Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

And the Educated PersonAnd the Educated Person

What is Critical Thinking?What is Critical Thinking?

Problem solvingProblem solving Analyzing informationAnalyzing information Interpreting informationInterpreting information Recognizing biasRecognizing bias Understanding diverse points of viewUnderstanding diverse points of view Applying informationApplying information Learning!Learning!

Becoming a Fair-Minded Becoming a Fair-Minded Critical ThinkerCritical Thinker

Our ability to be fair-minded is the result of Our ability to be fair-minded is the result of cognitive and socio-emotional cognitive and socio-emotional development. We must all recognize that development. We must all recognize that to be fair-minded we must develop traits to be fair-minded we must develop traits such as intellectual humility, intellectual such as intellectual humility, intellectual integrity, intellectual courage, intellectual integrity, intellectual courage, intellectual autonomy, intellectual empathy, autonomy, intellectual empathy, intellectual perseverance, and confidence intellectual perseverance, and confidence in reason.in reason.

Weak vs. Strong Critical ThinkingWeak vs. Strong Critical Thinking

A weak-sense thinker is a Sophist. The sophist is one A weak-sense thinker is a Sophist. The sophist is one who seeks to win an argument regardless of whether who seeks to win an argument regardless of whether there are problems in the thinking being used, regardless there are problems in the thinking being used, regardless of whether relevant viewpoints are being ignored. The of whether relevant viewpoints are being ignored. The objective is to win.objective is to win.

Strong-sense critical thinkers are not easily tricked by Strong-sense critical thinkers are not easily tricked by slick argumentation, by sophistry, and intellectual slick argumentation, by sophistry, and intellectual trickery, they use thinking in an ethical, reasonable trickery, they use thinking in an ethical, reasonable manner. As strong-sense thinkers, we question our own manner. As strong-sense thinkers, we question our own purposes, evidence, conclusions, implications, and point purposes, evidence, conclusions, implications, and point of view with the same vigor that we question those of of view with the same vigor that we question those of others.others.

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires:

Intellectual humility: to develop knowledge of the Intellectual humility: to develop knowledge of the extent of one’s ignorance, being aware of one’s extent of one’s ignorance, being aware of one’s biases and prejudices as well as the limitations biases and prejudices as well as the limitations of one’s viewpoint, and it recognizes that one of one’s viewpoint, and it recognizes that one should not claim more than one actually knows.should not claim more than one actually knows. What do you do when you are challenged on What do you do when you are challenged on

something you think you know?something you think you know? Can you name some of your false beliefs, illusions, Can you name some of your false beliefs, illusions,

prejudices, myths and misconceptions?prejudices, myths and misconceptions?

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires: Intellectual Courage: facing and fairly Intellectual Courage: facing and fairly

addressing ideas, beliefs or viewpoints even addressing ideas, beliefs or viewpoints even when this is painful, recognizing that ideas that when this is painful, recognizing that ideas that society considers dangerous or absurd are society considers dangerous or absurd are sometimes rationally justified or simply a matter sometimes rationally justified or simply a matter of subjective taste. To determine what makes of subjective taste. To determine what makes sense to believe, one must not passively and sense to believe, one must not passively and uncritically accept what one has learned.uncritically accept what one has learned. Have you ever questioned your beliefs and then Have you ever questioned your beliefs and then

questioned your identity?questioned your identity? Have you ever held to certain beliefs because of the Have you ever held to certain beliefs because of the

fear of rejection?fear of rejection?

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires:

Intellectual empathy: to put oneself imaginatively Intellectual empathy: to put oneself imaginatively in the place of others on a routine basis, so as to in the place of others on a routine basis, so as to genuinely understand them. It requires one to genuinely understand them. It requires one to reconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of reconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of others accurately and to reason from premises, others accurately and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas other than one’s own.assumptions, and ideas other than one’s own. What’s it like to have a disability?What’s it like to have a disability? What’s it like to be male/female/gay/lawyer/priest….?What’s it like to be male/female/gay/lawyer/priest….?

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires:

Intellectual integrity: to be true to one’s Intellectual integrity: to be true to one’s own disciplined thinking and holding own disciplined thinking and holding oneself to the same standards that one oneself to the same standards that one expects others to meet. It means expects others to meet. It means practicing daily what one advocates for practicing daily what one advocates for others (walking the walk).others (walking the walk). Have you ever experienced cognitive Have you ever experienced cognitive

dissonance? This is believing one thing and dissonance? This is believing one thing and doing another.doing another.

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires:

Intellectual perseverance: the disposition Intellectual perseverance: the disposition to work one’s way through intellectual to work one’s way through intellectual complexities despite frustrations inherent complexities despite frustrations inherent in the task. Some problems are in the task. Some problems are complicated and cannot be solved easily complicated and cannot be solved easily (tolerate uncertainty).(tolerate uncertainty). Have you ever tried to understand something Have you ever tried to understand something

or someone and given up, or been invited to or someone and given up, or been invited to give up?give up?

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires: Confidence in reason: based on the belief that Confidence in reason: based on the belief that

one’s own higher interests and those of one’s own higher interests and those of humankind at large are best served by giving the humankind at large are best served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging people to freest play to reason, by encouraging people to come to their own conclusions through the use come to their own conclusions through the use of their own rational faculties. People can learn of their own rational faculties. People can learn to think for themselves, form insightful to think for themselves, form insightful viewpoints, draw reasonable conclusions, think viewpoints, draw reasonable conclusions, think clearly, accurately, relevantly and logically and clearly, accurately, relevantly and logically and persuade each other by appeal to good reason persuade each other by appeal to good reason and sound evidence.and sound evidence. Have you ever said “oh, you just don’t understand and Have you ever said “oh, you just don’t understand and

never will…”?never will…”?

Intellectual Distrust of ReasonIntellectual Distrust of Reason Faith in charismatic national leadersFaith in charismatic national leaders Faith in charismatic cult leadersFaith in charismatic cult leaders Faith in the father as the traditional head of the householdFaith in the father as the traditional head of the household Faith in institutional authoritiesFaith in institutional authorities Faith in spiritual powersFaith in spiritual powers Faith in some social groupFaith in some social group Faith in some political ideologyFaith in some political ideology Faith in intuitionFaith in intuition Faith in one’s unanalyzed emotionsFaith in one’s unanalyzed emotions Faith in one’s gut impulsesFaith in one’s gut impulses Faith in fateFaith in fate Faith in social or legal institutionsFaith in social or legal institutions Faith in folkways or moresFaith in folkways or mores Faith in one’s own unanalyzed experiencesFaith in one’s own unanalyzed experiences Faith in people who have social statusFaith in people who have social status

Fair-Mindedness Requires:Fair-Mindedness Requires:

Intellectual autonomy: thinking for oneself while Intellectual autonomy: thinking for oneself while adhering to standards of rationality, thinking adhering to standards of rationality, thinking through issues using one’s own thinking rather through issues using one’s own thinking rather than uncritically accepting the viewpoints of than uncritically accepting the viewpoints of others. Independent thinkers are not willful, others. Independent thinkers are not willful, stubborn, or unresponsive to the reasonable stubborn, or unresponsive to the reasonable suggestions of others.suggestions of others. Have you ever conformed to a belief that you later Have you ever conformed to a belief that you later

came to reject?came to reject? Have you ever been rejected by your independent Have you ever been rejected by your independent

beliefs?beliefs?

The First Four The First Four Stages of DevelopmentStages of Development

Stage One: The Unreflective thinkerStage One: The Unreflective thinker We don’t notice we are continually making We don’t notice we are continually making

assumptions, forming concepts and opinions, assumptions, forming concepts and opinions, drawing inferences, and thinking within points drawing inferences, and thinking within points of view.of view.

Our egocentric tendencies at this stage play a Our egocentric tendencies at this stage play a dominant role in our thinking.dominant role in our thinking.

We lack the skills and motivation to notice We lack the skills and motivation to notice how self-centered and prejudiced we are.how self-centered and prejudiced we are.

The First Four The First Four Stages of DevelopmentStages of Development

Stage Two: The Challenged ThinkerStage Two: The Challenged Thinker We begin to notice that weWe begin to notice that we

• Make questionable assumptionsMake questionable assumptions• Use false, incomplete, or misleading informationUse false, incomplete, or misleading information• Make inferences that do not follow from the evidence we Make inferences that do not follow from the evidence we

havehave• Fail to recognize important implications in our thoughtFail to recognize important implications in our thought• Fail to recognize problems we haveFail to recognize problems we have• Form faulty conceptsForm faulty concepts• Reason with prejudiced points of viewReason with prejudiced points of view• Think egocentrically and irrationallyThink egocentrically and irrationally

We begin to become aware that our thinking is We begin to become aware that our thinking is shaping our lives.shaping our lives.

The First Four The First Four Stages of DevelopmentStages of Development

Stage Three: The Beginning ThinkerStage Three: The Beginning Thinker We are beginning to:We are beginning to:

• Analyze the logic of situations and problemsAnalyze the logic of situations and problems• Express clear and precise questionsExpress clear and precise questions• Check information for accuracy and relevanceCheck information for accuracy and relevance• Distinguish between raw information and someone’s interpretation Distinguish between raw information and someone’s interpretation

of itof it• Recognize assumptions guiding inferencesRecognize assumptions guiding inferences• Identify prejudicial and biased beliefs, unjustifiable conclusions, Identify prejudicial and biased beliefs, unjustifiable conclusions,

misused words, and missed implicationsmisused words, and missed implications• Notice when our viewpoint is biased by our selfish interestsNotice when our viewpoint is biased by our selfish interests

The purpose of the autobiography (culture, time, place, The purpose of the autobiography (culture, time, place, raised, associations) raised, associations)

What are two traps that can derail the beginning thinker?What are two traps that can derail the beginning thinker?

The First Four The First Four Stages of DevelopmentStages of Development

Stage Four: The Practicing ThinkerStage Four: The Practicing Thinker Using wasted timeUsing wasted time Handle a problem a day (at least)Handle a problem a day (at least) Internalize intellectual standards (ADEADCAT)Internalize intellectual standards (ADEADCAT) Keep an intellectual journalKeep an intellectual journal Practice intellectual strategiesPractice intellectual strategies Reshape your characterReshape your character Deal with your egoDeal with your ego Redefine the way you see thingsRedefine the way you see things Get in touch with your emotionsGet in touch with your emotions Analyze group influences on your lifeAnalyze group influences on your life

Self-UnderstandingSelf-Understanding

Think of the most self-centered person you Think of the most self-centered person you know. This may be someone who is know. This may be someone who is fundamentally selfish or arrogant. fundamentally selfish or arrogant. Describe the person’s behavior in detail. Describe the person’s behavior in detail. Based on the person’s behavior, how Based on the person’s behavior, how would you describe his or her thinking? would you describe his or her thinking? What are their feelings and motivations? What are their feelings and motivations? Do they use others to get what they want?Do they use others to get what they want?

Fallacies of BeliefFallacies of Belief

It’s true because I believe it.It’s true because I believe it. It’s true because we believe it.It’s true because we believe it. It’s true because I want to believe it.It’s true because I want to believe it. It’s true because I have always believed it.It’s true because I have always believed it. It’s true because it’s in my selfish interests It’s true because it’s in my selfish interests

to believe it.to believe it.

The Mind’s Three Distinctive The Mind’s Three Distinctive FunctionsFunctions

Thinking: to create meaningThinking: to create meaning Feeling: monitor or evaluate meaningFeeling: monitor or evaluate meaning Wanting: allocates energy to action, in keeping Wanting: allocates energy to action, in keeping

with our definition of what is desirable and with our definition of what is desirable and possiblepossible

For every positive thought the mind believes, For every positive thought the mind believes, there is a corresponding emotion and value.there is a corresponding emotion and value.

Ask yourself: what is the thinking that influences Ask yourself: what is the thinking that influences me not to want to learn this? What is the value of me not to want to learn this? What is the value of learning it?learning it?

The Three Functions of the MindThe Three Functions of the Mind

Learn Both Intellectually and Learn Both Intellectually and EmotionallyEmotionally

In order to learn and remember In order to learn and remember something, it must be meaningful to our something, it must be meaningful to our lives and therefore, must have affective lives and therefore, must have affective connotation and a value attached to it.connotation and a value attached to it.

How does one use motivation to put a How does one use motivation to put a different spin on a domain that has different spin on a domain that has previously been assumed unimportant and previously been assumed unimportant and not valuable? not valuable?

The Parts of ThinkingThe Parts of Thinking

Reasoning: the mental process the mind uses to Reasoning: the mental process the mind uses to make sense of whatever we seek to understand.make sense of whatever we seek to understand.

We draw conclusions on the basis of reasons We draw conclusions on the basis of reasons (decisions, interpretations, inferences).(decisions, interpretations, inferences).

Whenever we think, we think for a purpose, Whenever we think, we think for a purpose, within a point of view, based on assumptions, within a point of view, based on assumptions, leading to implications and consequences. We leading to implications and consequences. We use data, facts, and experiences to make use data, facts, and experiences to make inferences and judgments based on concepts inferences and judgments based on concepts and theories to answer a question or solve a and theories to answer a question or solve a problem.problem.

Questions Implied by the Universal Questions Implied by the Universal Structures of ThoughtStructures of Thought

What is my fundamental purpose (goals, desires, needs, What is my fundamental purpose (goals, desires, needs, values)?values)?

What is the key question I am trying to answer?What is the key question I am trying to answer? What information do I need to answer my question?What information do I need to answer my question? What is the most basic concept in the question?What is the most basic concept in the question? What assumptions am I using in my reasoning?What assumptions am I using in my reasoning? What is my point of view with respect to the issue?What is my point of view with respect to the issue? What are my most fundamental inferences or What are my most fundamental inferences or

conclusions?conclusions? What are the implications for my reasoning (if I am What are the implications for my reasoning (if I am

correct)?correct)?

ReasoningReasoning Purpose: Humans reason in line with their goals, values, Purpose: Humans reason in line with their goals, values,

needs and desiresneeds and desires Point of view: our thinking has a focus or orientationPoint of view: our thinking has a focus or orientation Concepts: general categories or ideas by which we Concepts: general categories or ideas by which we

interpret, classify, or group the info we use in thinkinginterpret, classify, or group the info we use in thinking We often face questions we need to answer, problems We often face questions we need to answer, problems

we need to solve, issues we need to resolvewe need to solve, issues we need to resolve Information in our reasoning: facts, data or experiences Information in our reasoning: facts, data or experiences

to support our conclusionsto support our conclusions Jack and JillJack and Jill

How the Parts of How the Parts of Thinking Fit TogetherThinking Fit Together

Our purpose affects the manner in which we ask Our purpose affects the manner in which we ask questionsquestions

The manner in which we ask questions affects the The manner in which we ask questions affects the information we gatherinformation we gather

The information we gather affects the way we interpret itThe information we gather affects the way we interpret it The way we interpret information affects the way we The way we interpret information affects the way we

conceptualize itconceptualize it The way we conceptualize information affects the The way we conceptualize information affects the

assumptions we makeassumptions we make The assumptions we make affect the implications that The assumptions we make affect the implications that

follow from our thinkingfollow from our thinking The implications that follow affect the way we see things The implications that follow affect the way we see things

– our point of view– our point of view

Best ThinkersBest Thinkers Think to some purposeThink to some purpose Take command of conceptsTake command of concepts Assess informationAssess information

Inert information: memorized, but we don’t Inert information: memorized, but we don’t understandunderstand

Activated ignorance: actively using false informationActivated ignorance: actively using false information Activated knowledge: actively using true information Activated knowledge: actively using true information

that leads us to more knowledge that leads us to more knowledge Distinguish between information, inferences and Distinguish between information, inferences and

assumptionsassumptions Think through implicationsThink through implications Think across points of viewThink across points of view

Intellectual Standards and the Intellectual Standards and the Elements of ReasoningElements of Reasoning

ClarityClarity AccuracyAccuracy PrecisionPrecision RelevanceRelevance DepthDepth BreadthBreadth LogicLogic SignificanceSignificance FairnessFairness

Purpose, goal, end in viewPurpose, goal, end in view Question at issue or problem Question at issue or problem

to be solvedto be solved Information, data, facts, Information, data, facts,

observations, experiencesobservations, experiences Implications and Implications and

consequencesconsequences Concepts, theories, definitions, Concepts, theories, definitions,

axioms, laws, principles, axioms, laws, principles, modelsmodels

Points of view, frames of Points of view, frames of reference, perspective, reference, perspective, orientationorientation

Ask Questions that Lead to Ask Questions that Lead to Good ThinkingGood Thinking

Three kinds of QuestionsThree kinds of Questions Questions of fact: require evidence and Questions of fact: require evidence and

reasoning within a system, a correct answer, reasoning within a system, a correct answer, lead to knowledgelead to knowledge

Questions of preference: call for stating a Questions of preference: call for stating a subjective preference, a subjective opinion, subjective preference, a subjective opinion, cannot be assessedcannot be assessed

Questions of judgment: require evidence and Questions of judgment: require evidence and reasoning within multiple systems, better and reasoning within multiple systems, better and worse answers, require reasoned judgmentworse answers, require reasoned judgment

Questioning Your QuestionsQuestioning Your Questions

Questions of purpose force us to define Questions of purpose force us to define our taskour task

Questions of information force us to look Questions of information force us to look at our sources of information as well as at our sources of information as well as the quality of our informationthe quality of our information

Questions of interpretation force us to Questions of interpretation force us to examine how we are organizing or giving examine how we are organizing or giving meaning to information and to consider meaning to information and to consider alternative ways of giving meaningalternative ways of giving meaning

Questioning Your QuestionsQuestioning Your Questions

Questions of assumption forces us to examine Questions of assumption forces us to examine what we are taking for grantedwhat we are taking for granted

Questions of implication force us to follow Questions of implication force us to follow where our thinking is leading uswhere our thinking is leading us

Questions of point of view force us to examine Questions of point of view force us to examine our point of view and to consider other relevant our point of view and to consider other relevant points of viewpoints of view

Questions of relevance force us to differentiate Questions of relevance force us to differentiate what does and what does not bear on a what does and what does not bear on a questionquestion

Questioning Your QuestionsQuestioning Your Questions Questions of accuracy force us to evaluate and Questions of accuracy force us to evaluate and

test for truth and correctnesstest for truth and correctness Questions of precision force us to give details Questions of precision force us to give details

and be specificand be specific Questions of consistency force us to examine Questions of consistency force us to examine

our thinking for contradictionsour thinking for contradictions Questions of logic force us to consider how we Questions of logic force us to consider how we

are putting the whole of our thought together, to are putting the whole of our thought together, to make sure that it all adds up and makes sense make sure that it all adds up and makes sense within a reasonable system of some kindwithin a reasonable system of some kind

Socratic ThinkingSocratic Thinking

Probing, analytic, synthetic, creative, Probing, analytic, synthetic, creative, connection-forming thought connection-forming thought construction of a logical system of construction of a logical system of understandings understandings leading to insight leading to insight a a natural way to develop and test our natural way to develop and test our understanding of content understanding of content a natural way a natural way to give life to content to give life to content

Redefine Grades as Levels of Redefine Grades as Levels of Thinking and LearningThinking and Learning

Best Learners:Best Learners: Continually assess their learning against standards of excellenceContinually assess their learning against standards of excellence Are not dependent on instructors to tell them how well they are Are not dependent on instructors to tell them how well they are

doingdoing Tie each step of their learning process to a self-reflective step of Tie each step of their learning process to a self-reflective step of

self-assessmentself-assessment Seek to enter the foundations of any subject and use that foundation Seek to enter the foundations of any subject and use that foundation

to understand everything else within the subjectto understand everything else within the subject Seek to identify the most basic kinds of information used by Seek to identify the most basic kinds of information used by

professionals within the fieldprofessionals within the field Do not memorize random bits of information, their learning is Do not memorize random bits of information, their learning is

problem or question basedproblem or question based They state a problem, assess for clarity, gather information, check it They state a problem, assess for clarity, gather information, check it

for relevance, form an interpretation and check the interpretation to for relevance, form an interpretation and check the interpretation to see what it’s based on and whether it is adequatesee what it’s based on and whether it is adequate

Developing Strategies for Self-Developing Strategies for Self-AssessmentAssessment

Using profiles to assess your performanceUsing profiles to assess your performance Exemplary studentsExemplary students High-performing studentsHigh-performing students Mixed-quality studentsMixed-quality students Low-performing studentsLow-performing students Incompetent studentsIncompetent students

Exemplary Students (Grade of A)Exemplary Students (Grade of A)

The exemplary student has internalized the basic The exemplary student has internalized the basic intellectual standards appropriate to the assessment of intellectual standards appropriate to the assessment of his or her own work in a subject and is highly skilled at his or her own work in a subject and is highly skilled at self-evaluation. They regularly:self-evaluation. They regularly:

Raise important questions and issuesRaise important questions and issues Analyze key questions and problemsAnalyze key questions and problems Recognize questionable assumptionsRecognize questionable assumptions Clarify key concepts effectivelyClarify key concepts effectively Use language in keeping with educated usageUse language in keeping with educated usage Identify relevant competing points of viewIdentify relevant competing points of view Display sensitivity to important implications and consequencesDisplay sensitivity to important implications and consequences Demonstrate a commitment to reasoning carefully from clearly Demonstrate a commitment to reasoning carefully from clearly

stated premises in a subjectstated premises in a subject

High-Performing Students (Grade of B)High-Performing Students (Grade of B)

HP in thinking through a subject implies sound thinking within the HP in thinking through a subject implies sound thinking within the domain of a subject along with the development of a range of domain of a subject along with the development of a range of knowledge acquired through the exercise of thinking skills and knowledge acquired through the exercise of thinking skills and abilities. HP students on the whole are clear, precise, and well-abilities. HP students on the whole are clear, precise, and well-reasoned, but sometimes lack depth of insight (especially opposing reasoned, but sometimes lack depth of insight (especially opposing points of view). Basic terms and distinctions are learned at a level points of view). Basic terms and distinctions are learned at a level that implies comprehension of basic concepts and principles. HP that implies comprehension of basic concepts and principles. HP students internalize the basic intellectual standards appropriate to students internalize the basic intellectual standards appropriate to the assessment of their thinking in a subject and demonstrate the assessment of their thinking in a subject and demonstrate competence in self-evaluation. They:competence in self-evaluation. They:

OftenOften raise questions and issues, raise questions and issues, commonlycommonly analyze questions and analyze questions and problems clearly and precisely, recognize problems clearly and precisely, recognize mostmost questionable questionable assumptions, clarify key concepts well, assumptions, clarify key concepts well, typicallytypically use language in use language in keeping with educated usage, keeping with educated usage, commonlycommonly identify relevant competing identify relevant competing points of view, display sensitivity to points of view, display sensitivity to manymany important implications and important implications and consequences, and consequences, and frequentlyfrequently demonstrate the beginnings of a demonstrate the beginnings of a commitment to reasoning carefully commitment to reasoning carefully

Mixed-Ability Students (Grade C)Mixed-Ability Students (Grade C)

Thinking of mixed-ability students implies Thinking of mixed-ability students implies inconsistent/incompleteinconsistent/incomplete performance within the domain performance within the domain of a subject along with limited development of knowledge of a subject along with limited development of knowledge acquired through the exercise of thinking skills and acquired through the exercise of thinking skills and abilities. The MQ student often tries to use memorization abilities. The MQ student often tries to use memorization as a substitute for understanding. The MQ student:as a substitute for understanding. The MQ student:

Sometimes raises questions and issues, sometimes analyzes Sometimes raises questions and issues, sometimes analyzes questions and problems clearly and precisely, recognizes some questions and problems clearly and precisely, recognizes some questionable assumptions, clarifies some concepts competently, questionable assumptions, clarifies some concepts competently, sometimes uses language in keeping with educated usage, sometimes uses language in keeping with educated usage, sometimes identifies relevant competing points of view, sometimes identifies relevant competing points of view, sometimes demonstrates a clear commitment to reasoning sometimes demonstrates a clear commitment to reasoning carefully from clearly stated premises in a subject, are carefully from clearly stated premises in a subject, are inconsistently sensitive to important implications and inconsistently sensitive to important implications and consequencesconsequences

Low-Performing Students (Grade D/F)Low-Performing Students (Grade D/F)

Low-performing students reason poorly within the Low-performing students reason poorly within the domain of a subject. They try to get through courses by domain of a subject. They try to get through courses by means of rote recall, attempting regularly to acquire means of rote recall, attempting regularly to acquire knowledge by memorization rather than through critical knowledge by memorization rather than through critical thinking skills or insights requisite to understanding thinking skills or insights requisite to understanding course content. LP students:course content. LP students:

Rarely raise questions and issues, superficially analyze Rarely raise questions and issues, superficially analyze questions and problems, do not recognize their assumptions, questions and problems, do not recognize their assumptions, clarify concepts only partially, rarely use language keeping with clarify concepts only partially, rarely use language keeping with educated usage, rarely identify relevant competing points of educated usage, rarely identify relevant competing points of view, show no understanding of the importance of a commitment view, show no understanding of the importance of a commitment to reasoning carefully from clearly stated premises in a subject to reasoning carefully from clearly stated premises in a subject and are insensitive to important implications and consequencesand are insensitive to important implications and consequences

Skilled LearnersSkilled Learners

To be a skilled learner you have to be a skilled To be a skilled learner you have to be a skilled thinker.thinker.

You must take responsibility for your learning.You must take responsibility for your learning. You plan your learning by becoming clear as to You plan your learning by becoming clear as to

what your goals are, what questions you have, what your goals are, what questions you have, what information you need to acquire, what what information you need to acquire, what concepts you need to learn, what you need to concepts you need to learn, what you need to focus on, and how you need to understand it.focus on, and how you need to understand it.

Learn to use information critically Learn to use information critically and ethicallyand ethically

The ideal of knowledge acquisitionThe ideal of knowledge acquisition To the extent we are committed to the development of To the extent we are committed to the development of

fair-mindedness, we are committed to knowledge fair-mindedness, we are committed to knowledge being acquired and used to minimize human being acquired and used to minimize human suffering, to meet basic human needs, to preserve suffering, to meet basic human needs, to preserve rather than destroy the environment, to contribute to a rather than destroy the environment, to contribute to a more just world, and to serve rational rather than more just world, and to serve rational rather than irrational ends.irrational ends.

Disciplines seek knowledge not to benefit a select few Disciplines seek knowledge not to benefit a select few but rather to distribute benefits in the broadest and but rather to distribute benefits in the broadest and most just way.most just way.

True Loyalty to a DisciplineTrue Loyalty to a Discipline True loyalty to a discipline is born out of recognition of the True loyalty to a discipline is born out of recognition of the

discipline’s potential power for good in the world. It is not a discipline’s potential power for good in the world. It is not a commitment to practices in the discipline as it stands. It is not given commitment to practices in the discipline as it stands. It is not given by the intensity with which one defends the discipline. A person by the intensity with which one defends the discipline. A person committed to the discipline of history recognizes the importance and committed to the discipline of history recognizes the importance and the power of historical thinking in the world. For example, a history the power of historical thinking in the world. For example, a history person recognizes that:person recognizes that:

We are creators of historyWe are creators of history We are products of historyWe are products of history Nonetheless, we are not successfully teaching historical thinkingNonetheless, we are not successfully teaching historical thinking History, as a written and taught, often reflects personal and social History, as a written and taught, often reflects personal and social

prejudicesprejudices Ask yourself two questions:Ask yourself two questions:

am I coming to recognize the power of the discipline as a form of am I coming to recognize the power of the discipline as a form of thinking?thinking?

Am I coming to recognize the limitations of the discipline in the light of Am I coming to recognize the limitations of the discipline in the light of this present state of development?this present state of development?

The Gap Between Fact and IdealThe Gap Between Fact and Ideal

The following two phenomena are the root of much of The following two phenomena are the root of much of the misuse of knowledge in the world:the misuse of knowledge in the world:

Human fallibility: All knowledge is acquired, analyzed, and put to Human fallibility: All knowledge is acquired, analyzed, and put to use in the world by individuals who are subject to the pitfalls of use in the world by individuals who are subject to the pitfalls of human weakness, self-deception, and pathological states of human weakness, self-deception, and pathological states of mind (e.g., prejudice, egocentrism, sociocentrisim)mind (e.g., prejudice, egocentrism, sociocentrisim)

Vested interest: Human knowledge exists in a world of power, Vested interest: Human knowledge exists in a world of power, status, and wealth, all of which significantly influence what status, and wealth, all of which significantly influence what information is acquired within any discipline, how it is interpreted, information is acquired within any discipline, how it is interpreted, and how it is used.and how it is used.

It should follow that we should be skeptical of any It should follow that we should be skeptical of any description of a human knowledge-constructing description of a human knowledge-constructing enterprise that characterizes itself as an approximation enterprise that characterizes itself as an approximation of an ideal. Rather we should approach human of an ideal. Rather we should approach human disciplines as in some state of contradiction between an disciplines as in some state of contradiction between an announced ideal and actual reality.announced ideal and actual reality.

The Ideal Compared to the RealThe Ideal Compared to the Real The first essential step is to recognize the discipline as a powerful The first essential step is to recognize the discipline as a powerful

mode of thinking and setting forth the ideal of the discipline. To set mode of thinking and setting forth the ideal of the discipline. To set out the ideal, ask yourself if the discipline were striving to function in out the ideal, ask yourself if the discipline were striving to function in an optimal way in an optimal setting:an optimal way in an optimal setting:

What would the discipline look like?What would the discipline look like? How would it function?How would it function? How would it be represented?How would it be represented? How would it be taught?How would it be taught? How would it be applied?How would it be applied?

Two important insights:Two important insights: All knowledge in use in the world is subject to the pitfalls of All knowledge in use in the world is subject to the pitfalls of

human fallibility on the part of the individuals using it.human fallibility on the part of the individuals using it. Knowledge exists in a world driven by the pursuit of power, Knowledge exists in a world driven by the pursuit of power,

status, and wealth, each of which exacts its toll.status, and wealth, each of which exacts its toll.

ConclusionConclusion

As critical thinkers, we must be careful not As critical thinkers, we must be careful not to assume that things are actually the way to assume that things are actually the way they are represented to be in human life.they are represented to be in human life.

To understand a field of knowledge we To understand a field of knowledge we must understand it realistically.must understand it realistically.

Learn to Use Information Critically Learn to Use Information Critically and Ethicallyand Ethically

Men, whose life lies in the cultivation of Men, whose life lies in the cultivation of one science, or the exercise of one one science, or the exercise of one method of thought, have no more right…to method of thought, have no more right…to generalize upon the basis of their own generalize upon the basis of their own pursuit but beyond its range, than the pursuit but beyond its range, than the schoolboy… schoolboy… John Henry Newman, The John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University, 1852Idea of a University, 1852

Realistic UnderstandingRealistic Understanding In this chapter we will focus our analysis on one In this chapter we will focus our analysis on one

domain, that of psychology, and on the allied domain, that of psychology, and on the allied fields of mental health. We begin with the fields of mental health. We begin with the premise that the art of thinking psychologically is premise that the art of thinking psychologically is a powerful form of thought, important to human a powerful form of thought, important to human well-being and self-insight. We also begin with well-being and self-insight. We also begin with the hypothesis that the benefit from this powerful the hypothesis that the benefit from this powerful mode of thought is diminished by the manner in mode of thought is diminished by the manner in which it is sometimes taught and used by which it is sometimes taught and used by psychologists and by those trained by psychologists and by those trained by psychologists in the fields of mental health.psychologists in the fields of mental health.

Realistic UnderstandingRealistic Understanding We need to examine all information with full We need to examine all information with full

awareness that, though virtually all the awareness that, though virtually all the information we are presented with is presented information we are presented with is presented to us as true– as something known and not just to us as true– as something known and not just believed—it may well be false or mere half-truth.believed—it may well be false or mere half-truth.

Politicians don’t say, “Everything I am about to tell you in Politicians don’t say, “Everything I am about to tell you in this speech is intended to get myself elected to a this speech is intended to get myself elected to a position of power and influence—not to reveal the full position of power and influence—not to reveal the full truth about what is really happening. I will therefore hide, truth about what is really happening. I will therefore hide, to the best of my ability, everything that puts me or my to the best of my ability, everything that puts me or my party in a bad light.”party in a bad light.”

Realistic UnderstandingRealistic Understanding Our minds do not have a built-in warning system to alert us to what Our minds do not have a built-in warning system to alert us to what

we have already taken in uncritically from our parents, our peers, we have already taken in uncritically from our parents, our peers, the media.the media.

We reemphasize the theme that we are ethically responsible for the We reemphasize the theme that we are ethically responsible for the manner in which we take in and use informationmanner in which we take in and use information

If we want to understand a field of knowledge, we must understand If we want to understand a field of knowledge, we must understand it realistically, that it is an imperfect construction. If we want to it realistically, that it is an imperfect construction. If we want to understand our learning of a field of knowledge, we must realistically understand our learning of a field of knowledge, we must realistically understand the imperfections of our learning, that even at best we understand the imperfections of our learning, that even at best we imperfectly learn what we learnimperfectly learn what we learn

We have chosen psychology: because human good and harm seem We have chosen psychology: because human good and harm seem especially germane to its practice, and because there seems to be especially germane to its practice, and because there seems to be an especially large gap between the ideal promised by psychology an especially large gap between the ideal promised by psychology and the realities of its actual practice.and the realities of its actual practice.

Be a Critic, Not a CynicBe a Critic, Not a Cynic

A cynic views all knowledge as baseless, such an A cynic views all knowledge as baseless, such an absolute negation of knowledge cannot be justified for it absolute negation of knowledge cannot be justified for it is, in effect, an arrogant claim to know the status of all is, in effect, an arrogant claim to know the status of all knowledge-that there is nothing we can claim to know knowledge-that there is nothing we can claim to know absolutely.absolutely.

The spirit of critical thinking is intellectual humility. It is The spirit of critical thinking is intellectual humility. It is based on evidence that each of us must assemble based on evidence that each of us must assemble individually, and it requires heightened awareness of individually, and it requires heightened awareness of how frequently humans make mistakes.how frequently humans make mistakes.

We can access that evidence if we overcome our We can access that evidence if we overcome our egocentric defensiveness. We must examine each claim egocentric defensiveness. We must examine each claim to knowledge one by one, evaluating each on its merits.to knowledge one by one, evaluating each on its merits.

Recognize the Mental Recognize the Mental Nature of KnowledgeNature of Knowledge

Human knowledge exists as knowledge in the Human knowledge exists as knowledge in the human mind, and as an imperfect learner, we human mind, and as an imperfect learner, we are eminently fallible. We must get into the habit are eminently fallible. We must get into the habit of evaluating what we come to think and believe.of evaluating what we come to think and believe.

Further, all minds, without exception are Further, all minds, without exception are possessed by prejudices, vested interests, fears, possessed by prejudices, vested interests, fears, insecurities, and social ideology.insecurities, and social ideology.

Paradoxically, whenever knowledge exists, Paradoxically, whenever knowledge exists, some degree of ignorance also exists in some some degree of ignorance also exists in some relationship to it.relationship to it.

Develop Awareness of the Harm from Develop Awareness of the Harm from Misuse of InformationMisuse of Information

IIntelligent people with a lofty sense of their ntelligent people with a lofty sense of their importance, pursuing their vested interests, are importance, pursuing their vested interests, are more dangerous to the well-being of others than more dangerous to the well-being of others than are unintelligent people stumbling along are unintelligent people stumbling along unskilled in the art of deception and unskilled in the art of deception and manipulation.manipulation.

The use of ethical knowledge begins with a The use of ethical knowledge begins with a recognition of the limits of one’s knowledge and recognition of the limits of one’s knowledge and of the various influences that are likely to of the various influences that are likely to undermine the proper use of that knowledge.undermine the proper use of that knowledge.

Strategic Thinking Strategic thinking has two phases:

The understanding of an important principle of mental functioning. Using that understanding strategically to produce a mental change in

ourselves. Understanding. The human mind has three interrelated functions: thinking,

feeling, and desiring or wanting. These functions are interrelated and interdependent.

The Strategy. Whenever you find yourself having what may be irrational emotions or desires, figure out the thinking that probably is generating those emotions and desires. Then develop rational thinking with which to replace the irrational thinking you are using in the situation.

Explicitly state what the feelings and desires are. Figure out the irrational thinking leading to it. Figure out how to transform the irrational thinking into rational thinking—

thing that makes sense in context. Whenever you feel the negative emotion, repeat to yourself the rational

thoughts you decided you needed to replace the irrational thoughts, until you feel the rational emotions that accompany reasonable thinking.

Components of strategic thinking

An identifying component. You must be able to figure out when your thinking is irrational or flawed.

An intellectual component. You must actively engage and challenge the acts of your own mind.

What is actually going on in the situation as it stands? Your options for action. A justifiable rationale for choosing one of the options. Ways of reasoning with yourself when you are being

unreasonable, or ways of reducing the power of your irrational state of mind.

Key idea #1 Thoughts, feelings and desires are

interdependent. If, for example, I experience a degree of anger that I sense may be unreasonable, I should be able to determine whether the anger is or is not rational. I should be able to evaluate the rationality of my anger by evaluating the thinking that gave rise to it.

Has someone truly wronged me, or am I misreading the situation?

Was this wrong intentional or unintentional? Are there ways to view the situation other than the

way I am viewing it? Am I giving a fair hearing to these other ways?

Key idea #2 There is a logic to this, and you can figure it out. (pg. 413). Questioning goals, purposes, and objectives. What is the central

purpose of this person? This group? Myself? I realize that problems in thinking are often the result of a mistake at the level of basic purpose.

Questioning the way in which questions are framed, problems are posed, issues are expressed.

Questioning information and sources of information. Questioning interpretations or conclusions. Questioning the assumptions being made. Questioning the concepts being used. Questioning the points of view being considered. Questioning implications.

Key idea #3 For thinking to be of high quality, we must routinely assess it by

applying intellectual standards to our thinking. Focusing on clarity in thinking. Can I state it precisely? Focusing on precision in thinking. Am I providing enough details? Focusing on accuracy in thinking. Am I certain that the

information I am using is accurate? Focusing on relevance in thinking. How does my point bear on

the issue at hand? Focusing on logicalness in thinking. Given the information I have

gathered, what is the most logical conclusion? Focusing on breadth in thinking. I wonder whether I need to

consider another viewpoint(s)? Focusing on depth in thinking. What complexities are inherent in

this issue? Focusing on justification in thinking. Is the purpose justified or is it

unfair, self-contradictory, or self-defeating given the facts?