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Crossing Cultural Boundaries: A MulticulturalKindergarten in Hong KongRebekka Tijsterman aa Department of Culture, Organization and Management, Vrije Universiteit , AmsterdamPublished online: 17 Aug 2006.
To cite this article: Rebekka Tijsterman (2005) Crossing Cultural Boundaries: A Multicultural Kindergarten in Hong Kong, AsiaPacific Business Review, 11:4, 575-591, DOI: 10.1080/13602380500135901
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13602380500135901
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Crossing Cultural Boundaries:A Multicultural Kindergarten inHong Kong
REBEKKA TIJSTERMANDepartment of Culture, Organization and Management, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
ABSTRACT Confronted with the rise of a new group within its organization, Small World, aninternational Christian kindergarten in Hong Kong, is being forced to reconsider its boundaries. Thetrend towards more applications to international schools by Hong Kong Chinese, adds an extradimension to the already extensive cultural diversity among the kindergarten’s staff, students andtheir parents. Describing the appreciation for cultural diversity amongst staff and parents, thestrategies that are used to maintain harmony and the motives that (Hong Kong Chinese) parentshave for participation in the school, it is argued that only one effect of globalization on the macrolevel can be identified on the micro and meso level, namely indigenization. The article shows howparents, staff and the organization all try to adopt attractive or useful elements of foreign cultureswithout giving up their own culture, and subsequently foster multiculturalism in an attempt to reachtheir goals, these being the cultural competence of their children for Hong Kong Chinese parentsand success for the organization. The resulting demand for the incorporation of extra foreignelements in the curriculum is forcing Small World to reconsider its boundaries.
KEY WORDS: cultural diversity, multiculturalism, international school, Hong Kong
A skyline by night is always pretty impressive and Hong Kong’s must be one ofthe most famous. However, as fascinating as it is, when I see it nowadays, it doesnot take long before my focus moves up the mountain behind it towards whereSmall World Christian Kindergarten (hereafter: Small World) is located. Thislocation behind the skyline and the image that many people have of Hong Kongcould be seen as symbolic for this international kindergarten. Just as the school isbehind the focal point of the view, the children that attend the school are also notthe first thing that one would think of when imagining what Hong Kong is like.While the international nature of the business world is considered, one is proneto forget that the international community also consists of children. Children needto be accommodated for schooling among other things. It is in this area that SmallWorld, the setting for this study, caters for the expatriate community of HongKong.
Small World is an international kindergarten founded by an internationalChristian organization. In 16 years, the kindergarten has grown to 17 full-time
1360-2381 Print/1743-792X Online/05/040575–17 q 2005 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/13602380500135901
Correspondence Address: Rebekka Tijsterman, Stadionweg 267-4, 1076 NZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Email: [email protected]
Asia Pacific Business Review,Vol. 11, No. 4, 575–591, December 2005
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staff members and two interns, who together run a school with some 173 pupilsattending either a morning or an afternoon class. There is an amazing mix ofcultures within the school. Teachers and students represent countries in Europe,Australia, Asia and the Americas. Such cultural diversity is interesting from anorganizational anthropological perspective. After all, the international nature ofthe school means that it and its participants have to deal with varying basicassumptions and values, which can conflict with each other during interaction.
This is particularly interesting in view of a remarkable change in the culturaldiversity of late. Application to the school by a rising number of Hong KongChinese and the acceptance thereof is causing Small World’s boundaries to stretchto include a new group. It is surprising that this group is applying at all, especiallyconsidering the lack of lingual, cultural or financial barriers refraining theseHong Kong Chinese from attending local schools and the importance of educationin passing culture down to children.
However, Small World is not the only international school that is being requiredto readdress its boundaries by such a rise. All international schools in Hong Kongare experiencing this trend, which is popularly ascribed to dissatisfaction withrecent reforms in the local education system and to the fact that the experiencesof returning overseas Chinese have changed them. They no longer want theirchildren to go through the same Chinese education system that they were sub-mitted to as children. Beside wondering whether these assumptions are correct, itis interesting to take a closer look at the background, motives, aims and identity ofthese Hong Kong Chinese parents and to see what effect the redefinition of theircultural boundaries has on the organization. Altogether this raises the questionas to the ways in which cultural diversity is accommodated in Small World andthe consequences this presents to the organization, particularly considering thedifferences between members of the international community of Hong Kong andthe Hong Kong Chinese.
Data for this study was collected during three months in 2002, which I spent atSmall World full time. Much of this time was spent in participative observation,making it extensive. I practised this during, for example, classroom activities,meetings, lunch, chats with parents and work in a common office. In line with‘t Hart et al. (1996), I used this method to gain information from several explicitlyformulated questions based on the theoretical framework, and at the same timekept my eyes open for anything else that could be of importance. My other mainmethod, open and in-depth interviews, was used to gain more insight into thecomplexity of opinions, conceptions, experiences and emotions (cf. ‘t Hartet al., 1996: pp. 279–80) of both staff and parents. I was only able to observe thelatter limitedly as they are obviously on the periphery of the organization. Thechildren were unfortunately too young to interview. My interviewees wereselected by what Patton calls ‘maximum variation sampling and extreme ordeviant sampling’ (1987: p. 53). Additional methods were a staff survey,document analysis and literature study. These final methods supplied extrainformation on the staff’s ideas on work-related subjects, the formal organizationand the political, cultural and economical context. In order to ensure the internalvalidity, reliability and external validity of the results, I followed many ofthe recommendations made by ‘t Hart et al. (1996). I worked systematically in
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the field, keeping a journal, taping and writing out all interviews and applyingmethodological and data triangulation. The analysis of data was also systematicin that 13 topics derived from the theoretical framework were consistently usedas the point of departure.
In line with the emphasis on the importance of the context in the organizationalanthropological perspective, the following section discusses the context of SmallWorld before moving on to the theoretical framework and methods. With thisframework established, the rest of the article will concentrate on answering thefocal question.
The World Around Small World
The People of Hong Kong
Since being ceded to Great Britain ‘in perpetuity’ in 1841, Hong Kong hasexperienced major political, economic and demographic changes. The year 1997marked a major political transition. Out from under the rule of Great Britain, HongKong became a Special Administrative Region of China ruled by the (Hong Kong)Chinese. Economic growth has been great, particularly since the 1970s, turningHong Kong into a newly industrialized society. Demographic changes have alsobeen enormous. Sources of growth are immigration both from Mainland China,where people either fled the unrest or were in search of a higher standard of living,and from other parts of the world. The arrival of the latter group is related towhat Cheng and Katz (1998: p. 73) call the ‘trading/entrepreneurial/financial andmanagerial diaspora’. In this case this refers both to people involved in trade ortransnational and multinational corporations coming to Hong Kong from manyparts of the Western world and Japan, and to those being imported as ‘cheaplabour’ from less fortunate neighbours.
The demographic changes are not limited to size, but are also cultural, aslocalization has taken place. The rise of a generation of Hong Kong-born peopleand an economic and social development that differs from that of China havemeant that the people of Hong Kong have started to regard themselves as aseparate people with their own identity (see Hui, 2000; Skeldon, 1996). Mathews(2001) uses the term ‘Chinese plus’ to describe this identity. The ‘plus’ refers tothe fact that the Hong Kong people are like the Chinese, but at the same timedistinguish themselves through their exposure to the world and their wealth. Suchexposure to the world is not only a result of the large number of immigrants, butalso of the large number of Hong Kong Chinese that have emigrated to othercountries for some period of time. Such emigration was particularly high duringthe last few years before Hong Kong was handed back to China.
Such exposure to the world and wealth is compared to China’s relative isolationfrom the rest of the world and relative poverty (Mathews, 2001: p. 298). Thus,being Hongkongese becomes significant when Mainland China and Mainlandersare viewed as ‘Others’ (Hui, 2000: p. 1). Compared with Mainlanders, Hong KongChinese consider themselves very industrious and quick-witted, meaning that theyare alert to the changing conditions around them and are able to respond to suchchanges quickly and appropriately. Such qualities are considered to be a recipe for
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the economic success that the Hong Kong people strive after (Hui, 2000: pp. 2–4).Beyond this comparison, both China and the rest of the world – or rather theWestern world and Japan – are seen as sources for aspects of the cultural identityof the Hong Kong Chinese.
However, a note must be made with regard to the popular image of a Western-oriented, multi-cultural Hong Kong, which is also partly portrayed here. Althoughthere are many cultures represented in Hong Kong, almost 95 per cent of thepopulation remains Chinese and of this population it is mainly the middle-classamong which some Western orientation can be identified alongside a strongidentification with Hong Kong and China. The identification with the latter seemsto be even stronger among the lower classes in society.
Education in Hong Kong
In a reflection of its multicultural society, there are two main streams ofeducational tradition in Hong Kong, both of which are based on different culturaltraditions. Although there are many schools that are firmly based on one of thesetwo educational traditions, there are also schools that take a little from both andcombine them in their own unique way.
The first stream of education is maintained in what are referred to as localschools. This type of education, which Gardner (1989: p. 258) calls ‘education forperformance’, is based on the Confucian tradition of emphasizing the exactdimensions of a desirable performance. Taught by rote teaching, children are saidto have learned when they can feed back the information that has been presentedto them (Chan, 2001: p. 4). A fragment from my journal provides a goodillustration of this type of education. After a visit to a ‘traditional’ kindergarten Iwrote:
When I asked one boy what he was drawing, he turned and pointedto the blackboard. At first I did not see what he meant, but then therein the lower left hand corner of the blackboard I saw a picture thatresembled his. It had been done by the teacher and he was required tocopy it.
The local schools in which this tradition is found to some extent, also vary in theextent to which English is included in their curriculum.
The second educational tradition is found more in international schools, ofwhich Small World is one. As these schools often have Western backgrounds, theygenerally pursue the other type of education that is described by Gardner (1989),namely ‘education for understanding’. Such education is based on Socrates’ ideason the need for analysis, criticism, argument and synthesis. It encourages studentsto grasp the (underlying) meaning of whatever they are studying (Gardner, 1989:p. 262). In practice this implies the stimulation of creativity and imagination aswell as exploration and innovation.
There are several other significant differences between local and internationalschools. Firstly, the number of them. In the 2001/2002 school year there were746 local kindergartens and 38 international ones. A similar ratio is applicable to
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primary schools (Education Department, 2002). Whether one gets into a ‘good’ or‘famous’ local school is determined by a lottery-like system, whereas the mostcommon selection method in international schools is an interview. The matter ofschool fees also works selectively. To get into an international school one has topay the school fees. Annual fees of HK$65,000 to 80,000 (e10,000 to 12,000)excluding debenture are not uncommon for international schools (Course, 2002)whereas you may only pay HK$100 (e15) a month for a school that is subsidizedby the government. ‘Good’ local schools can be more expensive but not asexpensive as international schools. As a result international schools are onlyaccessible to expatriates and middle and upper class Hong Kong Chinese.
Education is currently high on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region(HKSAR) government’s list of priorities. Educational reform has been going onsince Hong Kong’s Chief Executive recognized that a review of the educationsystem was necessary in 1997. According to the Education Commission (1999:pp. 9–10), the shift from a manufacturing-based to a service-oriented economy,global trends, the development of the knowledge-based economy and the openingup of the Chinese economy due to the reunification with the Mainland are justsome of the significant changes that triggered the need for a review of theeducation system. In the early stages of this reform, aims for education were set upbased on five guiding principles, which were student-focused, no-loser, quality,life-wide learning and society-wide mobilization (Chan, 2001: pp. 2–3). Indetermining these aims, the above changes and developments in other parts of theworld, such as Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the UnitedStates were taken into consideration. The reform proposals for the various stagesof education in which this resulted are currently being introduced.
For Early Childhood Development, of which Small World is a part, the focus ofthe reforms are enhancing professional competence of principals and teachers,improving the mechanisms for assuring quality, enhancing the interface betweenkindergartens and primary education, reforming the monitoring mechanism andpromoting parent education and participation (Education Commission, 2000: p. 5).Although they also contain elements for international schools, the EducationCommission seems to be aiming more for reform in local schools. The generalassumption seems to be that international schools are doing very well already.
When Cultures Meet
At the theoretical level, this study focuses on what happens when cultures meet.For analytical reasons, three different levels – macro, meso and micro – of culturecontact will be distinguished here, including discussions on globalization, culturaldiversity and identity.
At the macro level, anthropologists vary in their opinions about what effectsencounters between different cultures are already having on identity and what theywill ultimately do to identity. They are four main perspectives on the matter.Firstly, the perspective of homogenization argues that cultural differences aredisappearing due to the current dominance of the centre over the periphery(Hannerz, 1992: pp. 223). Others, however, state that, as a reaction to theincreasing homogenization and the ideological turmoil that it brings for groups on
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the periphery, a development towards localization can be identified (ibid.: p. 225).As groups wish to maintain their unique character and feel the need to belong tosomething ‘small’, they become increasingly aware of their ethnic identity andact on their renewed awareness by emphasizing its importance. According toa third group of authors, increased contact between cultures will lead tohybridization or creolization, which means that boundaries between cultures ofthe world will become more blurred, as new combinations of culture arise (ibid.:pp. 264–6). A different accent in this theory is on the existence of one or morethird cultures (Featherstone, 1995) or transnational cultures (Hannerz, 1992).These are formed by social network groups, such as occupations, unlimited byterritorial boundaries (Hannerz, 1992: p. 249). Finally, there is the idea ofindigenization. The emphasis in this theory is on the fact that people determine forthemselves, which aspects fit into their own culture. This is well illustrated byHannerz’s (1992: p. 253) description of cosmopolitans as people who pick onlythe pieces of other cultures that suit them. According to Scholte (2000: p. 181),such developments are possible because identity is less easily taken for granted inglobalized lives, in which people have relationships with different culturessimultaneously.
At the meso level, it is interesting to look at the approach to cultural diversityby and within organizations. Roosevelt’s framework of action choices providesa lens through which different approaches to cultural diversity can be studied inorganizations (1997: pp. 333–334). He distinguishes nine of these, which he sayscan be used in combination with each other. Which ones are actually used by anorganization depends on its context. The first of the nine is to include. This refersto ‘expanding the number and variability of the components of the diversity mix’(ibid.: p. 333). Of the remaining action choices, there are four that concentrate onminimizing diversity either by excluding it, denying its existence, makingminorities assimilate or suppressing differences. The final four action choices alladdress diversity. Six and seven isolate minorities or tolerate them, the lattermeaning that there is a room-for-all attitude but with limited superficial inter-action. According to Roosevelt, the remaining two action choices have yet to berealized in many companies and are a thing of the future (ibid.: pp. 337–338).These are building relationships, which refers to ‘fostering quality relationshipscharacterized by acceptance and understanding, among the components of themixture’ (ibid.: p. 333) and fostering mutual adaptation, which means thateveryone changes to a certain extent so that common objectives can be achieved.
Several key differences in approach to cultural diversity are represented inRoosevelt’s categorization. Firstly, that people or organizations can choose eitherto let diversity in or not. If they choose to let it in it can still be discouraged orencouraged. Finally, there are different ‘grades’ of encouragement ranging fromopenness to embracing them up to a certain extent, with the latter as the ideal andas yet uncommon choice. By stating that the last two action choices are a thingof the future, Roosevelt implies that development towards new and improved waysof dealing with diversity is the case.
When regarding such behavioural choices it is important to realize that theespoused values, which are expressed in the formal organization, are not alwaysin line with the values in use. This is well illustrated by Martin’s (1992)
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differentiation perspective. Using this perspective, she points out that organiza-tions cannot always be approached as if they are one coherent entity as theintegration perspective does. Instead, researchers need to consider the fact thatorganizations do not consist of one reality or one consistent culture, but of variousrealities and cultures. In this situation it is quite possible or even likely thatmanagers belong to a different subculture or have a different reality from otheremployees. Therefore there is not only a formal organization as defined bymanagement, but there is also an informal organization. For the approach tocultural diversity in an organization and the behaviour that is part of thatapproach, this means that the actual approach and behaviour can be different fromthe approach chosen and formulated in the organization and the behaviour that isdeemed appropriate.
At the micro level, an important concept is the concept of social identity. SocialIdentity Theory informs us that the identities of the groups, to which one feelsone belongs, partly define the individual identity (cf. Tajfel, 1978). Cox (1993:pp. 43–44) however, goes further to point out that these group identities also play apart in how others view us. He states that group identities are important in the studyof behaviour in organizations as they are vital components of one’s self-conceptand as such recognition and preservation of them is aimed for. Whether important toour self-definition or not, group identities often affect how others interact with us.
Not only are Cox’s (1993) insights interesting on the micro level of thistheoretical framework, but working from the smallest entity up, they also wellillustrate and confirm the fact that identity and interaction should be and areimportant focuses in this study. Within the context of the cultural diversity inSmall World, this study aims to look at the way individuals shape their ownidentity. The interaction with others that is based on their own identity and that ofothers is an important part of the continued shaping. This is clearly illustrated inCox’s theory on the micro level. On the meso level, the aspect of interaction isemphasized. Roosevelt’s nine action choices provide a framework for studyingthis interaction, which can be applied to both individual and organizational(formal and informal) behaviours and approaches. Finally the macro levelattempts to predicate what increased interaction between people with differentgroup identities will lead to in the long run. The options vary from homogeniza-tion to localization, hybridization or indigenization.
Perspectives of Small World
The Formal Organization
Walking into Small World Christian Kindergarten means entering one of theleast daunting buildings in Hong Kong. Together with the playground to theleft of the entrance, the fact that the building is neither particularly tall nor seemsto be falling apart gives one the impression that this building is rather ‘normaland safe’ compared with so many other buildings in Hong Kong. The exterior iscomplemented by the simple down-to-earth interior. The corridors of this formermilitary hospital are clean, light, wide, tiled and lined with open lockers. There aresix orderly classrooms with carpeted floors, walls lined with all sorts of activities
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and children-size tables and chairs and an art-corner. The school’s Christianidentity is also reflected in the classrooms through things such as the week’smemory verse displayed on the wall and ‘projects’, books and CDs that refer toBible stories or biblical values.
Small World was started by a group of missionaries from the international,Christian organization, Youth with a Mission, some 16 years ago. In the wordsof the principal, who was one of the initiators, they ‘wanted to do somethingsignificant in Hong Kong and influence the up-and-coming generation thatwould be the leaders of tomorrow and really focus on the internationalcommunity’.
Over the years the school’s orientation has broadened to include the localChristian Early Childhood sector. However, Small World itself is veryinternational. Starting out with six children, the kindergarten currently has fromall over the world some 173 students and 17 staff members, as well as two interns.The organization of the school has changed over the years, particularly in the early1990s due to the future handover. Small World now operates under the authority ofYouth with a Mission-Hong Kong; meaning that it is part of this organization’sannual audit. A school board whose task is one of reference and operationaland financial accountability heads it and the daily leadership is in hands of theprincipal. The staff are no longer volunteers, but paid employees as the conse-quences of the new government were unclear as far as missionary work wasconcerned. Reflection in the wake of the handover also lead to the definition ofcore values. These are:
We are a Biblical Christian SchoolWe have a mission heartWe are committed to the development of each person on the staff –spiritually, professionally and as a teamWe use a sensorial approach to educationWe are committed to familiesWe are committed to work with children who have special needs
(SWCK Statement of Personnel Policy for Teaching Staff 1997: p. 2)
Several of these core values are particularly visible in both the formal and theinformal organization and are often referred to when staff and parents speak ofSmall World.
Small World According to the Staff
A characteristic that is not included in this list of core values, yet is significant isthe cultural diversity within Small World:
Small World is made up of people from every continent, teachers andstaff included . . . we are proud of our international character, and wefeel richer because of the diversity of our family. We indeed have much
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to share with each other and with the Hong Kong community’ (SWCKTeachers’ Manual 1999: 10)
Several of the staff come from Hong Kong itself, one is Swiss–Chinese andanother Canadian–Chinese. The majority’ however’ comes from othercountries, such as Malaysia, the Philippines, the United States, Brazil,Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, Ireland, France and the Netherlands. Thechildren’s backgrounds show as much variation, or even more. A third of thechildren have European blood in them. Just under a third have a Hong KongChinese background and a similar amount have Asian blood running throughtheir veins. Just over an eighth of the children have some North Americanelements in their background and about a twelfth has a (partly) Australianbackground. A few children have a Central or South American background anda South African background.1 As indicated in the introduction, Small World hasexperienced a rise in the number of Hong Kong Chinese children applying tothe school in recent years. These children are not representative of the entireethnic group, but rather of the group of middle-class families with someoverseas experience.
The staff regard Small World as a harmonious and peaceful environment.Words that are used to describe the atmosphere among the teachers are warm,caring, cheerful, supportive, close, a team, a family, and fun. In line with this,relationships with the parents and children are considered to be close and full oflove. Such harmony is not affected by the cultural diversity. According to thestaff, there are common denominators such as Christians, women, mothers andEnglish speakers, and therefore there are no big differences in values andprinciples among the staff. They also seem to override any other culturaldifferences between staff members, as these are not really experienced as such.The different cultures of the parents and pupils are also regarded as posing veryfew threats to the smooth running of Small World. This is partly attributed to thefact that the role of parents and children does not differ greatly with culture,which was expressed by one teacher as ‘maybe they just speak in their differentway, but they are still mothers, they are still fathers, they still behave the same,they are still children’. The fact that most of those involved with the school cancommunicate in English also helps.
Still, there are some differences that teachers indicate they have to ‘deal’ with.Common examples are that children with a Chinese background are generallyencouraged to be more dependent than some of the other children, that HongKong Chinese parents do not always immediately understand the core concepts ofSmall World’s tutorial principles and that not all parents are Christians. However,these differences have little effect on the staff’s enjoyment of their work. Theythink that working in such an environment is fun and very interesting and theysee the beauty in the differences that God has created. Having people with somany different backgrounds has the added advantage that people’s unique talentscan be put to good use in the organization and this is something that they believemanagement tries to do and that they try to encourage themselves.
The teachers believe that the cultural diversity in Small World has positiveeffects all round. As one teacher said,
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For children to be exposed to different cultures at a very young age... isreally a good thing, as is happening here now: aware ofothers’ differences, yet living in harmony. If they are exposed to thatidea and nurture it all their life; that is really good.
The effect on the teachers’ own lives ranges from trivial things, such as findingout interesting facts about other countries and being more at ease when visitinga different country, to greater things, such as adjusting the way one expressesoneself. It is also said to broaden one’s perspective. There is certainly opennesstowards other cultures amongst the staff of Small World. Not only open in thesense that they are welcome, but also open in the sense that they are enthusiasticabout incorporating elements from different cultures in the curriculum.
Small World According to the Parents
The attitude of the parents in regard to Small World is very positive. This is notparticularly surprising considering the fact that most people would opt to sendtheir child to a school they like. Something that all parents find positive is theloving and nurturing environment that is provided by the charming, committedand helpful principal and the open, warm and caring teachers, who can also be alittle severe if necessary. Other things that are commonly appreciated are theemphasis on parent involvement, the diversity, the outdoor playground, the close-ness to their homes, the way the children are taught and the fact that the school isan English Schools Foundation (ESF) feeder school.
There are also aspects of the school that the parents value varyingly.A significant example is the expression of the Christian identity. Whereas manyparents were positive about this, one mother said ‘the only thing that was abit too much for me personally was the emphasis on religion’. A commonlymentioned area in which parents felt the school could improve was the needto teach the children more about the Chinese culture or introduce Mandarinclasses.
Parents generally like the international character of Small World. Some evenconsider this to be one of the reasons that they chose to send their child to SmallWorld. A number of Eastern parents did indicate a certain preference for a teacherwith a non-Asian background. This was for their way of thinking, demeanor andpersonality, or fluency in English. They were however quick to add that this didnot particularly mean that they did not want Asian teachers for their children.After all ‘there are lots of Asian people brought up in the Western style’ and it ispossible to train Asian teachers to be ‘more Western’.
The cultural diversity that comes with the international character is believed tobe good for children. It broadens their horizons and helps them become morerounded people. It will teach them that there are other people, who have otherways of doing things and they will learn to respect them. Learning about differentcultures will also help them to understand other people better and later on they willnot be reluctant to meet people from other places. Yet, it remains important thatthe children feel equal and have a sense of belonging, so similarities must beemphasized alongside unique characteristics.
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The parents’ concept of Small World as described here gives an idea of thereasons that these parents choose this kindergarten. However, there is one group ofparents for which the choice of a school is more complex than this image wouldhave one believe. Hong Kong Chinese parents do not only struggle with thequestion ‘which school?’, but first and foremost ‘which type of school; local orinternational?’ The reason for this question is the need of Hong Kong Chineseparents to pass on two different things to their children. First, they want theirchildren to know about the Chinese culture and the Chinese language, becausethey are Chinese. However, they also want to instil in their children a sense thatthere is more out there than just Hong Kong. The importance of, in particular,Mainland China and the English-speaking world, is something these parentsexperience and also want their children to be aware of. After all, Hong Kong is asmall place with a limited number of options for further education, so one needsto look further. This dual aim causes a dilemma when it comes to education. Thelocal schools are able to help their child understand Chinese culture and learnCantonese, they employ Chinese-style discipline and teamwork. On the otherhand, they are unable to teach their children the basics that are required forsurvival in more individualistic and (often) English-speaking societies. Interna-tional schools do realize this by teaching English, encouraging creativity,independence, an outgoing nature and closer relationships between the teachers,parents and students.
Also considered in this choice are such matters such as the chances of childrenplaced in an international school not being determined by a lucky draw and thatthe system is relatively stable. Local schools on the other hand are more affordableand have a higher academic standard. The latter refers to the fact that childrenare further ahead in learning the different concepts in, for example, mathematics.A commonly chosen solution is to try to combine both streams of education,simultaneously or sequentially –for example, first a few years of internationalschool and then local school, or vice versa, or a morning session at a local schoolcombined with an afternoon at Small World.
Dealing With Cultural Diversity
During fieldwork, several different ways of dealing with cultural diversitywere observed, described explicitly or derived from described situations. Moreinteresting for this study than trying to list all behaviours is an illustration ofthe common behaviours and the similarities and differences between them.A significant distinction in this sense is whether or not differences are brought tothe fore and permitted in discussion.
Drawing on principles such as love your neighbour as yourself, respect and donot judge, based on the staff’s Christian values, helps them to refrain from lettingdifferences become issues that could cause conflict. The common goal ofsharing God’s love with others does the same. One of the ways in which this isdone is by building relationships with the children and their families. Althoughnot particularly intended for this purpose, the building of relationships is also astrategy in which differences are not emphasized or allowed to be(come)problems. After all, both parties need to feel loved and respected. The only way to
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achieve this is to show genuine respect, interest, patience and friendliness insteadof constantly focusing on possible differences. Not bringing differences to theforefront is also achieved by emphasizing common denominators such as allspeaking English, having common roles in the nuclear family and beingChristians. On the latter point, one person said ‘Here the things are not thatcomplicated. I don’t mean the work, I mean the people here. Maybe because theyare all Christians’. However, such lack of emphasis on differences is not alwaysintentional. At the end of one interview, the respondent said ‘next time people askquestions similar to that, I will think “Oh that has something to do with culture.”’This reflects that some people genuinely fail to recognize the cultural causes ofdifferences.
On the other hand there are also many situations in which (cultural) differencesare recognized and/or addressed in order to limit conflict. One way this can beachieved is by requiring others to adapt or by doing it yourself. After all, if oneor both differing parties adapt their behaviour then differences that could causeconflict are reduced. Adapting can be actually changing, but getting used tocertain things or adjusting your behaviour; depending on who you are dealing withcan also do it. Staff and parents of Small World also ask others for clarification oftheir acts or provide it for their own. Understanding the other can make it easier tocope with the differences and their effects. The same is achieved by emphasizingthe positive effects of cultural diversity rather than the difficulties that it does orcan create.
Fostering Multiculturalism
From its very beginning, Small World was intended for and has provided educationfor the international community of Hong Kong. The school continues to be popular,among others for its Christian nature, loving and nurturing environment, warm andcommitted staff, low school fees and teaching method. In recent years thispopularity has spread to the Hong Kong Chinese, who value these same aspects, butalso have other motives for choosing an international school in general.
The Hong Kong Chinese who choose to send their children to Small Worldoften belong to the middle-class and either one or both parents have spent sometime overseas. In the light of developments on the macro level, the motives of suchparents can be linked to Westernization and internationalization on the one handand localization on the other – Westernization and internationalization in thesense that they are orientated towards and identify with Mainland China andthe Western world. In regard to the latter, the Hong Kong Chinese mainly look toEnglish-speaking countries in the Western world, presumably because they aremore accessible to them. They also look to Japan, which is regarded as advancedas the Western world. Their attraction to Japan is not expressed in emphasis onlearning the language or anything like that.
Such orientation is partly based on and stimulated by contextual factors, such asthe roles of both China and Great Britain in Hong Kong’s past and present, thecurrent shortage of positions in higher education in Hong Kong and the perceiveddecline in the quality of the population in Hong Kong due to the influx fromMainland China. Personal overseas experiences can further this orientation, which
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is also related to the unique Hong Kong Chinese identity which sees both Chinaand these countries as sources of aspects of their identity (Mathews, 2001: p. 295).On the micro level, social identity theory confirms that such identification is notrandom. These Hong Kong Chinese are striving to become and remain membersof these groups as they value them highly. This high value is based on the ideathat both will play an important part in the future and thus that being able to copein both worlds and dealing with people from these worlds is an advantage or evena necessity. In the words of Cox (1993) identification with these groups is bothimportant for their own concept of themselves and because it effects the way thatthe people from the groups that are important to them and their future, will interactwith them. This determines their success.
Localization on the macro level is illustrated on the micro level by the highvalue that continues to be placed on the Hong Kong Chinese identity. In terms ofthe discussion on Chineseness it can be concluded that they have indeedincorporated ‘education for understanding’ into their culture, but that this has notaffected their sense of Chinese identity (cf. Wu, 1994: p. 165). An identity thatthey want to pass on to their children and which remains leading in spite of ormaybe even due to their experiences overseas and their Western identification.The continued importance can be derived from the general attitude that theirchildren need to understand the Chinese culture, whereas being adept in popularexpressions of culture, such as the language and traits like being outgoing andindependent is enough when it comes to more individualistic cultures.
That their own culture is still the point of departure for these Hong KongChinese parents is further emphasized by the fact that their aim to make childrencapable in both their own and other, more individualistic cultures can be related toseveral Confucian principles on which traditional Chinese education is based.These are the importance of a correct or perfect performance and that ‘educationshould take place by continual careful shaping and moulding’ (Gardner, 1989: pp.257, 276–7). The parents are carefully moulding and shaping their child’seducation so that at the end they will be able to perform perfectly. They seem towant a super-child that can survive in all sorts of cultural environments and knowswhen to use which cultural knowledge. A good way to describe the combining ofcultures in their children’s education is by stating that they are fosteringmulticulturalism, as long as they are able to maintain their own identity and asense of belonging.
Fostering multiculturalism is also an approach that can be ascribed to SmallWorld on both the organizational and individual level. As an organization, SmallWorld’s Christian identity plays a key role in determining and maintaining theembracement of cultural diversity. In practice, the belief that God made everyoneunique and loves everyone and that Christians should love their neighbour as theylove themselves means that the school needs to love, appreciate and respect othersregardless of their background, and thus treat everyone, Christians and non-Christians, equally. The school’s focus on the international community alsomeans that Small World welcomes cultural diversity. This approach on the mesolevel is complemented by the positive attitude towards cultural diversity on themicro level. Staff and parents mainly appreciate it due to its positively evaluatedperceived effects.
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Back on the meso level, many of the action choices that Roosevelt (1997)identified are recognizable in the strategies that are used within Small World.However, the aim that he attaches to them is sometimes less applicable to thepractice of Small World. For example, strategies such as emphasizing the common,requiring adaptation and adapting are like Roosevelt’s ‘deny’, ‘assimilate’ and‘suppress’. According to Roosevelt, these all aim to minimize diversity. However,in Small World, these are ways of coping with cultural diversity in a manner whichensures that harmony is maintained in the organization. Not the fake kind ofharmony in which people do their utmost to avoid conflict at all costs, whichinevitably ends up creating tension anyway. No, they aim for a harmony, in whichdifferences are recognized, but not always emphasized, so that people feelcomfortable in the organization and with each other. The presence or lackrespectively of other action confirms this positive attitude. The positively regardedbuilding of relationships and fostering mutual adaptation were identified, whereasisolating and simply tolerating were not.
This description of the practice of Small World in comparison to the theoryand the inconsistencies can be complemented by a shift to the macro level, whereSmall World is considered in the context of a globalizing world. On bothorganizational and individual levels a trend towards aiming to take advantage of theopportunities that globalization creates without making concessions in regard toone’s own culture can be identified. Such an aim is only in line with one of the fourdebated effects of globalization, namely ‘indigenization’. The other three do notsuffice as they are based on the existence of one culture. This is either a dominatingculture through homogenization, the strength of a minority culture throughlocalization or the development of one global culture through hybridization.Besides being against the core values of the school, for Small World a shift to oneculture could have negative effects commercially as it would remove current sellingpoints like the great diversity and the international nature of the school.
The effect of globalization that then remains is indigenization. This refers tothe fact that elements of other cultures, which are considered to be attractive oruseful, are fitted into one’s own culture. At the organizational level, the schoolmaintains the characteristics that are derived directly from the Western origin ofthe school and management and from its Christian foundation, such as the‘education for understanding’ principles, English language and Christian values.At the same time, however, it is commercially attractive for the school toincorporate a number of elements of other cultures into the school culture. A goodexample of this is the idea of the introduction of Mandarin classes. This way theorganization maintains its identity and selling points, while complying withthe changing demands of both existing and new groups involved with the school.The tension between these two also explains why Small World’s approach tocultural diversity does not fit neatly into Roosevelt’s (1997) theory as it impliesthe necessity for a balance between different approaches to cultural diversity.
Indigenization is also reflected on the individual level. It explains the changingdemands of both existing and new groups involved with Small World. Theseindividuals are looking for new opportunities in their global context. In the pastmany of the Hong Kong Chinese involved with the school have grabbed the chanceto gain international experience by working or studying overseas. Now, back in
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Hong Kong, they have the opportunity to raise their children in the Chinese way, butat the same time try to incorporate elements of more individualistic cultures in theirupbringing. Children are taught how to be what Hannerz (1992) calls culturallycompetent. They know of different cultures and have the ability to move withinthem, but, at the same time, know when to adopt which culture. They becomecosmopolitans in a global world (cf. Hannerz, 1992: p. 253). These parents useorganizations and the things that they have to offer strategically, but they are notalone in this. A trend towards more interest in Asia in general and China morespecifically can be spotted among the parents from the international community.They want to take advantage of their residence in Hong Kong by taking theopportunity to teach their children more about the world by encouraging them tolearn Mandarin and other foreign languages and placing them in an environment inwhich cultural diversity is expressed.
The fact that this is what parents want is then something that Small World hasto accommodate. Although not by definition against Small World’s values, this issomething that they will wish to do without letting go of their own culture andidentity. After all, it too shows a tendency towards indigenization. Thus, accordingto this picture, when different cultures meet in a globalizing world, the result isindigenization at the level of the organization and of the individual.
Conclusion
Situated in Hong Kong and consciously placing itself in the midst of theinternational community, Small World functions in a context with globalcharacteristics. As an organization, it actively takes advantage of the opportunitiesthat globalization presents, but at the same time has to deal with consequencesof globalization on which it has little or no influence, the redefinition of itsboundaries being one of them. Defining itself as an international school and actingas such, Small World has taken the opportunity to place itself within the inter-national community that has and continues to develop as a result of globalization.The school’s point of departure is that cultural differences are welcome. Suchdifferences are there to be enjoyed, expressed and to learned from. Believing thatharmony is important, there is an emphasis on unity in diversity. Various strategiesare used to ensure that such harmony is maintained, such as emphasizing thepositive, fostering mutual understanding and avoiding sensitive issues or dealingwith them in a careful fashion. As individuals, staff and parents approve of,appreciate and share this attitude that cultural diversity is a good thing and this canbe seen as one of the reasons that the school has grown enormously over the years.But this is not the only reason. Trying to take advantage of the things that a globalcity and world has to offer, parents are increasingly drawn to Small World.Crossing the symbolic boundaries between local education and internationaleducation, the Hong Kong Chinese find the school attractive, as participation in itprovides them with a way to incorporate elements of a foreign culture into theirown, making their children culturally competent so that they in turn will have noproblem crossing any boundaries they might encounter. Those in the internationalcommunity also want their children to learn more about other cultures withoutgiving up their own culture. As an organization, Small World caters for these
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demands by encouraging the expression of cultural diversity without giving up itsown international, Western identity. Both groups of parents support the idea ofmaintaining this identity as it assists both parties in their goal of indigenization.However, for both groups indigenization also means that they want Small World toincorporate more Chinese elements into its curriculum, such as Mandarin classesand the celebration of Chinese New Year. This is something that Small Worldwants to do, but at the same time is weary of, as it could conflict with its Christianidentity. Therefore the consequences of the cultural diversity, which is stimulatedand given a new dimension by the influence that globalization has on culture,are not limited to behaviour in the day-to-day running of the organization. It isalso increasingly forcing Small World to think about what it is and what it wantsto be and to consider to what extent it wishes to adapt to the demands of parents,or in other words, where its boundaries lie and – if it comes to it – how will itdefend them.
Acknowledgements
The research for this article was originally conducted for the purpose of writing an M.A. thesis with no intention
of publishing the results beyond that thesis. Small World Hong Kong agreed to support the thesis project at the
time, and was only recently approached for consent to publication of the research findings in the form of this
article. Consent was indeed obtained.
Notes1 The sum of these parts is more than one, because many children are parented by people from two
different countries and thus can be placed in two different categories.
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