Course Packet 2nd Semester

8/13/2019 Course Packet 2nd Semester

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UNIT 1

A. WRITING

The Narrative Essay

Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the linking

words and consider the role of each paragraph.

The Stranger on the Bridge

P 1 The big Town Hall clock was striking midnight when Frank began to cross the bridge.

The night air was cold and damp. A low mist hung over the river and the street-lamps gave little

light.

P 2 Frank was anxious to get home and his footsteps rang loudly on the pavement. When he

reached the middle of the bridge he thought he could hear someone approaching behind him. He

looked back but could see no one. However, the sound continued and Frank began walking more

quickly. Then he slowed down again, ashamed of himself for acting so foolishly. There was

nothing to fear in a town as quiet as this.

P 3 The short, quick steps grew louder until they seemed very near. Frank found it impossible

not to turn round. As he did so, he caught sight of a figure coming towards him.

P 4 After reaching the other side of the bridge, Frank stopped and pretended to look down at

the water. From the corner of his eye he could now make out the form of a man dressed in a large

overcoat. A hat was pulled over his eyes and very little of his face could be seen.

P 5 As the man came near, Frank turned towards him and said something about the weather

in an effort to be friendly. The man did not answer but asked gruffly where Oakfield House was.

Frank pointed to a big house in the distance and the stranger continued his way.

P 6 The inquiry made Frank suspicious because he knew that the inhabitants of Oakfield

House were very wealthy. Almost without realizing what he was doing, he began following the

stranger quietly. The man was soon outside the house and Frank saw him look up at the

windows. A light was still on and the man waited until it went out. When about half an hour had

passed, Frank saw him climb noiselessly over the wall and heard him drop on to the ground at

the other side.


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P 7 Now Franks worst suspicions were confirmed. He walked quickly and silently across the

street towards a telephone-box on the corner.

Structure

The general outline for stories should be as follows:

- Before the event

- The event

- After the event

Introduction

Paragraph 1

Catching the attention - setting the scene, supplying any necessary background information,

arousing the readers interest.

Development

Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5

Develop the theme/central idea - relate the main events of the story in the order in which they

happened.

Conclusion

Paragraph 6

Summarises and gives a catchy end including an element of surprise. The reader should feel

that the writer has given a total account of the story he/she set out to tell.

Before working on your plan try to decide what the main event will be so that you can build

your story around it. Note a few ideas under each heading so that you have a fairly clean picture

of what you are going to say before you begin writing.

You must do all you can to make your essays interesting so that they will hold the readers

attention to the very end. Include incidents and details which are drawn from everyday life or

which you have imagined. Select those events that help you tell the story, that help you to move

the action forward, that add interest to the story by making it exciting, suspenseful, or

humorous.

Maintain the readers attention up to the end.

Connect your sentences by using linkers.

adding an idea or fact: also, another, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition,

next, too, similarly


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establishing the order: first, second, third, then, next, meanwhile, before, after,

finally, eventually, later

cause and effect relationship: as a result, consequently, hence, therefore, thus,

accordingly

examples: such as, for example, for instance

contrast, contradiction: however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,

yet, otherwise

comparison: similarly, likewise

location: above, below, here, there, inside, outside, nearby, beyond, between,

over, under

sequence of events

Firstly, The first step isFirst of all, The first stage is

To begin with, ... begins with

Initially ... commences with

Beforehand, Before this,

Previously, Prior to this,

Earlier,

At the same time, During

Simultaneously, When this happens

While

Secondly, Thirdly etc After this,

Next, The next step isThen, In the next stage,

Subsequently, In the following stage,

Later, Following this,

As soon as the committee has finishedits work, ...

Eventually, ... until ...

Lastly, ... finishes with ...

Finally, concludes with

In the last stage, The last step is ...

Balance your essay

At the seaside - unbalanced essay - if you were to spend a whole page describing how you got to

the seaside and then one or two paragraphs more to say what you did there, your essay would be

unbalanced. Keep to the point.


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At the seaside - unbalanced paragraphs in a composition - 1 paragraph (25 lines) how you played

with sand, 1 paragraph (10 lines) an entire succession of events constituting in fact the climax of

the story. Never attempt to write an essay in a single paragraph.

Especially expository paragraphs often develop a topic sentence that expresses the main idea.

It is mainly placed at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can be placed in the middle, or even

at the end (tension, suspense for the reader).

The function of the other sentences is to support or develop the main idea with specific details

(examples, incidents, reasons).

Use the chronological order of the events.

Use Past Tense and Past Perfect as the storys main narrative tenses.


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B. GRAMMAR

The Modal Verbs

Introduction:

Modal verbs express the speakers attitude towards what he says; the action expressed can be

seen as POSSIBLE, PROBABLE, NECESSARY, OBLIGATORY, WISHFUL etc.

Characteristics of modal verbs:

do not add sat the 3rdperson, singular

e.g. He should do it.

form the interrogative by inversion; the negative by adding not

e.g. You must do it.

Must you do it?

You must not do it.

followed by the infinitive without to

lack certain verbal forms- in this case they are substituted by verbal paraphrases: be able to,

be allowed to, be permitted to, be to, have to

if you want to use tag questions with the modals, then use the modal verb expressed in the

sentence

e.g. He talked a lot, didnt he?

You can sing well, cant you?

You have to come early, dont you?

CAN/COULD

Mainly express ABILITY, POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION

I ABILITY

1. can + inf = to be able to (natural ability)presentreference

e.g. Can you run 1500 metres in 5 minutes?

= Are you able to run 1500 metres in 5 minutes?

2. can + inf (learned ability)presentreference

e.g. Can you drive a car?

3. could+ inf (natural or learned ability)pastreference

e.g. Jim could/couldnt run very fast when he was a boy.


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4. can/could versus be able to

4.1pastability: could/be able to

e.g. Jim could run fast as a young boy.

= Jim was able to run fast as a young boy.

4.2 specific achievement in thepast: be able to

e.g. A man drowned in the Mures river yesterday. Although he could swim(learned ability in the past),

he grew tired so he was not able to reach(unsuccessful completion of a specific action) the shore.

obs. alternative constructions to be able to: manage(d) to, succeed(ed) in

5. skills to be acquired in thefuture: will be able to

e.g. I will be able to drive by next summer.

6. could may be used as an alternative for would be able tofuturereference

e.g. I could help you with the furniture when you move into your new house.

II (IM)POSSIBILITY

1. can/could + infpresentreference

e.g. Lightening a match in a gas station can cause an explosion.

It can be very cold in winter.

If she catches the 8.30 bus, she can/could get here in time.

Can this be true?

Could this be true? (less credible than can)

You cant bathe here because the river is polluted.

The situation couldnt be worse. (with comparative adjectives)

2. could + infpast reference

e.g. We couldnt bathe there because the river was polluted.

3. cant/couldnt + inf (negative deduction)present reference

e.g. You cant be hungry. Youve just had dinner.

A: I think Lucy is typing the letter now.

B: Lucy cant be typing the letter. She can type.

4. cant/couldnt have + 3rd form of the vb. (negative deductionorpast possibility)past reference

e.g. He couldnt have heard the news on the radio because he was sleeping then.

David could have won the race if he tried.


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5.can as possibility cannot be used in a future sense; it will be possible, will be ablefuturereference

e.g. When the new tunnel is ready, well be able to get to town more easily.

6. could as possibility may be used in a future sensefuturereference

e.g. You could bathe here next summer, as the water will be warm.

7. couldnt (possibly) + inf (unwillingness)present/futurereference

e.g. I couldnt possibly leave without helping you!

III PERMISSION

1. can + inf (to ask for permission; informal)present reference

e.g. Can I borrow your car?

2. can/cannot + inf (to express/refuse permission)present reference

e.g. Yes, you can borrow my car.

3. could + inf (to ask for permission; more polite)present reference

e.g. Could I borrow your umbrella, Miss Johnson?

4. cant/couldnt + inf (to ask for permission; insistence)present reference

e.g. Mum, cant/couldnt I stay out till midnight, please?

5.could + inf. (permission; after past tense verbs)pastreference

e.g. I told him he could borrow my car.

MAY/MIGHT

Mainly express POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION

I POSSIBILITY

1. may/might +infpresent/futurereference

e.g. They may/might come today/tomorrow.

A: Where is Bill?

B: He may be at home. He is usually at home at this hour.

C: He might be at home. Im not sure. (less sure)

might - less probable

2. may/might have + 3rd

form of the vb.pastreference

They might not have noticed what was going on.

3. might + inf (indirect speech; i.e. when the introductory verb is in the past)


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e.g. She said: I may go this afternoon.

She said that she might go this afternoon.

4. may/might are not used to express possibility in questions; they are replaced by phrases like do you

think + present/future tense or is it likely + infpresent/futurereference

e.g. Do you think they know where we parked our car?

Are we likely to meet them in this crowd?

II PERMISSION

1. may + inf (to grant/refuse permission by the speaker)present/futurereference

e.g. They may go.

2. may + inf (to indicate the idea of having permission)present/futurereference

e.g. I/we may go.

3. may + inf (to request permission)present/futurereference

e.g. May I smoke in here?

4. might + inf (to express permission)present/futurereference(with conditional implication)

e.g. Might I take your car for an hour?

obs to be allowed to, to be permitted to replace can, could, may, might when they express

PERMISSION.

e.g. I will be allowed to drive a car when Im 18.

fig. - permission relative to degree of politeness:

III Other cases

1. might + inf (strong requests)presentreference

e.g. You might tell me what is going on.

2. might have+ 3rd

form of the vb. (reproach)pastreference

e.g. You might have told me what happened.

oliteness

MightMay

Could

Can


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3. may/might as well(to indicate intention with a 1stperson subject)

e.g. Its not far, so we might as well go on foot.

4. may/might as well(to indicate recommendation, with the other persons)

e.g. You might as well start the programme now.

5. might just as well(to indicate an alternative, usually not a very desirable one)

e.g. I might just as well wait until Thomas comes and then start the work.

6. try as I may +presentreference

try as I might + pastreference

e.g. Try as I may, I cannot do it.

= Although I try hard, I cannot do it

Try as I might, I could not pass my driving test.

= Although I tried hard, I could not pass my driving test.

7. may + vb. (to express although clauses)

e.g. She may be the boss, but that is no excuse for shouting like that.

= Although she is the boss, that is no excuse for shouting like that.

CAN/COULD VS MAY/MIGHT

1. notice the difference in negative sentences

e.g. He may not be at home. (= it is possible that he is not at home)

He cant be at home. (= it is not possible for him to be at home)

2. cantheoretical possibilityvs. mayfactual possibility

e.g. The road can be blocked. (it is possible to block the road)

The road may be blocked. (=it is possible that the road is blocked)

MUST/HAVE TO

Mainly express OBLIGATION, POSITIVE DEDUCTION, STRONG NECESSITY,

PROHIBITION/LACK OF OBLIGATION

1. must + inf (obligation imposed by the speaker)present/futurereference

e.g. You must be back before it gets dark.

You mustnt be noisy outside a hospital. (total obligation)

2. self-imposed obligation (with the 1stperson pronouns)present/futurereference


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e.g. I/we must do something about the weeds in the garden.

3. must + inf (obligation resulting from rules)present/futurereference

e.g. Pedestrians must cross the street on the zebra.

4. have to + inf (external obligation) )present/futurereference

e.g. You will have to leave now or youll miss the train.

5. have to + inf (habitual, repeated obligations)

e.g. I have to be at the hospital every morning at 10 oclock.

Do you ever have to be up at 5 oclock?

6. in the past or future tense have to is used instead of must

e.g. You must stay in bed. Youve got the flu.

You will have to stay in bed when you have a fever again.

He had to stay in bed because he had the flu.

7. dont have to (lack of obligation)

e.g. You dont have to write such a long essay.

obs. future tense form: wont have to

past tense form: didnt have to (occasionally hadnt got to)

e.g. When he was young, he didnt have to help his mother in the kitchen.

8. had to + inf (past obligation)past reference

e.g. Sorry Im late, I had to post some letters.

9. must/had to + inf (inescapable obligation) with a past tense introductory verb (for

present/future reference)

e.g. He told me he must/had to warn me of the consequences.

II DEDUCTION(also called certainty)

1. must + infpresent/futurededuction

e.g. You must be hungry. You havent eaten anything since yesterday.

You must be Mr. Smith.

2. must have + 3rd

form of the verbpastdeduction

e.g. She must have worked very hard for this exam. Shes got a very high grade.

3. must + infwith a past tense introductory verb( for present/futurededuction)


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e.g. He said George must be a fool to behave like that.

She said I must be hungry.

MUST VS MAY

1. must may be used as a counterpart of may (permission)

e.g. You may borrow my car.

You may not/ mustnt borrow my car.

NEED

A. FULL VERB:

e.g. I need help./Do you need any help?/I dont need any help.

e.g. I need(ed) to go to the dentist.

B. MODAL VERB

As a modal, needoccurs only in interrogative and negative sentences

e.g. Need you leave so soon?

e.g. You neednt leave so soon.

Mainly expresses NECESSITY, ABSENCE OF NECESSITY

I NECESSITY

1. need + infpresent/futurereference

e.g. When need you go to the dentist?

2. neednt have + 3rd

form of the vb.(absence of necessity, but the action was performed)past

reference

e.g. I bought the book. Then they told me it wasnt necessary for me to buy it.

= I neednt have bought the book.

3. didnt need to + inf (absence of necessity, the action was not performed)past reference

e.g. I wanted to buy the book, thinking I have to do it. But I didnt buy it. Then they told me it wasnt

necessary for me to buy it.

= I didnt need to buy the book.

NEED NOT + INF VS DONT HAVE TO + INF

1. they can both express absence of obligation (/necessity)


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e.g. You dont have to write such a long essay.

You need not write such a long essay.

SHOULD

Mainly expresses ADVISABILITY, SUPPOSITION

I ADVISABILITY

1. should + inf (piece of advice coming from the speaker)present/futurereference

e.g. He should learn more in order to pass the exam.

You shouldnt tell lies.

2. should have + 3rd

form of the verb(reproach or past advisable course of action)past reference

e.g. He should have learnt more in order to pass the exam.

You shouldnt have done it.

II SUPPOSITION

1. should + infpresent/futurereference

e.g. Mary should be in Paris. At least I think so.

2. should have + 3rdformpast reference

e.g. Mary should have been In Paris at 10 oclock. (But her plane was delayed.)

SHOULD VS MUST

1. should + inf(supposition about the present/future) vs. must + inf (logical deduction about the

present/future)

e.g. Mary should be in Paris. At least I think so.

Marys plane lands in Paris at 10 oclock. It is 10.30, so Mary must be in Paris now.

2. should have + 3rd

form(supposition about the past) vs. must have + 3rd

form of the vb. (logical

deduction about the past)

e.g. Mary should have been In Paris at 10 oclock. (But her plane was delayed.)

Mary must have been in Paris at 10 oclock. (Her plane was to land at 10 and I dont know of any

delay)

THATSHOULD

1. after suggest, propose, insist, recommend, advise(instead of an ing construction)

e.g. I suggested going there. = I suggested that we should go there.


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2. after agree, demand, determine, be determined, order, command (instead of an infinitive

construction)

e.g. He was determined to go there first. = He was determined that nobody should get there before him.

3. after arrange, stipulate, be anxious(instead of for + object + inf)

e.g. I am anxious for nobody to know where I am going. = I am anxious that nobody should know

where I am going.

4. after it is/was + adj. (necessary, important etc.)(instead of for + object + inf)

e.g. It is necessary for him to leave. = It is necessary that he should leave.

OUGHT TO + infpresent/futurereference

OUGHT TO HAVE + 3rd

form of the vb.past reference: can replace SHOULD except in questions

and negatives

SHALL+ infpresent/futurereference

1. to express a threat or commandin affirmative statements, with a 2ndperson subject

e.g. You shall do it whether you like it or not

2. to expresss apromise

e.g. You shall have a bike for your birthday.

3. to express an intention

e.g. We shall celebrate this very night.

4. in offers

e.g. Shall I help you pack?

5. suggestions

e.g. Shall we meet at the theatre?

WILL

1. to express intention, willingness, determination(1stperson subject)

e.g. I will write tomorrow.

Well celebrate this very night.

2. to express an impersonal type of command

e.g. You will stay here till you are relieved.


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3. to express insistence which is associated with a habit

e.g. If you will put so much salt in your food, its no wonder you are always thirsty.

He will go swimming in very dangerous waters.

4. to express supposition

e.g. Hell be there by now (=I think he is there)

They will have arrived by now.

That will be the postman. (It is 10 oclock. The bell is ringing. The postman usually comes at this

hour)

5. in requests

e.g. Will you show me how to do this?

WOULD

1. instead of willafter a past tense verb

e.g. He said that he would never do anything like that.

2. inpolite requests

e.g. Would you give me a hand?

3. would + inf (may express certainty - with a suppressed conditional sentence)present/future

reference

e.g. Nobody would agree with that idea (if we asked them)

4. would have + 3rd form of the vb.(events in the past which did not happen; sometimes with a

suppressed conditional sentence)past reference

e.g. I would have accepted the job, but I didnt want to move house.

Nobody would have tried to do it (if we had asked them).

5. would have + 3rd form of the vb (assumptions about the past = past supposition)

e.g. Someone called after you left but didnt leave a message.

That would have been Cathy.


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C. VOCABULARY

Football

1. The Pitch. Fill in the blanks with the field markings of a football pitch.

The rectangular pitch is divided in half by a line drawn between the mid-points of the two longer

sides. This is the 1_____. Exactly halfway across it is the 2_____. Kick-offs, at the start of each

half and after a goal is scored, are taken from this spot. When a team kicks-off, players from theopposing team must remain at a distance of at least 10 yards (9.15 m) from this spot until the

kick is taken. A circle drawn around the centre spot, known as the 3_____, marks this distance.

At either end of the pitch are the 4_____. These are formed by two upright posts placedequidistant from the corner flagposts, 24 feet (7.32 m) apart and 8 feet (2.44 m) in height, joined

at the top by a crossbar. Nets are usually placed behind these objects , though they are not

required by the Laws of the Game. Two boxes are marked out on the pitch in front of each goal.The smaller box, called the 5_____ or colloquially the "goal area", is laid out to surround the

goal at an equal distance of 6 yards (5.5 m). Goal kicks and any free kick by the defending team

may be taken from anywhere in this area. An indirect free kick awarded to the attacking team for

an incident occurring within the this area must be taken from the point on this line parallel to thegoal line nearest where an incident occurred. The outer box is known as the 6_____ (or

colloquially the 18 yard box), and is set 18 yards (16.5 m) to each side of the goal, and 18 yards

in front of it. A small semicircle (called the 7_____ or theD) is also drawn at the outside edge of

the penalty area, 10 yards (9.15 m) from the penalty mark. This is an exclusion zone for allplayers other than the one taking the kick in the event of a penalty being awarded.

The 8_____ (or penalty mark) is immediately in the middle of and 12 yards (11 m) in front of thegoal.

The area of play is defined by the two sets of boundary lines. The longer boundary lines are

called 9_____ while the shorter ones are known as 10_____.

In each corner of the pitch a small quarter circle with a 1 yard (1 m) radius is drawn where cornerkicks are taken from. This is called the 11_____.

touch line

goal line

corner kick

quarter circle

restraining arc


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2. Field markings. Using the information from the previous exercise complete the following

table with the names and the functions of the field markings of a football pitch.

Field marking Function

1.

2.

3.4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

3. Starts and restarts. From the initial kick-off of a period until the end of that period, the

ball is "in play" at all times until the end of the playing period, except when the ball leavesthe field of play or play is stopped by the referee. Match the words in the first column of

the table with their definitions on the second column to discover the methods by which the

game is restarted in such situations.

1. goal kick a. When the ball has wholly crossed the touch line it is awarded to the

opposing team to that which last touched the ball. To restart the game inthis manner, a player outside the touch line throws the ball to a teammate

who is in play. The player must always use two hands and bring the ball

from behind the head while standing in the spot where the ball left the

field of play.

2. indirect free kick b. Awarded to the attacking team when the ball has wholly crossed the

goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touchedby a defender.

3. kick-off c. Such a kick is awarded for pennal fouls, such as pulling an opponent

to the ground by grabbing the jersey. The ball may be kicked directly into

the goal from the spot of the foul.

4. dropped-ball d. This method is used to begin each period of play or to restart the game

after a goal having been scored.

5. penalty kick e. Thisrestart method is used when the referee has stopped the play for areason which cannot be considered an infraction: a serious injury to aplayer, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective.

6. direct free kick f. It is awarded to fouled team following "penal" foul having occurred in

their opponent's penalty area.7. throw-in g. This designates the kick up the field from one of the corners of the goal

area awarded to the defending team after the attacking team has kicked the

ball past the goal line without a goal being scored.

8. corner kick h. Such a kick is awarded to the fouled team for non-pennal fouls, such

as obstructing an opponent while pursuing the ball. The ball must touchone other person (a teammate, opponent, or goalie) before a goal can be

scored.


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4. The following words name positions of football players on the field. Choose the

appropriate definitions for each of them:

(1) goalkeeper

(2) midfield

(3) sweeper(4) center back (a.k.a. central defender)

(5) striker(6) winger

(a) He has one main task: to score goals.(b) He is free to move up and down the field, in contrast to man-to-man markers, who

must stick to their designed attacker.

(c) His job is purely defensive: to guard his teams goal from being breached. He is

allowed to use his hands when playing the ball.(d) He is a link between defense and attack when his team is in possession of the ball, and

must also defend when the opposing team is in possession.(e) He plays in a wing position and his job is to provide crosses into the penalty area forthe strikers to score from.

(f) His job is to stop opposing players, particularly the strikers, from getting the

opportunity to score, and to clear the ball from the penalty area. He is usually tall, withgood heading ability.

5. Equipment. Lable the picture with the following items of football equipment:

jersey, shorts, socks (stockings), shin guards, football boots (shoes with cleats)


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6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word or phrase. Write them down in the table

below the text. Each word can be used only ONCE.

of, are, with, pass, players, attacker, is composed of, the, hands, is

Football 1_____a game played by two teams on a rectangular field, in which 2_____ attempt toknock a round ball through the opponents goal, using any part of the body except the 3_____.

Generally, players use their feet and heads as they kick, dribble, and 4_____ the ball toward thegoal. One player on each team guards 5_____ goal. This player, the goalkeeper, is the only

player allowed to touch the ball 6_____ the hands while it is in play.

In a regulation football game, each team 7_____ 11 players. There 8_____ four main positions:goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, and 9_____. One player from each team plays the position

10_____ goalkeeper, but the distribution of other players among the other positions can vary.

7. How much do you know about football? Decide whether the following sentences are true

or false.

1. The referee calls fouls on players who commit one of ten major infractions: intentionallykicking, tripping, or jumping at an opponent; violently charging, striking, holding, pushing, or

spitting at an opponent; tackling an opponent without the ball or touching the ball with the hands.

2. A player cannot be ruled offside when receiving the ball from a throw-in or if the player is inhis or her own half of the field.

3. Coachesdetermine offsides infractions and signal them by waving their flags and pointing to

the spot where the infraction occurred.

4. The referee is assisted by three linesmen.5. A standard adult football match consists of two periods (known as halves) of 45 minutes each.

6. There is usually a 20-minute break between halves, known as half time.

7. The extra-time and the shootouts come before the fulltime.8. Players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game.

9. A player who is shown the yellow card once in one game is ejected.

10. If a single foul is violent enough, the referee may immediately show the player a red card,which means automatic ejection.

11. A replaced player may not reenter the game.

12. An attacking player is offsides if, when receiving a forward pass from a teammate, there are

not at least two opponents (usually one defender and the goalkeeper) behind the receiverthatis, between the attacking player and the opponents' goal line.

13. The referee is allowed to add time on if there are frequent and lengthy interruptions.

14. A football team consists of one goalkeeper and twelve outfield players.15. A goalkeeper can handle the ball when back-passed.

16. A goalkeeper is allowed to use any part of his/her body when saving a ball.

17. A two-leg stage involves the two teams playing against each other twice.18.In man-to-man marking each centre back has the job of covering a particular opposition

player.

19. In zonal defence each centre back covers a specific area of the pitch.20. Formation in football describes how the players in a team are positioned on the pitch.


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8. Fill in the blanks with the following words:

forehead, tackling, trap, propel, stops, ball, control, goal, jockey, stop, accuracy, blocking, feet,skills, knocking, kicking, protecting, passes, headers, outside, fake, running, trapping

Soccer players use five basic skills: kicking, dribbling, passing, heading, and trapping. 1_____isthe most basic skill. Players who wish to kick the ball powerfully do so with the top of the foot,

the area just above the toes, generating power from the upper leg and torso. A powerful kick may2_____ the ball up to 120 km/h (75 mph). Many players cannot kick the ball equally well with

both 3_____, and favor the stronger foot when making a shot at the goal or kicking the ball a

long distance. Players who wish to kick the ball powerfully do so with the top of the foot, the

area just above the toes.Players move the ball small distances by dribbling. Dribbling entails tapping, dragging, or rolling

the ball in front of the body while 4_____. The objectiveto advance the ball while keeping it in

control and 5_____ it from defensive playersis similar to that of dribbling in basketball, usingthe feet instead of the hands. A player with good dribbling skills can make quick 6 ______,

change direction, and move the 7_____ from one foot to another with ease. Advanced playerscan also 8_____ one way with the ball, only to turn and move in the opposite direction.Players use 9_____ to move the ball around the field more quickly than they can by dribbling.

Passes are like kicks, but they require less power and more 10_____. Players usually pass by

using the inside of the foot to push the ball in a certain direction, though sometimes the 11_____

of the foot is used. Talented players can pass with both feet in all directions, including behindthem.

Players use 12_____ to make plays on balls that are in the air, either to pass or to make a shot on

13_____. To make a header, they knock the ball with the 14_____, using power generated fromthe neck muscles. When a ball is high in the air, members of both teams will 15_____ for

position on the ground in order to control the header. Tall players and those who can jump high

have a distinct advantage in these situations.Players use 16_____ to gain control of loose balls that may be rolling, bouncing, or flying

through the air. To bring the motion of the ball to a momentary 17_____, players absorb the

balls force with a part of their body. Most traps are made with the inside of the foot or the soleof the foot, but balls may also be brought under control with the leg, chest, head, or top of the

foot. Good trapping allows players to control the tempo of the game by maintaining control of

the ball for long periods of time. It also enables them to pass the ball with pinpoint 18_____,

because they have control of the ball at the moment they pass.A sixth skill, called 19_____, is the primary tool of defense. Tackling in soccer is not like

tackling in American football. A tackle in soccer is a means of taking away the ball from an

opponent, not bringing the opponent down. 20_____ the advance of the ball with the foot orlower leg is the most common form of tackling in soccer. Some players also slide in front of

attacking players to steal the ball, a move known as a slide tackle.

A goalkeeper must learn all the skills that other players do, but because the goalkeeper can usethe hands, he or she must also master an entirely different set of 21_____. The goalkeeper must

be able to catch balls in the air and 22_____ them with the hands and body when the ball is

bouncing along the ground. Goalkeepers must also know how to punch away balls that are

kicked towards the top or corners of the goal, as attempting a catch in these difficult situations isoften more dangerous than simply 23_____ the ball away.


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UNIT 2

A. WRITING

The Descriptive Essay

Read the following essay. Consider the role of each paragraph.

A Walk on Sunday Morning

P 1 Though I usually go on excursions to the country during the weekend, I had decided to

spend the whole of Sunday in the city for a change and to visit the central square and public

gardens. It was so early when I left home that the streets were deserted. Without the usual

crowds and traffic, everything was strangely quiet.

P 2 When, at last, I arrived at the square I was surprised to find so many people there. Some

were feeding pigeons and others were sitting peacefully at the foot of a tall statue. I went and sat

with them so as to get a better view. What amused me most was a little boy who was trying to

make pigeons fly up to his shoulder. He was holding some bird-seed in his hand and whenever a

pigeon landed on his arm, he laughed so much that he frightened the bird away.

P 3 Some time later I made my way to the public gardens. Here there was an entirely

different atmosphere. The sun was now bright and warm and the air was filled with gay laughter.

P 4 The pond interested me more than anything else for many people had come to sail model

boats. There were little yachts with bright red sails, motor boats and wonderful sailing ships.They moved gracefully across the water carried by the wind while their owners waited for them

to reach the other side.

P 5 After resting for a time under a tree, I went and joined a number of people who had

gathered round a man with a big model of a famous sailing ship called The Cutty Shark. It was

perfectly made and I gazed at it with admiration as its owner placed it in the water where it sailed

majestically among the ducks and swans.

P 6 At midday, I left the gardens and slowly began walking home. I was not at all sorry that I

had not gone to the country for the weekend. There had been much more to see in the city on a

Sunday morning than I could have ever imagined.


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Structure

Introduction

Paragraph 1

Setting the scene, introducing persons, places, objects to the reader.Development

Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5

Each paragraph describes a particular characteristic/aspect of the person, object, place.

Conclusion

Paragraph 6

Impressions, feelings, opinions.

The goal of descriptive writing is to create a clear picture or impression of a person, place or

object.

Selecting details:

- do not include every detail about the person, place, or object you are describing.

- decide whether or not to use a detail on the basis of whether it will contribute to its purpose in

writing the description.

- sometimes the selection is based on the wish of the writer to convey a strong, single impression

to the reader (description of a person)

- sometimes the writer chooses only the details that help to support a general statement he/she

makes (topic sentence)

Use adjectives. Dont forget the proper order:

P1 a. opinion, b. size, c. age, d. shape e. temperature

P2 Colours

P3 Material

P4 Purpose

P5 Noun

Using sensory details:

Descriptive writing creates a strong impression through the use of sensory details which appeal

to the readers senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, touch. The choice of words has to evoke a

strong sensory response in the readers imagination.


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Locating details:

When you describe a scene, you often want your reader to know where the details are located.

You also want to show their relationship to one another (over, next to, beneath, on the right, in

the distance, near, far, above, below, here, there, inside, outside, nearby, beyond, between, over,

under).

Using tenses:

1. Describing people:

- Present tenses for someone you see every day

- Past tenses can be used to describe someone related to the past

- Present tenses or conditional tenses for the description of ideal persons

2. Describing places or buildings

- Present tenses when you describe smth for a tourist brochure, or when you envisage the

description of the general characteristics of an object, or when you pretend to be at the exact

location you are describing

- Past tenses can be used to describe smth you saw in the past

- Conditional tenses for the description of an ideal city/house

Find the central idea of what you want to describe. e.g. A market: people buying, things sold

No event will keep the reader in suspense as in the case of the narrative essay. The question

What happens next? does not apply.

Language for rendering, describing facts, states. e.g. description of a man, town, landscape

he looks , He has dark eyes, She wears , Her face

When rendering, describing facts and emotional impressions

- provide an account of your feelings, opinions

- try to get the reader involved

When you describe things you may have to provide information on the position, weight,

structure, colour, composition, size, shape and function of the object described.

Structure

is nailed/screwed/fixed/fastened

linked/welded/tied/connected

attached

to Y by

Z

consists of

X

contains

includes

Y and

Z


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held in place/ secured/

supported/ suspended

by

joined to

X is

mounted/placed/pivoted on

Y

Position

adjacent to/alongside/below/beyond/facing (diagonally)/parallel

to/underneath/opposite/ in

the middle of/on the rightof/ on the left of/on the left

of/near/close to/

touching/behind/in front of/under/ on top

of/above/below/ level

with/diagonally above/

vertically below

BA is

betweenequidistant from

B andC

Colour

X is dark/light/pale/bri

ght/dull

green/blue/red/

yellow

Talking and writing about coloursshade= one of the different types of a particular colour, especially when describing how dark or

light it is.

e. g. a deep shade of red, subtle shades of blue and green

tone= one of the different types of a particular colour.e. g. a delicate pink tone, eye shadow in tones of green and brow-ish= used with colours to make adjectives describing things that look a bit like that colour.e. g. reddish hair

dark= used for describing colours that look more like black than white. e. g. dark green trousersdeep= used for describing dark colours, especially when they look attractive. e. g. lovely deep

blue eyesrich= used for describing dark colours that look beautiful and expensive. e. g. rich brown velvetsombre= dark in the way that seems suitable for a serious occasion and use. e. g. The men were

wearing sombre suits and black ties.bright= strong and noticeable. e. g. bright yellow paint

vibrant= bright in a way that looks exciting.e. g. curtains in vibrant shades of redcolourful = brightly coloured, or having a lot of bright colours. e. g. wonderfully colourful

curtainsloud= bright in a way that you think looks silly or ugly. e. g. He tends to wear silk shirts andloud ties.

gaudy= very brightly coloured, especially in a way that you think shows bad taste. e. g. Look at

those gaudy purple sunglasses.


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light= pale rather than bright. e. g. a light blue shirtpale= like white with a small amount of colour mixed in. e. g. pale grey featherspastel = in a soft and attractive way. e. g. summer dresses in pastel shades.faded= something that is pale because it had been washed a lot or because it has been affected

by light or the sun. e. g. faded blue jeans. The paintwork was faded in places.

CompositionX is madeof

metal/steel/aluminium/cloth/silk/china.wood/plastic/glass/ an alloy of A and

B

Size and weight

X is 6

cm

long/wide/high

X is 6

cm in

length/height/width/diameter

X is 6

kg in

weight

length/height/width/diameter 6cm

The

weight

of Xis

6

kg

length/height/width/

diameter

6

cm

X

has a

weight

of

6

kg

X measures 6

cm

X weighs 6 kgShape

X is

square/round/rectangular/

triangular/semi-circular/

conical/spherical/hexagonal/octagonal/oval/circular/irregular/

cubical/cylindrical/pyramidal

spherical/tubular/spiralhemispherical/conical/bulbous

tapering/concave/convex

in shape

X isdiamond-shaped/kidney-shaped/U-shaped

star-shaped/bell-shaped/dome-shaped

mushroom-shaped/X-shaped/crescent-shaped

egg-shaped/pear-shaped/Y-shaped


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X is a shaped like

a

square/circle/rectangle

triangle/semi-circle

hexagon/octagon

Function

thermometer measure

thetemperatureThe

function

purposeaimobjective

ofthe tripod

isto hold the

camera

thermometer measuring the

temperature

The

tripod

is used

for

holding the

camera

Properties

X is light/tough/soft/elastic/malleable/flexible/

soluble/a good conductor of electricity/heat/corrosion resistant/combustible/transparent/

smooth/heavy/brittle/plastic/ductile/rigid/

insoluble/a bad conductor of electricity/notcorrosion resistant/non-combustible/opaque

rough


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B. GRAMMAR

Direct and Indirect Speech

I. DIRECT SPEECH

1. We use direct speech whenever we speak. We use the term direct speechto describe the way

we represent the spoken word in writing.

2. Quotation marks (or inverted commas) go round what is actually spoken. They may be

single (), or double () and are placed high above the base-line at the beginning and the

end of each quotation.

e.g. Is that you Jane? Bob asked.

3. When the quotation comes after the reporting verb it is preceded by comma and the quotation

begins with a capital letter.

e.g. John said, Its good to see you.

4. When the subject + reporting verb comes after what is said, the quotation has a comma before

the second quotation mark.

e.g. Its good to see you, John said.

5. If the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, a comma is not used.

e.g. Where can I get a taxi? John asked.

6. Subject + verb can come in the middle of a quotation sentence.

e.g. Where, in the wretched town, John asked, can I get a taxi?

7. If there is a quote within a quote, we use a second set of quotation marks. If double quotation

marks have been used on the outside, single ones are used on the inside and vice versa.

e.g. Ann said, Just as I was leaving, a voice shouted, Stop!.

e.g. What do you mean, Are you all right?? Ann asked.

8. Noun + reporting may be in subject + verb order or may be inverted (vb. + subject)

e.g. This is a serious offence, the judge said/said the judge.

9. If the subject is a long one, then inversion is usual.

e.g. Wheres this train going? asked the lady sitting beside me.

10. With a pronoun subject, inversion is rare in modern English.

e.g. This is a serious offence, he said.


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II. INDIRECT SPEECH

We use indirect speechwhen we are telling someone what we or another person says or said.

D. S.: I shall help you tomorrow, John said.

I. S.: John said that he would help me the next day.

D. S.: What are you doing, Mary asked.

I. S.: Mary asked what I was doing.

1. Reporting verbs

The commonest reporting verbs are say, tell, ask

SAY -is used in indirect speech when we do not want/need to mention the listener.

e.g. He said (that) his life was in danger

TELL - is used in indirect speech when we want/need to mention the listener. It must be

followed by an indirect object (tell somebody ).

e.g. He told me (that) his life was in danger.

ASK- a) is followed by if/whetherwhen reporting yes/no questions

e.g. Are you comfortable? he asked (me).

He asked (me) if /whether I was comfortable.

b) is followed by a Wh - word when reporting a Wh - question

e.g. Where are you going ? he asked (me).

He asked (me) where I was going.

2. CHANGES

2. 1 Verbal tense changes :

A. Reporting verb in the presentNO CHANGES

Ive read Tonys book and I dont understand it, John says.

John says (that) he has read Tonys book and doesnt understand it.

B. Reporting verb in the pastBACKSHIFT

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Present Tense Past Tense

Past Tense Past Perfect

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Past Perfect Past Perfect

Future Tense Future-in-the-Past


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(would + inf)

e.g. Ill help you, John said.

John said (that) he would help me.

I have moved to another flat, Mary told me.

Mary told me (that) she had moved to another flat.

Exceptions !!!

The backshift does not occur in the following situations:

1. When reporting habits.

e.g. George said, I go to the seaside every summer.

e.g. George said that he goes to the seaside every summer.

2. When reporting scientific facts.

e.g. The teacher said, Water boils at 100 Celsius.

The teacher said that water boils at 100 Celsius.

3. When reporting a past statement which is still true at the moment of speech.

e.g. Last night George told me I dont have enough money to buy a car.

Last night George told me that he doesnt have enough money to buy a car.

MODAL VERBS

-can

could-willwould

-maymight

e.g. I can/may/will see you later, he said.

He said he could/might/would see me later.

-shall (future reference)would

-shall (offers, suggestions, requests for advice) should

-should (desirability)should

-would, could, might, ought to, neednt haveNo change

- mustmust/had to

must (future reference)must/would have to

must (deduction)must


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ADVERBS AND DEMONSTRATIVES

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

today that day

yesterday the day before

the day before

yesterday

two days before

tomorrow the next/following day

the day after

tomorrow

in two days time

next week the next/following week

last week the previous week/the week before

a year ago a year before/the previous year

this that

these those

here there

now then

OTHER CASES:

1. Yes and No

He said No.He refused. He denied it. He answered in the negative.

He said Yes.He agreed/accepted/answered in the affirmative.

2. When reporting interrogative sentences, besides askwe ca also use: wonder, want to know,

inquire.

e.g. Helen asked (me)/wondered/wanted to know why Tom was angry.

3. Exclamatory sentences:

- What (a) !, How! That Clauses

e.g. How very kind of him to help! mother said.

Mother exclaimed that it was very kind of him to help.

- Oh!, Ah!, Ugh! He exclaimed with surprise/disgust. He gave an exclamation of

surprise/disgust.


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- verbs such as exclaim, complain, shout, remark, observe, say admiringly, say scornfully can be

use to report exclamatory sentences depending on the meaning.

e.g. What a delicious cake ! the guest said. The guest said admiringly that the cake was

delicious.

e.g. How tired I am! the old woman said. The old woman complainedthat she was tired.

- She said, Thank you.She thanked me.

- He said Damn it! He swore.

- They said, Good morning!They greeted me/wished me a good morning.

- She said, A happy new year!She wished me a happy new year.

- He said Well done!He congratulated me.

- She said Liar!She called me a liar.

4. Imperative sentences

- imperativeinfinitive

He said Sit down, Peter!He told Peter to sit down.

- Verbs such as tell, order, command (orders), ask, request, beg, urge (requests), warn, advise,

recommend(advice) can be used when reporting imperative sentences.

e.g. Officer to soldiers: Clean the barracks! The officer ordered the soldiers to clean the

barracks.

e.g. Teacher to Tom: You should go to the doctor. The teacher advised Tom to go to the

doctor.

- Lets + infinitivesuggest + Gerund

e.g. Nick said, Lets watch TV. / What about watching TV?

Nick suggested watching TV/that they should watch TV/That they watch TV.

- be tocan also be used.

e.g. He says, Do the next exercise! He says that we are to do the next exercise.


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C. VOCABULARY

Gymnastics

1. Read the following text and fill in the blanks in the diagram.

Gymnasticsis a sport involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physicalstrength, flexibility, balance, endurance, grace, and kinesthetic awareness, such as handsprings,

handstands, split leaps, aerials and cartwheels. It developed from beauty practices and fitness

used by the ancient Greeks, including skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and circusperformance skills. There are three major forms of competitive gymnastics: artistic gymnastics,

rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline.

Artistic Gymnasticsis usually divided into Men's and Women's Gymnastics, each group

doing different events; Men compete on Floor Exercise, Pommel Horse, Still Rings, Vault,Parallel Bars, and High Bar, while women compete on Vault, Uneven Bars, Beam, and Floor

Exercise. Though routines performed on each event may be short, they are physically exhaustingand push the gymnast's strength, flexibility, endurance and awareness to the limit.

The discipline of rhythmic gymnasticsis competed only by women (although there is a

new version of this discipline for men being pioneered in Japan, see Men's rhythmic

gymnastics), and involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of fiveapparatus ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on

the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 20 points,

and the music used by the gymnast can contain vocals, but may not contain words.

Trampolining consists of four events, individual, synchronized, double mini and

tumbling. Only individual trampoline is included in the Olympics. Individual routines intrampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieveheight, followed by a sequence of ten leaps without pauses during which the gymnast performs a

sequence of aerial tumbling skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points.

Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned

depending on the difficulty of the moves. Synchronized trampoline is similar except that bothcompetitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronicity as well

as the form of the moves. Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up,

two moves are performed and the scores marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline. Inpower tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling

track. Scoring is similar to trampoling.


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competitive

gymnastics

artistic rhythmic

men rope double

mini

build

up

phase

ten

leaps


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2.

A. Fill in the blanks of the following diagram with the qualities of a gymnast you can find

in the text.

B. Fill in the blanks with the words/phrases in the diagram.

1. Lifting that heavy barbell requires a lot of _____ .

2. The ballet dancer was moving with extraordinary _____ .3. The long and difficult journey tested our courage and _____ to the limit.

4. Your joints are very rigid. You should do some exercises to improve your _____ .

5. He lost his _____ and fell.

6. A gymnast needs _____ in order to be able to execute highly accurate movements.

3. Match the names of the events in womens artistic gymnastics with their definitions.

1. balance beam a. In this event, gymnasts sprint down a 25 meter (about 82 feet) runway,

jump onto a springboard and onto an apparatus, known as a horse in a straightbody position, touching it with their hands and blocking off it. The dismount

may include one or multiple saltos and twists.

2. floor b. In this event, the gymnast navigates two horizontal bars set at different

heights. The height is generally fixed, but the width may be adjusted.

Gymnasts perform swinging, circling, transitional, and release moves, as wellas handstands.

3. uneven bars c. The gymnast performs a choreographed routine from 60 to 80 seconds in

length consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, turns and dance elements on a

padded sprung beam. The event requires in particular, balance, flexibility and

strength.

4. vault d. Gymnasts perform a choreographed exercise 70 to 90 seconds long. Themusic is instrumental and cannot have vocals. The routines consist of

tumbling passes, series of jumps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and

turns.The exercise is performed on a carpeted, spring floor, 12 m x 12 m. A

gymnast has three or four tumbling passes that include three or more tricks.

gymnast


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4. Match the beginnings of the definitions marked 1-6, with the right endings marked a-f to

find the description of the events in mens artistic gymnastics: floor exercise, pommel

horse, still rings, parallel bars, high bar (horizontal bar), vault.

1. The floor event occurs on a carpeted 12 m 12 m square, usually consisting of hard foamover a layer of plywood, which is supported by

springs or foam blocks. This provides a firm

surface that will respond with force whencompressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve

extra height and a softer lading than on usual

surfaces.

a. Successful vaults depend on the speed of therun, the length of the hurdle, the power andstrength the gymnast has in the legs and arms

and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness

in the air, and the speed of rotation in the caseof more difficult and complex vaults.

2. The ultimate balancing act, gymnasts must

perform continuous circular movements aroundthe horse while allowing only their hands to

actually touch it.

b. At least one static strength move is required,

but some gymnasts may include two or three.A routine must begin with an impressive

mount, and must conclude with an equallyimpressive dismount.

3. This event is arguably the most physically

demanding event. The rings are suspended onwire cable from a point 5.75 meters off the

floor, and adjusted in height so the gymnast

has room to hang freely and swing. He mustperform a routine demonstrating balance,

strength, power, and dynamic motion while

preventing the rings themselves from

swinging.

c. The gymnasts performe a series of swings,

balances, and releases that require greatstrength and coordination.

4. Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is amaximum of 25 metres in length, before

hurdling onto a spring board. The body

position is maintained while "punching"

(blocking using only a shoulder movement) thevaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates to

a standing position.

d. This is considered one of the most difficultof the men's events and requires flawless

control of balance and body position.

5. Men hold themselves on two bars slightly

further than a shoulder's width apart and

usually 1.75m high.

e. By using all of the momentum from giants

and then releasing at the proper point, enough

height can be achieved for spectaculardismounts, such as a triple-back salto.

6. A 2.4cm thick steel bar raised 2.5m abovethe landing area is all the gymnast has to hold

onto as he performs giants(revolutions around

the bar), twists, and changes of direction.

f. A series of tumbling passes are performed todemonstrate flexibility, strength, and balance

tests. The gymnast must also show non-

acrobatic skills, including circles, scales, andpresses. Men's floor routines usually have four

passes that will total between 6070 seconds

and are performed without music, unlike thewomen's event.


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UNIT 3

A. WRITING

The For and Against Essay

1. Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the

linking words and consider the role of each paragraph.

Advantages and disadvantages of using technology in sport

P 1 Technology in sport is the use of man-made objects or materials in order to change or

enhance sporting performance. The supporters of technology claim that it has been beneficial to

sport in many respects, while opponents accuse it of influencing sport in an adverse way.

P 2 One of the main arguments for the use of technology in sport is that it has improved the

training methods. Athletes have access to more equipment that allows them to watch themselves

on video, test their fitness in a laboratory and adjust their diet in order to get peak performance.

Moreover, problems of climate can be solved using technology. Training apparatus can be used

to provide constant training for the athlete, regardless of inclement weather.

P 3 What is more, safety equipment has undergone vast improvement owing to technology.

The rather precarious position of the jockey has been improved by equipment such as hard hats

and body padding. Motorsport has been made safer with fire resistant suits, helmets and body

reinforcement in cars.

P 4 On the other hand, with increased knowledge of the body, certain drugs can be used to

affect performance in both humans and animals. Horses and greyhounds can be given drugs in

order that their performance is affected to cause them to either win or lose a race. Some snooker

and darts players have been accused of taking beta-blockers, which slow the heart rate in order

that the athlete is more relaxed and therefore less likely to miss a shot.

P 5 In addition to this, technology has been held responsible of taking the excitement out of

sporting competition. For example, the improvements to the McLaren cars on the 1998 Formula

1 Grand Prix circuit at the beginning of the season were far superior to the other teams, with the

result that McLaren won consistently. Many followers of Formula 1 became disenchanted,

knowing that one particular team would probably win every race.


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P 6 It can be concluded that while technology can alter athletic performance and disappoint

sports fans, it can also make sports safer and training more efficient. Some sports rely more on

technological advances than others, but throughout the latter part of the 20th

century, there have

been few sports that have not been influenced in some way by technology. All in all,

technologys impact on sport and society should not be underestimated.

A for and against essay is a formal piece of writing in which a topic is considered from

opposing points of view. You should present both sides in a fair way by discussing them

objectively and in equal detail.

Structure

Introduction

Paragraph 1

Clearly state the topic without giving your opinion.

Main body

Paragraphs 2 and 3

Arguments for and justifications, examples, and/or reasons.

Paragraphs 4 and 5

Arguments against and justifications, examples, and/or reasons.

Conclusion

Paragraph 6

Balanced considerations/your opinion directly or indirectly

Before you start writing your essay you should make a list of the points for and against.

Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises the topic of the

paragraph.

Do not use informal style (short forms, colloquial language) or strong language to express your

opinion (I know,I strongly believe that).

Express your opinion in a non-emotional way (It seems that,I therefore feel that)

Useful expressions and linking words/phrases

to list points:

Firstly, First of all, In the first place, To begin/start with, Secondly, Thirdly,

Finally


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to list advantages:

One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of is

The main/greatest/first advantage of is

to list disadvantages:

One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage/drawback of is

The main/greatest/first/most serious advantage of is

Another negative aspect of

to introduce points/arguments for or against:

One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of /against

A further common criticism of

It could be argued that

It isoftenwidelygenerally

claimed/suggestedargued/maintainedfelt/believed/held

that

claim/suggest/argue/feel that

maintain/believe/point out/agree/hold that

advocate (+ing/noun)/support the view that

oppose the view that

some/many

most people/experts

scientists/skeptics

criticsare in favour of/against

of the opinion that/convinced that

opposed to

to add more points to the same topic:

in addition (to this), furthermore, moreover, besides, apart from, what is more, as

well as, not to mention (the fact) that , also, not only but also/as well, both

and/there is another side to the issue/question/argument of

to make contrasting points:

it may be said/argued/claimed that on the other hand, howeverstill, yet, but, nonetheless,

nevertheless, even so,othersmany people

oppose this viewpoint(strongly) disagree ,

claim/feel/believe this argument is

incorrect/misguided


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although. though, even though, while, whilst, whereas, despite/in spite of (the fact

that), regardless of the fact that

Opponents of argue/believe/claim that

The fact that contradicts the belief/idea that

While it is true to say that , in fact

While/Although , it cannot be denied that

to introduce examples:

for example, for instance, such as, like, in particular, particularly, especially

This is (clearly) illustrated/shown by the fact that by the fact that

One/A clear/striking/typical example of (this)

The fact that shows/illustrated that

to emphasize a point:

clearly, obviously, it is obvious, naturally, of course, needless to say, indeed

to express reality:

in fact, the fact (of the matter) is, actually, in practice, it is a fact that, in effect

to make general statements:

as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most cases

to make partially correct statements:

to a certain extent/degree, in a way/sense, this is partly true (but), to a limited

extent, there is some truth in (this), in some cases, up to a point

to explain/clarify a point:

in other words, that is to say, this/which means that

to express cause:

owing to, due to (the fact that), on account of, on the grounds that, given that,

because, since

to express effects:

therefore, thus, as a result/consequence, consequently, so, for this reason, if

were to happen, the effect/result would be .

to express intention:

to, so as to, in order to, so that, with the intention of (+ ing)


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to draw conclusions expressing balanced considerations/opinions indirectly

In conclusion,

On balance,

All things considered,

Taking everything into account/

considerations,To conclude,

To sum up,All in all,

Finally/Lastly,

it can/must be said/claimed that

is seems/appears that

it would seem that

it is likely/unlikely/possible/foreseeable that

there is no/little doubt that the best course of action would be to

achieving a balance between would be it is true to say that

although it must be said that

it may be concluded/said that

All things considered, the obvious conclusion to be drawn is that

There is no absolute answer to the question of

In the light of this evidence, it is clear/obvious that In conclusion,All in all,

To sum up,

it isclear/apparentplain/obvious

evident

from theabove

foregoing

evidencepoints

arguments

to draw conclusions expressing opinions directly

In conclusion,

On balance,All things considered,

Taking everything into account/

considerations,To conclude,

To sum up,

All in all,Finally/Lastly,

it is my belief that/opinion that

I believe/feel/think that

I am inclined to believe that I (do not) agree that/with

Taking everything into account, I therefore conclude/feel/believe (that)

For the above-mentioned reasons, therefore, I firmly believe that


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B. GRAMMAR

The Passive Voice

I. Introduction

1. In the active voice, the subject is the person or thing doing the action.

e.g. John cooked the food last night.

2. In the passive voice, the action is done to the subject.

e.g. The food was cooked by John last night.

3. The passive transformation

Active Voice Passive Voice

Object (the food) Subject

Subject (John) Agent (by John)

Main Verb (cooked) to be+ past participle (was cooked)

II. Form of the passive

Simple Aspect Continuous Aspect

a form of to be+ past participle

(3rd

form of the verb)

a form of to be +being + past participle (3rd

form of the

verb)

Conjugation Patterns

Tense/Mood Active Voice Passive voice

Present

Simple

A doctor cures sick people. Sick people are cured by the doctor.

Present

Continuous

She is watering the flowers. The flowers arebeing watered by her.

Present

Perfect

They have opened a new

shop.

A new shop has been opened.

Past Simple I taught them English

yesterday.

They were taught English (by me) yesterday.

Past

Continuous

They were singing songs. Songs were being sung.

Past Perfect They had heard the news. The news had been heard.


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Future Tense She will call me in the

morning.

I shall be called (by her) in the morning.

Future

Perfect

I shall have seen them by the

end of the week.

They will have been seen before the end of

the week.

Future-in-

the-Past

I thought I would hear the

bell.

I thought the bell would be heard.

Imperative Do it at once! Be done with it at once!

Infinitive Its hard to hear in such a

noise.

Its hard to be heard in here.

Present

Conditional

They would excuse me if I

explained.

I would be excused if I explained.

Past

conditional

I would have sent for the

doctor if I had thought it

necessary.

The doctor would have been sent for if I had

thought it necessary.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Only present tense and past tense continuous are common in the passive voice.

e.g. He is being interviewed now.

e.g. He was being interviewed at 10 oclock.

However, modals with progressive aspect sometimes occur.e.g. I know Mark was going to have an interview sometimes this afternoon. He may be being

interviewed as we speak.

2. The adverbial particle or the obligatory preposition are placed immediately after the verb in

the passive voice.

Active Voice Passive Voice

They are speaking to you. (prep.) You are being spoken to.

The wind blew the tent down. (adv. particle) The tent was blown down.

No one can put up with her any more. (adv.

particle + preposition)

We have done away with the old rules. (adv.

particle + preposition)

She cant be put up with any more.

The old rules have been done away with.


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III. Uses of the passive

1. When speakers do not wish to commit themselves to actions, opinions, or statements of which

they are not completely certain.

e.g. The matter will be dealt with as soon as possible.

2. When the stress falls on the action and not on the doer of the action.

e.g. My car has been scratched!

e.g. Thousands of beaches are polluted.

e.g. Charles I was beheaded in 1649.

3. When the doer of the action is unknown or when we want to avoid using a vague word

(somebody, a person) as a subject.

e.g. After my talk, I was asked to explain a point I had made.

e.g. A doctor has been sent for.

4. In scientific writing (to describe process).

e.g. The mixture is placed in a crucible and is heated to a temperature of 300C. It is then

allowed to cool before it can be analysed.

5. Announcements

e.g. Candidates are required to present themselves fifteen minutes before the examination begins.

They are asked to be punctual.

e.g. Passengers are requested to remain seated until the aircraft comes to a complete stop.

6. Headlines, advertisements, etc

e.g. PRICES SLASHED! ALL GOODS GREATLY REDUCED! PETROL CUPONS

ACCEPTED

IV. The use of by + agent after a passive

1. An agent is a doer, the person or thing that performs the action expressed by the verb. By+

agent in passive constructions tells us who or what did something.

e.g. The poem was recited byMary.

e.g. The window was broken bya stone.

2. By+ agent is only necessary when the speaker wishes to say (or the hearer has to know) who

or what is responsible for the event in question.

e.g. The window was broken bya slate that fell off the roof. (not by a person)

e.g. The window was broken bythe boy who lives next door. (not by my brother)


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3. By + agent is often used with the passive of verbs like build, compose, damage, design,

destroy, discover, invent, make, wreck, write.

e.g. The action of penicillin was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming.

e.g. The electric light was invented by Thomas Edison.

e.g. The Eiffel Tower was designed and built by Gustave Eiffel.

V. By+ agent is omitted in the following situations:

1. When the subject of the sentence in the active voice is expressed by a vague word: you, they,

one, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, all, a person.

e.g. A. V. People speak English all over the world.

P. V. English is spoken all over the world.

2. When the agent can be inferred from the context.

e.g. The thief was arrested. (one can easily infer that it was the police that arrested the thief)

e.g. The bridge was built last year. (one can easily infer that it was the workers who built the

bridge)

3. When the doer of the action is unknown or the speaker does not wish to mention him/her/it.

e.g. A doctor has been sent for.

e.g. This subject will be treated fully in the next chapter.

VI.The passive with verbs of saying and believing.

1. It+ passive + that -clause with verbs like agree, allege, arrange, assume, believe, consider,

decide, declare, discover, expect, fear, feel, find, hope, imagine, know, observe, presume, prove,

report, say, show, suggest, suppose, think, understand.

e.g. People say that John is thief. It is said that John is a thief.

2. Subject (other than it) + passive + to- infinitive with verbs like acknowledge, allege, believe,

consider, declare, know, recognize, report, say, suppose, think, understand.

e.g. They know that Mary is a spy.Mary is known to be a spy.

3. There+ passive + to be + complement with verbs like acknowledge, allege, believe, consider,

fear, feel, know, presume, report, say, suppose, think, understand.

e.g. They say that there is plenty of oil in our country. There is said to be plenty of oil in our

country.


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VII. Miscellaneous

1. Verbs such as bring, give, offer, tell can have two passive forms.

e.g. A. V. Tom gave me a pen.

a) I was given a pen by Tom.

b) A pen was given to me by Tom.

!!! Because we are often more interested in people or animals, variant a) is more common than b)

2. Active verbs with passive meaning.

e.g. This surface cleans (can be cleaned) easily.

e.g. These clothes wash well. The wine is selling quickly. Whats showing at the cinema this

weekend? Her novel is reprinting already.

3. Verbs such as be born, be married, obligedare used more frequently in the passive than in the

active.

4. Passive constructions are common after verbs followed by the -ingform, such as like, enjoy.

dislike, rememberand after verbs followed by a to-infinitive.

e.g. Most people dont like being criticized.

e.g. He hates to be criticized.

VIII. Get + past participle

Get is often used instead of be before certain past participles (arrested, caught, confused,

delayed, divorced, dressed, drowned, drunk, elected, engaged, hit, killed, lost, married, stuck ) in

colloquial English.Be can sometimes be replaced by become.

We use getin the following situations:

1. When we do something to ourselves.

e.g. I got dressed as quickly as I could.

2. When we manage to arrange something in our favour.

e.g. I see old Morton has got himself promoted at last.

3. When something (often unfavourable) happens beyond our control.

e.g. We got delayed because of the holiday traffic.

4. When we express commands or insults.

e.g. Get dressed! Get washed! Get lost!


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C. VOCABULARY

Track-and-field

1. Use the following words to label the representation of the track-and-field arena below.

water jump, shot put area, pole vault area, infield, track, hurdles, long and triple jump pit,

discus and hammer area, high jump area, javelin area

2. Choose the correct variant.

1. The high jumper managed to _____ the bar at his first attempt.

a. cross, b. traverse, c. clear, d. touch

2. Michael would have won the race if he had not _____ the last hurdle.

a. overthrown, b. overcome, c. overrun, d. overturned

3. The start of the race was cancelled because one of the sprinters had jumped the _____.

a. the starting signal, b. the starting line, c. the queue, d. the gun

4. During the second lap, the Romanian athlete was already leading _____.

a. the field, b. the race, c. the event, d. the competition

5. John saw that Paul was getting tired after the first two laps so he _____ the lead.

a. gained, b. took, c. earned, d. got

6. As she was exhausted, she tried to slow down a bit but soon she noticed that the pursuers were

gaining _____ her.


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a. off, b. of, c. to, d on.

7. During the second half of the race, Andrew sped up, which allowed him to _____ three

runners.

a. overtake, b. overcome, c. overlap, d., overstep

8. Due to his excellent physical fitness, he had no trouble qualifying _____ the final.

a. for, b. in, c. to, d. at

9. Since all the competitors were very well trained, the race had a _____ finish.

a. predictable, b. close, c. inevitable, d. even

10. Jim was running so fast that he soon _____ the other competitors.

a. beat, b. lapped, c. defeated, d. overcame

11. In case of failure, each jumper is entitled to an additional _____.

a. try, b. trying, c. trialing, d. trial

12. At the end of a competition, the runners-up are awarded the _____ medal.

a. gold, b. silver, c. bronze

13. The long jumper missed the take-off board because he had made a mistake during the _____.

a. run-up, b. rundown, c. runabout, d. run-off

14. The Romanian team lost the race because of a misunderstanding during the first _____

passing.

a. stick, b. rod, c. staff, d. baton

15. The English athlete had an advantage over the other competitors because he had started the

race on the _____.

a. runway, b. inner lane, c. middle lane, outer lane

16. The sprinters were disadvantaged by a very strong _____.

a. assisting wind, b. headwind, c. crosswind, d. windshield

17. A long jumper needs a very good sense of _____.

a. equilibrium, b. stability, c. balance, d. steadiness

18. The athlete _____ one mile in four minutes.

a. covered, b. finished, c. terminated, d. executed

19. John had been leading the field for two minutes when he suddenly felt exhausted and

reluctantly had to _____ to the other competitors.

a. to abandon, b. give away, c. give way, d. give up


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20. Jane had been out of training for three months so she had a hard time keeping _____ with the

other runners.

a. rhythm, b. speed, c. velocity, d. pace

3. Match the names of the track-and-field events with their definitions.

1. long-distance running a.Contest in which athletes must throw a very heavy round ball asfar as possible.

2. hurdle race b.A long-distance race of 26 miles and 385 yards (42.195 km)

3. steeplechase c.An event in which athletes must throw a heavy thick-centered

disc.

4. middle-distance running d.An event in which a long light spear is thrown by the athletes as

far as possible.

5. relay race e.An event in which competitors throw an object called hammer

as far as possible.

6. cross-country race f.The goal in this event is to race as fast as possible while still

maintaining a walking gait. During the race the heel of the forward

foot must maintain touch with the track until the toe of the trailingfoot leaves the ground.

7. hammer throwing g.Race in which athletes must run across fields or countryside.

8. discus throwing h.Event in which competitors attempt to vault over a high barwith the aid of a long flexible pole.

9. shot put i.Race between teams of runners in which each team member in

turn must cover part of the total distance while carrying a baton.

10. javelin throwing j.Event in which competitors jump as far as possible along the

ground in one leap.

11. marathon race k.Races ranging from 600 meters to 3,000 meters. The most

popular distances are the 800-meter, 1,500-meter, and 3,000-meter

runs.

12. race walking l.Event in which athletes must run at full speed over a short

distance.

13. high jump m.Race in which athletes must jump over a series of four hurdles

and water jumps.

14. long jump n.Event in which athletes must jump as far as possible by

performing a hop, a step and a jump from a running start.

15. pole vault o.A race in which athletes must jump over a series of uprightframes.

16. sprint p.Event in which competitors jump as high as possible over a barof adjustable height.

17. triple jump r.Race in which competitors have to cover distances longer 3,000

meters. The most common are ones of 5,000 to 10,000 meters, and

the marathon.


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UNIT 4

A. WRITING

The Opinion Essay

Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the linking

words and consider the role of each paragraph.

Although the position of women in society today has improved, there is still a great deal of

sexual discrimination. Do you agree?

P 1 Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and the majority

of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work than ever before, and it is

accepted in Western culture that many women now have careers. Nonetheless, in my opinion

there is still a great deal of sexual discrimination against women within society, and the belief

that sexual equality has been achieved is not altogether accurate.

P 2 To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after having children.

The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions made for childcare in the

workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find someone to look after the children while

they are at work. Obviously, this can prove to be a time-consuming and expensive process, yet it

must be done if mothers are to be able to resume their careers.

P 3 Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are so deeply

ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the view that women should

stay at home and look after their family still widely held, but it is reinforced through images seen

on television programmes and advertisements. An example of this is that few men are ever seen

doing housework on television, since this is traditionally thought of as a womans job.

P 4 Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good standard of

living, a woman finds herself doing two jobs: one at home and one at the office. So, it could be

said that a womans position has, in fact, deteriorated rather than improved, with the result that

women carry the burdens of equality but get none of the benefits.


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P 5 In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual discrimination no

longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal rights intended to protect them

from discrimination. In addition, a few women are now beginning to reach top positions as

judges, business leaders and politicians, while a number of previously all-male professions are

opening their ranks to women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm and discrimination

is still very much with

Documents

Course Packet 2nd Semester