space. Here I have derived
Minkowski‟s space and relativity with present postulates of
construction theory.
Minkowski‟s space derivation:
If we take the special case of time bubble being spherical in shape and
if a Chakr is present at the center of the sphere, then the radius of the
time bubble continuously decreases until it is absorbed by the Chakr.
Writing the sphere equation whose radius is continuously decreasing
with „time‟ gives nothing but Minkowski‟s space representation.
Here‟s a simple derivation for this:
(Note that you are an outside observer to bubble you are measuring)
Equation of a static sphere:
x2 + y
2 + z
2 =r
2
where x, y and z are the spatial coordinates and „r‟ is the radius of the
sphere.
If a single Chakr is present at the origin then the absorption of bubble
i.e. sphere takes places which is indicated by continuous decrement in
the radius.
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You notice that radius of the bubble decreases with time. (Note that
this time is measured as per your absorption of bubble)
Therefore the equations of contracting or absorbing sphere are
x2 + y
2 + z
2 = kt
2
where k is constant. The above equation can also be represented as x2
+ y2 + z
2 – kt
2=0 , which nothing but the Minkowski Metric for k = c
2
Special theory of Relativity Derivation:
Consider there are two observers Mr. E (Einstein) and Mr. A
(Abubakr) measuring the above spherical bubble. Note that both Mr. E
and Mr. A are outside observers located at different places.
If a single Chakr is present at the center of the bubble then the bubble
contracts, let us see how Mr. E and Mr. A measures this event. Mr. E
fixes the center of bubble as origin. He finds that bubble is contracting
with time. The „time‟ he is referring is „the amount of time he is
absorbing. So he calculates the equation of the contracting bubble as:
x2 + y
2 + z
2 – k (t-tE)
2 =0 …[1]
{Where tE is time absorbed by Mr.E}
Mr. A arbitrarily fixes some other point as origin, which makes the
center of bubble as (xm, ym, zm) . He finds that bubble is contracting
with time. The „time‟ he is referring is „the amount of time he is
absorbing. So he calculates the equation of the contracting bubble as:
(x-xm)2 + (y-ym)
2 + (z-zm)
2 – k (t-tM)
2 =0 …[2]
{Where tM is time absorbed by Mr. A}
From equation [1] and equation [2].
x2 + y
2 + z
2 – k (t-tE)
2 = 0 = (x-xm)
2+(y-ym)
2+ (z-zm)
2–k (t-tM)
2
.
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The above equation is the basic equation of relativity. In deriving the
above equation I haven‟t used any postulates of relativity. So one
thing is proved that my „time bubble absorption concept‟ of time has
practical proof in the form of relativistic observations. This only
signifies Construction theory is going on track. Note that we haven‟t
yet considered spin of the Chakr and already we have obtained
mathematically that our calculations satisfy relativity. I promise that
once we consider the spin of the Chakr then even quantum mechanics
equations will also be satisfied.
Postulate3:
“The spin of Chakr is effective when Char are held in Real or
Calpanic spatial cells”
In the previous chapter I mentioned about “void space” which is a
dimensionless quantity. From the postulate2 we know that pole-zero
can only be created when Chakr are present in spatial cells. Chakr do
not possess any special properties like pole-pair when they are present
in void space. In the real or Calpanic space Chakr possess the
properties of spin whereas in void space the spin of the Chakr is an
undetermined quantity.
Postulate3 is essential in deriving the behavior of the Calpanic
universe when the spatial cells present in it are totally converted into
real space. From postulate4 we know that space is secreted from
Calpanic universe to real universe through the pole created by the
Chakr. If by the chance there is no space available in the Calpanic
universe then the Chakr tend to occupy the void space so that
secretion of space doesn‟t takes place. Some more detail of this
phenomenon is given in the next chapter.
Now with postulate4 I will be giving the definition of the first derived
quantity of Construction theory. Chakr, length and time are totally
independent quantities, so the condition arises that all derived
quantities are result of intermixing of these fundamental quantities.
Postulate 4:
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“Energy is always positive and energy of a cell is proportional to
rate of change of product of „time‟ and „spin function‟ with w.r.t
space”
E | d (t) / dl |
E | d t /dl + t d/dl |
E = |A (d t /dl + t d/dl)|
Where "E" represents energy, "t" represents Time, "l" represents
length, "" represents the Spin function of Chakr and its units are
mabs. It is given by = e –if(s,t)
(This spin function is different
from spin quantum number and „‟ is called as spherical dice or
Chakr constant, its units are mabs) And „A‟ is Abubakr‟s constant. A
has no dimensions, it‟s a void quantity.
To obtain the exact energy of group of Chakr (present in there
respective cells) then we must take summation of energies of all the
Chakr.
i.e. |A (d t /dl + t d/dl)|
Note: Our three fundamental units are
Fundamental
Quantity
Dimensional
Representation
Units Notation
for Units
Length
or Space
L Meters m
Time T Seconds s
Chakr C mabs a
Dimensional Analysis:
The first thing that comes to your mind is that the above postulate4 is
dimensionally not correct. Dimensionally E = M L2 T
-2 but here
Energy is having dimensions C L-1
T.
The explanation for this involves total redefinition of our dimensional
analysis. The problem with our classical dimensional analysis was
using redundant fundamental units.
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We will talk about the Significance of that energy equation in the later
sections of this Chapter. Let‟s see the dimensional analysis as per
Construction theory.
At present we have four quantities as per construction theory
i.e.
Length L
Time T
Chakr C
Energy C L-1
T
We can define certain basic derived quantities such as
Velocity = rate of change of position L T-1
Acceleration = rate of change of velocity LT-2
Spatial area = length2
L2
Spatial volume = length3
L3
Force = Energy/distance CL-2
T
Mass = Force/acceleration CL-3
T3
Power = Energy/time CL-1
Momentum = massvelocity CL-2
T2
Frequency = 1/time period T-1
Planks Constant (h) = Energy/frequency CL-1T2
Angular velocity =radians/time period T-1
One of the important observation from the above derived quantities is
that mass is dimensionally equal to CL-3
T3. One might ask why we
have obtained such an abnormal dimensional formula for mass. Before
you read next few lines just give a thought regarding mass. Ask
yourselves what is mass? What answer have you got? Most probably
it will be “Some thing that you can touch and feel, some thing that
occupies certain volume” and this is what exactly construction theory
reveals. Note that using Construction theory we have derived mass, so
the concept of mass is not predicted by Construction theory but
derived. Now give another look at what we have derived for mass
using Constriction theory m = [CL-3
T3]. It does contain the volume
spatial dimensions.
Let me define the derived quantities like charge and temperature in
terms of Chakr. As per the SI system dimensionally charge is equal to
[IT] but we know that charge doesn‟t vary with time. Charge of an
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electron is always equal to elementary charge „e‟ and it doesn‟t vary
with time. Also it is the current that varies with time. This gives us a
hint that there is no [T] present in the dimensional formula of charge.
Now let‟s examine the constants like Permittivity and
permeability. These are vacuum constants but still in SI system they
have mass included in their dimensions. Dimensionally permeability
is equal to [MLT-2
I-2
] in SI system. Vacuum doesn‟t have mass but
still vacuum constants have mass included in their dimensions. Same
is the case with permittivity which is dimensionally equal to [ M-1
L-
3T
4I
2] in SI system.
Vacuum in Construction theory indicates only space and time are
present hence all vacuum constants must not have Chakr present in
their dimensions. Therefore we get a condition that Vacuum constants
like permittivity and permeability must not have Chakr in their
dimensions. Also we have a condition that charge must not include
time in its dimensions because the charge of an electron doesn‟t vary
with time. If you measure electron‟s charge today it will same that of
yesterday‟s measurement of electron‟s and you will find the same
charge even tomorrow. We now have two conditions and we need one
more condition so that we can estimate the dimensions of current in
terms of length, time and Chakr. If you notice all electrostatic
calculations we find that charges always gather at the surfaces.
Similarly even the elementary charge resides only on the surface of
the electron. This alternatively means that in dimensions of charge, the
power of „L‟ is 2.
charge = [ W]a [L
2] [T
0]
Permeability () = [MLT-2
I-2
]
= [W L-3
T3LT
-2I
-2] {since M = WL
-3T
3}
= [WL-2
TI-2
]
We have a condition that permeability being a free space constant
must not have „W‟ in its dimensions. Therefore we get [W I-2]
must
be independent of „W‟ which reveals that
I = [W ½ L
b T
c]
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But we know that dimensionally q = I [ T ]
Equating the powers
[W]a [L
2] [T
0] = [ W
½ L
b T
c] [ T ]
[W]a [L
2] [T
0] = [ W ]
½ [ L ]
b [T ]
c+1
we get a = ½
b =2
c = -1
Current is dimensionally equal to [W1/2
L2 T
-1]
Charge is dimensionally equal to [W1/2
L2]
and permeability [ ] = [ L-6
T3]
Note that permeability doesn‟t contain [W] in its dimensions since it is
a vacuum constant. Let‟s cross check whether the above results satisfy
the conditions of the other vacuum constant permittivity. Note that
while deriving the dimensions of „I‟ we haven‟t used permittivity.
Permittivity () = [ M-1
] [L-3
] [T4] [I
2] in SI
= [ W L-3
T3]-1 [L
-3] [T
4] [ W
1/2 L
2 T
-1]
2
= [ W ]1-1
[ L ]3-3+4
[ T ]-3+4-2
= [L4 T
-1]
Permittivity dimensionally satisfies the conditions of a vacuum
constant since it doesn‟t contain [W] powers in its dimensions. One
proof may not convince you so let me give another proof. Let us
check the dimensions of Resistance (impedance)[R]. From the power
relation P = I 2R
Dimensions of power are [WL-1
] and current are [W1/2
L2 T
-1]
[ WL-1
] = [ W1/2
L2 T
-1]
2 R
R = [ L-5
T2 ]
Surprisingly the impedance (another name for resistance) is
independent of [W] dimensionally as per Construction Theory. You
may ask me “is there any experimental proof that even impedance
exists in vacuum or free space?” Then the answer is “yes”. Something
called, as free space impedance does exist even in vacuum. It is
93
widely used in communication. It is called as Characteristic or
intrinsic impedance. It is defined as “the definite ratio between the
amplitudes of electric field strength and magnetic field strength for a
progressing wave”. When the medium in which the wave is
propagating is free space or vacuum, intrinsic impedance is equal to
376.7303135 ohms. You cannot explain this characteristic impedance
if you are following SI system since dimensionally impedance in SI
system is ML2T
-3I
-2. We once again find that construction theory is on
right track. Also you will find various examples like mutual
inductance, self-inductance, electric capacity, conductance etc that
does exist in free space rightly proved by Construction theory.
The third quantity that we need to define for the complete
construction of derived units is temperature. According to the
equipartition theorem, temperature is proportional to the energy per
degree of freedom. Let‟s first understand what actually temperature
is. Temperature is related to the amount of thermal energy or heat in a
system. As more heat is added the temperature rises, similarly a
decrease in temperature corresponds to a loss of heat from the system.
On the microscopic scale this heat corresponds to the random motion
of atoms and molecules in the system. Thus, an increase in
temperature corresponds in an increase in the rate of movement of the
atoms in the system. This clearly reveals that temperature is nothing
but a form of energy. In the field of plasma physics, because of the
high temperatures encountered and the electromagnetic nature of the
phenomena involved, it is customary to express temperature in
electron volts (eV) or kilo electron volts (keV), where 1 eV = 11,605
K. In the study of QCD matter one routinely meets temperatures of the
order of a few hundred MeV, equivalent to about 1012 K. Everything
above clearly shows that dimensionally temperature is equivalent to
Energy i.e. [ temperature] = [WL-1
T]
Let us now see how all the quantities stand dimensionally
Sl. No. Quantity SI dimensions
Construction Set
1 Length L L
2 Time T T
3 Chakr Didn’t C
94
Exist
4 Energy ML2T-2 CL-1T
5 Area L2 L2
6 Volume L3 L3
7 Velocity LT-1 LT-1
8 Acceleration LT-2 LT-2
9 Force MLT-2 Cl-2T
10 Mass M CL-3T3
11 Mass density ML-3 CL-6T3
12 Electric current A C1/2L2T-1
13 Charge AT C1/2L2
14 Temperature K CL-1T
15 Momentum MLT-1 CL-2T2
16 Impulse MLT-1 CL-2T2
17 Power ML2T-3 CL-1
18 Angular displacement
- -
19 Angular velocity T-1 T-1
20 Angular acceleration
T-2 T-2
21 Angular momentum
ML2T-1 CL-1T2
22 Moment of Inertia ML2 CL-1T3
23 Frequency T-1 T-1
24 Plank’s constant ML2T-1 CL-1T2
25 Coefficients of restitution
- -
26 Force constant MT-2 CL-3T
27 Stress ML-1T-2 CL-4T
28 Strain - -
29 Elastic modulii ML-1T-2 CL-4T
30 Poisson’s ratio - -
31 Surface tension MT-2 CL-3T
32 Coefficient of viscosity
ML-1T-1
CL-4T2
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33 Velocity gradient T-1 T-1
34 Universal gravitational
constant
M-1L3T-2
C-1L6T-5
35 Heat ML2T-2 CL-1T
36 Coeff. Of thermal expansion
K-1
C-1LT-1
37 Specific heat L2T-2K-1 C-1L3T-3
38 Thermal capacity ML2T-1K-1 T
39 Gas constant ML2T-2K-1 -
40 Botlzmann constant and
entropy
ML2T-2K-1
-
41 Latent heat L2T-2 L2T-2 42 Coeff. Of thermal
conductivity
MLT-3K-1
L-1T-1
43 Stefan’s constant MT-3K-4 C-3LT-4
44 Magnetic pole strength
AL
C1/2L3T-1
45 Magnetic moment AL2 C1/2L4T-1
46 Flux density MT-2A-1 C1/2L-5T2
47 Magnetic flux ML2T-2A-1 C1/2L-3T2
48 Intensity of magnetic field,
Intensity of magnetization
AL-1
C1/2LT-1
49 Permittivity M-1L-3T4A2 L4T-1
50 Permeability MLT-2A-2 L-6T3
51 Magnetic susceptibility
- -
52 Electric potential, E.M.F
ML2T-3A-1
C1/2L-3T
53 Electric capacity M-1L-2T4A2 L5T-1
54 Intensity of electric field
MLT-3A-1
C1/2L-4
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55 Electric resistance ML2T-3A-2 L-5T2
56 Specific resistance ML3T-3A-2 L-4T2
57 Conductance M-1L-2T3A2 L5T-2
58 Self inductance, mutual inductance
ML2T-2A-2
L-5T3
59 Rydberg constant, wave number
L-1 L-1
60 Compressibility M-1LT2 C-1L4T-1
The above table may surprise you but it‟s true. If you want to be sure
then cross check it, you will soon find out it‟s true. You can also
deduce some of the amazing formulae using the above table. If you
have examined closely the dimensional formulae of all charge related
quantities, you will find how easy it is to derive relations between
electrical and magnetic quantities since both contain W1/2
powers.
Postulate4 gave a relation between energy and fundamental
quantities. In the equation I mentioned about the spin function which
gives the value of spin of the Chakr. This spin function is nothing but
the wave function of quantum mechanics. The absolute value spin
function ||= .
Let‟s go back again to the energy equation.
E = |A (d t /dl + t d/dl)| as/m
Spin function of the Chakr () = e-if(s,t)
Where f(s,t) is spacetime dependent spin function, with "s"
representing spatial dimensions and „t‟ is time. Let‟s consider the
special case of wave equation, such that
f(s,t) = k1g(s) + k2h(t), where k1 and k2 are constants.
= e-i(k
1g(s)+k
2h(t))
= e-ik
1g(s)
.e-ik
2h(t)
We can extend this to three dimensions as well but here for the
simplicity of derivation we are considering the special case.
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Therefore we have = e-ik
1g(x)
.e-ik
2h(t)
Differentiating the above equation with respect to „x‟ we get
d/dx = -i k1 e-ik
1g(x)
.e-ik
2h(t)
dg(x)/dx .
let dg(x)/dx = g'(x)
d/dx = -i k1 e-ik
1g(x)
.e-ik
2h(t)
g'(x)
Differentiating again w.r.t. „x‟
d2/dx
2 = (-i)
2
k1
2 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2h(t)
{g‟x}2 – ik1 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t)
dg'(x)/dx
let dg‟(x)/dx = g‟‟(x)
d2/dx
2 = (-i)
2 k1
2 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t) {g‟x}
2 – ik1 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t) g''(x)
=- k12 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t) {g‟x}
2 – ik1 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2h(t)
g''(x)
if g(x) is linear function of „x‟ such that
g(x) = Bx + D ;
Where B, D are functions independent of „x‟, then g‟(x) = B; and
g‟‟(x) = 0;
Substituting the above values of g‟(x) and g‟‟(x) in d2/dx
2 expanded
equation, we get
d2/dx
2 = - k1
2 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t) {g‟x}
2 – ik1 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2h(t)
g''(x)
d2/dx
2 = - k1
2 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t) {B}
2 – ik1 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2h(t)
{ 0 }
d2/dx
2 = - k1
2 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2
h(t) {B}
2
We also know that = e-ik
1g(x)
.e-ik
2h(t)
98
d2/dx
2 = - k1
2 e
-ik1
g(x) .e
-ik2h(t)
{B}2
d2/dx
2 = - k1
2 {B}
2
d2/dx
2 + k1
2 {B}
2 = 0
The above equation is nothing but Schrödinger‟s wave equation for
free particle and we have obtained it for a free Chakr present in space.
The principle equation of quantum mechanics has been derived using
the principles of Construction theory, which only proves that quantum
mechanics is a branch of Construction theory. Similarly you can get
the time dependent Schrödinger‟s wave equation also.
If in the Schrödinger‟s time dependent wave equation the value
of „t‟ from the contracting bubble equation (shown in the previous
section) is substituted then you obtain Dirac‟s Relativistic
Schrödinger‟s wave equation.
Postulate5:
“A Chakr absorbing time present in spatial cell is nothing but a
photon”
This postulate states that all matter is composed of photons. It should
be noted that a photon is not just a Chakr but a combination of a
Chakr present in space and absorbing time. If there is no time to
absorb then photon is said to be frozen. During the frozen state,
photon has neither energy nor velocity. To understand the properties
of photons consider a group of cells and there is only one cell in the
group which contains a Chakr and no cell adjacent to it contains a
Chakr. The energy of the cell containing the Chakr is given by
Postulate4. This energy is present in the form of „photon‟. So, we get
that “photons are discrete particles having particle nature as well as
wave nature”. You may find this statement in most of our physics
books. But there is no explanation for the duality of photons from any
single theory. Particle nature of photons was established by
photoelectric effect and wave nature was established by double-slit
99
experiments. Now let‟s see how Construction theory gives explanation
for both the properties of photons.
A Photon can only exist if it doesn‟t have adjacent Chakr. The
criterion is very essential for the existence of a photon. Whenever it is
having adjacent Chakr, the photon takes the form of matter. Let‟s first
understand how the movement of individual photon takes place.
Photon moves basing on the same principle as that of rockets. We
already know that from the postulate2 that “Each Chakr creates a pole-
zero pair inside a cell” through which secretion and absorption of
space and time takes place” Since photon is nothing but a Chakr
present in spatial cell, therefore it consumes (absorbs) time and release
cells. The liberation of cells or secretion creates push and the photon
moves in the opposite direction to the push. The spin of the Chakr
gives the direction of movement of photons. The whole mechanism
can said using a simple called as Right hand thumb rule. Right hand
thumb rule states, “if you curl fingers of right hand in the direction of
spin of the Chakr then the direction of the movement of the photon is
given by out-stretched thumb”. One important property that comes
out of this postulate is that “Velocity of a photon is constant since the
rate of liberation of cells is constant”
Planck‟s law derivation:
Let‟s find the energy of the photon from the energy equation,
assuming A to be positive:
E = |A (d t /dl + t d/dl)| as/m
For the photon rate of change of time with respect to space is given by
dt/ds = 1/c ; where c =299792458 m/s.
= e –if(s,t)
= e-i(k1g(s)+k2h(t))
= e-ik1g(s)
.e-ik2h(t)
Using above relations deriving the energy of a photon ( length is
denoted by 's')
E = |A (d t /ds + t d/ds)|
= A |/c + t d/ds ( e-ik
1g(s)
.e-ik
2h(t)
)|
= A | /c - it( k1 e-ik1g(s)
.e-ik2h(t)
g‟(s) + k2e-ik1g(s)
.e-ik2h(t)
h‟(t)dt/ds)|
100
where h‟(t) = dh(t)/dt
= A | /c - it( e-ik1g(s)
.e-ik2h(t)
)(k1g‟(s) + k2h‟(t)dt/ds)|
= A | /c – it ()(k1g‟(s) + k2h‟(t)/c)|
= A/c || |1 – it (k1g‟(s)c + k2h‟(t))|
= A/c || | 1 – it (k1g‟(s)c + k2h‟(t))|
The above equation is the energy of the photon. This will sound
absolutely crazy to you but it‟s true. You may ask me “But the energy
of the photon is given by Planck‟s law E = h f ;” Energy equation
given Construction theory reduces to the above law, here‟s a proof for
this.
Energy of the photon as per Construction theory E = A/c || | 1 – it
(k1g‟(s)c + k2h‟(t))|
In the derivation of Schrödinger‟s wave equation we obtained that
g(s) = Bx + D ; g‟(s) = B;
also comparing this equation d2/dx
2 + k1
2{B}
2 {} = 0
with Schrödinger‟s equation d2/dx
2 + ( 2P/h)
2{ } = 0
Since both represent same equation therefore B k1= 2P/h
Similarly if we consider that h(t) is a linear function of „time‟ we get
h(t) = t +k; where = 2f {f=frequency}
Note that in time dependent Schrödinger's wave equation it has been
considered h'(t) = t;
Substituting the above values of g‟(t) and h‟(t) in energy equation of
photon:
E = A/c || | 1 – it (k1g‟(s)c + k2h‟(t))|
= A/c || | 1 – it (2Pc/h + k2|
= A/c || | 1 – it (2c(P/h) + k2|
But h/P= {wavelength = Planck‟s constant/ momentum}
E = A/c || | 1 – it (2c(1/) + k2|
But we know that c/= f { velocity =frequencywavelength}
E = A/c || | 1 – it (2f+ k2|
= A/c |||1 – it(1+k2)| since, = 2f
101
Since the Energy of the photon at a instant of time, we have to
substitute t = tm where tm = Cosmic time period
E = A/c |||1 – itm((1+k2))|
= A/c |||1 – i (1+k2)(/2m )|
where wm is the minimum angular frequency of an photon. And it is
equal to 1 /2tm.. A photon cannot have a frequency below wm/2. It is
the lowermost limit for the frequency. This is also called as lower cut-
off frequency.
Now let take the absolute value ofA/c |||1 – i (1+k2)(/2m )| . For
the sake of easier calculations, lets assume k2 = 1
Substituting k2 = 1 in A/c |||1 – i (1+k2)(/2m )|
E = A/c |||1 – i (/m )|
|1 – i (/m )| = (1 + (/m)2)
1/2 since |x + iy| = (x
2 + y
2)
1/2
E = A/c ||(1 + (/m)2)
1/2 if „‟ is +ve
= A(1 + (/m)2)
1/2 /c as/m
if we are considering frequencies such that >> m then
1 + (/m)2
(/m)
2
implies E = A /(m c)
since = 2f and A/mc is a constant
E = [2A/ m c] f
This is nothing but Planck‟s equation for energy of photons
E = h f where h = [2A/ m c]
But at very lower frequencies construction theory predicts that
Planck's Formula will fail. At these frequencies energy of the photon
is equal to E = A/c |||1 – i (1+k2)(/2m )|. It remains to be seen
that Construction theory's prediction stands true or not. Let‟s move on
further and see what Construction theory has more in stock.
102
Calpanic Universe (Experimental proof):
If you have read the above postulates of Construction theory then you
must get a doubt that “If time is getting absorbed into Calpanic
Universe and Cells being secreted from Calpanic universe, then
Calpanic Universe is not hypothetical thought but it must exist in
reality. And if it is a reality then there should be some experimental
proof so that it can be accepted.” The shocking thing is that there is
experimental evidence that Calpanic universe exists in reality and it
can be sensed. All those people who are wondering about the
experimental proof of Calpanic universe must once think about “what
is dark matter and dark energy?” Do our present physics have any
explanation for them? The nature of dark energy is completely
unknown, and many radically different models have been proposed,
such as, a tiny positive cosmological constant, quintessence,
phantoms, Chaplygin gas, and dark energy in brane worlds, etc. More
than scientific reasons (except brane worlds) these theories describe
about Arabian Nights. „Phantoms and quintessence‟ is this the state of
physics today?
Dark matter is not anti-matter. Anti-matter is completely different
from dark matter. Each particle has its corresponding antiparticle, with
opposite properties - opposite charge, opposite spin, and so on. So an
anti electron (a positron) has positive charge. Also anti-matter doesn‟t
possess negative mass and it doesn‟t show any phenomenon like anti-
gravity. The properties of dark matter are completely unknown but
they show gravitational effects.)
Recent advances in cosmology demonstrate that about 70 percent
of our Universe currently consists of Dark Energy, a mysterious force
field which is causing it to expand ever more rapidly. About one
quarter apparently consists of Cold Dark Matter, a new kind of
elementary particle not yet directly detected on Earth. Only about 5
percent is made out of the ordinary atomic matter with which we are
familiar, most of that consisting of hydrogen and helium.
The coolest thing about Construction theory is that it gives
hope in resolving the unknown issues. I am not saying my theory is
the best; all I am saying is its opening the unseen doors. And I hope all
the physicists appreciate this fact. And also to be frank I want some
103
physicist to find discrepancies in Construction theory. This is essential
for the growth of construction theory and physics. Anyhow I think
such discrepancies are resolvable by modifying Construction theory
because construction theory gives perfect explanations for all the
practical observations and its foundations are correct. Anyhow future
will reveal what‟s going to be the fate of construction theory but I can
surely say that it‟s not going to be easy to prove Construction theory
wrong because it has tons of new ideas.
“…The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of
everyday thinking.”
--- Albert Einstein
Let‟s come back to the ongoing discussion, what could be the possible
explanation Construction theory gives for presence of Dark matter?
Postulate2 of construction theory says “Each Chakr creates a pole-
zero pair inside a cell” through which secretion and absorption of
space and time takes place” So far we have discussed this postulate in
terms of Real universe i.e. Real length, Real time and Real Chakr,
now lets examine in terms of Calpanic universe i.e. Calpanic length,
Calpanic time and Calpanic Chakr. A Calpanic Chakr creates a pole-
zero pair inside a Calpanic cell through which secretion and
absorption of space and time takes place. Now to understand this
easily, imagine yourselves to be a Calpanic observer. You will find a
Chakr creating a pole-zero pair through which time is released and
cells are absorbed. Note that in Calpanic universe, time is released and
space is absorbed.
For a Calpanic observer every thing happens in an opposite
direction. But a Calpanic observer will not realize it because he thinks
that‟s the correct direction. Calpanic universe is not expanding in
terms of space like ours but it is shrinking in space, whereas our real
universe is expanding in terms of space but shrinking in terms of time.
To visualize this once again you have to go back to the thought
example of the Cat.
“A cat is closed in a box which contains certain amount of oxygen.
Since the cat breaths, oxygen present in the box will be converted into
carbon dioxide. In other words oxygen is getting absorbed and carbon
104
dioxide is getting released. This is exactly the way our universe is
behaving. Time is getting absorbed and space is getting released. That
is why we find time as passing and universe expanding. Before the box
becomes oxygen deficient lets take the cat out of the box. I am not like
Schrödinger!! ”
Here in the box, the content of carbon dioxide is increasing but the
oxygen content is decreasing. Similarly in our universe content of
space is increasing but the content of time is decreasing. Whereas in
the Calpanic universe the Content of time is increasing and the content
of space is decreasing. (Don‟t make out different meanings out of „Cat
thought experiment‟ by asking even carbon dioxide contains oxygen
in its chemical composition. Here oxygen and carbon dioxide are
assumed to be two independent gasses. And this thought experiment is
only meant for understanding.)
To understand the way things happen in the Calpanic universe,
remove the cat from the box and put a plant into that box. Now the
plant will show a reverse phenomenon, it absorbs carbon dioxide
present in the box and releases oxygen. So when a plant is kept in a
closed box, the content of oxygen increases and the carbon dioxide
decreases. Similarly in the Calpanic universe space decreases and time
increases. Each Chakr creates a pole-zero pair inside a cell” through
which secretion and absorption of space and time takes place. Here
even a Calpanic Chakr creates a pole-zero pair inside a cell such that
space is absorbed and time to be secreted. So these Chakr along with
space and time do constitute a universe like ours.
A similar equation for energy is valid even in Calpanic universe.
E = |A (d t /ds + t d/ds)|
Here ' ' signifies energy is present in the Calpanic universe.
Practical proof for this energy is the presence of Dark energy and dark
matter. The reason why we are not able to identify there properties is
that they are present in Calpanic universe. The effects of this Calpanic
energy can be felt in the real universe, but we cannot touch and feel
the dark energy or dark matter. Talking about touch and feel, we the
next section Construction theory reveals what is touch and feel! Now
let‟s see what Construction theory has to say about the mass and the
105
real matter. In our present physics mass is considered as fundamental
quantity but Construction theory has different interpretation for mass
and charge.
Postulate6:
“It is the orbital interlocking of photons on the spatial lattice evolves
different manifestations of energy such as mass”
We all know that mass is form of energy. Mass can be converted into
energy through Einstein‟s equation E = mc2. Conversely this equation
can be written as m= E/c2 = kE. Now let‟s see how construction theory
deals with it. In common physics textbooks you will find that photon
has zero rest mass because Lorentz- Einstein equations reveal that any
particle having mass cannot travel with the speed of light else its mass
will become infinity. Therefore most of our physicists blindly
accepted that photon has zero rest mass. I would like to ask all those
physicists “Can a photon be at rest?”It is impossible to have a photon
at rest. You can only decrease the velocity of photons by passing them
through a medium of higher refractive index. And to obtain a photon
at rest you need a medium with refractive index equal to infinity,
which surely doesn‟t exist in the universe. When there is nothing
called as rest for photon, I really don‟t understand how so many
people accepted that there is something called as “Zero Rest Mass”.
As per the construction theory, mass is a different manifestation of
energy but its properties are completely different from that of photon.
Let‟s first understand what is mass. Postulate6 states “It is the
orbital interlocking of photons on the spatial lattice evolves different
manifestations of energy such as mass” I think you might have noted
the word “orbital interlocking of photon” in the postulate6. Photons
interlock themselves into orbits, forming a structure. A probable
interlocking mechanism is shown below.
106
Here 5 photons have interlocked themselves. This is one among the
different types of interlocking present. Electrons, protons, neutrons
and all other sub atomic particles have interlocked orbiting photons
present in them but in a different scheme. A single photon cannot
interlock itself in an orbit. A minimum of two photons is required to
interlock themselves into orbits to form matter. During this process
their radiation energy gets converted into mass energy. If 5 photons as
shown in the above diagram interlock themselves, then there total
mass if equal to
m = 5hf/c2
Once the photons get interlocked into orbits, no more they possess the
individual frequency „f‟. When the mass is at rest the interlocked
Chakr possesses a minimum spin function which attributes to the
invariable mass of the particle. Whenever the particle is imparted a
velocity the spin function of the interlocked Chakr increases causing
an increase in the overall mass. This increased mass of the particle is
called as variable mass. Also whenever a particle has a velocity, the
photons present in it not only revolve in the interlocked orbits but also
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move in the direction of velocity. Due to these conditions a particle
cannot have a velocity equal to 299792458m/s (referred as „c‟)
because once the velocity of the particle is „c‟ then the velocity of the
orbiting photons within the particle has to exceed „c‟. And that‟s the
reason a body having mass cannot have velocity equal to or more than
299792458m/s.
Charge of a particle arises due to surface photons. In the figure shown
above there are four surface photons. These four surface photons are
not interlocked to four other photons like the center photon and this
causes the slight imbalance resulting in Charge. The charge of the
particle depends upon the direction of orbit of each surface photon.
The angular velocity of the surface photons is slightly higher than that
of inner photons due to non-interlocking with four other photons. All
inner photons have a stable and constant angular velocity. If more
amount of surface photons are orbiting in the clockwise or
anticlockwise then the particle possesses net charge on its surface. If
equal number of photons are present both in clockwise and
anticlockwise direction then net charge of the particle is equal to zero.
It is arbitrary to consider whether an anticlockwise direction is
positive or clockwise direction is positive. If one is positive then other
has to be negative. Further details about mass and charge are given in
the next chapter under the section “What is mass?” and “what is
charge?”
Postulate7:
“Each fundamental force of nature arises due to one fundamental
quantity acting on the other two fundamental quantities”
Energy is formed only when all three fundamental quantities are
present. In fact postulate4 defines real energy as Chakr present in a
spatial cell absorbing time and releasing spatial cells. Alternatively
one can say that each fundamental quantity is combining with the
other two fundamental quantities and producing energy. In this
process each fundamental quantity generates its own characteristic
properties to transmit this energy. This transmission of a characteristic
property is what we define as „force‟. In the present model of physics
there are four fundamental forces.
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1. Electromagnetic force
2. The weak force
3. The strong force
4. Gravitational force
But construction theory predicts only three types of forces to exist in
nature. They are
1. The Chakr force or particle force
2. The space force or cell force
3. The time force or bubble force
Electromagnetic force and weak force are the different manifestations
of Chakr force or electroweak force. In Chakr force, the Chakr are
transferred to mediate the forces. Chakr force is said to exist when
particle exchange takes place between two bodies. The particles with
which transmission of Chakr forces takes place are called as bosons.
Photons, W and Z particles are the examples of bosons.
Whenever two interlocked orbits of two photons are very close to
each other then spatial force binds them so that the orbits don‟t fly
away. Spatial force is felt only when the orbits of photons are very
close to each other. Space force doesn‟t use any particles to transmit
the force. The spatial medium itself transfers the force unlike Chakr
force. When „n‟ number of photons which are interlocked in orbits are
sufficiently closed to each other then spatial force binds them together
so that it can form a single particle. Strong force is the example of the
space force.
Due to continuous absorption of time by the Chakr present in the
spatial cells time produces a drift force on the bodies toward each
other. This thought example will a better picture of time force.
“Suppose you immerse two sponges at a distance in a water tub then
sponges start absorbing water present in the tub. Also you will find
that there movement or drift towards each other between the two
sponges. This drift of sponges is caused by water.” Even time
produces the same effect. It causes the bodies to drift towards each
other when they are absorbing time. Gravitational force is the example
109
of time force. Complete analysis of each force is given in the next
chapter.
In the next chapter you will see how these 7 postulates are used to
give the brief description of universe.
110
UNIT #6 COSMOS REDEFINED
ANSWERS
The root cause of confusion is lack of understanding. Lack of
understanding arises due to unanswered questions. Here in this chapter
I have tried to answer briefly various questions using construction
theory. The questions I have chosen are the most interesting and
common questions. Well, you can consider that these questions are
sort of FAQ that will arise after reading the previous chapter. After
reading each question, first try to answer the question yourselves and
then have a look at the answer given by construction theory.
What the true definition of energy?
Postulate4 of construction theory defines energy as “Energy is always
positive and energy of a cell is proportional to rate of change of
product of „time‟ and „spin function‟ with w.r.t space”. Construction
theory clearly defines energy as combination of all three fundamental
quantities which form this universe. In the absence of any
fundamental quantity the system will not have any energy whatsoever.
This definition of energy is quite contrary to the way energy has been
defined in the present physics. In our present physics energy has been
wrongly defined not only in terms of dimensions but also its very
existence. In our present physics, even though electrical current is not
involved dimensions of energy still produces energy, similar is the
case of temperature. In our physics textbooks we normally find
various definitions of energy forms its different forms such as “mass
energy”, “radiation energy”, “kinetic energy”, “Potential energy”,
“thermal energy”, “electrical energy”, etc. Construction theory
combines all these type of energies under one single equation i.e.
111
E = |A ( d t /ds + t d/ds)| as/m
The above equation is enough for the calculations of all types of
energies. But the process involves lot of calculations. As per
Construction theory energy transfer between any particles can take
place in three ways. Energy transfer involving bosons is the
electromagnetic way or the Chakr exchange way of energy transfer. In
this process photons (bosons) are exchanged between two or more
particles. Whenever the particle absorbs a boson its energy is said to
be increased by the extent of the energy of boson. These bosons can
be real or virtual. All electromagnetic and weak forces involve
exchange of bosons; hence the energy transfer is called bosonic
energy transfer. Whenever an electron absorbs a photon either its
kinetic energy is increased or it moves to a higher exited state. This
type of energy transfer forms the crux of all quantum electrodynamics.
Second type of energy transfer takes place via spin transfer or
spin exchange. Whenever the two particles or in contact the spin
function of the Chakr present in them attains to a spin equilibrium i.e.
whenever a particle of higher spin function is kept in contact with a
lower spin function then spin transfer takes place between the two
particles until a equilibrium is established between the two particles.
Example of this type of energy transfer is the collision between two
particles where instantaneously momentums are exchanged. This type
of energy transfer exists predominantly in the nucleus of the atom.
This type of energy transfer is responsible for the stability of quarks
and for the formation of nucleons.
The third type of energy transfer is very different from the above
two types. This type of energy transfer is so strange that here actually
no transfer of energy takes place. Wait, I haven‟t gone mad, have a
little patience soon you will come to know why I said that. In order to
have a clear picture of this type of energy transfer, I am presenting this
thought example.
“Two cats are closed in a very long box which contains certain
amount of oxygen. Both the cats are positions at two different ends of
the box. As both the cats breathe, there is a continuous decrease in the
112
oxygen content available in the box. With the limited amount of
oxygen present in the box the cats are going to die once the oxygen
gets totally consumed. Suppose one cat breaths more than the other
one, then obviously the life of the other cat is also affected by the
excessive breathing of the first cat. Indirectly the excessive breathing
of the first cat is diminishing the life of other cat too. There is
absolutely no transfer of direct information here and yet one action is
affecting another.”
(Issued in the Public Interest: Please don‟t try this experiment at home
or laboratory else Schrödinger‟s soul will not rest in peace.)
A very similar type of phenomenon occurs in the nature. From the
postulate2 of the construction theory “Each Chakr creates a pole-zero
pair inside a cell” through which secretion and absorption of space
and time takes place” time is continuously absorbed by every body. A
body having larger amount of Chakr will absorb more amounts of
time and vise-versa. The more absorption of time by heavier body
causes an inverse effect on the lighter bodies present in the near
surrounding of it. At every instant the lighter bodies will have lesser
time to absorb. With less absorption of time even the energy of the
lighter body decreases (since dt/ds decreases). Indirectly a change in
energy is taking place without any transfer of anything. If you think
this is the craziest concept you have ever heard then, yes it is but it has
experimental proofs so it is correct.
Due to more absorption of time by a higher body the lighter body
must undergo time dilation as it is absorbing less amount of time. This
kind of time dilation is also predicted by General theory of relativity
and it has already been proved. Light waves traveling past the sun are
slowed down by this time dilation by a small but measurable amount.
In 1975 the Viking Mars Lander performed the initial confirming
experiment of gravitational time dilation by relaying radio signals
back to earth from the Martian surface on the other side of the solar
system. Although the effects of the intervening solar wind complicate
the experiment, NASA scientists demonstrated clearly that the radio
signals took longer on their round trip by just the amount predicted by
the predicted slowing of time.
113
Another prediction of Construction theory is the loss of energy of the
lighter object in the close presence of a heavier object. This indeed
happens to the lighter objects. Light loses energy escaping from a
gravitational field. Because the energy of light is proportional to its
frequency, a shift toward lower energy represents a shift to lower
frequency and longer wavelength or a shift toward the red for visible
light. This gravitational redshift was first observed for the absorption
features from White Dwarf stars, whose light is shifted by about 1Å. It
was experimentally verified on earth using gamma-rays traveling from
the basement to the top of the Jefferson Tower Physics Laboratories at
Harvard. In the coming sections of this chapter you will see why this
type of energy transfer is associated with gravity.
What is mass and Why E = mc2?
Postulate6 of the Construction theory states that “It is the orbital
interlocking of photons on the spatial lattice evolves different
manifestations of energy such as mass”. For the interlocking of
orbitals to occur the number of photons required are two or more.
With interlocked orbitals, the resultant structure is always 3-
dimensional. For maintaining the stability of the orbits the photons or
the Chakr of the photons tends to have minimum spin function (this
statement can also be proved mathematically).
From the above sentences one can say mass is 3-dimensional
manifestation of energy. Therefore mass must be defined in terms of
volume of energy or energy must be directly proportional to cube of
energy.
m E3
m = k E
3
where k is a constant equal to ( nAavg)-2
n = total number of Chakr present in interlocked orbitals
A = Abubakr‟s constant
avg = average value of the spin function within the
interlocked orbitals
therefore
m = E3/( nAavg)
2
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The above mass is the „rest mass‟ or non „variable mass‟ of the body.
Whenever this mass given a velocity, then the mass tends to change.
This change in the mass is due to increase in the energy as well as
increase in the average value of spin function. Whenever the mass has
a velocity then its internal parameters such as energy and spin
function change. Fortunately, from the forth postulate we know that
energy is directly proportional to the rate of change of spin function
and the time w.r.t. space which makes spin function and energy to
change by equal amount.
‟avg = avg
E‟ = E
Therefore m‟ (variable mass) = E‟3/( nA‟avg)
2
= (E)3/(nAavg)
2
= { E3/( nAavg)
2}
m‟ = m
Experimentally it can be found that = ( 1 – (v/c)2)
-1/2 which is also
called as Lorentz factor. If in a particle the interlocked orbitals of the
photons are broken down then the mass of the particle becomes zero.
The photons are now no more locked in the orbits. Hence the energy
takes the form of radiation energy.
According to construction theory rest mass of a particle
m = E3/( nAavg)
2 ……………..[1]
during the rest state the value of spin function of the individual Chakr
of photons is minimum.
i.e. d/ds = 0
then the energy of individual photon at the state of transformation
(when the interlocked orbitals are broken down)
Ep = |A ( d t /ds + t d/ds)|
= |A||d t /ds + t (0)|
= |A| |||dt/ds|
for a free photon dt/ds = 1/c; Let | | = p;
115
therefore energy of the single photon = Ap/c
if the particle has „n‟ number of photons then
E = {p=1 to n} Ap/c
= n Aavg/c
where avg is the mean of the amplitude of spin function.
E = n Aavg/c
Or avg = c E/nA ……………[2]
Substitutin equation [2] in equation [1]
m = E3/( nAavg)
2 but avg = c E/nA
= E3 / ( nA c E/nA)
2
= E3 / ( cE)
2
= E /c2
or E = mc2
All the calculations in the above derivation are made at moment the
transformation from interlocked state to radiation state are going on.
That‟s the Einstein‟s mass-energy conversion law that so far had only
practical proof but not theoretical derivation. Exactly 100 years later
Construction theory has come up with a proof.
Long back, I made an attempt to interpret energy-momentum equation
in a different sense applying some cool ideas inspired from my
electronics subjects. I don‟t know whether its correct to include this
here, however, I want my interpretation to reach out a wider audience
than get confined in my lost notebooks. I haven‟t done any thorough
search on this in various journals, so if such interpretation already
exists, then it‟s pure co-incidence. The total energy of the particle of
rest mass „m‟ is equal to its intrinsic mass energy and kinetic energy.
Intrinsic mass energy refers to mc2 and kinetic energy refers to the
energy due to momentum. Being an electronics student I tried to
interpret energy as impedance. Impedance analysis is done using
complex numbers which is used to represent resistive impedance as
real quantity and reactive impedance as imaginary quantity.
116
Z = R + j( wL – 1/wC) { impedance for simple RLC series circuit }
where j = sqrt(-1)
Note: In Electronics, the alphabet „i‟ is extensively used for
representing electric current, that‟s one of the reason imaginary
number i is written as „j‟ to avoid confusion.
Complex numbers are very helpful in simplifying the calculations.
May be due to some inductive effect of electronics I started writing
energy for a moving particle in the complex form.
E = Ev + j Ei
where Ev = pc ; p = momentum;
Ei = mc2 ; m = rest mass; c = 299792458m/s
I mplies E = pc + jmc2
The complex conjugate of E will be E* = pc – jmc2 (Hint: this
representation can be used to denote anti-matter, further research
needs to be done on this)
E E* = (pc + jmc2)( pc – jmc
2)
|E|2 = (pc)
2 + (mc
2)
2
|E|2 - (pc)
2 = (mc
2)
2
The above equation is relativistic energy-momentum equation.
Writing the above equation for the energy in the polar form gives
E = sqrt((pc)2 + (mc
2)
2) e
itan-1(mc/p)
Let tan-1
(mc/p) =
= sqrt((pc)2 + (mc
2)
2) ( cos()+ jsin())
cos () = pc/E ; sin() = mc2/E
I played with the above equations with all the little trigonometric
knowledge I have. Found some surprising results, applying cosine –
sine expansion series was great fun, frankly for the first time I enjoyed
playing with relativity.
For the velocities „v‟ such that v<<c, then Taylor‟s series
approximation for energy-momentum equation gives
117
E mc2 + (1/2) mv
2
p mv
I will leave it to you to interpret it the way you want it to.
Why are the forces originating in nature?
FORCE – this simple five letter word in the English dictionary is
probably the most significant word in the world of science. Not just in
science but also in every aspect of life it has lot of significance. An
interaction that can cause an acceleration of the body is called a force.
That‟s the definition of force we get from Newtonian mechanics. Even
though we find hundred‟s of types of forces existing in the nature but
they all can be classified under four types. These forces are also called
as fundamental forces of the nature. These forces are
1. Electromagnetic forces
2. Weak forces
3. Strong force
4. Gravitational force
These four forces are the secret behind the beauty of the universe.
Every observed physical phenomenon, from galaxies colliding with
each other to quarks jiggling around inside a proton, can thus be
explained by these interactions. Because of their fundamental
importance, their understanding has occupied the attention of
physicists for over half a century, and continues to do so. The
Unification of the fundamental forces of nature into a single force
which occupied Einstein‟s attention for much of his later life is very
much a current focus of research. There has been some success in this
process as our beloved physicists have successfully combined
electromagnetic and weak forces as a manifestation of a single force
called as Electroweak force. In the quantum field theories even the
strong force is theoretically combined with the Electroweak force.
Anyhow there is no concrete experimental proof for this. Before I
bring forward how construction theory deals with these four
wonderful forces, let me give a brief overview of these four forces.
118
Electromagnetic force:
Electromagnetic force exists between charged particles, famously
described by Coulomb‟s law. The exact description of electromagnetic
forces is given by a highly successful theory called as Quantum
electrodynamics (QED). It was Faraday who first established the link
between electricity and magnetism; later Maxwell (1860‟s) further
analyzed electromagnetism and established first self-consistent laws
for electromagnetism. Maxwell‟s electromagnetic theory was valid for
moving charges but he had no idea what these moving charges are. It
was in 1897 the moving charges of Maxwell were discovered as
electrons by J.J. Thomson. This discovery led to various new theories
of electromagnetic forces. With the evolution of Quantum mechanics,
new stunning electromagnetic properties of electrons were revealed.
QED is the branch of Quantum mechanics which deals with
electromagnetism. In QED, magnetism is not just caused by moving
charges in an electrical wire but also due to spin angular momentum
and orbital angular momentum of the charged particles.
Even though QED is quite complex but it is very accurate in
determining different interactions between charged particles at micro
level. Physically, this translates to the picture of charged particles (and
their antiparticles) interacting with each other by the exchange of
photons. The magnitude of these interactions can be computed using
perturbation theory; these rather complex formulas have a remarkable
pictorial representation as Feynman diagrams. QED was historically
the theory to which Feynman diagrams were first applied. In short one
can say that each electron senses the presence of the other by
exchanging photons.
Weak force:
Weak forces are very short-ranged and are responsible for the
radioactive Beta decay. This is one of the strangest force where
number of conservation laws are broken down (CP parity is broken
down). It is experienced by all the particles except gluons and
photons. In ordinary matter, its effects are often negligible; however,
despite their slow rate and short range, weak interactions play a
crucial role in the make-up of the world we observe. Usually one
notices the weak force in beta decay.
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Weak force is transmitted by three massive bosons W+, W- and Z
bosons. Weak decays are responsible for the fact that ordinary stable
matter contains only up and down type quarks and electrons. Matter
containing any more massive quark or lepton types is unstable. If
there were no weak interactions, then many more types of matter
would be stable. The weak interaction was first recognized in
classifying the types of nuclear radioactive decay chains, as alpha,
beta, and gamma decays. Alpha and gamma decays can be understood
in terms of other known interactions (residual strong and
electromagnetic, respectively). But, to explain beta decay required the
introduction of an additional rare type of interaction which resulted in
weak interaction.
Beta decay is a process in which a neutron (two down quarks and one
up) disappears and is replaced by a proton (two up quarks and one
down), an electron, and an anti-electron neutrino. According to the
Standard Model, a down quark disappears in this process and an up
quark and a virtual W boson is produced. The W boson then decays to
produce an electron and an anti-electron type neutrino. This can be
represented by the Feynman diagram:
Strong force:
Strong nuclear force refers to attractive force which holds the nucleus
together. The strong nuclear force acts between all nucleons, protons
and neutrons alike. Strong force is much greater than the force of
electrostatic repulsion which exists between the protons inside the
nucleus. The strong nuclear force is a short-range force. It acts
between nucleons if they are less than l0-15
m apart, but is essentially
zero if the separation distance is greater than 10-15
m. The quantum
theory of the strong force is called quantum chromodynamics or QCD.
120
bvIn QCD, the strong force is carried by particles called gluons and it
acts between particles that carry a "color charge", i.e. quarks and
gluons. Composite particles such as nucleons or mesons are made up
out of quarks. The fundamental aspect of the strong force binds quarks
together to form hadrons such as the proton and neutron. The residual
strong force, also called nuclear force or nuclear interaction, is
responsible for the interactions between hadrons. It can be described
by an effective theory where the mediating particles are mesons. The
residual strong force holds together protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Strong force is understood in terms of Quark Model. Every quark
carries color charge which comes in three types: "red", "green" and
"blue". These are just names and not related to ordinary colors.
Antiquarks are either "anti-red", "anti-green" or "anti-blue". The
attraction between a color and its anti-color is especially strong.
Particles can only exist if their total color is neutral (commonly
referred to as a color singlet), meaning that they can either be
composed of a (anti-)red, (anti-)green and (anti-)blue quark (such a
particle is called a baryon; protons and neutrons are examples), or of a
quark and an anti-quark having the corresponding anti-color (such a
particle is called a meson). As pairs of quarks interact, they constantly
change their color, but in such a way that the total color charge is
conserved. If a red quark is attracted to a green quark inside a baryon,
a gluon carrying anti-green and red color is emitted from the red quark
and absorbed by the green quark; as a result the first quark switches to
green and the second to red (total color charge remains green + red). If
a blue quark and an anti-blue antiquark interact inside a meson, a
gluon carrying for example anti-red and blue could be emitted by the
blue quark and absorbed by the anti-blue one; as a result the blue
quark turns red and the anti-blue antiquark turns anti-red (total color
charge remains 0). Two green quarks repel each other by exchanging a
gluon carrying green and anti-green color; the quarks remain green.
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Gravitational force:
This is the force that we think we are totally aware of. It‟s the weakest
of all forces. Gravitation was the first kind of interaction which was
explained by a mathematical theory. Isaac Newton's law of Universal
Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behavior of
gravity. In 1915, Albert Einstein completed the General Theory of
Relativity, a more accurate description of gravity in terms of the
geometry of space-time. Einstein showed that gravitation is due a
curvature of space that is caused by the masses.
The gravitational field equation given by Einstein is
Rab – ½ Rgab = -(8G/c4)Tab‟
Where Rab is Ricci tensor, R is scalar curvature, gab is metric tensor, G
is Gravitational constant and Tab‟ is energy-momentum curvature. The
above field equations of general relativity are a set of nonlinear partial
differential equations for the metric. As such, this distinguishes the
field equations of general relativity from some of the other important
field equations in physics, such as Maxwell's equations (which are
linear in the electric and magnetic fields) and Schrödinger‟s equation
(which is linear in the wave function). This is another reason why
general theory of relativity is so difficult to understand.
The Unknown Fifth Force:
Another interesting theory which emerged in 1986 was the existence
of gravitation like “fifth force”. Even though there is no concrete
proof for the existence of “fifth force” but time and again there have
122
been announcements about its existence in many physics journals. A
“fifth force” would arise from the exchange of a new ultra-light boson
which couples to ordinary matter with a strength comparable to
gravity. There are numerous theories of physics at the Planck scale
which predict the existence of such ultra-light bosonic fields, whose
effect is to modify the expression for the interaction energy V (r) for
two point masses m1 and m2:
V(r) =−G∞m1m2 (1 +e-r/
)/r
Here r = |r1 − r2| is the separation of the masses, and G∞ is the
Newtonian gravitational constant for r → ∞. The constants α and λ
characterize the strength of the new interaction (relative to gravity),
and the range of the new force. Differentiating V (r) leads to the
following expression for the force F (r), which is what is measured in
most experiments:
F (r) = −V (r) = −G(r) m1m2ˆr/ r2 ,
G(r) = G∞[1 + α(1 + r/λ)e−r/λ
]; Go ≡ G∞(1 + α),
From above equations that in the presence of a “fifth force” (α 0) the
usual inverse-square law breaks down. It follows that a search for
deviations from the inverse-square law can be interpreted as a probe
for new forces, and hence of physics at the Planck scale [arXiv:hep-
ph/9606249].
That was the brief introduction to various known forces in our
beautiful and mysterious universe, though I understand that I haven‟t
described them in detail. Actually, I was never good at explaining the
contents already available in the books; probably that‟s one of the
reasons for the lesser marks in get in exams. Ever since these forces
were discovered, most of physicists have shown intensions to combine
all the forces of nature into a one single force. What that mean is most
physicists including Albert Einstein believe that all the forces present
in the Universe are the manifestation of a single force. The first
indirect success to this process came in 19th
century when Faraday and
Maxwell combined the Magnetic forces and Electric forces under a
single force called as Electromagnetic forces. After this initial success
there was no good news until 1979 when Weak forces and
electromagnetic forces were identified as different manifestation of
single force called as Electroweak force. The electroweak theory was
developed in the period from 1961-1967, primarily by the work of
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Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg, and Abdus Salam, who were
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979 for their work.
As per Electroweak theory the weak and electromagnetic interactions
are mediated by particles whose spin equals one, some of which have
charge and mass. Although these two forces appear very different at
normal low energies, the theory successfully models them as two
different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy,
which is of the order of 102 GeV, they would merge into a single
electroweak force. Other properties of electroweak force are explained
using gauge bosons and Higg‟s mechanism. CPT symmetries and
groups of gauges are the most difficult things to understand so I am
avoiding the explanation of it.
Inspired from the success of electroweak force, some of our
physicists have made a theoretical model called as standard model
where even strong force is transmitted by a bosons called as Gluons
and Higg‟s bosons. This model has just been confined to theory as
there is no concrete proof for the existence of Gluons and Higg‟s
boson. Note that gravity is not a part of standard model. Although the
Standard Model does a credible job in explaining the interactions
among quarks, leptons, and bosons, the theory does not include an
important property of elementary particles, their mass. The lightest
particle is the electron and the heaviest particle is believed to be the
top quark, which weighs at least 200,000 times as much as an
electron. In 1964 Scottish physicist Peter W. Higgs of Edinburgh
University proposed a mechanism that provided a way to explain how
the fundamental particles could have mass. Higgs theorized that the
whole of space is permeated by a field, now called the Higgs field,
similar in some ways to the electromagnetic field. As particles move
through space they travel through this field, and if they interact with it
they acquire what appears to be mass. The particle associated with the
Higgs field is the Higgs boson, a particle with no intrinsic spin or
electrical charge. Although it is called as a boson, it does not mediate
force as do the other bosons. The Higgs boson has not yet been
practically observed in advance particle physics laboratories. Finding
it is the key to discovering whether the Higgs field exists, whether
Higgs‟s hypothesis for the origin of mass is indeed correct, and
whether the Standard Model will survive.
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Name Spin Charge Mass Experimental
conformation
Photon 1 0 0 yes
W+ 1 1 80GeV/c2 yes
W- 1 -1 80Gev/c2 yes
Z 1 0 91GeV/c2 yes
Gluon 1 0 0 Indirectly
Higg‟s
boson
0 0
>78GeV/c2 no
Even though our models have gone very far in explaining different
observable facts concerning the forces, still there remains ambiguity
regarding the energy behind the evolution of magnetism, charge and
gravity. Okay, enough of bragging about the past, now let‟s see how
construction theory deals with all these mysterious- cum- non
mysterious forces of nature. Since construction theory is compatible
with the ideas of quantum mechanics as well as relativity, the
equations dealing with different forces does remain same except few
changes due to Calpanic numbers. Postulate7 of construction theory
gives the reason behind the evolution of forces in the universe.
Postulate 7 states that “Each fundamental force of nature arises due to
one fundamental quantity acting on the other two fundamental
quantities”. Since there are three fundamental quantities, there must
be foundationally three types of forces present in the nature. Each
individual foundation force of nature can have its different
manifestations at different energy levels. Each force carries a
characteristic property with is related to an individual fundamental
quantity. The three types of foundational forces are
1. Chakr force or particle force.
2. Space force or cell force and
3. Time force or bubble force
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One essential criterion for the existence of these forces is the presence
of all three fundamental quantities. In the absence of any one of the
fundamental quantity these forces are not present. The forces which
are transmitted by the particles are called as Chakr forces or particle
forces. Usually these forces exist between two bodies when they are
separated by certain distance and possessing energy. Here particles
which act as carrier are usually referred as bosons. This type of forces
exhibit due to the properties of Chakr hence they are named as Chakr
forces. You will see in the later sections of this chapter how charge
and spin of the particles is related to intrinsic spin of the Chakr present
in the spatial cells. Examples of this type of forces are
electromagnetic forces and Weak forces.
The second type of force is the spatial force or cell force. This
force is the source behind the formation of all elementary particles.
This force exists due to compact interlocking orbitals of the photons
present inside the elementary particles like electrons. Due to spatial
force, the cells present inside an elementary particle behaves as if it‟s
a one single cell. This is another reason why the particles don‟t get
split away even though space is continuously emanated from each of
the Chakr present in it. It is very short range force. If the quarks do
exist, then the stability of the quarks is due to presence of cell force
inside then that binds the interlocked orbitals of photons.
The third kind of force emanates due to the absorption of time by
each and every Chakr present in a spatial cell. The natural tendency of
every Chakr to absorb time as much as possible causes this kind of
force. This force causes a drift of bodies towards each other. Example
of this force is gravity which is caused due to space-time curvature.
The complete explanation of this force is given under section “What is
gravity?” Now lets see how individual forces and there effects are
explained using construction theory.
What is Charge? and Why electrical forces originate?
“Charge is an intrinsic characteristic of the fundamental particles; it
automatically accompanies those particles whenever they exist”. This
is what our physics text books say when it is asked “what is charge?”
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Most physicists believe charge is something very similar to mass.
Even in the quantum field theories charge finds the same definition.
May be it‟s because SI units contain a separate fundamental unit for
charge (actually it‟s for current „Ampere‟; charge is equal to Ampere-
sec). Whatever might be the case, in our present physics there is no
definition for charge even though the concept of existence of charge is
known from thousands of years. This is the unfortunate state of
physics. Why can‟t we separate charge from the particle? Can I make
an electron lose its charge by some mechanism? I used to always ask
my professors these questions but found no reply. Reason – our
physics simply have no explanations for these questions.
Construction theory reveals lots of information which was
unknown regarding charge. To make it short let‟s directly start the
explanation given by the Construction theory regarding charge.
Postulate6 of construction theory states “It is the orbital interlocking
of photons on the spatial lattice evolves different manifestations of
energy such as mass” If we examine the internal structure of the
particle having mass, we find that surface orbiting photons are less
interlocked compared to the internal orbiting photons.
Examine the above picture of interlocked photons. It‟s a 3-
dimensional figure consisting of 14 photons interlocked. Analyzing
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the figure we find the internal orbitals (marked yellow) are bonded to
four other orbitals. Due to the symmetry of interlocking the inner
orbits are perfectly stable. The outer orbitals such as blue and red are
each interlocked with two and one photons respectively. This creates a
tendency in these outer photons to get interlocked with surrounding
photons to attain stability. This very phenomenon gives rise to Charge
of the particle. This approach of defining charge is very similar to the
way Chemical bonds formed between the atoms. In fact the reason for
the formation of the chemical bonds between atoms evolves right from
the definition of charge given by the construction theory. The angular
velocity of the outer or surface photons is higher than the inner stable
photons. This creates an affect that we all call as „charge‟. Note that
charge only exists on the surface of the particle. Charge exists in three
states i.e. positive charge, negative charge and zero charge. The sign
of the charge depends on the direction of rotation of the surface
photons. If more amount of surface photons are orbiting in the
clockwise or anticlockwise then the particle possesses net charge on
its surface. If equal number of photons are present both in clockwise
and anticlockwise direction then net charge of the particle is equal to
zero. It is arbitrary to consider whether an anticlockwise direction is
positive or clockwise direction is positive. If one is positive then other
has to be negative.
Whenever there is net charge available on the particle, the surface
photons exert force on the surrounding particles which have net
charge. Charge of the particle is directly proportional to the root of the
absolute value of spin function of the surface Chakr or photons and
the surface area of the particle.
q (Surface area) ()
(Surface area) ()
= A
where determines the whether the particle is positive,
negative and zero charged. only takes a triplet of values ( -1, 0, +1)
and „A‟ is the surface area. For gaining the stability a positive charged
particle will attract a negatively charged particle, so that the surface
photons of both the particles get stabilized. But a positive charge
particle will repel another positive charge because it creates further
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instability among the surface photons. The force between two charged
particles (q1, q2) is mathematically given by given by Coulomb‟s law.
F = k q1 q2 / r2
From here on you can refer to any physics text book for understanding
electrical forces. I can give more about this topic but I have to cover
other topics as well in this book and as you know I am very lazy in
giving explanations.
Why magnetism originates?
From where does magnetism originate? This question takes you deep
inside an atom. The orbital movements of electrons to the spin angular
momentum are some of the reasons for the magnetism. Here Quantum
mechanics is the king which rules and orders all the mechanisms to
happen. Unfortunately Quantum mechanics is a puppet in the hands of
something else which we don‟t know. I said that because Quantum
mechanics has no explanation why the elementary particles have spin
angular momentum?
On the macroscopic level, magnetism originates through moving
charges. Maxwell‟s laws of electromagnetism are based on this type
of magnetism. But that‟s not the only way magnetism originates, even
the electrically neutral particles like neutron possess magnetic
moment. Classical physics of Maxwell collapses at these stage and we
have to take the help of quantum mechanics. Magnetic moment of
static particles can only be explained by spin angular momentum of
the particles. As a quantum mechanical property, spin possesses a
number of qualities that distinguish it from classical angular
momentum. It is quantized, and can only take on discrete values. For
instance, the spin angular momentum of an electron, measured along
any particular direction, can only take on the discrete values i.e. 1/2 or
-1/2. Furthermore, the magnitude of the spin (a direction-independent
quantity) is uniquely determined by the type of particle. Other spin-
half particles include neutrinos, protons, and neutrons. Photons are
spin-one particles, and the hypothetical graviton is a spin-two particle.
Certain exotic particles, such as pions, possess spin zero. The
principles of quantum mechanics indicate that spin is restricted to
integer or half-integer values, at least under normal conditions.
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Particles with spin possess a magnetic moment, just like a rotating
electrically charged body in classical physics. However, this magnetic
moment exists even for so-called point particles like the electron, and
for electrically neutral particles like the neutron. This magnetic
moment can be experimentally observed, by the deflection of particles
by inhomogeneous magnetic fields (as in the Stern-Gerlach
experiment) or by the magnetic fields generated by the particles
themselves. In fact, ferromagnetism arises from the alignment of the
spins of the atoms in a solid.
Construction theory reveals why the particles possesses a spin
angular momentum in a simple and logically correct way. In the
previous section I explained charge as a phenomenon concerning the
surface interlocked photons of the particle. I also told that angular
velocity of the surface photons is slightly greater than the internal
completely interlocked photons. This extra angular momentum of the
surface photons causes the spin angular moment of the particles. Note
that charge is also not dependent directly on the angular momentum of
the surface interlocked photons. The excess angular momentum of the
surface interlocked photons causes the spin angular moment of the
particle which in turn causes magnetic moment. Probably this is the
internal reason for the continuous magnetic field created by the earth.
I haven‟t yet derived the mathematical equations connecting the spin
and the excess angular momentum of the surface photons. I hope after
reading this you may derive the equations. You might be the next
Dirac!!
Why magnetic and electric combine to form electromagnetic
forces?
Having already learnt about Charge and magnetism at the fundamental
level it is very easy to explain this question. Magnetism and electric
charges evolve due to the different parameters of the surface
interlocked photons of the particle. From these considerations one can
derive quantum mechanical laws as well as macroscopic Maxwell‟s
laws for electromagnetic forces. Generally all the electromagnetic
laws consider the macroscopic effect of the moving charges.
Maxwell‟s laws are based on this consideration. Now let‟s see why a
moving charge creates a magnetic field around it. Any particle when
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absorbs photons its external energy increases. The increase of external
energy could be in various forms such as increase in thermal energy,
kinetic energy etc. For the moving charges we are bothered about
increase in kinetic energy. The charges are moving only because some
external energy is applied to them so that they attain certain kinetic
energy. On the macroscopic level, when large number of charges are
flowing, the total surface interlocked photons of the charges create not
only create electrical forces to lose their instability but also the excess
overall angular momentum of the surface interlocked photons creating
a magnetic field perpendicular to the electrical field. This
electromagnetic field is released in the surroundings through photons.
These liberated photons are not the interlocked surface photons of the
charged particle but the photons absorbed by the charged particle
which allowed it to gain kinetic energy. Once the photons are liberated
the charge particles lose some amount of there kinetic energy. This
can be also stated as “after liberating photons the charged particles
lose their momentum to some extent”. In electrical circuits, the loss in
the momentum of the moving charged particles is measured as
Voltage between two points.
Why are weak forces originating?
According to the construction theory, whenever the particle
absorbs Chakr or photons its gains external energy. Generally the
externally energy is less than internal energy, but in some rare cases
the external energy exceeds the internal energy. This is the situation
where weak forces come out of their den. To be more precise weak
forces are nothing but a form of electromagnetic force. Generally
whenever a photon is absorbed by a particle, the energy of the photon
is transferred to the particle and the photon gets loosely attached with
the surface interlocked photons. In case of charged particles the
symmetry in spin of the surface photons doesn‟t exist. I mean to say
the number of clockwise rotating surface photons is not equal to the
anti-clockwise rotating photons (from the definition of charge). Due to
non-symmetry the absorbed photons are released or liberated easily by
the surface interlocked photons. But in non-charged particles due to
symmetry absorbed photons are accumulated at the surface. As said
earlier these excess photons increase the external energy of the
particle to such an extent that the surface interlocked photons tries to
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break away from the actual particle. At some point the particle
collapses and some of the surface interlocked photons get split away
from the actual particle.
Beta decay is a process in which a neutron (two down quarks and
one up) disappears and is replaced by a proton (two up quarks and one
down), an electron, and an anti-electron neutrino.
n p + e- + v
When the neutron gains excess amount of energy, the surface
interlocked photons generate a tendency to breakaway from the
internal interlocked photons. At some critical energy stages the
surface photons breakaway from the interlocked internal photons.
Surface interlocked photons break away arises two different
situations. In the first situation the surface interlocked photons may
break away into individual photons. This generally happens when a
heavy nuclei gets disintegrated into lighter nuclei which releases
enormous energy.
In the second situation the surface interlocked photons may break
away in a cluster of interlocked photons. This cluster again behaves
like a particle with charge and mass. This exactly is the phenomenon
occurring in the beta-decay of the neutron. First the neutron gains
energy more than its internal mass energy due to absorption of
photons. This creates a photonic cloud over the surface of neutron. At
a critical energy a cluster of surface interlocked photons breakaway
along with the photonic cloud from the internal interlocked photons.
When the cluster of surface photons break away from the main
particle, the clockwise-anti clockwise symmetry of surface photons is
broken down and the main particle exhibits charge. That is why
neutron gets converted into proton. Now lets see what happens to the
cluster which got liberated from the particle. This cluster may exhibit
charge due to non symmetry of surface photons. The cluster of
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photonic cloud and interlocked photons again breaks down until stable
particles are formed. The energy of the photonic cloud is shared by the
stable particles. In the beta decay of neutron the stable particles are an
electron, proton and an anti-electron neutrino. The intermediate
breakaway cluster in the case of beta decay is a W boson.
Why are strong forces originating?
By the end of 19th
century many electromagnetic laws were
established. But the physicists had little idea about the internal
structure of the atom. In 1897 J.J Thomson discovered that negative
charges are present in the form of elementary particles called as
electrons. Atoms were electrically neutral so there must be also some
kind of positive charge present in the atom. It was generally believed
that positive charge is present in a form of fluid and negative charges
swim in the pool of it. In 1911 Rutherford discovered that positive
charge in an atom is concentrated at the center of the atom, forming a
nucleus which contributes to the mass of the atom. This force is much
greater than the force of electrostatic repulsion which exists between
the protons. Classical forces failed to explain the stability of the
nucleus. Instead of getting repelled from each other, the positive
charges present in the nucleus were bonded by some mysterious force.
So our outstanding physicists came up with an idea that some kind of
strong force which is greater than the force of electrostatic repulsion
exists in nature. This was the origin of strong force.
According to the construction theory the strong force or cell force
originate due to the internal interlocked photons of the particle.
Actually it‟s the property of the spatial cells that bond these photons to
get interlocked with each other. Without the strong force the mass
doesn‟t form. In other words the photons get interlocked with each
other only due to the cell force. The formation of the nucleus of the
atom is due to residual strong force. The absolute strong force acts
within the internal structures of protons, neutrons, electrons and every
other particle. Our physics textbooks say that strong forces do not act
on the electrons since they are leptons. Construction theory contradicts
here, it states strong forces are present inside the electron and strong
forces do act on electrons. The stability of the internal structure of the
electron is only due to the strong force. The leptons (electron) are
immune to the residual strong forces but not to the actual strong
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forces. The so called quarks and nucleons are susceptible to the
residual strong force.
What is gravity?
Richard P. Feynman in his book "The Feynman Lectures on Physics"
revealed our true knowledge regarding the understanding of gravity by
quoting:
"But is this such a simple law? What about the machinery of it? All we
have done is to describe how the earth moves around the sun, but we
have not said what makes it go. Newton made no hypotheses about
this; he was satisfied to find what it did without getting into the
machinery of it. No one has since given any machinery. It is
characteristic of the physical laws that they have this abstract
character. The law of conservation of energy is a theorem concerning
quantities that have to be calculated and added together, with no
mention of the machinery, and likewise the great laws of mechanics
are quantitative mathematical laws for which no machinery is
available. Why can we use mathematics to describe nature without a
mechanism behind it? No one knows. We have to keep going because
we find out more that way. Many mechanisms for gravitation have
been suggested. It is interesting to consider one of these, which many
people have thought of from time to time. At first, one is quite excited
and happy when he "discovers" it, but soon finds that it is not correct.
It was first discovered about 1750. Suppose there were many particles
moving in space at a very high speed in all directions and being only
slightly absorbed in going through matter. When they are absorbed,
they give an impulse to the earth. However, since there are as many
going one way as another, the impulses all balance. But when the sun
is nearby, the particles coming toward the earth through the sun are
partially absorbed, so fewer of them are coming from the sun than are
coming from the other side. Therefore, the earth feels a net impulse
toward the sun and it does not take one long to see that it is inversely
as the square of the distance because of the variation of the solid
angle that the sun subtends as we vary the distance. What is wrong
with that machinery? It involves some new consequences, which are
not true. This particular idea has the following trouble: the earth, in
moving around the sun, would impinge on more particles, which are
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coming from its forward side than from its hind side (when you run in
the rain, the rain in your face is stronger than that on the back of your
head!). Therefore there would be more impulse given the earth from
the front, and the earth would feel a resistance to motion and would
be slowing up in its orbit. One can calculate how long it would take
for the earth to stop as a result of this resistance, and it would not take
long enough for the earth to still be in its orbit, so this mechanism
does not work. No machinery has ever been invented that "explains"
gravity without also predicting some other phenomenon that does not
exist."
This is the weakest force of nature and the most mysterious. So far no
one has been able to accurately define this force. Attempts start from
Newton to Einstein but all they were able to achieve was to model the
practical observation. In the second chapter I have already mentioned
drawbacks of each theory. In quantum gravitational theories it has
become like a fashion to describe about gravity in terms of particles
called as gravitons. The graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle
that transmits the force of gravity in most quantum gravity systems. In
order to do this gravitons have to be always-attractive (gravity never
pushes), work over any distance (gravity is universal) and come in
unlimited numbers (to provide high strengths near stars). In quantum
theory, gravitons are defined as an spin two boson with a rest mass of
zero.
Gravitons are postulated simply because quantum theory has been so
successful in other fields. For instance, the electromagnetic interaction
can be very well explained by the application of quantization to
photons, a science known as quantum electrodynamics. In the
electromagnetic case photons are being continually created and
destroyed by all charged particles, and the interactions between these
photons produce the macroscopic forces we are familiar with, like
magnetism. Many attempts to model the success of electrodynamics
for gravity finally led to introduction of a so-far unseen graviton,
which would work in a fashion somewhat similar to the photon. It was
hoped that this would quickly lead to a quantum gravity theory;
although the mathematics became convoluted and no internally
consistent theory has yet emerged.
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I will now prove that „gravitons‟ doesn‟t exist. Gravitons are
considered to have same velocity that of photons. If photons cannot
escape the gravity of blackholes even though they have velocity equal
to 299792458 m/s then how can gravitons escape the gravity of a
black hole? It sounds quite strange but think about it for a moment;
you will find how stupid our physics is. My point here is that for a
blackhole, gravitons will be absorbed by the blackhole itself as soon
as mass emanates them since there velocity is less than the escape
velocity of the blackhole. If gravitons do exist then blackholes must
show zero gravity because it cannot emit gravitons so that it can
attract other bodies. This is a complete contradiction with the practical
observation. Hence assuming that gravity is spread by so called
gravitons is just a hoax which can never be proved scientifically.
Construction theory explains gravity with a simple mechanism basing
on the postulate7. Postulate7 states “Each fundamental force of nature
arises due to one fundamental quantity acting on the other two
fundamental quantities” Gravity arises due to time acting on the Chakr
and space. Gravity doesn‟t emanate from the mass but it gets
terminated within mass. Let‟s first examine the below diagrams
showing how time acts on space and Chakr.
Now there are two bodies inside a time bubble. Both the bodies pull
the time bubble towards itself so that the Chakr present in the body
can absorb time. This creates a force which is shown as below
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Among the two bodies, the body having higher number of Chakr will
have more number of pole-zero pairs which alternatively means it
absorbs more amount of time. So, on the bubble of time the pull by the
heavier body is more. But it is essential that both the bodies absorb
time.
As the bubble diminishes in size the smaller body moves towards
heavier body so that it can have its share of time. This movement is
nothing but gravity. Note that in the above explanation for the
simplicity we have used only one time bubble; in the real case any
finite number of time bubbles can be present.
Already it has been shown that time bubble concept satisfies relativity
under the section “relativity derived”. Gravity doesn‟t emanate from
the bodies but it is just the drift of lighter bodies towards heavier
bodies so that they can absorb time. You may ask me “if gravity
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occurs this way then why Newton‟s gravity and Einstein‟s gravity
were so successful in explaining gravity?” The reasons are very
simple.
Mass of the body is proportional to the volume of time absorbed.
Therefore gravitational force between the two bodies comes out to be
proportional to the product of masses. In fact it is product of volumes
of time absorbed by the two bodies and since volume of time is
proportional to the mass, the Newton‟s law works well for many
macroscopic calculations.
Einstein‟s gravity work‟s out well for accurate calculations
because it also considers the „released space‟ when the time is
absorbed indirectly. Space-time curvature results only when time is
absorbed and space is released. We have been using Space-time
curvature for so long without proper explanation but Construction
theory gives why such phenomenon is occurring.
Why was Plank‟s quantum theory so successful?
When Planck proposed the concept of „discrete energy packets‟ his
main goal was to explain the theory behind black body radiation. As
per the postulates given Planck, the oscillating molecules at the
surface of a blackbody can only have discrete units of energy, so that
En = nhf where „n‟ is a positive integer, is the quantum number, „f‟ is
the frequency of the vibration of the molecules and „h‟ is Planck's
constant. The molecules are said to have discrete energy levels and
can only emit or absorb energy in discrete packets, the energy of each
packet being, E = nhf. Because the energy is emitted in fixed
quantities, this approach has become known as quantum theory. The
packets of energy are called energy quanta and the energy of the
oscillator is said to be quantized. Using his assumptions, Planck found
that the distribution of blackbody radiation is given by
I(, T) = 2hc2/(5
(ehc/k
bT-1))
h = 6.626 10-34
Js.
Rayleigh-Jeans law (obtained from Classical physics) is compatible
with Planck‟s Law for black body radiation at long wavelengths. In
other words, Plank's law reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans law for large
wavelengths. In a sense, Planck‟s law extends classical physics rather
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than overthrowing it. This is analogous to the way special relativity
agrees with classical physics at low speeds. Even though Planck‟s
quantum theory successfully explained the black body radiation it
only got wide acceptance when Einstein in 1905 explained
photoelectric effect with the help of Planck‟s quantum theory.
In fact it was Hertz who discovered photoelectric effect. Hertz found
that when light falls on certain metals, electrons are ejected from the
surface. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect. But
classical physics had no explanation for this effect because in classical
electromagnetism, the light is modeled as a wave that carries energy
uniformly along its wave front. It is found that increasing the
frequency f of the light, increases the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. Also, for frequencies below a certain value, the cut-off
frequency, f0, no photoelectrons are produced, regardless of how
intense the light is made. However, classical theory predicts that some
photoelectrons would be produced at all frequencies.Einstein took
Planck's idea one step further. He realized that the photoelectric effect
could be explained if the energy in light was concentrated in packets
instead of being spread out as in classical theory. In other words,
Einstein postulated that light energy was quantized as well. The
quanta of light radiation are now called photons, a name invented by
Compton. Einstein used Planck's formulae for the amount (or
quantum) of energy, E, in each photon;
E = hf = hc/
The above idea resolved the problems listed above as follows:
Photons arrive at the metal the moment the light is turned on and
so there is no delay before the ejection of a photoelectron.
Higher intensity light means more photons per second and thus a
greater photocurrent. But, the energy of each photon does not change
and so the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is constant.
Changing the frequency of the light changes the energy of the
photon. If the frequency falls below the cut-off value, the photons do
not have sufficient energy to eject an electron.
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The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
metal surface is called the work function . This is the binding energy
of the electron.
The maximum kinetic energy a photoelectron can have after
ejection is
Kmax = (energy of photon) – (work function)
= hf -
Light with a frequency f < f0 where, hf0 = , will not have sufficient
energy to eject electrons from the metal. Einstein's explanation of the
photoelectric effect cast Planck's quanta idea as more than a
mathematical tool; quanta were now to be regarded as real physical
objects (photons). Later in 1923 Compton proved the existence of
discrete packets of energy called photons. Note that Compton‟s effect
also included relativistic calculations.
Planck‟s quantum theory can explain experimental observations that
can not be explained by classical physics. It established the fact the
radiation i.e. light has particle nature as well. It gave nightmares to the
believers of Maxwell and classical physics. With all the above said,
the Planck‟s quantum theory was more or less a mathematical tool.
Because it never explained why such things are happening instead it
gives brief idea about the way things are happening. It can only
explain the experimental observations that cannot be explained by
classical physics. Planck‟s quantum theory doesn‟t give explanations
for wave nature of light.
Now let me explain why Planck‟s quantum theory was successful in
explaining some of the experimental observations using construction
theory. Planck‟s quantum theory co-incidentally satisfies the
postulates of Compact discrete theory. For higher frequencies i.e. f >>
fm, Energy of the photon is linearly proportional to the frequency of
the photon.
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Reason 1: Let us understand in what way Planck‟s quantum theory
satisfies the postulates of Compact discrete theory. The two postulates
of Compact discrete theory states that:
1. There are only two types of number systems practically
applicable, they are Integers & Natural Constants number
system
2. Every physical quantity can be expressed as integral multiple of
natural constant.
From the postulates the fundamental quantities length, time and Chakr
are discrete. As Construction theory each photon is nothing but a
Chakr present in a spatial cell which is absorbing time. So the energy
quite obviously comes out to be a discrete quantity. It was coincidence
that assumption of Planck matched with the postulates of Compact
discrete theory.
Reason 2: As per the Planck‟s quantum theory, energy of the photon
is given by „E = hf‟. Contrary to this Construction theory predicts the
energy of the photon to be E = A/c ||(1 + (/m)2)
1/2 where wm is the
minimum possible frequency or cut-off frequency of the photon.
When the frequency of the photon is much higher than the cut-off
frequency then the equation given by Construction theory reduces to E
= k f , where „k‟ is a constant. This is nothing but Planck's law for the
energy of the photon.
Almost in all experiments in the physics we have only used
frequencies above 3 Hz, that‟s why Planck's law has been successful.
Once we analyze experimentally the frequencies between 10-10
to 10-20
Hz then we have to use the energy equation of construction theory.
What‟s the secret behind Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty principle?
Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty principle, proposed in 1927 by German
physicist Werner Heisenberg has been always debated for confusion it
creates regarding the position and momentum of the particle. It states
that measured values cannot be assigned to the position C and the
momentum B of an article simultaneously with unlimited precision.
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Why can‟t we define the position of the particle simultaneously along
with the momentum? Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty principle simply gives
the error but doesn‟t give the necessary explanation for this
phenomenon. Here‟s the explanation for this so called mysterious
phenomenon called as Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty principle. As per my
theory “a Chakr creates a pole-zero pair inside a cell”. Zero absorbs
time in discrete bubbles and pole emanates space in form of cells.
Therefore whenever a particle is present in a space, obviously it
indicates that Chakr are present. This creates pole-zero pairs inside the
particle. Therefore time is absorbed and space being emanated. When
momentum is calculated along with the position vector of the particle
at a particular instant it has been assumed that space remains constant.
Since we haven‟t taken under account the emanating space an
uncertainty occurs in calculations of position and momentum. The
instant we are calculating position and momentum that very instant
even space has been changed, this is exactly the reason for the
occurrence of Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty principle. Had our
calculations take under account the emanating space from the
Calpanic time then no such uncertainty occurs.
Why not quantum field and gauge theories?
Quantum field and gauge theories were made by some of our
physicists due to their inability to explain the universe through a
simple theory. In is impossible for an ordinary human to understand
quantum field theories. I can surely say that even the researchers of
quantum field theories don‟t understand it exactly. If they reveal this
then they will lose their jobs hence they keep quite by spoiling the
lifes of the students. Believing in quantum field theories is equivalent
to living in a fool‟s paradise. Quantum field theories are lost in the
jungle of wild insensible mathematics. The below is a sample equation
of quantum gauge theories…
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Our physicists prefer to write papers on gauge theories because it‟s
very easy to get a paper approved considering that even the editors
don‟t understand them. The complex the equations you write the faster
your paper gets approved. You need not worry about the paper getting
proved wrong, it almost takes 20 years for some else to prove your
paper wrong. Till then you can produce another 50 papers. I am sure
after some time there will be a logo issued by the human welfare
societies on the text books of quantum guages theory textbooks as
“DON‟T TRY THIS AT HOME”.
You need not curl up your hand across the neck to put bread in
the mouth; rather put it directly in the mouth. You have to choose
which method you want use, the quantum gauge theory or the
Construction theory.
Why and how gravitational collapse occurs forming a blackhole?
When I was in 11th
standard, I wrote a small fiction story about a
super hero called “Mr. Only” and his famous collision with a black
hole. You might be quite stressed after reading all the innovative
portions of this book, so I am just briefly describing the comic fiction
story to chill your brain. Mr. Only was the loneliest person on this
earth. He had no friends and that always made him feel frustrated and
unhappy. Everybody disliked the views of Mr. Only because he was
totally different in every aspect of life. But the fact was that no one
ever understood his innovative ideas, his kind heart and great
ambitions. Instead of hating people, Mr. Only decides to leave the
planet earth. He builds a rocket which can travel at a velocity higher
than the escape velocity of the earth so that he can leave the earth and
settle down on Europa, the Jupiter‟s second moon. When Mr. Only
was making the rocket everybody makes fun of him and further they
paint on the rocket as “Mad man‟s scrap”.
After lot of hard work Mr. Only succeeds in making the rocket which
can travel at very higher velocities than escape velocity of earth. To
generate the enormous thrust the rocket uses energy obtained by the
annihilation of electrons-positrons (that‟s why it‟s a fiction story).
Finally the worst day arrives and successfully Mr. Only leaves the
earth. When the rocket was about to pass the Jupiter a mysterious
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slingshot effect takes place and the rocket pick up enormous speed.
Within few hours the rocket escapes the gravity of sun. Helplessly Mr.
Only prays to the God for a miracle. To make the conditions worst,
Mr. Only realizes that the rocket is marching towards a black hole and
it‟s too late to change the direction of the rocket since it has already
entered the gravitational field of blackhole. Now the rocket is under
free fall towards the singularity of the blackhole due to its gravity. The
speed of the rocket further increases and it becomes almost close to
the speed of light. For the last time Mr. Only prays to the God that
“God if I go to hell then please forgive all others so that I am the only
person in the hell”.
A miracle occurs, due to the high velocity of the rocket the mass of
the rocket increases enormously. So enormous that it becomes equal
to the mass of the blackhole itself. Finally a super massive elastic
collision occurs between the blackhole and the rocket which reverses
the direction of momentum of the rocket. Mr. Only thanks God for
saving his life and returns back to the solar system. To say his
adventure with the blackhole, Mr. Only returns to the earth. Before he
can say anything about his adventure he notices a great change in the
behavior of the people towards him. Shocked with the behavior of the
people Mr. Only forgets his adventure with blackhole. All of a sudden
Mr. Only becomes the most attractive person on the earth. He starts
getting more attention than the superstars of the Hollywood.
Everything Mr. Only does becomes international news with every girl
going mad for him. Mr. Only finds absolutely no reason for the
change in the behavior of the people, yet the people start adoring him.
Due to his kind nature and the humble heart, Mr. Only succeeds in
establishes peace and order in the world. Finally one night God
appears in Mr. Only‟s dream and says “Even though everyone
misbehaved with you, neither had you complained me about them nor
you cursed them. I liked your act so much, so I transformed all the
attractive properties of the blackhole into you during the collision,
that‟s why the people are finding you so attractive”.
The end.
That was the brief summary of the fiction story I wrote during my 11th
standard which involved blackhole concept. I hope you liked it, if not
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just forget it. I know I am very bad at story telling. This book is meant
for scientific things not for fiction stories. Anyhow let‟s briefly know
when the blackhole forms scientifically.
When the helium core of a giant star is depleted, things rapidly get
worse. The less massive giant stars heat up and violently expel their
remaining hydrogen and helium envelope, exposing their hot, dense
cores. They eventually end up as tiny, faint white dwarfs with masses
of 1.44 Suns or less. The more massive giants, up to about 8.5 solar
masses, generate such high core pressures and temperatures that the
fusion process forges ahead, converting carbon into oxygen, neon,
magnesium, silicon, sulfur, argon, and calcium. The structural
rearrangements of these stars caused by these new sources of energy
expand their envelopes even further, a billion kilometers. These
enormous, bloated super giant stars have an average density some one
billion times lower than that of the original main sequence star. They
evaporate and slowly spiral into the deep interior of the star, where
they are ripped apart by tidal forces and dissipated as vapor. Super
giants, not content with broiling their planets, actually expand and
swallow them up. The end of the giant era is probably not survivable.
Most damaging, however, are giant stars of about nine solar masses or
larger (above main sequence spectral class B3). These stars, after
running the course of nuclear fusion up to calcium, continue on to
make the iron-group elements, then develop catastrophic internal
instabilities and blow themselves up. These supernova explosions hurl
up to 90 percent of the mass of the star out at a percent of the speed of
light. Supernova explosions briefly shine with the luminosity of a
small galaxy. The residue from a supernova explosion, a neutron star
or a black hole, is a tiny body with incredibly high density. The
blackhole is nothing but a dead burnt out star with very high density.
It doesn‟t contain lighter elements in it so that can fusion occurs hence
it is non-luminous. Gravity of blackholes is very high due to their
compact structure
Blackholes have finite mass with finite gravity associated with it.
Gravity of blackholes is very high due to there compact structure.
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There is no supernatural hole in a blackhole which sucks up all
the bodies surrounding it.
You can safely orbit around a blackhole like the satellites orbit
around the earth.
You cannot practically see a blackhole even if you have the world
biggest telescope because even light cannot escape from the gravity of
the blackhole. But the gravitational effects of the blackholes indicate
their presence.
Blackholes do not possess all the same properties of a black body.
Those were the clarifications for the readers who so far considered
blackholes as some mysterious heavenly bodies. There are few other
interesting things about blackholes which no textbook of physics says.
Construction theory has a complete different interpretation for
blackholes. According to construction theory singularity within a
stable blackhole doesn‟t exist. I know that GTR calculations yield
singularity but it is also true that GTR fails at smaller dimensions. A
number of rigorous theorems imply that singularities in the structure
of spacetime develop inside black holes. Unfortunately these theorems
tell us practically nothing about the locations and the nature of the
singularities. It is widely believed today that in the singularity inside a
realistic black hole the characteristic of the curvature of the spacetime
tends to infinity. Close to the singularity, where the curvature of the
spacetime approaches the Planck scale, the General Relativity is not
applicable. We have no a final version of the quantum theory of
gravity yet, thus any extension of the discussion of physics in this
region would be highly speculative. Though the construction theory
predicts singularity doesn‟t exist within a blackhole, it makes no
contradiction with the practical observations. I know these all sounds
a bit weird but let me first present the way Construction theory
interprets blackholes. Probably after reading further the weirdness of
Construction theory vanishes.
Blackhole are ordinary massive objects with very high gravity
due to their compactness. The mass density of blackholes is very high.
When a star of mass larger than nine solar masses undergoes
supernova event, then there are two possibilities. If the left over core
mass is less than 2 or 3 solar masses then it becomes neutron star and
if the core mass exceeds then the core further collapses forming a
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blackhole. Our present physics predicts that core collapses until it
forms a singularity but it might be not the case. We know that when
left over core mass exceeds 2 or 3 solar masses not even neutron
degeneracy pressure can hold the core due to its intense gravitational
forces. As per construction theory this gravitational collapse stops at a
critical density of the core due to spatial force or the strong force. At
critical density strong forces dominate gravitational forces and
electromagnetic forces. The whole core forms a super single structure
in which all the photons are interlocked in orbitals forming a compact
connected structure. This whole structure is connected due to strong
force or spatial force. The question of neutron or any other subatomic
particle existing in this state doesn‟t arise as at this state the whole
core itself is super atomic particle.
Due to strong force the whole structure is highly stable with a
very high gravity. The super dense structure creates so much
spacetime curvature that even a photon cannot escape through it. To
understand further about blackhole lets consider a hypothetical alien
named „Abu‟ who resides on the blackhole. For Abu, the blackhole is
very much like our planet earth with few differences. Since he lives on
a blackhole and he must be quite adapted to the extraordinary gravity
of the blackhole. What I mean through that sentence is his body must
have enough strength to bear the force of gravity without getting
crushed (that‟s why he is hypothetical alien). Before going further I
would like to say that “this whole thing about Abu is a thought
example and reader must not think much about this hypothetical alien
Abu but rather think about what information Abu can give us about
blackhole”. When Abu looks at the sky he can see all the beautiful
stars very much like us. In fact if he has exceptional telescope then he
can even see us. But he has one problem and that is the key to the
blackhole mystery. We can communicate with Abu but Abu cannot
communicate with us. We can communicate with Abu by sending
light signals to him but he cannot send a signal anywhere outside
blackhole. If Abu projects a laser light towards the sky, the spacetime
curvature is so high that the beam of light curves so much that it falls
back on the blackhole like a projectile. In other words the escape
velocity of the blackhole is so high that even velocity of light is not
enough. Even here there are two possibilities depending on the mass
of the blackhole. If the mass of the blackhole is less then the photons
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projected by Abu may go in an orbit around the blackhole. These
orbiting photons acts like magnetic monopoles around the blackhole.
Even here we cannot see these orbiting photons because no photon
escapes from it. Unfortunately for us, there is no Abu present on the
blackholes to project photons from the surface of blackholes. And if
the mass of the blackhole is very high then photons fall back towards
the blackhole like a freehand projectile. Anyhow during all this one
thing is common that once you enter the gravity ring of the blackhole
you cannot escape out of it.
Let us end the thought example and talk realistically. One
conclusion that emerges from thought example is that blackholes do
not reflect photons instead they absorb it. Also blackholes do not emit
photons like a blackbody. In the thought example we assumed a
hypothetical alien is projecting photons but in reality there is no alien
whose body is strong enough to bear the strong force. vOnce the
blackhole absorbs the photon, it now experiences more amount of
strong force. This makes the photon to become the part of the
structure of blackhole which cannot be broken down.
The gravitational effect of the blackhole slowly decreases as the
distance from blackhole increases very similar to any ordinary star. In
fact I consider blackhole as special type of star which is incapable of
emitting light and possessing a highly compact structure. The whole
mystery regarding the blackholes evolves due to the fact that velocity
has an upper limit equal to 299792458m/s which is too less to defeat
the gravity of blackhole. That‟s why we don‟t have any information
regarding the internal structure of the blackhole so far. But I hope the
above thought example has given a new insight about the blackhole
structure.
What is mysterious singularity?
From the previous section it is quite clear that singularity doesn‟t exist
in a blackhole. But Construction theory predicts a different type of
singularity through which real Chakr are converted into Calpanic
Chakr. When the blackholes turn super massive occupying very large
space then spatial collapse (super force collapse) takes place causing
singularities within. Within a stable blackhole strong force dominates
the gravitational force (which could be the probable reason why GTR
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breaks down at lower dimensions). When the blackhole absorbs matter
not only the mass increases but also size increases. This is due to the
fact that a constant critical density is maintained through out the
blackhole. If the size of the blackhole is increased continuously, at
some critical state the strong forces collapse leading to the singularity.
The short range strong forces cannot hold an oversized object into a
massive single structure. At this stage a Chakr singularity occurs
which Chakr get transported to the Calpanic universe. For a Calpanic
observer this singularity is similar to big bang because matter emerges
from the singularity. Once the singularity forms in the blackhole a lot
of destruction is created to the outside heavenly bodies also. The first
condition for the singularity to occur is the over sized massive
structure of a blackhole. For such a blackhole there is possibility that
many galaxies are revolving around it. When all of a sudden the
blackhole disappears the galaxies are freed from the gravitational
effect of the blackhole. This makes the galaxies fly away in the space
due to there angular velocities around the blackhole. This case of
galaxies flying away is a very rare case since a super massive
blackhole has enough gravitational strength to pull down the orbiting
galaxies. The mathematical derivation of the singularity requires the
calculus of Calpanic numbers.
What is big bang?
Big bang is the moment when our real universe took birth. Big bang
evolution has been a controversy ever since it was predicted. It all
started in 1910s when General Theory of relativity calculations
evolved a dynamic universe which is expanding. Einstein didn‟t like
this idea and introduced a cosmological constant to explain a static
universe. Anyhow Hubble proved that universe is indeed expanding
by observing the red shift caused by Doppler‟s effects while the
galaxies are moving away from us. But there is no sensible
theory which can explain Bigbang properly. General Theory of
relativity breaks down at lower dimensions and there is no gravity
based quantum theory, hence the big bang still remains a mystery.
Huge advances in Big Bang cosmology were made in the late 1990s
and the early 21st century as a result of major advances in telescope
technology in combination with large amounts of satellite data such as
that from COBE, the Hubble space telescope and WMAP. These data
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have allowed cosmologists to calculate many of the parameters of the
Big Bang to a new level of precision and led to the unexpected
discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be
accelerating.
When I first read about Bigbang in my physics textbook (Halliday
- Resnick- Walker), it was clearly given that “You must not imagine
that the Bigbang was like the explosion of some gigantic firecracker
and that, in principle at least, you could have stood to one side and
watched. There was no “one side” because the big bang the Bigbang
represents the beginning of spacetime itself. From the point of view of
our present universe, there is no position in space to which you can
point and say, “The big bang happened there.” It happened
everywhere. Moreover, there was no “before the Bigbang,” because
time began with that creation event. In this context, the word “before”
loses its meaning. We can, however, conjecture about what went on
during succeeding intervals of time after the Bigbang.” Not just the
particular physics text book I studied but all other physics textbooks
say the same. Instantly after reading the above paragraphs I got a
several doubts regarding Bigbang “if there is observer who moving at
the speed of light, theoretically he feels no effect of time. For such an
observer whether time is present or not makes no difference. Such
observer can stand beside and watch Bigbang happening!” “From
where did the matter evolve?” “From where did time evolve?” and so
on…If you are talking about Bigbang doubts simply don‟t end.
Now I am going to define the so called “Big bang” which is
considered to be the origin of our universe in an entirely different
way. Time didn‟t begin from the Bigbang but it was space which
evolved from the big bang. Time started decreasing from the moment
big bang occurred and it is continuously decreasing even now. With
the postulates of construction theory one can even speak about what
happened before Bigbang. In the previous section I gave brief details
about the singularity occurrence and the collapse of an oversized
blackhole. During this collapse of an oversized blackhole, Chakrs are
transferred from real to Calpanic state or Calpanic to real state.
Exactly due to this big bang occurred. An oversized Calpanic
blackhole present in the Calpanic universe collapsed causing the
Chakr to be transferred to the real universe through a singularity. So
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Bigbang was not the creation event of space or time but it was the
evolution event for real Chakr. Before Bigbang, in the real universe
only space and time were present. Bigbang introduced Chakr into the
real universe causing the space-time curvature. That‟s why GTR
equations give rise to a singularity. Spatial curvature doesn‟t cease at
singularity but originates from it. Spatial curvature originated from the
Bigbang.
Will there be any Worm holes present in the universe?
A wormhole contracts the distance between two doorways placed
separately anywhere in the universe. A direct consequence of this
distance contraction (length contraction) is the effect on the scenery.
Events at the destination would appear as if in 'Fast Forward'; while
events at departure would appear as if in 'Fast Rewind'. Consider a
galaxy 100 million light years away. When you look today from Earth
to that galaxy, you will not see it as it is today, but rather as it was 100
million years ago. This is because light took 100 million years to
travel all that distance. But if you take a journey inside a wormhole
from Earth to that galaxy, you would reach that galaxy today. So when
you reach it today, you will see it as it is today, not as it was 100
million years ago. So as you go forward inside a wormhole, events at
that galaxy (your destination) would appear as if in 'Fast Forward'
(from 100 million years ago till today).
When you reach that galaxy today and look back at Earth, you would
not see Earth as it is today; instead you would see Earth as it was 100
million years ago (you would see the dinosaurs). This is because light
took 100 million years to reach there. So as you go forward inside a
wormhole, events at Earth (your departure) would appear as if in 'Fast
Rewind' (from today till 100 million years ago). On the return journey,
events on Earth (destination) would appear as if in 'Fast Forward'
(from 100 million years ago till today); while the events at that galaxy
(departure) would appear as if in 'Fast Rewind' (from today till 100
million years ago). This is not time travel; this is just a consequence of
the length contraction inside a wormhole.
According to Construction theory wormholes do exist and it exists
everywhere. If somehow we enter the void space, then we can reach
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any location of the universe within no time. In the void space, there
are no spatial cells. Therefore the Chakr present in the void space are
not present in a spatial cell. From the postulates of construction theory
Each Chakr creates a pole-zero pair inside a cell” through which
secretion and absorption of space and time takes place. Chakr are only
effective when they are present in Real or Calpanic spatial cells, we
get that Chakr present in the void space do not possess energy. They
do not liberate space and absorb time. If there is a tunnel of void space
then the body passing through it will not feel time and spatial distance.
No matter how much you travel within the void space, the distance
and time you have covered would be zero.
You may ask me “can human‟s travel through a wormhole without
losing energy?” The answer is “yes”. We can travel through a
wormhole without losing energy. There is no oxygen in the space then
how do aeronauts live in the space stations? Similarly here, we need
to take along certain spatial cells in a closed chamber. If the worm
ship (our worm hole traveling vehicle) contains a device which can
store the spatial cells from escaping then humans can travel through
wormholes without suffering the loss of energy. Note that wormholes
we cannot measure the diameter or distance of a wormhole, since
length doesn‟t exist in void. Therefore it makes no sense in saying a
gigantic wormhole and a tiny wormhole.
Will the universe collapse at some point of time?
There are two possible ways through which our real universe can
come to an end. First possible way of collapse is through the
formation of a gigantic black hole and its collapse to a singularity. In
this all the real matter is pumped back to the Calpanic universe, giving
rise to a Big bang in the Calpanic universe. The process from real
universe to Calpanic universe and vice-versa continues in recursion.
The second way through which our universe can come to an abrupt
end is deficiency in time or space. From the postulates of Construction
theory we know that Chakr present in the spatial cells continuously
absorb time and release spatial cells. If the total bubbles of time
present in the real universes gets absorbed then universe reaches to a
frozen state or it becomes static universe. Another possibility here is
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the space cells present in the Calpanic universe may end resulting
again in the frozen state.
Is construction theory is the ultimate theory of universe?
I don‟t think it is the ultimate theory of the universe. There is a
finite possibility that some (many) loop holes might be there in the
Construction theory. So far I haven‟t encountered any loop hole but
there is no guarantee that there aren‟t any. I know I am being extra
humble by saying all those words. To be frank it is true for any theory,
there is always a scope of improvement no matter how good the
theory is. As far as advantages of Construction theory are concerned
there are many of them. It‟s the first single theory that explains
effectively all four forces of the nature. Foundations of the
construction theory are very strong because it eliminates the
redundancy in the fundamental quantities. It also uses sensible
mathematics obtained by Compact discrete theory which simplifies all
the calculations. Usage of Calpanic numbers is the hidden secret
behind the success of construction theory. All in all one can say
Construction theory in the near future will modify our understanding
towards the universe…
About me, the so-called Author of this book!
Hi Everyone,
I am Mohd Abubakr, (you can call me Abbu with love!). I finished formulating the "Construction
Theory" and "Calpanic Numbers" in Apr' 2005. This book was supposed to get published by Sep' 2005,
exactly hundred years after Einstein's publication of E = mc2. However, the destiny had a different story to
say. I was only 18 years then and wasn’t able to handle the pain of being rejected from people who didn't
even bother to read my book. People made fun of me, professors gave me lectures about 'my future', friends
asked me not to bore them with my theories, the editors of journals rejected my papers partly because of
usage of Sanskrit symbols and I was left alone to speak with walls and stars.
After two and half years of long wait and intense boiling within myself, I finally decided to keep this
book freely available for everyone to read. I don't expect anything from anyone, I have my God on my side
and I trust God. I am thankful for all those who took time to read my book and I hope I haven't disappointed
you all. Incase if you like this book, please do recommend it to all your friends. Feel free to pass on your
criticism, suggestions and general flattery. Send me your emails at [email protected]. For the
regular updates on the book, visit my blog at http://nextnewton.spaces.live.com.
Regards,
Mohd Abubakr.
COSMOS REDEFINED
WITNESS THE REVOLUTION
______________________________________________________________________________
No part of this book should be used for any commercial purpose without the consent of the author.
Few anonymous comments from the professors about my work,
"Thanks for sharing your work. A student has a great potential because his mind is not embedded in wrong paradigms. I read
your 3rd chapter, and I must say it's definitely a Powerful concept. I do not know what you wrote in the other chapters, but
certainly I would go and develop your new number system further. Your number system easily deals with a higher spatial
dimension than what we can do with complex numbers. If you nest your number system into a similar form, you will step up to
the next higher dimensional level, and so on. Keep up your good work, and let me know when you finish your book."
"You should better concentrate at your engineering subjects, get a job and then think of all these things. These theories doesn’t
fetch you a job. Take my advice, study well"
"This is good, I will read your book when I have some time. Why don't you publish your papers in some reputed journal? How
are your studies going on?
"Lets meet sometime to discuss your theories"
"You should improve your English, so many grammatical errors. The theory is interesting, some font problems in equations,
couldn't get them. All the best, try to publish it some journal"