BTTM6TH SEMESTER

COURSE OF STUDY CODE NO. 326

BTTM/ Sixth Semester /TTM:Culture & Heritage Tourism in Nepal

COURSE OBJECTIVES

This course aims to give students basic outline of historical background of Nepal and to provide them with in-depth knowledge of customs, traditions and cultural component. This course also aims to consider these aspects for the promotion of tourism in Nepal.

Course Contents

History of NepalHuman Settlement and Migration in Nepal Social Structure of Nepal Economy Structure of NepalFestivals of NepalArt and Influencing Factors on ReligionNepalese Arts: Ancient Art, Medieval Art, Modern Art Monuments of NepalCustoms of NepalRelation between Culture and TourismCuisine of NepalCultural Policy and GovernmentWorld and National Heritage Sites in Nepal Case Study of Ethnic Groups of Nepal: Tharu, Magar, Newar and Sherpa.

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Culture: An Introduction-Lok Nath Dulal

Background

The term culture stands for the sum total of human behavior, verbal and

non –verbal and its products materials and non- materials. The word ‘culture’

connotes different meaning in different situations. For instance, we commonly

use this is humanistic sense to designate manner, taste and intellectual

development. It is said that a man is quite cultural then others, or some human

products and more cultural, such as visual art, music, literature etc. poetic

expression of culture denotes sweetness and light. To a historian, culture

simply signifies social development in artistic and intellectual fields. Modern

biological usage of ‘culture’ is restricted to the medium of growth where a

mould or a bacterium may be grown artificially. In Sanskrit language, the

synonym of culture is ‘sanskriti’ which has been derived from Sanskrit term

‘sanskar’, the meaning of which is ‘the refinement of soul’ by various acts,

through the series of birth and rebirths. The term culture thus has been used in

different context for a long time, but its exact meaning is still vague (Roy,

2005:656).

Originally, the term culture is believed to be derived from the Latin

term ‘cultura’ which means to cultivate. The term refers to patterns of human

activity and symbolic structures that give such activities significance and

importance (Kunwar, 2015:2). Likewise, in the Etymological perspective the

word is linked with the terms like ‘cultivate’, ‘cultivation’ and ‘agriculture’. In

seventeenth century, its meaning was applied to human development. This

metamorphic meaning was further developed in eighteenth century to give rise

to a general term. In Germany, the word was started to be spelt as ‘cultur’. But

soon it was converted to ‘kultur’. During nineteenth and twentieth century’s,

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the term became very distinct and got entangled with different meaning in

different spheres (Roy, 2005:656).

Meaning and Definition

Culture is an important element through which a biological animal

transform into a human being. Culture consequently denotes the tangible and

intangible parts of human life in common. All the social welfare and helpful

aspects for human and animal world such as art, knowledge, beliefs, feelings,

ethics, behavior, customs, thinking, devotion, discipline, system, tradition,

guidelines, lifestyle, language and speech, food and habits, tools, resources,

and other more things created by human beings are included in culture.

Culture is the completeness of workmanships style in human life. All kinds of

social systems and behaviors are performing their roles and responsibility in

society through the inner functioning different tangible and intangible units of

it. Culture is a system which has transforming quality from an individual,

society and generation to another individual, society and generation. In real

sense, culture is the sum of tangible and intangible aspects that is created by

the human beings themselves in the process of development. It is widely

related concept with human lifestyle which should merely consist of intangible

things like symbol, language, norms, values and tangible aspects as well.

In anthropological usage, the concept of culture in not only broad and

comprehensive; it is very significant as well as scientific. It does not limit

itself with specific field of knowledge, rather encompasses the whole range of

human activities. Each and every manifestations of human existence e.g. tools,

weapons, utensils, clothing’s, ornaments customs, beliefs, institutions, rituals,

games, work of arts etc. are included in culture. Similarly, the numerous

behaviors like economic, social, political, religious, educational, recreational

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and more others that govern the way of life in any society are also covered by

culture (Roy, 2005:656).

Culture is very vague and multivariate concept. It is more difficult task

to generate the appropriate definition of the term culture. Therefore, it is better

to insist what culture is not and what particular things it does not include then

insisting what culture is. Whatsoever, there are more than hundred different

definitions have already been given by the scholars of different disciplines. It

is still not stop to deliver the definition of it. So the number of definition could

be increased in coming days. Anthropologists, in particular, point to human

origin of culture. For the first time in the history of anthropology, the British

scholar, Sir Edward Burnett Tylor wrote a book entitled Primate Culture in

1871. He introduced the term culture in anthropology, borrowing the German

word ‘Kultur’ and provides an excellent definition. Since then, several

scholars of different disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology,

archaeology, philosophy, and literary criticism and so on defined culture on

their own way which ultimately created confusion for understanding culture in

better way.

In this respect, E. B. Tylor, F. Boas, Herbert Spencer, B. Malinowski,

Redcliffe Brown, Margaret Mead, A.L. Kroeber, R. Redfield, Ruth Benedict,

Ralph Piddingtin, R.M. Mac Iver, Ralph Linton, Leslie A. White, M.J.

Horskovits, E.A. Hoebel, G.A. Lunberg, L.H. Morgan, H.T. Majumdar and

other numerous different scholars tried to define culture as per their own

conceptions. The earliest definition was delivered by Tylor as follows: Culture

is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law,

customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by as a member of

society(Tylor, 1871:1).

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Similarly, B. Malinoswki stated that “culture is the handwork of man &

the medium through which he achieves his end”. He further adds “culture

comprises inherited artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits and

values”. He regarded that these things are interrelated and form a total way of

life, which secures for an individual the satisfaction of his bio-psychic drives,

fulfillment of other wants and relativistic. He emphasized on the plurality of

local cultures as functioning and organized whole.

Likewise, Dictionary of Anthropology defined the term culture as

follows “Culture refers to all that which is non- biological and social;;y

transmitted in a society including artistic, social, ideological and religious

patterns of behavior, and the techniques for mastering the environment.”

On the basis of above mentioned definitions finally we come into

conclusion that in the broad anthropological sense, culture may be define as

everything people learn about taking our place in human society and underpins

the farming of world views, and conditions human negotiated path through

everyday social reality. Hence, culture can be described as software of society,

a design of living, and as a code of conduct. Still it is believed that culture as a

product of body and mind, marks off man from other higher primates.

Typology of culture

Essentially, culture has been viewed from two perspectives. First one

views it as an ideological entity encompassing values, norms, customs and

traditions. The other perspective views culture as a combination of ideological

and material elements such as what and how people eat, what they wear and

what they use (Kunwar, 2015: 3). Culture is universal phenomena. Each and

every society has own certain culture in accordance with the available

situation and ecology. Usually, some features and traits can be resembled

between each other. But there can be measured vast differences in major

practices. Existing religion and philosophy as well as available geography,

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ecology, economic situation and other culture are considered as the major

components which played creative and guiding roles for the formation of

culture.

In the real sense, culture represents a system of tangible and intangible

components. Tangible components of culture represent material culture and

comprise productive force and physical elements necessary to support human

life, such as clothing, tools, food, buildings, paintings, and many other culture

objects and artifacts. Intangible elements represent non- material culture and

refer to values, beliefs, attitudes, morality, ethics, spirituality, traditions, and

customs (Reisinger, 2009: 90). As per the above mentioned components

culture can be classified into numerous forms. Whereas, viewed from material

and non- material perspectives it can be classified into tangible and intangible

two different forms.

Tangible culture

Tangible culture can be seen in material forms. It can be observed

through the senses. This form of culture includes that types of physical

elements which constructed by the men for the fulfillment of their needs. For

illustrations dress and ornaments, food and drink, tools and weapons,

buildings and utensils, road and means of transportations, different types of art

and architectures and many other material objects can be included in tangible

form of culture.

Intangible culture

Intangible culture cannot be seen in material forms. It can only be

observed by inner feeling of human beings. The UNESCO convention for the

safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage 2003 defined intangible culture

as follows: the intangible cultural heritage means the practices,

representations, expressions, knowledge, skill- as well as instruments, objects,

artifacts and cultural spaces associated there with- that communities, groups

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and in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This

intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is

constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their

environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them

with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural

diversity and human creativity (UNESCO, 2003:6). UNESCO further

classified the intangible cultural heritage in five different domains i.e. (a) oral

traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible

cultural heritage; (b) performing arts; (c) social practices, rituals and festive

events; (d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; (e)

traditional craftsmanship (UNESCO, 2003:8).

Key points

(a) The term culture derived from the German word kultur.

(b) E.B. Tylor was the first scholar who defined and applied in

anthropology in 1871.

(c) It is an element through which human life could be meaningful.

(d) It is a moral chain which tied generation to generation.

(e) It helps to transform biological animals into human beings.

(f) It is a universally accepted moral law which guided human being towards

six sa i.e. satmarga, sadbhab, satsang, sahakarya, satbuddhi and satbichar.

(g) As an institution it is stable as the traits or features are changeable.

(h) There is triangular relationship between human beings, ecology and

culture.

(i) It has transmission quality.

(j) It is learnt behavior.

(k) It is an adopted behavior.

(l) Every society has distinct and specific culture with own values.

(m) It is classified into tangible and intangible forms.

(n) It is an element which helps to maintain harmony in society.

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(o) It is an agent of communication.

(p) It is constructed by human beings

(q) It is a source of norms, values and discipline.

Major Features of Nepalese Culture

In every situation and mode of life culture makes it meaningful by

enhancing things such as refinement, attraction, high handedness, purity,

simplicity, and easiness and natural as well. In the real sense, if there is

anything which can guide an individual towards the six sa i.e. satmarga,

sadbhab, satsang, sahakarya, satbuddhi and satbichar respectively truth path,

positive feeling, good friendship, collective effort, truth knowledge, and

positive thinking, then it is culture. As an institution it is considered immortal

and stable as well. As for its traits and features concerned it always looks like

changeable according to the situation, time and environment. There is a

possibility of refinement and change in symbol, language, norms, values and

every intangible as well as tangible aspect but as an institution it is remained

unchanged.

Nepal is a multiethnic and multilingual country and ethnic diversity

and cultural idiosyncrasy constitute its distinct identity. People belonging to

all the major families like the Aryans, the Mongolians, the Dravidians, and the

Agneli can be discovered to have settled in the land of Nepal since the very

prehistoric period (Diwasa, 2009:23). The Nepali people observe many

festivals and fairs then there are days in the year and these events commonly

celebrated by all people. The reflection of uniqueness of Nepali culture can be

seen in the everyday life of the people and in the works of arts and

architectures. Nepal is the culture museum where art treasures and monuments

of historical interest are preserved (Satyal, 2001: 6).

Culture is an identity of an individual as well as the entire country.

All the rites and rituals which carried out during performing the sacrament

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from womb to tomb by man are included in culture. Culture includes the

identity and pride of the nation. In the context of Nepal folk life such as art,

music, literature and other else are considered main sources of culture. Nepal

is richer in its cultural heritage. It being remains common garden of different

castes and creeds. Nepal is an independent country, where different types of

caste and ethnic groups have been living with their indigenous culture from

the past till to present. The peoples who have been inhabitating from the very

early up to now within the geographical territories and their creations can be

included in nation culture. Here the following points could be mentioned as

the thematic aspects of Nepalese culture.

Unity in diversity

Religious tolerance within its diversity.

Cultural tradition based on varna and caste system.

Prosperity in different ethnic culture and tradition.

Store house of arts & crafts from very early up to now.

Specific manner of hospitality.

Specific economic structures and tradition.

Specific festivals and unique celebration system.

Continuously changing scenario of ruling system.

Patriarchal and patri lineage family and society.

Position of women comparatively low than male.

Unbroken cultural sequence from the very early up to now.

Feeling of inner respect between each cultural group.

Belief over god/ goddess and fortune.

Belief over reborn, heaven and hell.

Mainly economy depended upon agriculture with subsistence

productions.

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Reference

Diwasa, Tulsi (2009) Aathapahariya Rai Folklore and Folklife,

Kathmandu:Nepali Folklore Society, Edited.

Kunwar, R.R. (2015) “Cultural Tourism”, Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Education, Kathmandu: AITM School of Hotel Management.Reisinger, Y. (2009). International Tourism:Culture and Behavior, Amsterdam: Elsevier. Roy, Indrani Basu (2005) Anthropology The Study of Man, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company LTD.Satyal, Y.R. (2001) Nepal an Exotic Tourist Destination, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.Tylor, E.B. (1871) Primitive Culture, London: J. Murry.UNESCO (2003). Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible

Cultural Heritage 2003, Kathmandu: United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization, Kathmandu Office.

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History of Nepal

Gopal Period: An Analysis of Historical Perspective

Introduction

In the perspective of political history Gopal dynasty is known as the first ruling dynasty in Nepal. Gopal Vansabali is an important source of Nepalese history and culture which was composed during the regime of the King Yaksha Malla in Medieval period. The chronicle helps to provide the plenty of information of the ruling period of Gopal dynasty. Besides that, chronicle of W. Kirkpetric, D. Wright, S. Levy and other literary sources have assisted to give some information of this period.

Etymologically, the term Gopal is derived through the Sankrit words go and pala, which means the man or groups, who rare the cows as an occupation. In some other sources the word gopal stands to denote the man or groups who care the earth. Therefore, it is obvious that Gopal dynasty is derived from their profession or occupation. According to the religious scriptures Gopal is regarded as a varnashankar caste (a caste group who fell down from their origin status) originated from the inter caste sexual relationship of kshetry male and sudra i.e. untouchable female. In gopal vansabali there is a legendry of a person of gopal dynasty whose name is Nepa. Similarly, through the Gandaki Mahatmya, an important religious text, we find the description of a ruler of that time whose name was Nipa. On the basis of afore mentioned evidences, some Nepalese historians believed that Nipa or Nepa was a caste group of Gopal dynasty through which the name of Nepal came into origin.

The group which entered Kathamandu valley from western north direction with Lord Krishna and reared the cows then called Gopal dynasty. According to legend there was a demon King Danasur who was controlling the Kathmandu Valley through his power. Again he filled the valley with water. During this time Lord Krishna came to the valley with his devotees Gopal and killed the Demon King Danasur. He also dried out the water through the gorge of Chobar and developed the valley as a beautiful residency. Meanwhile, a large number cowherds i.e. Gopals had come along with Lord Krishna and they settled in Nepal. According to the legend, Nemuni

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who is considered to be the patron saint of Nepal, used to perform religious ceremonies at Taku, the confluence of Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. He selected a pious cowherd, Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of Gopal dynasty.

King of Gopal Dynasty

There is no unanimous view in literary sources concerned to the king and their ruling time. In this respect, Gopal Vamsabali mentions that there were eight kings who ruled over 505 years and three months. Likewise, the Wright Vamsabali indicates that the kings of Gopal dynasty ruled over the 521 years in Nepal. There is a practice to give twenty five years of ruling time to a king. If it is acceptable assumption then eight kings of Gopal dynasty might be ruled over 200 years from 900 B.C to 700 B.C in the country. Bhuktaman or Bhumi Gupta was understood the first king of this dynesty, and jaya Gupta, Dharma Gupta, Harsha Gupta, Mani Gupta , Vishnu Gupta and Jeeta Gupta or Gisnhu Gupta were the other king who ruled over according to the chronological order. In course of time pastoral disputes arose and the Ahir or Aabhir replaced Gopal dynasty.

Key points or features

Monarchial ruling patterns and supremacy goes to the king The boundaries of the countries were Dudh Koshi in the east, Trishuli

ganga in the west, goshainkunda in the north and chitlang in the south. The people were belonged Caucasoid that is Aryan racial group. The society and the culture were guided by Hindu religion and philosophy. The economy was based on animal husbandry and agriculture. The settlement were developed in Balambhu , Thankota , Kirtipure,

Tistung, Palung, Chitlang areas. Society was structured in Hindu varnavyavastha system The society was dominated by male due to patriarchal society and family Shaivism was the main sect of religious beliefs. The flaming image of Lord Pashupati Nath was originated.

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Mahishpal period (700B.C to 625 B.C)

Introduction

Mahispal was the second ruling dynasty of the Nepal after Gopal. Gopal Vansabali is an important source of Nepalese history and culture which was composed during the regime of the King Yaksha Malla in Medieval period. The chronicle also helps to provide the plenty of information of the ruling period of Mahispals dynasty. Besides it, chronicle of W. Kirkpetric, D. Wright, S. Levy and other literary sources have assisted to give some information in this regards. Who was Mahispals? Where from they came into Nepal? How they came into the power? These are the questions which are still waiting scientific research. There is no unanimous view in literary sources concerned above mentioned questions. In this context, Gopal Vansabali addressed to this group as the Mahishpala whereas, Bhasha Vansabali of Wright mentioned it as Ahir and Mahispal. But a renowned historian William Kirkpettric believed that Mahispasl should also be a descendent of Gopal.

Etymologically, the term Mahispal is derived through the Sankrit words Mahish i.e. buffalo and pala i.e. rare, which means the man or groups, who involved in the buffalo rearing occupation. Therefore, it is obvious that Mahishpal dynasty is derived from their profession or occupation. The Mahispals were also known as Ahirs or Abhirs dynasty. In the real sense, the term Ahir is a derivative form of the word Aabhir. Aabhir’s were also powerful in Lichhavi politics. Now, we can also see, the huge settlement of Aabhir’s in different territories in India. In the inscription of the king Samundra Gupta of India, there is a description of the word Aabhir. According to Manu Smriti Aabhir is regarded as a varnashankar caste (a caste group who fell down from their origin status) originated from the inter caste sexual relationship of Bramhan male and Baisya female.

Kings of Mahispal dynasty

There is a description in Gopal Vamsabali, which reveals that after the defeating to the last king of Gopal dynasty, the Mahispal captured the thrown. Similarly, the chronicle of Kirkpettric mentions that Mahispals were the

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indigenous people of the midland of Simraungad and Janakpur in ancient period. There in the region they reared buffaloes. When they knew the information that the last king of Gopal dynasty did not have son or prince, then they entered into the valley and captured the thrown, after the death of the last Gopal vansi king Jita or Jishnu Gupta. According to the Bhasa Vansabali, Mahisapals were brought from Madhya desh i.e. the middle parts of Nepal or India and put them into the thrown by the gopal themselves. What so ever, in the political history of Nepal Bara sing was the first, Jaya singh the second and Bhuwan singh was the last Mahispals kings who ruled over the state from 700B.C to 625B.C. In this way mahispal dynasty ruled over only 75 years by their three kings mentioned above. Unfortunately the last king Bhuwan singh was defeated by the first king named Yalamber of the Kirat dynasty and finally the ruling power of Mahispal dynasty came into the end.

Key Points or Features

Monarchial ruling system and supreme power depended upon king. The boundaries of the state were settled like as the Lichchhavi period i.e.

Dudh Koshi in the east, Trishuli ganga in the west, goshainkunda in the north and chitlang in the south.

The peoples belonged to Caucasoid social stock. The society and culture guided by Hindu religion and philosophy. The economy was based on animal husbandry and agriculture. Society was structured by Hindu varnavayastha system. The society dominated by male due to patriarchal society. Comparatively the position of woman was low than male due to

patriarchal society. Shaivism was the main religious sect of the religion.

Kirat period (625 B.C to 100 A.D)

Introduction

Kirat was another ruling dynasty of Nepal. There is no exact evidence that helps to provide information who was Kiratas? Where from they came into Nepal? How they came into the power? These are the questions which are

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still waiting scientific research. There is no unanimous view in literary sources

concerned above mentioned questions. To some extent, Gopal Vamsabali an important source of the history and culture of Nepal and some other different Vhasa vamsabali such as W. Kirkpetric, D. Wright, S. Levy and other sources have assisted to give some information in this regards. Besides it, the religious sculptures like bajasenia sanhita of sukla yajurbed, atharbabed, balmiki ramayan, mahabharat, mastsya puran, vayu puran, markandeya puran provide the descriptions of Kirat dynasty.

The term kirat is being used in different sources as to denote both caste and the country too. In Samskrit literature the word kirat means kiram atati yan: kirat as used to refer those people who travelled and lived into the forests and caves. The term kirat also used in Bhisma Parva of Mahabharat, Matsya Puran, Markandeya Puran and Vrihat Samhita to refer as the separate group who lived in Himalayan region. Generally, kirat people speak Bhote Burmeli dialect and known as Mongolian racial stock.

Some scholars believed that, mainly, the kiratas were the people of middle parts of the Mediterian Sea, who migrated to Asheria near about 2400 years B.C. One of the branches of this group, firstly, entered into Iran, then came and started permanent settlement into Northern west Himalaya region of India. Similarly, some historians argue that Kiratas were the indigenous caste of Middle Asia especially different region of Tibet and China. In the migration process they leaved their origin territories and came into Asham of India than in Nepal. Likewise, some anthropologist’s suggested that Kiratas were pre – historic people, who lived from Neolithic period in Nepal. According to Babu Ram Acharya a great historian of Nepal, the Kiratas came into the Nepal near about 700 B.C.Important kings of Kirata dynasty

Historians’ believed that the leader of kirat dynasty named Yalamber defeated the Mahispals the last king Bhuwan singh in 625 B.C and established kirat regime at the same time. According to the description of the vamsabalis there were 28 to 32 kings of kirat dynasty, who ruled over the 700 years in Nepal. King Yalambar, was the first king of the same dynasty. As well as Humati, Jite Dasti, sthunko, Patuka, and Gasti were respectively the 6th, 7th, 14th, 28th, and 29th other famous kings of this dynasty.

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During the regime of the 7th Kirat king Jite Dasti Lord Shakya Muni Buddha had taken his valuable visit in the Kathamandu valley along with some disciples. At that time Lord Buddha visited the shrines of Swayambhu and Guheswori and perched his doctrine. Similarly, during the ruled of Sthunko the 14th king of the same dynasty, about 250 B.C Indian Emperor Ashoka came on a pilgrimage to Lumbini, in Nepal. To mark the birthplace of Lord Buddha, Ashoka engraved the inscription on a stone pillar and erected at the point. According to some literary sources, at the same time Emperor Ashoka visited kathamandu along with his daughter Charumati. Meanwhile, Ashoka got his daughter married with the Kshetriya Prince Devepal. Then she settled near the Pashupati and founded a town called Devapatan in the memory of her husband. She also got a vihar i.e. monastery, erected for herself which was called Chabahil. In this period the Emperor Ashoka established four stupas in four corners of Patan city. According to the literary sources the last Kirat king was Gasti who was defeated by Nimisha the king of the Soma dynasty and Kirat regime came to an end.

Key Points or Features

As the Gopal and Mahispal periods, there is lack of archaeological evidences which can help to prove the history of Kirat period as a whole. Therefore, it is also not to be included as the historic period. But apart from the literary sources, some circumstances situations, inscriptional records such as Khopring, Tenkhu, Sangu, Changu, Kurpasi, Mapachouk, Lingaul, Kuther, Sulli and other more Kirati language mentioned in Lichchhavi inscriptions as well as some so-called images of this period help to provide some valuable information’s of Kirat dynasty. In the kirat period, they had done some socio-cultural activities. Among them major significant are the following

Monarchial political system where the king has the supreme power. The administration units were established from center to village level

mapachauka, kuther, suley, lingawal were the main administration units of the period.

The boundaries of the state were extended Tista river (now in India) in the east, Trishuli ganga in the west, goshainkunda in the north and chitlang in the south.

Trade and commerce were flourished at the period in international level.

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Considerable progress in art and architectures. Development of Trade relationship with India, China and Tibet. The town like Matatirtha, Sankhamul , Devapatan,Thankot , Khopung ,

khopasi, Sanga , Teku etc were developed. The peoples belonged to the Mongoloid stocks. The society and culture guided by Hindu and Buddha religion and

philosophy. The position of the woman was not equivalent with male. Sanskrita and Kirat language were practiced in the society. Kirateshwor Mahadev was the clan deity of the period. Besides trade and commerce, agriculture and animal husbandry were also

regarded as the main sources of the economy The wool, woolen goods, woods and herbs were main items and

productions of Nepal for exports. Patriarchal and patrilenage family and society.

Lichchhavi Period (100 A.D. to 880 A.D.)

Introduction

The Lichchhavi period is known as the first historical period in the history of Nepal. Through which chronology of writing i.e. inscriptional records, chronology of dates, chronology of historical events and other several archaeological materials can be found which helped to prove every aspects of history and culture of Lichchhavi period. Thus, in the history of Nepal Lichchhavi period especially from the regime of king Manadev 1st is recognized as the first historical period. From this period besides literary sources and foreign account there are archaeological evidences i.e. inscriptions, coins, art objects, archaeological remains and other more materials can be found which are helping to scholars for the reconstruction of the history and culture of the period.

After the down felled of Kirata the ruling authority has gone to the Lichchhavi dynasty. There are some descriptions in Vamsavali and Pauranic literatures which indicate that through the influenced of Surya Vansha i.e. the solar dynasty the Lichchhavi had succeeded to defeat to the king of Kirat dynasty and took over their thrown (Bajracharya & Malla, 1985:75).

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According to Pashupati Puran and Himawatkhanda the Lichchhavi might be captured the thrown either by defeating or convincing ways to the king of Kirat dynasty (Yogi, 2013: 55-56). There are three different names of last kirat king’s. In this regards, GopalVamsabali mentions to Khigu, Bhasha Vamsabali to Galij and Wright Vamsabali to Gasti as the last king of Kirat dynasty.

It is obvious that Lichchhavis were the ruler. They had an independent republican state in Baisali. Basad of Northern India is known as the ancient Baisali state of Lichchhavis now, which is located in the Mujefarpur district of Bihar State. At that time the republican States were unified in a single Federal State. Brijji Sanga was known as one of the greatest Federal State of Northern India, where Videha, Lichchhavi, Gyatrik and other eight small States were unified at that circumstance. Among the eight, the Lichchhavis of Baisali was one of the powerful unified republican States at that time. Unfortunately, the existence of these eight republicans had gone too disappeared due the attack of the king Ajatasatru of Magadha State. When the Lichchhavi having lost their political fortune and dethroned in Baishali in India came to Nepal and attacked and defeated to the last king of Kirat dynasty.

Important Kings

The archaeological sources and findings of Lichchhavi period have helped to prove the several dimensions of Nepalese history and culture. But the exact time when Lichchhavi begun to rule over the country is still in question mark. There are various views among the different scholars on this issue. Baburam Acharya a great historian is delivered his views in this way “before their arriving into the Kathmandu Valley, there were Kirat king who ruling the kingdom. Lichchhavis were also the rulers. They have had plenty of experiences how to defeat to the enemies and rules over the country. Sometime later they began their business of defeating to the Kirat king. Ultimately, they got success to defeat them and establish their power in 250 A.D”. (Acharya, 2054: 26). On the basis of the descriptions of Vamsabali, R.C. Majumdar a renowned historian said that the regime of Lichchhavi dynasty in Nepal was probably established in 1st or 2nd century A.D. (Majumdar, 1962:83).

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In this regard, J.C. Regmi a renowned culture experts and historian mentions that Changunarayan inscription of 464 A.D. of king Manadev 1st is the first evidence, where king Manadev mentioned his three ancestors names before him. Beside it, there is another Pashupati inscription of 733 A.D. of king Jayadev 2nd which engraves the Vamsabali of Lichchhavi kings i.e. the names of important kings from the beginning up to Jayadev himself. The kings who missed their names to engrave only serial number included in the inscription. The king Manadev 1st engraved as the 39th king here in the Vamsabali. It means there were 38 more kings already ruled over before the king Manadev 1st. If we give only 20 years of ruling time, in an average to a king, than it is said that Lichchhavi regime might be established 760 years ago, than the king Manadev 1st. Thus, on the above mentioned analysis Regmi is in viewed that Lichchhavis were established their power about 296 B.C. (Regmi, 2035:23).

Similarly, Dhanabajra Bajrachrya recognizes to Jayadev 1st as the 16th

king of this dynasty before the king Manadev 1st, who made the foundation of the state very strong. He provides 25 years ruling time in an average to a king, than total ruling time of 16th kings reached into 4 hundreds years. Finally, he believes that before 4 hundreds years i.e. about 64 A.D. than that the date of the first inscription of king Manadev 1st i.e. 464 A.D., king Jayadev 1st

established Lichchhavi thrown in Nepal (Bajracharya, 2030: 557).

In this respect, some scholars forwarded little similar view which has mentioned by Bajracharya, with some reservations. The differences can be measured only in hypothetical ruling time. They give only 15 years in an average to a king. Through which the total ruling time of the 16 th king stand only 240 years. Therefore, they believe that king Jayadev 1st was the leader who established Lichchhavi regime 240 years ago than king Manadev 1st i.e. in 224A.D. (Pandey & Regmi, 2054: 132).

What so ever, in the history of Nepal Lichchhavi dynasty was ruled over about 780 years from 100 A.D to 888 A.D. Through the inscription of king Mandev 1st of Changunarayan of 464 A.D and the inscription of Jayadev 2nd

of Pashupatinath of 733 we could know about the descriptions of the some popular kings of the Lichchhavi dynasty. Beside it, other several inscriptions such as the inscriptions of Pashupati Suryaghat of Vijayawati, the Thankot inscription of Basantadev, Lele inscription of Shivadev and Amshuvarna, Bhungamati, Hadigaon, Tistung inscription of Amshuvarna,Yagabahal, Patan

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Bhansarchouk, Anatalingeswor inscriptions of Narendraevd are considered important sources, through which we could be informed about the history and culture of that period. According to the inscriptional records the Manadev 1st, Basanta Dev , Shivadev 1st, Amsuverma , Narendra Dev , Shiva Dev ,Jayadev 2nd were known as the famous kings of Lichhavi period .

Key Points or Features

In this period many socio cultural activities had practiced and several norms and values were established through the above mentioned kings. The mentionable socio cultural reforms of the period are as following

Monarchial ruling system, but not autocratic, the king did have the super power.

Well managed administrative system. The administrative system was extended through panchali i.e. village units to central level. kuther, lingawal, sulley, mapchok, purbadhikaran , pachimadhikaran etc were the main administrative units of this period.

Society and culture guided and controlled by the Hindu religion and philosophy as well as Buddhist religious norms and values.

Society and culture based on Hindu Varnasram system. At this period four varna and so many caste groups were in existence ( Mandev 1st of Changunarayan inscription, Vasantadev's of thankot inscription , Narendradev 's of Anantalingeshwor inscription as known as the witness and evidence of it.

Sati system (woman immolate herself on the funeral pyre with dead husband) was practiced but not compulsion. Rajyawati mother’s of king Manadev, Batas Devi mother’s of king Jayadev 2nd and Abhiri Gomini mother’s of Bhauma Gupta where women who did not sacrifice themselves with their pyre of dead husband.

Polygamy and polyandry marriage system as well as divorce system was in practiced (king Mandev 1st did have three wives). The inscription of Maligaon of Vishnu Gupta helped to prove the polyandry marriage and divorce system of this period.

Patriarchal or patrileanage society and family system. Lichchhavi script and Sanskrit language were in practiced.

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Lichchhavi extended boundary and maintain good relationship with India, China and Tibet

Lichchhavi king nicely developed art and architectural assets in their ruling period (Managriha, Kailaskuta, Bhadradiwas, Visworupa, Vishwavikranta, Nirisingh these are the main illustration of the art and architectural assets of the time).

Lichchhavi kings built and used coins for the first time in the history of Nepal (Mananka, Vaishravan , Pashupati etc are the coins ).

Basically Lichchhavi kings beloved in Hindu religion. Mainly Lord Shiva, Vishnu, goddess were worshipped in this society.

People belonged on Caucasoid and Mongolian social stocks. Trade and commerce, agriculture, industry, animal husbandry were the

main occupations of the society. There were strong judicial systems. There were different forms of

punishments. But most of them were of informative type. The position of woman was not equivalent with man (sati system,

polygamy marriage system, patriarchal society are the illustrations of it) Educational status was not satisfactory. But informally, there were

opportunity to the interested people for learning about religion, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, art and architectures, literatures, and some technical education.

There were some festivals and means of recreations in this period. Varaha jatra mentioned in the Anantalingeswor inscription of Narendra Dev, dhwaroghatan jatra mentioned in the Khopasi inscription of Shiva Dev 1st

and Amshuvarma, kailash jatra mentioned in Khopasi inscription of Shiva Dev and Amshuvarma, shovana yatra mentioned in Balambhu inscription of Shiva Dev 2nd , lokpalaswamy yatra mentioned in Anantalingeswor inscription of Narendra Dev, mandapi yatra mentioned in Nakshal Narayanchaur inscription were the important festivals and jatras and music, dance, musical instruments, drama, malla yuddha, goyuddha and other folk sports were also considered significant means of recreations of that period.

There were typical dress and ornaments as well as food and drink in this period. The descriptions of Chinese travelers and some inscriptions of Lichchhavi kings as well as some well dressed and ornamented images of

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this period were understood as the important illustrations to prove this statement.

Gosthi tradition was understood as the significant cultural practices of this period. Basudev gosthi, pradeepa gosthi, brahmana gosthi, paniya gosthi, mallayuddha gosthi, dhupa gosthi, indra gosthi, badrita gosthi, archa gosthi, dhwaja gosthi, pranali gosthi, brahmana sanathya gosthi, prawahan gosthi are thirteen different gosthis which con found in Lele inscription of Shiva Dev 1st + Amshuvarma of 604 A.D.

There were wage labour, bonded labour and slavery system in Lichchhavi period. The Anantalingeswor, Yagabahal and Pashupati Bajraghar inscriptions of King Narendra Dev, Balambhu inscription of Shiva Dev-ii, Kewalpur inscription of Dhruba Dev + Jishnu Gupta are the important inscriptions which mentioned on these issues to some extent.

Reference

Acharya, B.R. (2054). Nepal ko Samskrit Parmapara, Kathmandu: Shree Krishna Acharya.Bajracharya,D.B. & Malla,K.P. (1985). Gopalraj Vamsabali, Kathmandu: Nepal Research Centre.Bajracharya, D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: CNAS. T.U.Chhetri, G.P.& Rayamajhi, R.C. (2060). Nepalako Itihash, Kathmandu: Asia publications.Majumdar, R.C. (1962). “Nepal”,The Classic Age, Bambay: Bharatiya Bidhya Bhaban.Pandey, R.N. & Regmi, D.C. (2054). Nepalko Pauranik Itihas, Kirtipur: CNAS. T.U.Regmi, J.C. (2035). Prachin Nepalako Rajanaitika Itihas, Kathmandu: Nepal Rajakiya Prajna Pratisthan.Yogi, N.N. (2013). Itihash Prakash, Anka-2, Bhaga-1, Kathmandu: Itihash Prakash Sangh.Yogi, N.N. (2013). Itihash Prakash, Anka-2, Bhaga-2, Kathmandu: Itihash Prakash Sangh.Yogi, N.N. (2013). Itihash Prakashama Sandhipatra Sangraha, Kathmandu: Itihash Prakash Sangh

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Medieval period (880-1768)

After the downfall of lichchhavi period in 880 A.D then the medieval period had begun in the political history of Nepal. Basically the medieval period was dominated by the rulers of the Malla dynasty. Therefore, sometimes the period is known as Malla period. In the political history of Nepal from 880 to 1768 A.D that is about 888 years the medieval period was in existence. It is known as the glorious period in art architectural, socio-cultural as well as administrative perspectives. Malla rulers' developed trade and commerce, industry, religion and culture on the basis of the society. Similarly, they reached a high level of perfection on the field of arts and architecture. Medieval period is divided in to two different ages i.e. early and late medieval period. There were no adequate archaeological i.e. inscriptional records in the early medieval period, whereas, the late medieval period was documented by the inscriptional and other archeological records.

After the death of king Yaksha malla, the integrated Malla state was divided into three small and independent states i.e. Kirtipur, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur. In this period, the integrated power of Malla rulers was completely deteriorated, whereas, the socio culture and art architectural values were rapidly developed. So many mall kings ruled over the state in this period. Among them Jayasthati Malla, Yaksha Malla, Pratap Malla, Jayaprakash Malla, Siddhinarsingh Malla, Yoganarendra Mall , Ranjit Malla, Bhupatindra Malla were the most famous kings of the period . This was the period which carried out so many social, economic as well as land reformed jobs by the leaders. Likewise, socio cultural reforms were made by the kings; following are the major socio cultural features of the period. Monarchial governing system king considered as the super power. Administrative system was extended through local level to central level.

Mainly the administration was divided into three unites i.e. central level, regional level and local level. King, prince, bharadarishava, sadharan shava, royal priests, chautra or minister, raj baidhya (royal medical man), pradhan, gram panchali were the major administrative unites.

The society was highly civilized. People respect each other. Newari, Sanskrit, Nepali language existed in the society. Prachin newari , devangari , ranjana, panchumol, bhujimol etc were the

main scripts of writing

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Art, architecture and literature of the period were highly advanced. The temples, monasteries, gumbas, matha, water reservoirs, palaces, traditional houses which are in existence today's recognized as the valuable heritages of the period.

The society of medieval period was reformed by King Jayasthiti Malla. Especially, classification of the Newar community in different social classes and orders according to their occupations is the best example.

The society was based on Hindu varna vyavastha that is four varna and caste system and guided by Hindu as well as Buddhist religion and philosophy.

Sati system, slavery system, polygamy marriage system, child marriage these were the traditions which are remaining few years ago in this period.

The position of woman was not high and good comparatively then the male.

Daura suruwal, dhoti, choli, patuka, pachaura , pageri, jama were the famous dresses and bamkasila (chura), tuki, tika, satifali, ring, tulibafi (anklets), beads etc were the popular ornaments of the period.

Dashain, tihar, gaijatra, indrajatra, krishnajanmasthami, bhotejatra, shivaratri, ghodejatra, sithinakha, gathemuga, machhendranath rath yatra, nagapanchami, kwatipunhi, panchadana, etc were the popular festivals of the period.

Basically dhido, roti, rice, chiura, fish, flesh, milk, alcohol and different types of foods and drinks were the major foods and drinks.

Trade and commerce, industry, agriculture, animal husbandry were the major occupation of the source of income.

Highly advanced judiciary system. Law was created by the kings themselves on the basis of religious scriptures. Kings, ministers, civil servants were the authorities to provide decision of the issues. ,

In this period international relationship with India, china and some other European countries had developed.

Modern period (1768 up to date)

About 3 hundred years ago Nepal was divided into several small states and principalities. There was no unity among the rulers. They had quarreled with each other for territorial integrity and sovereignty. The Malla kingdom of

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Kathmandu Valley was also divided into three kingdoms i.e. Bhaktapur, Kantipur and Patan. At the same time there were Makawanpur, Vijayapur and Chaudandi states in the east. Likewise, there were 24 small states in the western i.e. in the Gandaki region known as Chaubisi Rajya, where as 22 principalities far western i.e. Karnali region which also known as Baisi Rajya. In this circumstance, there was a strong need to consolidate all these small states and principalities into a greater nation. The credit for this consolidation goes to the Shah Kings of Gorkha kingdom. Prithibinarayan Shah, who, took initiation of unification campaigns. Thus he always regarded as the founder of the greater nation.

In the history of Nepal, the modern period was begun after the defeated of Kathmandu valley by the king Prithivi Narayan Shah i. e. from 1768 and remains till to the date. In this period the rulers of Shah Dynasty have continuously ruled about 250 years. Therefore, in the political history of Nepal this period is known as the Shah period as well. The historians divide the period in different eras. The early age i.e. the period before the Rana regime, the Rana period, the age of democracy and the republican are the main. The brief descriptions of the period are given below.

1. Before Rana period (1768 A.D to 1846 A.D)

When Prithivi Narayan Shah unified kathamandu valley in 1768 A.D i.e. 1825 V.S then this period was begun and remained till to 1846 A.D i.e. 1903 V.S. It is an age before the rana regime. In this period the total efforts have gone to the unification process. After the death of the king Prithivi Narayan Shah his successor Rana Bahadur Shah, Bahadur Shah and Rajendra Laxmi provided the continuity to the unification campaigns. Therefore, in this period the political instability was the main cause which hindered the socio cultural as well as economic development of the country. In this period the socio cultural features of the society was remained little more same as like the previous tenure. Finally, these can be taken as the major socio cultural features of this period. Monarchial ruling system king recognized as the super power. The final

authorities of every issues depended upon the kings. Administrative system was practiced through the local level to central. But

king did have final authority. Sugauly Treaty was carried out in 3 March 1816 with East India Company.

Through the treaty Nepal has lost huge territories.

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Kathamandu city developed as the capital city of the unified greater country. When Prithivinarayan Shah defeated the Kantipur kingdom than advanced to Hanuman Dhoka as the headquarter of the state.

Society was dominated by Hindu and Buddhist religion and philosophy and determined on four varnas and jati vyavastha as well. Dibya upadesh a ethical text is to be taken as the witness of varnas and jati vyavastha where he mentioned to the nation as the beautiful garden of four varna and 36 castes.

Kasha and Sanskrit language taken as the popular public languages in this society. Through the time Nepali languages was practiced as the national language

The process of Hindulization has rapidly grown. Domestic productions have got priority in the society. Especially, P.N. Shah

was in favor of patronizing indigenous industries and putting a ban on the import of foreign goods.

The position of woman was weak then the male. Sati system, polygamy marriage system, child marriage were understood the main causes to making the low position of women.

Sati system (woman immolate herself on the funeral pyre with dead husband) was existed in this period.

Slavery system, polygamy marriage system, child marriage these were the traditions which are remaining few years ago in this period.

2. Rana period (1903 to 2007 B.S)

Janga Bahadur a famous leader of the history of Nepal. He came into the power and ruled Nepal as a shree 3 prime minister from B.S 1903. After his death his successor ruled over 104 years i.e. till to 2007 B.S continuously. In this period there is no adequate right to the people. Therefore, the rana period known as the autocratic rana ruling system in the political history of Nepal. Janga Bahadur , Chandra Sumsher , Veer Sumsher , Juddha Sumsher , Bhim Sumsher , Mohan Sumsher were the famous shree teen prime minister of this period. After the public movement leaded by Nepali congress in 2007B.S the autocratic ruling system of Rana has came into an end.

Through the Rana time Nepalese society was politically discouraging, there were some efforts for social reform. Muluki Ain (code) was promulgated in 1910 and it tried to systematize the cultural and social behaviors of the

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people of different castes, punishment and acts and other laws. Those acts and laws were made being influenced by Hindu religious scriptures. Law was made according to which sati system would not apply to under aged, pregnant women, slave and widows. But later on 28th June 1920 Chandra Sumsher eliminated the sati system throughout the kingdom. Similarly, in 1925 the slavery system, which becomes widespread during Malla Period, was also eliminated. If we look at the social life of Rana period there, was a bad practice of unmatched marriage, child marriage and polygamy. Some attempts were made for reforming this situation. Judda Sumsher initiated the system according to which Brahmin (male) of age from 30 to 48 could not marry a person under the age of 12 and those with age 48to 60 could not marry a person under the age of 20 in the Nepalese societies. As a whole the social, cultural, economic and political aspects of Rana period were mainly centered on the Ranas. The following are the major socio cultural features of the period Monarchial ruling system but dominated by shree teen Rana prime

minister. The final authority captured by them. Administrative system was practiced through the local level to central. But

shree teen Rana Prime Ministers did have final authority. The first code of Nepal was declared by the king Surendra Birbikram shah

in 1910 B.S which helped to classify the society in different status according to caste system Tagadhari, Mathwali, Choichitto halna naparne and choichitto halna parne these were the division in caste system which was managed by the new national code 1910.

Banke, Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur were returned from East India Company by the than Prime Minister Janga Bahadur in November 1, 1860.

Some educational activities were also carried out by Rana Prime Ministers. Durbar high school, Trichandra College in 1919, Bir Pustakalaya is the mentionable illustrations.

Some infrastructures i.e. Singhdurbar, Babar mahal, sital niwas, harihar bhavan, rabibhavan, Narayanhiti Royal Palace, Ghantaghar etc. was constructed.

Some industries i.e. Biratnagar jute mills, Juddha match factory, Biratnagar cotton mills, Birjunga cotton mills, Nepal plywood and ban bin company etc. was established.

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Railways service from Raksaul to Amalekhajunga in 1927 and from Janakpur to Jayanagar in 1940 was begun.

Those infrastructures which were damaged by the great earthquake of 1934 were restored.

Some hospitals i.e. Bir Hospital, Bhadagaon Hospital in 1904, Military Hospital in 1926 were established.

The first Hydro power i.e. Pharping hydro power in 1911 and Ropeway were established.

The facilities and services of communication i.e. publication of Gorkha Patra, postal service, telephone service, money order and so on were existed in this period.

The Arsenal Museum of Chhauni and Juddha Jatiya Art Gallery were established.

The certainty and uniformity of office time and weekly as well as yearly holyday facilities were brought into the practices by Dev Shumser.

In 28 June 1920 the sati system has abolished by the Prime Minister Chandra Shumsher in the social history of Nepal.

In 1925 A.D the slavery system has gone to abolish by the Prime Minister Chandra Sumsher.

In this period child marriage , polygamy marriage these type of marriage were in practice but in this respect the Rana rulers have done some reforms in this period the rules of the marriage has changed by the prime minister Juddha Shumsher.

Juwa, tash, madira these types of social evils have gone to control as much as possible in this period.

3. Democratic age (2007 B.S to till date)

The downfall of autocratic age of the Rana dynasty the democratic age was began. Finally due to the public revolution of 2007 B.S the autocratic Rana regime has came into downfall. After 2007B.S till to date the social, cultural, political, economic situation of the country have been changing day to days. Since 2007B.S to 2015 there was very difficult political situation. The first general election of the parliament has conducted in 2015 B.S. The leader of the Nepali Congress B.P. Koirala has appointed as the first public elected Priminister in the history of Nepal. He could not succeed to run the country in democratic political environment. The government of BP Koirala got

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dissolved in 2017 paush 1 because of the dictatorship king Mahendra and was imposed party less Panchayat system. Due to the overtaken of the then king Mahendra the democracy of the country has kidnapped. This system ruled for 30 years i.e. till to 2046 B.S.

After the overtaken of democracy, in this gapping period there were so many public movements and demonstrations had come in to existence against the political system for democracy. Non violence movement of 2042, referendum of 2036 is considered as the most important activities in the political history of Nepal. These all public movements and demonstrations doing for democracy could not successes for the political change at the situation. Finally the public movement of 2046 has successes to regain the losing democratic system of the country. Again, the democratic system has overturned by the king Gyanandra in ashoj 18, 2059 V.S. due to this overtaken situation the close relationship between the parliamentarians’ political parties and Maoists have grown. Then parliamentarians’ political parties and Maoists party has jointly organized the public movement and democratic revolution second from 2062/63 V.S. for the reestablishment of the democratic system in the country. Ultimately, as a result, through the peoples movement of 2062/63 B.S the 250 years long shah dynasty monarchy system was brought to an end and republican political system came into existence. This event is taken as the watershed/milestone in the history of Nepal. Now, Nepal is a secular country. It has created new situations. The revolutions, which has committed in different period in the country could not only political system, but also be helped to change in the socio-cultural and economic life of the peoples as well. The following are the major socio-cultural features of the period.

Downfall of the monarchy system and establishment of democracy as well as republican country very recently i.e. from the interim constitution 2063. The His Majesty Govt. changed into Nepal govt.

The Hindu state is changed into secular state very recently i.e. from the interim constitution 2063.

The all types of social discrimination have came to an end and helped to establishment of the social solidarities as well as inclusive culture

The new nation code has proclaimed by the king Mahendra in 2020 V.S. Different types of discriminations i.e. sex and gender, caste and class etc. have gone to reduce through the Code.

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Economically, the country entered into privatization and globalization movement. Agriculture, tourism, industry, remittance considers as the main sources of economy.

The country changed into the political structure through central ruling approach to federalism. This is strongly managed by the interim constitution 2063.

East-west highway was began to be constructed from 2019 B.S. besides it, other several north south and linkage highways are being constructed.

Land reform act began in 2021 B.S. which is still in practices. The act helps to scientific and systematic classification, distribution and utilization of the land.

Gaun farka rastrya abhian i.e. National camping’s of return to village begun in 2024 B.S. Through this activity the villages have got the opportunities of their enhancements.

End of all kind of slavery system. Especially the kamaiya system among the tharu people has gone to an end in 17 July, 2000.

End of the polygamy, polyandry, child marriage system. The new code i.e. mulikiain 2020, the constitution of 2047 and the interim constitution of 2063 has proclaimed of its end.

End of the feudalism, brita, kipat, jagir land system. Through this reform scientific and systematic classification, distribution and utilization of the land could be possible.

Eradication of the malaria from the terai region began to rehabilitation program in the terai region.

Now the country is in the building process of the national constitution. Quota system has managed to backward, marginalize and disable people

and communities by the interim constitution 2063. Nation building process began with planned way. It was begun from 2013

V.S. The development movements of the country has rapidly forwarded through the process.

The infrastructures and facilities i.e. roads, transports, education, health, communication and so on have rapidly developed comparatively then previous ages.

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Human Settlement and Migration

Human Settlement

Natural resources, adopted ecology and available facilities are highly regarded as the major leading components which helped to generate human settlements in different territories in the world. No doubt, in the absence of these components there can be no existence of human settlements. Today, how many human settlements are there in existence in the world, its credit goes to the above mentioned components. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary “settlement means a place where people have come to live and make their homes, especially where few or no people lived before” (Sally, 2007:1390). Settlement is a universal phenomenon. It is closely related with the human beings. Both these phenomenons could never be separated with each other. Obviously, there can be no human settlement where there are no human beings. It means where there is human being the settlement itself exists. Thus, the history of settlement can be taken as long as the history of human beings in the world.

In the real sense, the history of human settlement has begun from the prehistoric culture and civilization. On the basis of duration, we can classify the pattern of settlement into two different categorize i.e. temporary and permanent. If we look at the history of human settlement, we can observe, more or less the prehistoric life of the people was nomadic. Through the hunting and gathering they spend their life as much as possible. Continuously, there were no adequate opportunity of hunting and gathering within a territory in the long time. Therefore, for the purpose of fulfilling their requirement of foods they were compelled to change their shelters frequently. Due to that particular situation the first type’s i.e. temporary settlement was existed. The evidence shows that the prehistoric man has begun their permanent settlement very late. When they began cultivation of the land and domestication of the animals, the permanent settlement has come into existence.

There were beautiful centers of human settlements in prehistoric sites. Altamire, Lauscaus, Font- De Gaume, Pindel, Teyjat, Hornos De La Pena, Gargas, La Pasiega, Combarelles, Cantabria, Castillo etc. were regarded as the suitable illustrations of prehistoric human settlement sites in the world. Today these sites have to be taken as the noteworthy territories for the study of

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prehistoric culture and civilization. Later on i.e. during the proto- historic period the process of human settlement grew up systematically and scientifically as well. The civilizations such as Egyptian, Indus Valley, Babylonian, Chinese as well as even the civilization of Kathmandu Valley of early Lichchhavi period are considered beautiful examples of it.

In the context of Nepal, according to the Hindu belief the history of Nepalese culture and civilization can be traced back to the mythological period. King Manu, who is said to be the first king of the world ruled in Nepal in Satya Yuga i.e. the Age of Truth and Nepal, was known as the Land of Satyawati. Later on it was called the land of solitary meditation and penance (Tapovan) in the Treta Yuga i.e. the Age of Silver. Similarly, Nepal was known as the ladder of salvation (Muktisopan) in the Dwapar Yuga i.e. the age of copper; and it is known as Nepal in the Kali Yuga i.e. the age of iron. Beside afore mentioned mythological description, archaeological findings also suggest that there were prehistoric human culture and civilization in Nepal. The fossil findings of the Ramapithecus from the bank of Teenau River and stone tools of Paleolithic and Neolithic characteristics from the different parts can be helped to prove the prehistoric human settlements of the country.

The mythological history shows that Gopal, Mahispal and Kirata were the inceptives ruling dynasties of Nepal. They had begun systematic settlements in Kathmandu Valley. Especially, in Kirat period changu, khopring, kurpasi, tengkhu and other various settlement sites were existed, today which is known as Changu, Bhaktapur, Khopasi and Teku respectively. Similarly, the Lichchhavi rulers were systematically developed and classified the settlement sites into different categorize i.e. grama, tala and dranga. The inscriptions of Lichchhavi period has come into collection in different villages such as Deupatan, Thankot, Balambu, Chapagaon, Sankhu, Changu, Pharping, Kisipidi, Satungal, Budhanilakantha, Tohka, Bunmati, Hadigaon, Sanga, Lele, Chitlang, Bhatuwal, Lagan, Maligaon and other several villages, which suggest that these places were highly developed as the human settlement sites at that time. The Malla rulers continuously gave the priority to this tradition of developing human settlement in medieval period.

No doubt, from the very early, Nepal was a melting pot of several caste and ethnic groups of different races. Today this feature is still known as the

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identity of the country. It constitutes various caste and ethnic groups of different races, living in different regions with their distinct socio-cultural features. If we look at the settlement pattern the high Himalayan region is settled by the Tibetan speaking people especially the Sherpa’s. Likewise, the midlands including Kathmandu Valley are inhabited by various Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan speaking people such as Brahmins, Chhetris and Newars. A part from it, the Rais, Limbus, Tamangs, Magars, Sunwars, Jirels, Gurungs, Thakalis, Chepangs and so on are other Tibeto-Burman speaking mongoloid people found in the middle hills. Similarly, the Terai is inhabited by the people such as Brahmins, Rjputs, Tharus, Danwars, Majhis, Rajbansis, Shatars, Dhimals, Ganagais, Bantars, Dhanuks, Jhangars, Musahars etc.with their beautiful settlement sites from the early up to now.

In this present circumstances, there are two types of settlements i.e. disperse and clusters. More or less the first type i.e. disperse settlement pattern can be found in rural areas, where as the second type i.e. the cluster settlements can be observed in urban society. It means disperse settlement is characterized by rural atmosphere and cluster settlement is to be represented by the urbanity. According to the national census of 2011, among the 5423297 households, all together there are 4377722 (80.72%) found in rural areas, where as the rest of the households i.e. 1045575 (19.28%) are found in urban region (CBS, 2012:16). This statistics shows that the disperse settlement pattern is much more practiced and popular then cluster settlement in Nepal.

On the basis ecological belt there is dense settlement in hill and terai comparatively then mountain region. According to the national census there are 2532041 (46.69%), 2527558 (46.60%) and 363698 (6.71%) households in hill, terai and mountain regions respectively (CBS, 2012:16). These figures indicate that the hilly and terai regions seem to be much more popular then mountain for human settlement. Likewise, on the basis of development region, if we look at the statistics of the census of 2011, we can see the dense settlement in Central Development Region comparatively then other. According to the figures of the census, among the 5423297 households, the Central Devt. Region covers 1962238 (36.18%), Eastern Devt. Region holds 1230734 (22.69%), Western Devt. Region covers 1065599 (19.65%), Mid Western Devt. Region holds 695014 (12.82%) and Far Western Devt. Region covers 469703 (8.66%) of households (CBS, 2012:16). These statistics

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highlight that the Central and the Eastern Devt. Regions seem to be much more popular than the other regions for human settlement.

Migration Meaning & Definition

Migration is directly related with the movement of the people especially of the whole groups from one place to another particularly with the intention of making permanent settlement in a new destination. It is a social or cultural behavior which has been existing from the early days up to date. Migration is the spatial movement of people which is done from one geographical area to another involving the permanent change of settlement. Obviously migration is a simple process where people change their origin place or country into a new destination or place permanently or temporarily. Similarly, migration is meaningful and as well as done as objectively through the people for the fulfillment of a specific motto, the peoples have migrated from one place to another destination.

From the sociological and anthropological perspectives migration does not only concerned with the residential changed of the people. The people who migrates, she or he carried all the socio cultural and economical as well as the other norms and values with him or her into the new destination, In totality migration helped to create the interaction between old and new comer member of the society. Therefore, it is considered as an organization of the society

The history of human migration is old as the history of human beings. It is cleared that the early human beings were almost surely hunters and gathers who move continuously in search for food from one place to another. The superior of these hunting bands allowed them to spread further and faster then had any other dominant species. Human beings are thought to have occupied the entire continent except Antarctica within a span of about 50,000 years. But migration is considered as the matter of study and investigation only in 18 th

century in the world. The various studies and researches have provided the precious meaning and definitions of the term migration. Among them, some important are as follows

According to United Nation Multilingual Dictionary “migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial mobility between one geographical

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unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin or place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrival”.

According to Dictionary of Anthropology “migration is the large movement of a people seeking a permanent change of residence”.

Similarly, Dictionary of Sociology defined the term migration as follows “migration is a relatively permanent movement of a person or population across a political boundary to a new residential areas or community”.

E.S. Lee one of the renowned scholars who founded push and pull theory of migration in the world. He provides scientific definition of the term migration as follows “migration broadly consider it as a permanent or semi- permanent change of residence with no restrictions on the distance involved in the movement”.

In this respects, Nepalese scholar Bal Kumar K.C. (Population Monograph of Nepal 2003) provides the definition of the word migration in the context of Nepal. According to him “migration is a spatial mobility of people by changing usual place of residence to a well defined destination. A migrant is a person who moves either from his place of birth to another area or keeps on moving stepwise or circular by changing his residence more or less frequently by be to either seasonal, temporary, semi- permanent or permanent migrant depending on the duration of migration and season for migration within a defined geographical area”.

Type of Migration

There is no exact and absolute classification of migration. Various scholars have categorized migration into different forms on the basis of nature, geography, settlement patterns, time or duration of settlements, seasons and so on. In this regards, migration can be classified as follows:

On the basis of geography or territory National or in country migration International migration (a) immigration (b) emigration

On the basis of settlement Permanent migration Temporary migration Seasonal migration

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On the basis of interest Unconscious drift Compulsory movement Voluntary movement

On the basis of time or duration Seasonal migration Daily migration Periodic immigration

On the basis of demographical perspective Marriage migration Adoption migration Pressure migration

On the basis of economic development Rural to urban migration Urban to rural migration Rural to rural migration Urban to urban migration

Causes of MigrationMigration is a movement of people, which is lead by different causes

and factors. Evidences of human history proved that without any causes and factors there is no possibility of people’s movement from one place to another. There are several causes why people choose to move in or of a country. A group of people may migrate in response to the lure of more favorable region or because of some adverse condition or combination of conditions in the home environment. Most of the historians believed that non –nomadic peoples are disinclined to leave the place to which they are accustomed and that most historic and pre- historic migrations were stimulated by a deterioration of home conditions as well as the lacking situation of appropriate foods. This belief is supported by the finding evidences preceding most major migrations. No doubt, the specific stimuli for migrations may be either natural or social causes. Among the natural causes are changes in climate stimulating a search for wormer or colder lands, volcanic eruptions or foods that render sizable areas uninhabitable and periodic fluctuations in rainfall.

In this present situation so many scholars have generated the theories of migration. In this respect, we can mention the theories of R.G. Revienstain, Evert S.Lee, Todaro and Stoffer which helps to identify the causes and factors

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of migration. R.G. Revienstain has published a research based book in 1885 and mentioned a concept of mutual relationship between origin place and new destination; motivate the people for the mobility. Similarly, E.S.Lee has generated a theory push and pull factors in 1966, whereas, Todaro has coined a theory of economic benefit in 1976. Still among the afore mentioned theories, sociologists usually reasons for migration in term of push and pull factors. Push factor denote the causes of lacking, difficulties and problems of origin place, whereas, pull factor denote the attractions and available facilities of the new destinations. In totality, the causes or reasons of migration is enlisted within push and pull factors.

Push factors

Socially unacceptable Lack of economic benefit Politically isolation Demographic causes Difficult geographical situation Lack of physical infrastructures Lack of social security Lack of employment opportunities Lack of adequate health services Self interest of an individual Under developed rural area Not favorable religion and belief Existing conflicts

Pull factors

Socially acceptable situation Available economic benefit Politically assimilation Demographic causes Favorable geographical situation Strong physical infrastructures Strong social security Available employment opportunities

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Strong health services Self interest of an individual Strongly developed urban area Favorable religion and belief Favorable and peaceful society

Consequences of Migration

Migration is a social and cultural phenomenon, which has been existing from the very early up to now. It is directly or indirectly helped to bring socio- cultural, economical and demographical impacts in the society either origin place or new destination. Among the distinct effects of migration are the stimulation of further migration through the displacement of other people; a reduction in the members of the migrating group because of hardship and warfare; changes in physical characteristics through inter marriage with the groups encountered, changes in cultural characteristics by adoption of the cultural patterns of peoples encountered; and linguistic changes, also effected by adoption.

Similarly, migration brings some negative and positive impacts in the origin place. Therefore, the consequences or impact of migration is categorized in both sites i.e. origin place which the people leaved and new destination where the people arrived. As a whole the followings are the major consequences or impacts of migration in the both place:

Consequences or impacts in origin place Migrated of qualified human resources Lack of qualified and active labour Impact on fertility rate Decrease of local production Separation of family and relatives Mental stress Economic upgrade Growth of national GDP Impact on culture and society

Consequences or impacts in new destination Competition in opportunities Dense settlement

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Problems in social services Increase in mental stress Increase of social crimes Introduced new technology Increase of productive labour Impact on culture and society

ReferenceBajracharya D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi Kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: I.N.A.S., 4th Edition. Burkitt, M.C. (1992). The Old Stone Age, New Delhi: Rupa & Co.CBS, (2012). National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report), Kathmandu: Govt. of Nepal, NPCS.Dhaubanjar, Gopal. (2068). Kathmandau Upatyakaka Bastiharu, Kathmandu: Shreemati Kalpana Shrestha.Sally, Wehmeier (2007). Oxford Advanced Learning Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, (Edited).

Social structure of Nepal (See the class notes and the book entitled The

Newars of G.S. Nepali)

Economic structure of Nepal (See the class notes and the book entitled

The Economic History of Nepal of M.C. Regmi)

Festivals of Nepal (See the class notes and the book entitled Festivals of

Nepal of Mery M. Anderson)

Art and influcing factors on religion (See the class notes)

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Nepalese Art

According to the Hindu belief the history of Nepalese culture and civilization can be traced back to the mythological period. King Manu, who is said to be the first king of the world ruled in Nepal in Satya Yuga i.e. the Age of Truth and Nepal, was known as the Land of Satyawati. Later on it was called the land of solitary meditation and penance (Tapovan) in the Treta Yuga i.e. the Age of Silver. Similarly, Nepal was known as the ladder of salvation (Muktisopan) in the Dwapar Yuga i.e. the age of copper; and it is known as Nepal in the Kali Yuga i.e. the age of iron. Beside afore mentioned mythological description, archaeological findings also suggest that there were prehistoric human culture and civilization in Nepal. The fossil findings of the Ramapithecus from the bank of Teenau River and stone tools of Paleolithic and Neolithic characteristics from the different parts can be helped to prove the prehistoric human settlements of the country.

No doubt, the history of art as old as the history of human beings in the context of Nepal. The mythological history shows that Gopal, Mahispal and Kirata were the inceptives ruling dynasties of Nepal. Politically, the history of Nepal is classified into three major period i.e. ancient, medieval and modern periods. Likewise, the history of arts can be classified into four different categorize i.e. early Lichchhavi, Lichchhavi, medieval and modern school of arts. Early Lichchhavi Art

The art of early Lichchhavi period was developed due to the patronizing roles of the Kirat and early Lichchhavi rulers. How much the art objects were created from the very early up to fourth century Christian era, these are recognized as the art of early Lichchhavi period. No doubt, the art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Kirat and early Lichchhavi rulers. Therefore, the school of art of this period is named as early Lichchhavi art.

The art of early lichchhavi period was influenced through the different school of art from India. Especially, the Maurya, Sunga, Kushana School of Mathura and slightly of Gandhara School of Art were ideal centers to the artists and art lovers of early lichchhavi period. No doubt, without losing indigenous identity and values, the artists of this period borrowed some features from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana School of Mathura and slightly of Gandhara School of Art for their art works. As a whole, the images of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati

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Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan and other that belonged to early lichchhavi period are highly known as the representative art objects. Through the analysis of above mentioned sculptures, we can note down the major features of early lichchhavi art as follows:

The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Kirat and early Lichchhavi rulers.

It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art from the very early up to fourth century Christian era.

Use of stone, terracotta, wood and metal for the purpose of creation of arts. The art of this period was slightly influenced by Maurya, Sunga, Kushana

School of Mathura and slightly of Gandhara School of Arts from India, without losing indigenous identity and values.

Ugly and rough facial structures. (The sculptures of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi are known as the best examples).

Lack of selection of quality and attractive stone for the creation of art objects. The brownish and weak stone was used. (The images of Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Lack of in-depth artistic appealing. The artists of this period could not give the priority to very small parts of the body i.e. lines of the palm, nails of the fingers and so on especially in terracotta images.

Lack of well structured and proportioned limbs. (The images such as Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, and Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Lack of elasticity and frazil body likewise what found in Lichchhavi sculptures. (The images of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar, Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, are taken as the best example of this feature).

Used of huge and thick ankles as an ornaments in female images. (The sculptures of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi,

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Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan are known as the best examples of it).

Decorated head dress especially in the case of female images. (The sculptures Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Mother Goddess of Haugal- Bahal, Handigaon, Balkhu, Kirtipur, Bagalamukhi, Changunarayan are known as the best examples of this feature).

Lack of holy thread in case of male images likewise Lichchhavi sculptures. (The sculptures of Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar are known as the best examples of it).

Oval facial structures like Mongolian stocks. (The sculptures of Gajalaxmi of Chyasalhiti, Umamaheswor of Sikubahi, Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar are known as the best examples of it).

Especially, in the case of male images the upper parts of the body seem uncovered. (The images such as Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum, Chaturmukhi Brahma of Rastriya Nachghar are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Religious as well as secular in nature. All most, the sculptures were created in this period, were concerned to religious sects. But very few i.e. the sculptures such as Yalamber of Pashupati Mrigasthali, Yaksha and Jayavarma of National Museum were created for secular motif.

Did not follow the features mentioned in iconographic science for the creation of arts. What the iconographic features are found on the texts, the artists did not used.

Lichchhavi Art

The Lichchhavi period is known as the first historical period in the history of Nepal. The chronology of writing i.e. inscriptional records, chronology of dates, chronology of historical events and other several archaeological materials can be found which helped to prove every aspects of history and culture of it. Thus, in the history of Nepal Lichchhavi period especially from the regime of king Manadev 1st is recognized as the first historical period. From this period besides literary sources and foreign account there are archaeological evidences i.e. inscriptions, coins, art objects, archaeological remains and other more materials can be found which are helping to the scholars for the reconstruction of the history and culture of the period.

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In the history of Nepal Lichchhavi dynasty was ruled over about 780 years from 100 A.D to 888 A.D. Through the inscription of king Mandev 1st of Changunarayan of 464 A.D and the inscription of Jayadev 2nd of Pashupatinath of 733 we could know about the descriptions of some popular kings of the Lichchhavi dynasty. Beside it, other several inscriptions such as the inscriptions of Pashupati Suryaghat of Vijayawati, the Thankot inscription of Basantadev, Lele inscription of Shivadev and Amshuvarna, Bhungamati, Hadigaon, Tistung inscriptions of Amshuvarna, Yagabahal, Patan Bhansarchouk, Anatalingeswor inscriptions of Narendraevd are considered important sources, through which we could be informed about the history and culture of that period. According to the inscriptional records the Manadev 1st, Basanta Dev , Shivadev 1st, Amsuverma , Narendra Dev , Shiva Dev ,Jayadev 2nd were known as the famous kings of Lichhavi period .

Apart from the other, the art of Lichchhavi period was developed due to the patronizing roles of the above mentioned rulers. How much the art objects were created from 4th to 9th century Christian era, these are recognized as the art of Lichchhavi period. No doubt, the art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Lichchhavis. Therefore, the school of art of this period is named as the dynasty of the rulers. Finding evidences and inscriptional records show that the Lichchhavi rulers were art lovers. There were beautiful stone sculptures, which indicate that Lichchhavi period was known as the golden age especially in the form of stone art comparatively than the other eras.

Beside stone art, inscriptional records show that Nepal was the popular province for the creation of paintings, wooden, terracotta and metal works in Lichchhavi period. The inscriptions of Chabahil, Nakshal Narayanchour, Shanga, Gorakhanath Cave of Gorkha are the best examples, which informs about the paintings of lichchhavi period. Similarly, the Patan Sundhara inscription of Amshuvarma and Thankot inscriptions of Bhimarjun Deo/ Jusnu Gupta help to indicate the existence of wood work of that time. In this respect, there were some terracotta and metal figuring’s which are taken as the noteworthy illustrations of that period.

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The art of lichchhavi period was influenced through the different school of art from India. Especially, the Mathura, Guptas and Pal School of Art were ideal centers to the artists and art lovers of lichchhavi period. No doubt, without losing indigenous identity and values, the artists of Nepal borrowed some features from Mathura and other Indian schools of art for their art works. As a whole, the images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum, Virupaksha of Pashupati Aaryaghat, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Padmapani Lokeswor of Dhwakabaha Chaitya, Standing Budha of Bangemuda, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, Dhumbahara of Chandol and other several sculptures that belonged to lichchhavi period are highly known as the representative art objects. Through the analysis of above mentioned sculptures, we can note down the major features of lichchhavi art as follows:

The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Lichchhavi rulers.

Lichchhavi period is known as the golden age as the form of stone sculptures.

It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art of 4th to 9th century Christian era.

Use of stone, terracotta, wood and metal for the purpose of creation of arts. The art of this period was slightly influenced by Mathura, Guptas and Pal

School of Arts from India, without losing indigenous identity and values. Beautiful and attractive facial structures. (The sculptures of Vishnuvikranta

of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Vishorupa image of Vishnu of Changunarayan are known as the best examples).

Selection of quality and attractive stone for the creation of art objects. The blackish blue stone was used. (The images of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum, Virupaksha of Pashupati Aaryaghat, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha are taken as the best illustrations of it).

In-depth artistic appealing. The artists of this period focused on very small parts of the body i.e. lines of the palm, nails of the fingers and so on. (The sculptures of Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum are noteworthy examples of this feature).

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Well structured and proportioned limbs. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Elasticity and frazil body. (The images of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav and Umamaheswor, nativity scene of Budha of National Museum are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Limited used of ornaments. (The sculptures of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Vishorupa image of Vishnu of Changunarayan, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).

Simple and lively facial structures. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Decorated head dress especially in the case of female images. (the sculptures of Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).

Use of simple and transparent dress. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Use of simple and circular nimbus. (The images of Vishnuvikranta of Changunarayan, Padmahasta Laxmi of National Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).

Use of stone paste to make the art objects very smooth and beautiful. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum can prove this feature).

Use of holy thread. (The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, Dhumbahara of Chandol are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Oval facial structures like Aryan stocks. (The sculptures of Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Vishorupa image of Vishnu of

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Changunarayan, Kumarsambhav, Padmahasta Laxmi and Umamaheswor of National Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).

Especially, in the case of male images the upper parts of the body seem uncovered. The images such as Vishnuvikranta of Tilganga and Lazimpath, Kaliyadaman of Hanumandhoka, Jalasayan Narayan of Budhanilkantha, Dhumbahara of Chandol are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Lack of tantric influence. (Limited used of ornaments, heads, hands, and weapons are known as the strong evidences of this feature).

Religious in nature. How much the sculptures were created in this period, were concerned to religious sects.

Creation based on iconographic science. What the iconographic features are found on the texts, the artists used it as much as possible.

Medieval period (880-1768)

After the downfall of lichchhavi period in 880 A.D then the medieval period had begun in the political history of Nepal. Basically the medieval period was dominated by the rulers of the Malla dynasty. Therefore, sometimes the period is known as Malla period. From 880 to 1768 A.D that is about 888 years the medieval period was in existence. It is known as the glorious period in art architectural, socio-cultural as well as administrative perspectives. Malla rulers' developed trade and commerce, industry, religion and culture on the basis of the society. Similarly, they reached a high level of perfection on the field of arts and architecture. Medieval period is divided in to two different ages i.e. early and late medieval period. There were no adequate archaeological i.e. inscriptional records in the early medieval period, whereas, the late medieval period was documented by the inscriptional and other archeological records.

The death of king Yaksha malla remained one of important cause of the division of integrated Malla kingdom into three small and independent states i.e. Kirtipur, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur. In this period, the integrated power of Malla rulers was completely deteriorated, whereas, the socio culture and art architectural values were rapidly developed. So many mall kings ruled over the state in this period. Among them Jayasthati Malla, Yaksha Malla, Pratap Malla, Jayaprakash Malla, Siddhinarsingh Malla, Yoganarendra Mall , Ranjit Malla, Bhupatindra Malla were the most famous kings of the period . This

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was the period which carried out so many social, economic as well as land reform jobs by the leaders.

Apart from the other, the art of medieval period was developed due to the patronizing roles of the above mentioned rulers. How much the art objects were created from 9th to 18th century Christian era, these are recognized as the art of Malla period. No doubt, the art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Malla rulers. Therefore, sometimes the school of art of this period is known as the Malla art. Finding evidences and inscriptional records show that the Malla rulers were art lovers. There were beautiful stone, bronze, terracotta, wooden sculptures and painting of different forms, which indicate that, the artists did have the high and commanding skill of arts of the Malla period. Among the various forms, medieval period is known as the golden age especially in the form of metal art.

The art of Malla period was influenced through the different school of art from India. Especially, the Pal, Sen, Rajput and Mungal School of Art were ideal centers to the sculpture artists and art lovers of this period. Whereas the works of painting especially paubha i.e. scroll paintings were slightly influenced from the Tibetian School of Arts. No doubt, without losing indigenous identity and values, the artists of medieval Nepal borrowed some features from outside for their art works. As a whole, the images such as Umamaheswor of Kwabaha, Hadigaon and Patan Kumbheswor, Surya images of Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, Chaturmukha Linga of Deopatan, Vishnu- Vyuha of Patan Kumbeswor, Vishnu of National Museum, Vishnu and Harihar of Bhaktapur Art Gallery, Narasimha and Hanuman of Bhaktapur Durbar Square and other several sculptures are known as the noteworthy illustrations of stone works.

Similarly, Vishnu of Bostan Museum, Buddha of Los Angeles County Museum, Vajrapani Bodhisatwa of Newyork, Avalokiteswor of Kwabahal, Namasangiti and Mahish- Sambara of National Museum and Pujadevi and Nritya Devi of Wooden Art Gallery of Bhaktapur and Nritya Devi of National Museum are understood as the significance examples of metal and wood works of medieval period. Likewise, Asthasahsrikapyajnaparamita of Cambridge University Library, pyajnaparamita of S.K. Saraswati’s collection, Dasavatar painting of Bhaktapur Museum these belonged to medieval period

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are highly known as the representative art objects. Through the analysis of above mentioned sculptures, we can note down the major features of medieval art as follows:

The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the Malla rulers.

Malla period is known as the golden age as the form of bronze arts. It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art of

9th to 18th century Christian era. Use of metal, stone, terracotta, wood, paper and clothes for the purpose of

creation of arts. The art of this period was slightly influenced by Pal, Sen and Mungal

School of Arts from India, without losing indigenous identity and values. Small and oval facial structures. (The sculptures of Vishnu of Bostan

Museum, Buddha of Los Angeles County Museum, Vajrapani Bodhisatwa of Newyork, Avalokiteswor of Kwabahal, Namasangiti and Mahish- Sambara of National Museum are known as the best examples).

The quality of stone comparatively lost.(The images of Umamaheswor of Kwabaha, Hadigaon and Patan Kumbheswor, Surya images of Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, Chaturmukha Linga of Deopatan, Vishnu- Vyuha of Patan Kumbeswor, Vishnu of National Museum,are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Well structured but lack of proportioned limbs. (The images such as Vishnu of Bostan Museum, Buddha of Los Angeles County Museum, Vajrapani Bodhisatwa of Newyork, Avalokiteswor of Kwabahal, Namasangiti and Mahish- Sambara of National Museum are known as the best examples of this feature).

Elasticity and frazil body. (The images of Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, Chaturmukha Linga of Deopatan, Vishnu- Vyuha of Patan Kumbeswor, are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Maximum used of ornaments. (The sculptures of Umamaheswor of Kwabaha, Hadigaon and Patan Kumbheswor, Surya images of Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, are known as the best examples of this feature).

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Use of simple and transparent dress. (The images such as Surya images of Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Use of decorated and slightly oval as well as circular nimbus. (The images of Vishnu and Harihar of Bhaktapur Art Gallery, Narasimha and Hanuman of Bhaktapur Durbar Square are known as the best examples of this feature).

Use of holy thread. (The images such as Surya images of Thapahiti, Banepa and Panauti, Sridhar- Vishnu, Narasimha, and Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan, are taken as the best illustrations of it).

Tantric influence. (Maximum used of ornaments, multi heads, hands, and weapons are known as the strong evidences of this feature).

Religious as well as secular in nature. (The sculptures of this period were not only concern to religious nature but also secular motif for example the statue of Pratap Malla, Yoganarendra Malla, Bhupatendra Malla etc).

Lack of classical norms and values. (What the iconographic features are found on the texts, the artists did not use it properly).

Use of triangular shape crown especially on the head of Budha’s images. Lack of in- depth artistic appealing. The artists of this period could not give

the priority to very small parts of the body i.e. lines of the palm, nails of the fingers and so on especially in terracotta images.

Throughout the unnecessary part from the sculptures. (The image of Visworupa Vishnu of Changunarayan is one of the best example of it)

Constructed terrific sculptures of the Gods and Goddesses. Constructed erotic carving especially on the struts of the temples for

example the struts of Jagganath temple of Hanumandhoka, Jalabinayak temple of Chobhar. Modern period (1768 up to date)

About 3 hundred years ago Nepal was divided into several small states and principalities. There was no unity among the rulers. They had quarreled with each other for territorial integrity and sovereignty. The Malla kingdom of Kathmandu Valley was also divided into three kingdoms i.e. Bhaktapur, Kantipur and Patan. At the same time there were Makawanpur, Vijayapur and Chaudandi states in the east. Likewise, there were 24 small states in the western i.e. in the Gandaki region known as Chaubisi Rajya, where as 22

49

principalities far western i.e. Karnali region which also known as Baisi Rajya. In this circumstance, there was a strong need to consolidate all these small states and principalities into a greater nation. The credit for this consolidation goes to the Shah Kings of Gorkha kingdom. Prithibinarayan Shah, who, took initiation of unification campaigns. Thus he always regarded as the founder of the greater nation.

In the history of Nepal, the modern period was begun after the defeated of Kathmandu valley by the king Prithivi Narayan Shah i. e. from 1768 and remains till to the date. In this period the rulers of Shah Dynasty have continuously ruled about 250 years. Therefore, in the political history of Nepal this period is known as the Shah period as well. The historians divide the period in different eras. The early age i.e. the period before the Rana regime, the Rana period, the age of democracy and the republican are the main. Besides socio-cultural, economic as well as other sectors, from the perspectives of art and architecture some efforts have carried out by the rulers and the public as well. The following are the major features of the period:

The art of this period was existed because of the creative enthusiasm and patronizing roles of the rulers.

It is important Art School which represents the features of Nepalese art of 18th to till date.

Use of metal, stone, ceramic, terracotta, wood, paper, leathers, feathers, bones, horns and clothes for the purpose of creation of art objects.

The art of this period was slightly influenced by Sen, Mungal and European School of Arts especially from England.

Small and oval facial structures. The quality of stone comparatively lost Well structured but lack of proportioned limbs. Maximum used of dress and ornaments. Use of decorated and slightly oval as well as circular nimbus. Tantric influence. (Maximum used of ornaments, multi heads, hands, and

weapons are known as the strong evidences of this feature). Religious as well as secular in nature. Lack of classical norms and values. (What the iconographic features are

found on the texts, the artists did not use it properly). Constructed terrific sculptures of the Gods and Goddesses.

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Monuments of Nepal (See the class notes)

Customs of Nepal

Nepal is a small and landlocked country sandwiched between two

giant neighbors India and China. Its location is in the northern margin of

South Asia. It has its elongated rectangular shape roughly with north-west

to south- east orientation. The country has 147181 square kilometers in

areas which accounts as 0.03 per cent if the total land of the earth.

Geographically, Nepal lays 800 4' to 880 12' east longitude and 260 22' to 300 27’

north latitude. The territory of Nepal is double in the size of Sri Lanka,

whereas, 3.5 times and 6.7 times bigger than Switzerland and Israel. On

the one hand and 23 times smaller than India and 68 times less than the

size of China, on the other (Agarwal & Upadhyay, 2006:46-47). Beside it,

in the context of its biodiversity it is only five time smaller than India and

as well as three time than China. So, its unique diversity has popularized it

as the tourism paradise in the world.

It is a multiethnic, multilingual, multi-religious country having

diverse caste, religion and races from ancient period to the beginning of

this twenty first century. It deserves its importance as an independent

kingdom with full of antiquities and the relics of the past. It has been a

country of extreme diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, religion,

ecology and economy and it will remain so in the future (Bhattachan and

Pyakurel, 1996: 31).

The geographical and ecological diversity is considered one of the

important causes for other forms of diversity. Mountains, hills and terai

are its major geographical division. There is diversity in caste, ethnic

groups as well as their culture according to the ecological zones. If we

look at the statistics of national census 2011, we can see one hundred and

51

twenty five different caste and ethnic groups have been living with their

cultural identity in Nepal. Among them, some are quite more in numbers

whereas, some are very few (CBS, 2012: 3). The diverse forms strong help

to creat the diversifications into the customs as well. Therefore, we con

observe different customs according to the geography, caste, creed and

ethnicity in Nepal.

Nepal has rich cultural history because of Nepal’s vast diversity in altitude that has reflected to our unique culture. Also being sandwiched between both India and China people exist at different altitudes which also affects the way in which they live their lives and hence their culture. Many of ethnic groups have their own dramatic culture, language and dialects. Although some customs have merely been converted to habits without thought, ancient texts justify them with far-fetched reasons, sometimes making sense and sometimes not. Most of these customs go back to the Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Among them, the rules of marriage are particularly interesting. In traditional families marriage deals are arranged by parents after the boy or girl come of age. Child marriage and polygamy that were once upheld and accepted with glee are not allowed by the law anymore.

(Some do and don'ts) Affection between men and women, even married, is selfdom expressed.

Public kissing, hugging, and hand- holding are offensive to most Nepalese and a sign moral. But it is acceptable for two men to walk hand in hand.

Baksheesh is an extra payment for a service performed and is usually given to porters or laborers at the end of the job. It can be money or clothes or anything else and there is no set rate.

Bargaining is to be expected. Don't bargain if you're not really interested. If your price is accepted, don't try to back out, and don't try to get an even lower price.

Bathing in the hills is very conservative. Men should wear shorts; women should wear a lungi pulled up under the arms.

Children are spoiled crazies. Don't be surprised if you are the center of attraction everywhere.

Clothing is conservative. Men should not go bare- chest and shorts should be conservative. Women should avoid bare shoulders halter tops, and shorts. Ties and suits are not necessary except for special occasions.

Conversations may have 'dead' patches. Nepalese are not uncomfortable with silence.

52

Cows are sacred. They go and sleep where they want. Watch out for them if you must stretch them out while sitting on the floor. Never step over anyone, and always move your feet let people avoid stepping over you.

Gifts are rarely given and seldom opened in front of the person who has given it.

Heads are sacred and should be treated with respect. Never should be treated without respect. Never take who has given it and never take a topi (hat) off a man's head, even in fun.

Invitations often arrive at the last moment. Don't be surprised or offended, it happens to everyone. If you're busy, even a short appearance is enough.

Jutho (impurity) refers to food that is ritually polluted and therefore inedible; any food which has come into contact, either directly or indirectly with the month becomes jutho.

Left hands are used for cleaning oneself after going to the toilet. It is never used to pass or accept things, whether food at the table or money with a shopkeeper.

Relationship between Culture and Tourism (See the class notes)

Cuisine of Nepal

Nepal is a multiethnic, multilingual, multi-religious country having

diverse caste, religion and races from ancient period to the beginning of

this twenty first century. It deserves its importance as an independent

kingdom with full of antiquities and the relics of the past. It has been a

country of extreme diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, religion,

ecology and economy and it will remain so in the future (Bhattachan and

Pyakurel, 1996: 31).

The geographical and ecological diversity is considered one of the

important causes for other forms of diversity. Mountains, hills and terai

are its major geographical division. There is diversity in caste, ethnic

groups as well as their culture according to the ecological zones. If we

look at the statistics of national census 2011, we can see one hundred and

twenty five different caste and ethnic groups have been living with their

cultural identity in Nepal. Among them, some are quite more in numbers

whereas, some are very few (CBS, 2012: 3). According to national

53

population census 2011, there are 123 languages and ten religious sects

i.e Hindus, Budhist, Islam, Kirat, Christianity, Prakriti, Bon, Jainism, Bahai

and Shikha are in practicing in Nepal.

Nepal is a land of paradise in terms of fairs, festivals and jatras from

the very early of the history. The people of Nepal are said to observe

many fairs, festivals, jatras and traditional family ceremonies than there

are days in a year. Nepal follows the lunar calendar. Different festivals are

celebrated all the year round. The celebration of these festivals may be

nation-wide, regional or just confined to the village or city (Satyal,

2001:22-23).

No doubt, the traditional foods and cuisine of Nepal is guided by the

geography, caste, creeds and ethnic groups as well as their culture,

customs, norms and values, fair and festivals, and availability of goods

and materials. Thus, we can see the different forms and tests of foods and

cuisine according to the features of our geography, caste, creeds and

ethnic groups, their culture, fair and festivals, and availability of goods

and materials.

The food of Nepal is as diverse as the country itself. The Nepalese

recipes are quick to cook and good to eat. Nepalese food is famous for its

nutrition level and tempting taste. Whilst Nepalese cuisine is somewhat basic,

it certainly does not lack in flavor, making extensive use of spices and

flavorings such as ginger, garlic, coriander, pepper, cumin, chilies, cilantro,

mustard oil, ghee and occasionally yak butter. Come let us savour some of the

famous dishes of Nepal. The food in Nepal differs from the one culture to the

another. However, here’s a typical sample of food from different cultures in

Nepal. Dal, Bhat and Tarkari - translated as Lentils, Rice and Curried

vegetable. It is the main staple diet of most Nepali people.

Nepalese cuisine refers to the food eaten in Nepal. The

54

country's cultural and geographicdiversity provides ample space for a variety

of cuisines based on ethnicity and on soil andclimate. Nevertheless dal-bhat-

tarkari (Nepali: दा�ल भा�त तरका�र�) is eaten throughout the country. Dal is a soup

made of lentils and spices. This is served over boiled grain, bhat—

usually rice but sometimes another grain—with vegetable curry, tarkari.

Condiments are usually small amounts of extremely spicy chutney (चटनी�)

or pickle ( achaar , अच�र )  which can be fresh or fermented. The variety of these

is staggering, said to number in the thousands.[1] Other accompaniments may

be sliced lemon (nibuwa) or lime (kagati) with fresh green chili (hariyo

khursani). Dhindo is a traditional food of Nepal. Much of the cuisine is

variation on Asian themes. Other foods have hybrid Tibetan, Indian and Thai

origins. Momo—Tibetan style dumplings with Nepali spices—are one of the

most popular foods in Nepal. They were originally filled with buffalo meat but

now also with goat or chicken, as well as vegetarian preparations. Special

foods such as sel roti and patre are eaten during festivals such as Tihar. New

food varieties have been introduced such as taas,[2] similar to shish kebab.

Eating Habits Main MealIn most part of country, especially rice-growing areas, Dal Bhat (pulses and rice) is the staple food of Nepalese that is eaten twice a day. 

Snacking Snacks such as bread, chura (beaten rice), roti (flat bread), curried vegetables, milked tea and other snacks are also generally eaten in between the two big meals.

Famous Nepalese Cuisine

Gundrook- Dheedo - Dried and fermented green vegetables leaves. When made to soup gives a slightly sour, slightly tangy. Equally popular among Nepali people and foreign tourists, Gundrook-Dheedo is a sugar-free dish

55

made of wheat, maize and dried green vegetable. The food is high on nutrition level and satisfies the taste buds as well. 

Alu TamaAloo Tama (Alu Tama) simply means 'Potato Bamboo Shoots'. It is a unique and classic Nepali curry flavor dish. It is unique in the sense that it is unlike any other Indian or South Asian curry since they rarely use bamboo shoots. Similarly, unlike other East Asian cuisine such as Chinese that uses Bamboo shoots but does not use curry spices.

Vegetable Pulao (Fried Nepali Rice) Vegetable Pulao is one of the popular ways rice is served during the parties and events in the Nepalese household. It has flavor of turmeric and cumin to it. The rice is particularly famous among tourists who prefer eating it with curd and Manchurian.

Masu - meat with spices (curry) and gravy. Usually served with rice. Most Nepalese eat chicken, mutton. Some eat buffalo and pork. Almost no one eats cow. Killing cow is prohibited in Nepal

Vegetable Thukpa (Egg Noodles)This is a seasonal dish. Tibetan Vegetable Thukpa is one of the main food. During Tibetan new year celebration 'Losar'the dish is a part of celebration and tradition for the Nepalese. 

Chatamari Regarded as Newari pizza, Chatamari is a flat bread made from rice flour with or without toppings (meat, vegetables, eggs, sugar). It is highly savoured by the tourists who consider it as a good and healthy substitute to pizza. 

Choyla -(Newari) grilled /roasted spicy meat. usually eaten as appetizer with liquor

Kwati - (Newari) soup with many beans. a festival specialty

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Momo(cha) - (Newari) a dumplings filled with minced meat (usually buffalo in Nepal, Turkey elsewhere), served steamed or fried. very popular appetizer, afternoon snack or evening meal.

Samay Baji - (Newari) beaten rice with roasted meat, smoked fish, boiled-then-fried egg, black soybeans and diced ginger.usually a ritual food co

Sekuwa - grilled meat usually made from mutton, duck, chicken, buff, wild boar.

Sel - donoght-like shaped dessert/snack made from rice flour

Sukuti - spicy dried meat roasted over a charcoal fire.

Tawkhaa - (Newari) Jello of meat soup served cold. 

Wo - (Newari) flour patty made of lentils with or without meat/egg topping. used in ritual or festival or used as snack.

Dal - lentil soup usually eaten with rice. most popular lentils usued as dal in Nepal are black, red and yellow.

Sag -  Green Vegetables - Spinach, mustard greens or broad-leaved mustard. A standard accompaniment to plain rice for lunch or dinner.

Bhat - steamed rice

Tarkari - any vegetable or group of vegetables in curry, usually broth. can be made in thousand s ways.

RELISHES

Achar - a sour, spice or seet pickle. can be made in thousand ways. the most poplar are made of ground tomatoes, sliced radish, ground coriander, boiled or diced potatoes.

Sanya Khuna - (Newari) hot, spicy, salty jellotype food made from fish soup.

NEPALI DESSERTS

Dahi - Yogurt/Curd

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Juju Dhau - popular creamy curd from Bhaktapur. Juju literally means ‘‘king".

Sikarni - curd mixed with dried fruits. 

NEPALI DRINKS

Thon (Newari) or Chhyang (Tibetan) - the milky white beer/liquor made from fermented rice.

Tongba - popular liquor in the hills. made by pouring hot water into a pot of fermented millet and drunk with a bamboo straw. A special Limbu culture drink, Tongba is homemade wine. Fermented millet seeds are put in a wooden or plastic mug which is filled with hot water. One sips through a bamboo straw as more hot water is added which makes Tongba go down easily with greater impact and taste. Many consume this drink during winter season, and is also a favorite drink among the tourists.

RakshiRakshi is a millet-based distilled alcoholic drink It is traditionally an important requirement at a lot of religious rituals and social events, perhaps because it is not only an alcoholic drink but also because of its antiseptic qualities. It is a strong drink, and is often brewed at home.

Apart from its traditional food the country offers a wide range of Chinese and Japanese fast foods like momos and macaroni. There are many food outlets in the city which provide the traveler with excellent cooking. The food in Nepal is delicious and is available at a very reasonable price to the tourist so that they could fully enjoy the mouth watering traditional recipes of the region.

Cultural policy of government (See the class notes and Rastriya Sanskriti Niti 2067)

Heritage: A Brief Introduction

Meaning and Definition

58

Heritage means the collective cultural and built inheritance and history

of a group of people (or of a place) that can be used to build an identity

through the telling of stories. Heritage is often seen as the selective

presentation and interpretation of elements of history (Hannam & Knox,

2010:192). The word “heritage” is North American term, incorporated into

British and antipodean use covered a wide range to attractions as set out in the

1994 paper. The term fitted well with the observed behavior of North

Americans trying to find their roots in Europe, and more recently in Africa and

growing towards Asia. In Britain the term “heritage” had fitted well with

Thatcheriate “Victorian” values (Cooper, 2006:156-166). Thus the evolution

of the idea of “heritage” came from the preservation of aspects of a past.

Heritage is a tradition that inherits from one generation to another.

Heritage is abroad concept and includes the nature as well as the cultural

environment. It encompasses landscapes, historic places, sites and built

environment, as well as biodiversity, collections past and continuing cultural

practices, knowledge and living experiences (Kunwar, 2006: 125). Heritage

could be the object and infrastructure made for the livelihoods or entertaining

transferred for next generation. This may be some entertainment or culture or

events etc which followed generation to generation. This would made for

enjoyment, successful functions or sorrow ceremony indicate the people’s

desire and requirement for event and the culture in the past, represent the

creativity, skills, knowledge and education of those days. The custom may

president for individual, family, community and society to follow in future as

tradition or entertainment. This is a custom for educating present and future

prediction and driving society and community (Ulak, 2012: 65).

Mainly the available heritage could be classified into natural as well as

cultural or human creations. In these two categories it includes any items and

evidences preserved and transmitted from the past to current communities,

especially; original culture and natural beauties/ materials/ evidences, the built

59

environment, the archaeological resources, the intangible practices and the

natural preservations.

World Heritage sites

Heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what

we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritages are both

irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration. World heritage is the designation

for places on earth that are of outstanding universal value to humanity and as

such, have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to be protected for future

generations to appreciate and enjoy. Places of diverse and unique as the

Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, Galapagos Islands in

Ecuador, Taj Mahal in India, the Grand Canyon in the USA, or the Acropolis

in Greece are examples of the 788 natural and cultural places inscribed on the

World Heritage List to date. Along with cultural sites and natural sites a new

category called “cultural landscape” was added in 1993 (Kunwar, 2006: 125).

The idea of combining conservation of cultural sites with those of

nature comes from the United States of America. A White House Conference

in Washington, D.C., in 1965 called for a “World Heritage Trust” that would

stimulate international cooperation to protect ‘the world’s superb natural and

scenic areas and historic sites for the present and the future of the entire world

citizenry”. In 1968, the International Union for Conservation of Nature

(IUCN) developed similar proposals for its members. These proposals were

presented to the 1972 United Nations conference on Human Environment in

Stockholm. Eventually, a single text was agreed upon by all parties concerned.

The Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural Natural Heritage

was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO ON 16 November 1972.

By regarding heritage as both cultural and natural, the Convention reminds us

60

of the ways in which people interact with nature and of the fundamental need

to preserve the balance between the two (Kunwar, 2006: 125-126).

There are several heritage sites in Nepal. IUCN Nepal and Nepal

Heritage society have documented 1254 heritage sites in 72 districts outside

the Kathmandu Valley. According to the survey of 1975 the Kathmandu

Valley holds 888 heritage of global significance. Apart from these,

Pasupatinath, Swoyambhunath, Boudhanath, Changu Narayan, Patan Durbar

Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square and Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square,

Lumbini, Chitwan National Park and Sagarmatha National Park these are the

ten UNESCO world heritage sites found in Nepal. Out of these, eight falls on

cultural and remaining two are under the natural categories. Similarly, among

the eight cultural heritage sites, seven monuments are located within twenty

kilometers of radius, which can be found only few countries in the world

(Satyal, 2000: 14-15).

Reference

Cheryl, M.H. (2001). Heritage Tourism, Island: Simons, Vol-1.……. (2006). Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Research Informing Policy and Planning, Australia: Gold Cost Campus Griffith University.Cooper, C. (2006). Classic Reviews in Tourism, New Delhi: Viva Book Pvt. Ltd. (edited).Kunwar, R.R. (2006). Tourists & Tourism: Science and Industry Interface, Kathmandu: International School of Tourism and Hotel Management.Ulak, B.N. (2012). “Heritage Tourism in Panauti, THE GAZE, Journal of Tourism and Hotel Hospitality, Vol. 4, No.1, Kathmandu: International School of Tourism and Hotel Management

Changu Narayan: World Heritage site of Nepal.

1. Background

Nepal is a small and landlocked country surrounded by two giant neighbours India and China. It is a multiethnic, multilingual country having diverse caste, religion and races from ancient period to the beginning of this twenty first

61

country. It deserves its importance as an independent kingdom with full of antiquities and the relics of the past. It has been a country of extreme diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, religion, ecology and economy and it will remain so in the future (Bhattchan and Pyakurel,1996:31). In the context of its biodiversity it is only five time smaller than India and as well as three time than China. So due to its unique diversity the land is known as the tourism paradise in the world.

Unfortunately the history of tourism is not long. Simply, the history of tourism in Nepal dates back to 1950 when it was first opened to foreigner after the abolishment of Rana regime. After the formulation of tourist development board in 1957, the tourism history of Nepal has taken rapid momentum in this country. In the true sense, the promotion of tourism in Nepal started more or less only from the beginning of the 1960s (Satyal,1988:39). In this short period of time, what the jobs we have done in the field of travel and tourism, that is little considerable but not full of satisfaction. So, in this field there are numerous jobs still remained to carryout by the country and as well as the people too.

There are ample heritage sites in our country. IUCN Nepal and Nepal Heritage society have documented 1254 heritage sites in 72 districts outside the Kathmandu Valley. According to the survey of 1975 the Kathmandu Valley holds 888 heritage of global significance. Apart from these, there are four civilization centers in Nepal i.e. Synja of Jumla, Lumbini, Kapilvastu, Janakpur (Maithili) and Kathmandu Valley (Kunwar,2006:324). Likewise there are ten UNESCO world heritage sites in Nepal, these are Pasupatinath, Swoyambhunath, Boudhanath, Changu Narayan, Patan Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square and Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square, Lumbini, Chitwan, National Park and Sagarmatha National Park. Out of these, eight falls on cultural and remaining two are under the natural categories. Among the eight cultural heritage sites, seven monuments are located within twenty kilometers of radius, which can be found only few countries in the world (Satyal, 2000: 14-15).

Out of UNESCO World Heritage site of Nepal, Changu Narayan is the most important one. Thus alike other this particular site is also considered significant as the tourists and tourism perspectives. So keeping it in mind, through this article the researcher is trying to analyze the role which has been playing by the site for the promotion of tourism in Nepal.

2. Historicity of Changu Narayan

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Changu Narayan is one of the seven world heritage sites of Kathmandu Valley listed on the UNESCO's world heritage list in October 1979 A.D. (Satyal, 2000: 15). It is a most popular site which possesses the cultural, religious, archaeological, historical and antique importance. According to archaeological evident the history of this site goes back to third century A.D. The Ichangu inscription of Vijaya Kamadev dated of N.S. 320 informs that the temple of Changu Narayan was built by the king Hari Dutta Varma (Khanal, 2040:2). In this respects, Satyal, a tourism scholars of Nepal views that the temple was built by Vishnu Gupta and later improved by the king Hari Datta Varma ( Satyal,20026-7). But the mythical description helps to trace out the origin and history of Changu Narayan as old as the above mentioned archaeological records.

According to legend Lord Vishnu, while fighting with the demon king named Chanda, killed a Brahman named Sumati. Guru Sukracharya the teacher of the dead Brahman was angry with Vishnu and cursed him that he would be beheaded by a Brahaman in future. After this incident, Vishnu lived in a tree of Champak forest and had paid for the curse. There he lived on milk stolen from a cow which belonged to a hermit called Sudharsan. When Sudharsan found out out the mystery of stolen milk, he attacked and beheaded Lord Vishnu that made Lord Vishnu free from his sin. Ever since from that day the site has been held sacred and the temple has been revered (Khanal, 2040:101,103).

The site was popular from the name of Champakarandya, prior to the beginning of Christian era. In Lichchhavi period Champakarandya was transformed to the Dolashikhara, which meant for mount or hill like a shape of Doli (Khanal, 2040:5-6). This term became popular in the name 'Chngu' or 'Changu' during the medieval period. Likewise the Sanskrit terms Champakapur, Charuparvat, Champakavana were used in state of the term 'Changu' from the Malla period (Khanal, 2040:5). Historian believed that during the same period Changu was developed as a metropolis city with seven hundred houses (Khanal, 2040:8). At that time the site was named 'Champapur Mahanagar'. The priest of Changu Narayan temple is still using the term 'Champapur Mahanagar' while performing the puja (worship) to the lord Vishnu.

Now days the site has become increasingly popular by the name 'Changu Narayan'. About the origin of the term Changu Narayan there are two different versions are equally coming into practice. Some scholars advocate that the term changu is derived from the Newari and Tamang Vocabulary. In Newari and Tamang Language 'Chha' means champa a kind of tree and 'gu' means hill. These two terms are combined together they stain for a single word Changu

63

literary meaning the hill with champa forest (Khanal, 2040:5). In this respect a journalist writes that the name Changu Narayan has been adopted from the Newari Word Chagu and Narayan meaning the chopped Narayan (Dangol, 2006:18).

3. Geographical Setting

Bhaktapur, a smallest district of Nepal, is elevated from 1372 to 2166 metres high above the sea level. It lies between 27°37' to 27°44' north latitude and 85°21' to 85°32'east longitude of an area of 169 square kilometers (Nepal District Profile, 2006:630). Changu Narayan VDC lies to the north 4.5 kilometres far from the headquarter city Bhaktapur and standing 1539 metres high above the sea level (H.M.G. Nepal, 2031:656). The VDC is located 18 kilometres east from Kathmandu the capital city with 6.10 square kilometers of total territores (Dhakal, 2007:34). The VDC area stretches from north Danchi and Indrayani VDC to Jhaukhel and Duwakot VDCs to the south as well as Chhaling and Mulpani VDCs lie in the east and west respectively. It has possessed subtropical climate and the temperature falls 20-25° Celsius with annual rainfall rate 3162.2 mm in an average in this VDC (Changu VDC, 2063:3).

4. Major Assets of Tourist Attractions

Attractions or amenities are the most important component of tourism. Attractions may be classified on the inventory as a core attractions or a supporting attraction. Core attractions represent the basis assets or attributes of the community. They form main theme of the destination. They may be natural or men made, historical or cultural, recreational or spectator events. Supporting attractions represent the facilities and services that serve the needs of visitors, lodging, food service, local transportation, shopping foreign currency exchange and so on. Resources of hydrosphere's which is concerned to water activities, resources of lithosphere constitute the surface activities and resources of anthrop sphere which is related to culture and civilization of human beings are the major types of attraction(Kunwar,2006:29).

In Nepal, especially Kathmandu Valley can only well offer these kinds of attraction or amenities to the visitors. Kathmandu the capital city where one find a unique culture having the blend of Hinduism and Buddhism, majority of the people are spiritual minded are found both in Kathmandu Valley and else where in Nepal (Kunwar, 1997:196). Kirkpetric, a great historian, remarked that the valley consists of as many temples as there are houses and so as many idols as there are men (Regmi, 1966:871). Regmi, a great Nepalese historian said that Kathmandu is a city of temples and so are Patan and Bhaktapur.

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Every inch of the sacred soil supported a shrine or an image (Regmi,1966:871). We have so many memorable temples abbies, palaces, monasteries, gumpas, stupas, sculptures and other ancient and medieval uncountable monuments in and around the Kathmamdu Valley as well as other parts of the country (Dulal, 2060:205).The tourist coming to Kathmandu on finding beautiful natural landscape (Nagarkot, Dhulikhel), historical monuments, ancient an medieval art, traditional artifacts, traditional lifestyle, different cultural events, feasts and festivals, animal sacrifice, ancestral worship and cremation of dead body by the riverside get fascinated (Kunwar,2006:321). Changu Narayan, a world heritage site and living museum of art architecture and culture is an important part of the valley. Therefore, the attractions or amenities available in the Kathmandu Valley can also be found in Changu Narayan site. The major attractions that could be found in Changu Narayan are following.

a) Changu Narayan Temple:

This is an important historical and religious monument of the site. This is believed to be the oldest pagoda temple of valley rare artistic heritage of Lichchhavi era. It is an ancient historic place situated at an altitude of 153 metres and located on the hill name kileswora and there is a composite image representing kileswora and Vishnu Garauda and Lion (Satyal, 2000:55). Hindus worship the residing on the hill as Garuda Narayan, while Buddhists identify Changu Narayan with Avalokiteswora the Bodhisatwa of Campassion.

The history of the site date back to the 3rd an 4th century A.D. and the first temple is thought to have been built in the time of king Hari Dutta Varma in 325 A.D. (Bernier, 1978:149). One of the oldest inscription found in the valley which dates to 464 A.D. of Lichchhavi Manadev-I, shows that the temple at Changu was already on important spiritual centre at that time (Vajracharya, 2030:9-30), The temple was restored during the lifetime of Ganga Rani spouse of Siva Simha Malla who reigned from 1585 to 1614 A.D. There are records of the temple gutted in the year of 822 N.S. (1702A.D.) (Regmi, 1966:877). After the incident of this temple reconstruction was carried out. This two stored temple of basic Nepalese design with possible emphasis given to masterful ornamentation. The decorations of stone, wood and bronze are profuse and perhaps older than those of almost any other temples in the valley (Bernier, 1978:149-150). In the word of Percy Brown the temple of Garuda Narayan at Changu is the richest of the Nepalese Pagoda in carving, color and embossed metals (Brown, 1952:198).b) Other Temples:

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The temple of Lord Krishna: This temple was built by Raghuveer, a marechants of Thimi in 1963 A.D. (Khanal, 2040:88), which is the Shikhara Style temple found in the courtyard of Changu Narayan Nateswora temple: This temple is known as the temple of Nasal Devata, which represents the dancing form of Lord Shiva. The name of the temple was mentioned for the first time in some of the historical documents in N.S. 668 (Khanal, 2040:89). Shomaligeswora temple: This is also a Shikhara styled temple dedicated to Lord Siva, which has built in 1856 A.D. (Khanal, 2040:91). Ganesh temple: This is one of the highly decorated shrines located in the southern part of the main temple. Yataju temple: This temple is known as the temple of Asthamatrika or 'Chhinnamasta: In a document published in N.S. 618, the name of the temple was mentioned in first time (Khanal, 2040:93). The temple dedicated to Chhinnamasta of Shakti Cult is one of the oldest temples of this site. It is situated in the south-east of Changu Narayan temple. The goddess Chhinnamasta beheaded herself, offered her own blood to feed the hungry Dakini and Varmini then became famous as Chhinnamasta. This name Chhinnamasta refers to the beheaded one in English. Laxmi Narayan temple: This is a temple of Nepalese pagoda of single storey. Kanti Bhairab temple: This temple is dedicated to the terrific form of the God Bhairab. In a document of N.S. 615 the name of this temple is found for the first time (Khanal, 2040:97). Kileswora temple: This is a small two storey temple located within this site. This is famous for its exotic motifs which are depicted in the struts. Lord Siva himself appeared in the form of Siva Linga for the protection of this hill. For the first time in a document of the name of the temple was published in N.S. 615(Khanal, 2040:97).

c) Secular Architecture:Paties, Pauwas (Rest houses), Sattal, Mandepa, Dhunge dhara, Jaladroni (Water Spouts Reservoir), Traditional Newari Houses are known as the secular architecture of Nepal. There are more than six paties, Pauwas located in the courtyard of the site. Bhajan pati, Balmpu Pati, Magam Pati, Bhimsen Pati, and Bhairab pati can be seen still in better condition. Among those, Bhimsen pati is considered much more important than other one. Descending while from the stone staircase through the eastern door of the temple courtyard, single roof of the pati can be seen on the northernside of the courtyard. Inside the pati there are images of Bhimsen, Draupadi, Jaya and Vijaya. Infront of the pati there is a place belonging to the palace of Yoga Narendra Malla the king of Patan had come to stay in this palace to pass the rest of his life in 17th century A.D. and died there.

As like stone steps, water spouts (Jaladroni and Dhungedhara), Ponds are other important monuments found in the permises of the main temple. 30.88 of the people of this VDC has been using waterspouts for the source of

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drinking water till now. There are 328 water spouts and dhungedhara still remaining in good condition (Changu VDC, 2063:24), belonged to ancient and medieval period. Gahiti, Narayan hiti, ancient water spouts Shankha daha; Gaon dhoka pokhari, Sindhurkuwa pokhari etc are the main water spouts and ponds of the site.

d) Sculpture Art:

The heritage site is nicely decorated by the different sculptures too. There are over 14 individual stone images in the temple itself, they are all standing freely and easily accessible for both pilgrims and visitors. Whereas, other more than fifty individual sculptures can be found at the surrounding of the temple. Remarkable and rare sculptures found in the site that the complex is best known. Many of those work of art date back to the Lichachhavi period which was contemporary to the king Manadev and his inscription, they jointly provided the rich interpretation not only the history of art of Nepal but of the religious and cultural history of the valley. The stone sculpture of Garuda, Garuda Narayan of 6th century A.D. (Khanal,2052:),Sridhara Vishnu of 11 century A.D.(Kramrisch,1964:), Vishworupa of 7th century A.D. Vishnu Vikrant of 6th century A.D.( Raya,1975:100), Narasimha of 13th century A.D.(Pal,1974:97), Kaumari, Brahmayani, Maheswori, Vaishanavi, Varahi, Chamunda, Mahalaxmi and Bhairabi of ancient period (Khanal, 2040: 92) and statue of Bhupatendra Malla and Bhuvanlaxmi, the king and queen of the Kantipur of 17th century A.D. (Khanal, 2040: 87) are the most important sculptures of the site.

e) Historical Pillar

One of the proud collections of Changu Narayan Complex is the historical stone pillar with inscription. This inscription was engraved in Pro-Lichchhavi script and Sanskrit language. This is the oldest script of Kathmandu Valley and the pillar was established by the Lichchhavi King Manadev in 464 A.D. (Vajracharya, 2030:9-30).f) Changu Museum

Along the main path to the Changu Narayan temple, a local house has been transformed into first private museum in Nepal. It is full of precious art objects such as coins of ancient period, cooking utensils, agricultural tools, music instruments and portraits. The museum is housed in an old Newari village at the right side of the road, which provides good opportunities to see the interior of a traditional house. The entire legend of Changu Narayan has been depicted and hangs on the wall of the museum with little explanation. The museum was

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established few years ago with the permission of VDC and little amount as an entrance fee is levied.

g) Fairs and Festivals

Altogether there are 125 caste and ethanic groups in Nepal (CBS, 2012:4). As in all countries, in Nepal festivals are celebrated in a slightly different ways and with varying degrees of intensity depending upon locality, economic and social status, education, religious and family background and personal inclination (Anderson, 1971:). In this country, everyday there seems people observing some kind of festivals and ritual activities. It is assumed that people of Kathmandu Valley observe more than 366 annual festivals in one year (Kunwar, 2006:320). Some festivals such as Dashain and Tihar are celebrated throughout the country. Besides this Narayan, Mahadev, Chhinnamasta Jatra (April-May), Kalas Jatra (July-August), Kusmanda Nawami (October-November), Mahasnanna (November-December), Bansha Gopal Jatra (February-March), Krishna Janmasthami (August-September) (Khanal,2040:100-129) these are the major festivals and jatra which have been celebrating from the ancient period to date in this historical site.

h) Natural Attractions:

Community forestry is one of the important natural attractions of this VDC. There are four community forestries in the site, which are extended in 132.51 hectors of land (Changu VDC, 2063: 30). The forest of this VDC includes sallo, Chilaune, Uttish, Mauwa etc. Likewise the Mirga, Fox, Wolf, Dumshi etc are the major animals that are found in this VDC. Being situated toward the eastern side of the valley, Changu is surrounded by Green Mountain, fresh mountain air clean and natural environment, green field and beautiful view of the Himalayan mountain range. Life Style of the villages, innumerable wilderness of Himalayan flora and founa are the major touristic attractions of the destination. The Panoramic views of Langtang, Dorjay Lakpa and other snow topped mountains, the romantic sunrise and sunset, existing village and jungle walk and beautiful and fresh environment has established itself as one of the most popular all seasons destinations among eco-tourists and village tourists.

5. Conclusion

Changu Narayan, UNESCO world heritage site, is the all season’s destination of tourism. In this historic site tourists have been paying visit from the very beginning up to date for the purpose of sight seeing, explore the heritage,

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observation of art/architecture, performed religious rituals enjoying in a peaceful environment, study and research etc. Due to the lack of proper tourism planning, the site could not achieve desired results to tourism promotion as per its potentiality. Therefore, the government, concerned authorities and stakeholders should pay first priority to promotion of tourism to this site. If all the concerned authorities should keep equal participation in various conservation and preservation program as well as tourism inhencement activities with single motive, the sustainable and longterm tourism development in this particular heritage site seems possible. Otherwise, the nation should bear dire consequences for losing an important tourism destination in the days to come.

Reference:

Bhattchan, K.B. and Pyakurel, K.N. (1996). ‘Emerging Ethencity and Aspects of Community adoption The issue of National Integrated in Nepal, An Ethno regional approach’, Occasional paper in sociology and Anthropology Vol.-5,Kritipur: Central Dept. TU.Satyal, Y.R. (1988). Tourism in Nepal, A profile, Varanasi: Nath Publishing house.Kunwar, R.R. (2006). Tourists and Tourism Science and Industry Interface, Kathmandu: International School of Tourism and Hotel Management.Satyal, Y.R. (2000). Nepal an Exotic Tourist Destination, Delhi: Adroit Publisher.Khanal, M.P. (2040). Changu Narayan Ko Itihasika Samagri, Kirtipur: CNAS, TU.Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publisher.Dangol, Rajeev (2006). ‘Oldest Sculpture of Changu Narayan’, Nepal Traveller.Nepal District Profile (2006) H.M.G. Nepal (2031). Mechi Dekhi Mahakali, Kathmandu: H.M.G. Nepal.Dhakal, Riju (2007). Changu Narayan All Seasons Destination for Rural Tourism, A case of study, Kathmandu: A project unpublish report, P.K. Campus Dept. of R.D.Changu VDC (2063). Changu Narayan VDC Ko Vastugata Vibaran, Kathmandu: Changu Narayan VDC.Kunwar, R.R. (1997). Tourism and Development Science and Industry Interface, Kathmandu: Laxmi Kunwar.Regmi, D.R. (1966). Medieval Nepal Vol-II, Calcutta: Firma, K.L. Mukhopadya.

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Dulal, L.N. (2060). ‘The land of Pagoda, A brief study of Multi roofed temples of Nepal’, Kasturi Mukhapatra, Varsa-40, Purnanka-15, Kathmandu: Padmakanya Multiple Campus.Satyal, Y.R. (2000). Tourism Scene in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publisher.Bernier, R.M. (1978). The temples of Nepal, New Delhi : S.Chand & Company.Vajracharya, D.N. (2030). Lichchavi Kalaka Avilekha, Kirtipur: INAS, TU.Brown, Percy (1952). Picturesque Nepal, London:Khanal, M.P. (2052). Nepalikala, Lalitpur: Sajha PrakashanKramrisch, Stella (1964). The Art of Nepal, The Asian SocietyRaya, Amita (1975). The Art of Nepal, Delhi: Pal, P. (1974). The Art of Nepal, Vol-I, Netherland: Anderson, Mery.M. (1971). The festivals of Nepal, Calcutta: Rupa Co

Pashupatinath: One of the Holiest Pilgrimages of HindusPashupatinath is being a one of the holiest pilgrimages site of the

Hindus in the world. It is holiest sites of all the pilgrimages to Lord Shiva, the guardian diety of Nepal, or the preserver of the universe. The pilgrimage site is situated on the western bank of the holy river Bagmati five k.m. north-east of the Kathmandu core and contains the sacred lingam of Loed Pashupati. Every year, from the very early, thousands of devitees have been paying their holy visit to this pious site not only from the parts of the country but from the aboard especially from India. Shiva Ratri is one of the greatest festivals of Hindus, pilgrims in their numbers visit to this temple from far and wide.

Nepal Mahatmya of the Skanda Purana is a famous religious text which helps to provide the legend about the origin of this guardian deity. According to this legend Lord Shiva was very attracted by the charm of Sheleshmantaka forest situated in the estern part of Pashupati temple which is now popular as Mrigasthali. It is believed that Lord Shiva visited the Shelesmantaka forest with his wife Parvati in the guise of a deer i.e. mirga. Meanwhile, Lord Shiva was missed for a long course time and caused anxiety to Brahma, Vishnu and Indra the three deities of the heaven. Then God Brahma, Vishnu and Indra came to Shelesmantaka forest and caught with all mights to the deer in disguise of God Shiva by one of his horns which got broken into three pieces. It is believed that these three pieces of horns were establidhed in three places of Nepal and India as directed by Lord Shiva himself (Satyal, 2002:48-49).

In this regard, another text mentions that one piece of broken horn of deer buried under the earth. On this buried place a heavenly cow Kamadhenu used to visit daily and give her milk. One day the herdsman noticed this act

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and amazed by seeing this act. He got this spot dug out found the cosmic Linga of Pashupati. The cowherd began to worship the Linga as a guairdian deity. Then, smoothly the site of Pashupatinath became a famous place of pilgrimage.

The core ane peryphrey of the Pashupatinath temple is being known as the Pasupat Chhetra i.e. Pashupati area from the very beginning. There are near about more than two hundreds shrines of different sizes and architectural styles. Apart from these religious temples and other edifices, there are several rest houses, mathas, Jogi kuti i.e. hermitage of the saints and other types of sheltering places as well. From the religious, cultural, art and architectural perspectives, among the various religious and seculars monuments and shrines Pashupatinath temple is highly regarded as the most important one.

It is mentioned that the three-tired multiroofed of gold-gilt Pashupatinath temple was constructed on the archictural design of shikhara style in the very beginning. Due to the collapsed of its old structure, the then king Raghav Deo was renovated it on this multiroofed style near about 879 A.D. and brought new era i.e. Nepal Samvat in practice on this occasion (Benerjee,1980: 84). The absolute date of its construction is still uncertainty. There are several views about the date of construction of it. In this regard, Bernier a great art historian views that the present form of this temple was constructed in1692A.D (Bernier, 1968:160). Likewise, D.R. Regmi a prominent Nepalese historian forwards his similar views as the views of Bernier and said that the present form of this temple has contructed in 1692A.D. (Regmi, 1966: 877). Whereas, W.G. Korn mentions that the modern structure of this temple has built in 1702 A.D., when the old one was damaged due to the fire during the period (Korn, 1993:66). The Gopalraj Vamsabali the oldest avaiable chronicles of Nepal mentions that the temple of Pashupatinath was firstly built by the king Supuspa Deo, the early ruler of Nepal (Satyal, 2002:48-49). Whereas, according to the legendry this shrine was structured in 325 Christian eras, during the regime of King Haridatta Barma.

The historical evidences show that the present form of this temple came into existence after the various renovation works of rulers and art lovers as well. Whatsoever the holy temple of Lord Pashupatinath was beautified and decorated by the different kings of Nepal. The existing architectural design of Pashupati Temple said to have been came into structure by the benevolent wishes of the Queen Ganga Devi wife of Shivasimha Malla, the king of 1578

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to 1620 A.D. Along with many architectural temples and building, there are several stone inscriptions and images from the second and third centuries. Presently, the temple and its surroundings are included in the world heritage list of UNESCO. By signing the World Heritage Convention in 1978, Nepal became a party to it. In 1979 Nepal enlisted seven historical and cultural sitesof universal importances in the World Heritage List. Among them Pashupatinath is important one. Pashupatinath is the most venerated shrine of the Hindus. It is the principal deity of the country. Apart from the proctection given by the Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 1953 Pashupatinath temple complex is also procted by a separate legislation known as Pashupati Area Development Trust Act, 1987(Amatya, 1999:155-157).

ReferenceAmatya, Saphalya (1999). Art and Culture of Nepal, Delhi: Nirala Publications.Banerjee, R.N. (1980). Nepalese Architecture, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.Bernier, R.M. (1968). The Temples of Nepal, Delhi: Sultan Chand &Co. Korn, W.G. (1993). The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar. (Regmi, 1966: 877). Medieval Nepal, vol. 2, Culcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.

Swayambhunath: One of the Famous Pilgrimages Nepal

Swayambhunath is one of the popular pilgrimages sites of the Nepal. This place of pilgrimage is famous not only for Buddhists but also for Hindus of either religious faith. The pilgrimage site is situated on a hillock nearly 4 kms west of the Kathmandu core. It is one of the oldest monuments, and considered as a typical example of the Stupa architecture of Nepal. The courtyard of Stupa contains many chaitya, shrines, and sacked pillors and so on. There is also a pagoda temple of Harati, the guardian deity of epidemics. The Stupa represents the essential unity of the Buddha and the universe (Satyal, 2002:38).

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Swayambhunath is a sacred Buddhist pilgrimage site on a top of a hill overlooking a good view of the Kathmandu city and snowy mountains in the horizon. It is located on a hillock about 77 meters above the level of the valley. According to Mr. Duncan Forbes (The Heart of Nepal) “Swayambhunath which is contracted to Swayambhunath in colloquial language, means ‘The self-born Lord’ and the Stupa’s great sanctity for Buddhists of the Mahayana or great vehicle, is due to the fact that, when the whole valley was a lake, it was on the spot that the lotus bloomed which contained Swayambhu, the self-born in its petals. The Stupa itself, more correctly called a chaitya since it contains no specific Buddhist relic, is a large hemisphere of Masonry about fifty feet high. This is the garbh or ‘womb’ representing the creation of the world of nature” (Satyal, 2002:58).

The absolute date of its construction is still uncertainty. There are several views about the date of construction of it. In this regard, Percy Brown a great historian views that the the Stupa of Swayambhunath is to be two thousands years old (Brown, 1965:16). Likewise, J.R. Regmi traces back to the history of this Stupa into the Kirata period, whereas, the style of the canopy of this Stupa was developed in 14th century Christian era (Regmi, 2026: 458). Some chronicles of Nepal mentions that the Stupa of Swayambhunath was firstly built in Tretayuga i.e. the age of truth. Whereas, the broken inscription of Gorkarna of King Amshuvarma is the first historical document, which provides the descripton of this Stupa as the named Bhuchaitya (Bajracharya, 2030:370). It suggests that this Stupa was well existed during the Lichchhavi period. The historical evidences show that the present form of this Stupa came into existence after the various renovation works of the rulers and art lovers as well. Whatsoever the holy Stupa of Swayambhunath was beautified and decorated during the different period of Nepal. It obvious that the existing architectural design of Swayambhunath Stupa said to have been come into structure during the 14th to 15th century Christian era.

The main way of the pilgrimage site from the east leads by near about 365, watched towaeds the summit by pair of animals like peacocks, horses, elephents and lions. These animals are regarded as the mount of pancha dhyani Buddhas. Gilt Taras guarded, the Stupa and a beamy peacock watched

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over all from the dominance of a huge pillar of stone. At the top of the steps is an enormousVajra i.e. thunderbolt known as Dorje in Tibetan rested on pedestal which bears on its base, the animals of the Tibetan calendar. The Stupa is composed of a solid hemisphere of brick and earth on the platform. The Stupa does have large hemisphere representing the Garbha which signifies the womb, the seat of Creation. It is surrounded by a gold gilt sqoares projection which in turn topped by the Chudamani, a conical canopy of gilt rings (Satyal, 2002:57-58).

There are four niches having golden images of pancha Dhyani Buddhas on a circular base. In Buddhism pancha Dhyani Buddhas i.e. Achhobhya, Ratnasambhav, Amitabha, Amokhasiddhi and Bairochan are known as the representative forms of pancha skandha i.e. bijnana (science), bedana, sanjna, samskar and rupa; pancha bhautika tatwa i.e. earth, water, fire, air and sky; pancha color i.e. blue, yellow, red, green and white; five direction i.e. east, south, weast, north and ishan; pancha buddhas i.e. Kanaka Muni, Ksyapa, Shakya Muni, Maitreya and Krakuchhanda; pancha boddhi satwa i.e. Samantabhadra, Vajrapani, Ratnapani, Padmapani and Biswapani; pancha emblems i.e. chakra (wheel), vajra (thunderbolt), ratna (jewel), padma (lotus) and biswavajra (two crossed thunderbolt); pancha mudra (five postures) i.e. bitarka, vajrashan, dhyana, barada (boon) and dhama chakra (preaching); pancha ritu (five seasons) i.e. winter, spring, summer, monsoon and autumn; pancha swad (five tests i.e tito (pungent), nunilo (saline), amilo tito (acidic), tito (bitter) and gulio (sweet); pancha klesha (five evils) i.e. kama, krodha, moha, irshya and trisna. For the representation of the above mentioned things and elements the images of five dhyani Buddhas might be depicted in the niches of the Stupa.

There is a square toran i.e. tympanum with a lofty conical spire separated into thirteen layers of golden plate denoting the thirteen blesses of the Buddhist world. Prabhudita, Bimala, Prabhakari, Archismati, Sudurjaya, Abhimukhi, Durangana, Achala, Sadhumati, Dharmamegha, Samantaprabha, Nirupama and Jnanawati are the names of thirteen different world of Buddhism which represents through the thirteen layers of golden plate in this Stupa. According to the Buddhist doctrine a person who crossed to the fifth world i.e. Sudurjaya, he or she known as srawakyani (therabad), who crossed the ninth world i.e. Sadhumati, he or she known as Arhat, who crossed

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eleventh world, he or she known as Mahayani and who crossed all thirteen worlds he or she recognized as the Vajrayani.

The courtyard of the pilgrimage is full of innumerable subsidiary chaityas, shrines and sacred pillars. The temples of Harati Ajima, Pratapapur, Anantapur are considered other significance monuments of the site. The hill itself is a mosaic of small chaityas and Nepalese style temples with intricate figures of god and goddesses which gives great dignity and beauty. Presently, the Stupa and its surroundings are included in the world heritage list of UNESCO. By signing the World Heritage Convention in 1978, Nepal became a party to it. In 1979 Nepal enlisted seven historical and cultural sites of universal importances in the World Heritage List. Among them the Stupa of Swayambhunath is important one. Swayambhunath is one of the most outstanding monuments of Asian Culture. Its inclusion in the World Heritage List offers an independent and impartial testimonial to this fact. For its conservatrion and development a Master Plan is being prepared with the help of the Government of Federal Germany Republic (Amatya, 1999:155-158).

ReferenceAmatya, Saphalya (1999). Art and Culture of Nepal, Delhi: Nirala Publications.Bajracharya, D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi Kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: INAS, TU.Banerjee, R.N. (1980). Nepalese Architecture, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.Bernier, R.M. (1968). The Temples of Nepal, Delhi: Sultan Chand &Co. Korn, W.G. (1993). The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar. Brown, Percy (1965). Indian Architecture, Regmi, D.R. (1966). Medieval Nepal, vol. 2, Culcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. Regmi, J.C. (2026). Lichchhavi Samskriti, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.

Bauddhanath Stupa: An Important Centre of Devotion

Bauddhanath Stupa is treated as an important centre of devotion for devotees of Boddhism in Nepal. The pilgrimage site is situated about 7 kms north east of the Kathmandu core. It is one of the oldest and largest Stupa in

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the world, and considered as a typical example of the Stupa architecture of Nepal. It is built on an octagonal base and has about eighty small recesses each containing an image of the Buddha. The Chudamani is composed of a steep pyramid. The Stupa is inset on four sites with the all-seeing eyes of Lord Buddha. The Stupa is also ringed with prayer wheels. The courtyard of the Stupa contains several smaller shrines and the houses of Buddhist priests (Satyal, 2002:38).

The absolute date of its construction is still uncertainty. There are several views about the date of construction of it. In this regard, Bhasha Vamsabali mentions that the Stupa of Bauddhanath was constructed by the king Manadev 1st for the salvation from mortal sin of his father. Whereas, the Gopalraj Vamsabali the oldest avaiable chronicles of Nepal mentions that the Stupa of Bauddhanath was built by the king Shiva Deo as a name with Khaso Chaitya (Bajracharya &Malla, 1985: paper no. 21). The hemisphere represents the word of wisdom which contains the relics of Kashyap Buddha (Waddelle, 1895:6). Therefore, today this Stupa might also be known as Buddha or Khasti or Khasa Chaitya. Likewise, on the basis of its huge structure and style D.R. Regmi traces back to the history of this Stupa into the early medieval period (Regmi, 1966: 572).

The Stupa is composed of a solid hemisphere of brickwork, surmounted bya brazen minaret. Its octagonal base is inset with prayer wheels. There are niches in each of which are cylinders filled into an iron frame.these cylinders contains Buddhist prayer scripts and the pious devotees is seen the cylinders as they go around the Stupashowing their devotions. Hemisphere of the Stupa is raised on a series of rectangular terraces of whole being covered in an outer round wallhaving prayer wheels and painting of five Buddhas. It is designed in the Mandala shape, oriented east-weast by north –south. Altogether 108 Buddha idols and 147 insets of prayer wheels cover the base of the huge circular edifice (Satyal, 2002:59-60). Presently, the Stupa and its surroundings are included in the world heritage list of UNESCO. By signing the World Heritage Convention in 1978, Nepal became a party to it. In 1979 Nepal enlisted seven historical and cultural sites of universal importances including this Stupa in the World Heritage List.

Reference

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Amatya, Saphalya (1999). Art and Culture of Nepal, Delhi: Nirala Publications.Bajracharya, D.B. (2030). Lichchhavi Kalaka Abhilekh, Kirtipur: INAS, TU.Bajracharya,D.B. &Malla, K.P. (1985). The Gopalraj Vamsabali, Kathmandu: Nepal Research Centre.Banerjee, R.N. (1980). Nepalese Architecture, Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.Bernier, R.M. (1968). The Temples of Nepal, Delhi: Sultan Chand &Co. Korn, W.G. (1993). The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar. Brown, Percy (1965). Indian Architecture, Regmi, D.R. (1966). Medieval Nepal, vol. 1, Culcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. Regmi, J.C. (2026). Lichchhavi Samskriti, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar Satyal, Y.R. (2002). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adroit Publishers.Wadel, L.A. (1895). Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism, London:

Hanuman Dhoka Durbar SquareKathmandu, Patan and Bhadagaon are the important three cities of the

valley. It was very rightly observed by Kirkpatrick as “The valley (valley of Kathmandu) consists of as many templesas there are houses and of as many idols as there are man.” In this context, the city of Kathmandu is undertaken as one of the important ancient city of the valley.the ancient name of Kathmandu is kantipur, literarly the city of glory.it was established by the King Guna Kama Deva in 732 A.D. To be precise, it is better to describe the temples and start from Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square.

Kathmandu Durbar Square, most popularly known by the name of Hanuman Dhoka Palace is famous as the most attractive part of Kathmandu, full of temples, palace buildings and courtyards constructed during malla period i.e. from the 12th century to 18th century. The significance of Hanuman Dhoka refers an image of Hanuman, the monkey god, stationed at the main entrance of the palace by the King Pratap Malla in 1729 V.S. In the historical documenta of the Malla period, it was addressed as the different names such as Rajkura, Lajakuta, Layaku and Gunapo(Bajracharya,2033: 15). Hanuman Dhoka Durbar represents the artistic features and sequences of Malla to Shah Period as well. The nine storey’s building of eastern site has built by King Prithivi Narayan Shah, whereas, the western portion of the palace was contructed by the Rana Priminiser Janga Bd Rana in his regime. Exceptions of

77

these two portions, all of the parts of the palace were structured in Medieval Period. Especially, the credit of the constructions of this palace goes to the Kings Mahendra Malla and Pratap Malla as well.

It contains traditional artistry and the rich cultural heritage of Nepal. The exoticism of histirical remains consisting of palace building and temples in the Durbar Square offer elaborateness of artistic detail and beauty treatment which has no rival in Asia. Kathmandu’s greater importance lies in the fact that it is the artistic as well as cultural capital of Nepal. Nepal by this singular beauty of art and archictural marvels is regarded as one of the few countries in the world (Satyal, 2002: 63-64).

Among the three historical palace square of Kathmandu Valley, the Hanuman Dhoka Durbar Square is the most extensive not only inits size but also in the scale of its open spaces and structures. It contains sixty important monuments of which the greater majority date from the 17 th and 18th centuries (Amatya, 1999:155).

Hanuman Dhoka is one of the world heritage sites, enlisted in the World Heritage List in 1979. In the beginning the international organizations like UNESCO, UNDP and friendly countries such as West Germany, Japan and so on to conseve this site, particularly the palace area. After restoring a portion of the palace built in the beginning of the 19th century, it was used for housing museums. The frist biographical museum known as Tribhubwan Memorial Museum was established here in January 1980. Now there are National Numismatic Museum is also housed in this palace. It was opened in 1962 by the late King Mahendra. Here the coins from the B.C. period to the present days are on pisplay. Clay seals, leather coins and punch mark coins are also

exxhibition (Amatya, 1999:46-47). Patan Durber Square

Patan Durbar Square is another cultural centre which is enlisted in the World Heritage List in 1979. The ancient name of Patan is Lalitpur, meaning the city of beauty, and is about five kilometers southeast of Kathmandu. The whole Durbar Square is a cluster of pagoda temples and stone statues. Many pagoda temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva are scattered in the quadrangle which is on of the main city area of Patan. It is renowned for its awe-inspiring collection of towering pagodas and colonnaded temples of carved facades and stone monoliths having bonze status.

The patan Durbar Square took its oresent form largly during the rule of Siddhi Nara Singha Malla and Shriniwas Malla between 1660 and 1684

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respectively. The Patan Durbar Complex has also divided into several courtyards namely Mulchowk, Sundari chowk, and Mani Keshab Narayan chowk. West part of the courtyard is said to be designed as the residence quarter of royal family. The beautiful bathing tank and water spout kmown as Tusa Hiti (Royal Bath) were built in the centre of courtyard. Shrinibas Malla also erected a temple of great artistic design for the Agamdeveta i.e. secret house of Goddess in the south wing of the courtyard which is still guarded by the life size figures of Ganga and Yamuna in gilded bronze.

Over this shrine there is a three tiered roof. The excellent metal doorway is indeed a tribute to the matel working. Adjacent to the Mul chowk and dominating the palace complex because of its size in the Deotale built by King Siddhinarasingh Malla in 1641. It is five tiered and is dedicated to Taleju Bhawani. This is the crowning example of the whole structure around royal palace. The golden statue of King Yog Narendra Malla seated on high stone pillar is standing there praying to Goddess Taleju. The most striking temple at the edge of the Durbar Square is the unusual octagonal stone temple of Lord Krishna built by King Siddhi Narasingh Mallain 1637. Scenes from great epics, the Mahabharat and Ramayan have been engraved around the lintels above the colonnade.

The temple of Shikhara style and a bronze figure of Garuda, the mount of Lord Vishnu stands in front of it. This temple is an extraordinary example of stone archicture in Nepal. Near to Krishna Mandir, there are two other temples known as Bishwanath and Bhimsen. Returning to the upper end of the Durbar Square, there are interesting temples and shrines. The Durbar Square is full of temples with five bronze gateways, guardians’ deities and palace complex with wonderful carvings. This is known for its rich artistic heritage.

Bhaktapur Durber Square

Bhaktapur, is one of the oldest city of the country. It does have several names. It is being identified with different names through the ages. Khopring, Khakampring, Makhopring, Khrupung, Bhaktagram, Bhaktpur, Bhaktpure, Bhaktapuri, Bhaktpuripattan,Bhaktapattan,Khwopa, Bhadagaon are its locally knowing names through which Bhaktpur is being identified from the ancient period up to now (Dhaubanjar, 2068: 197-200). Khopring is its almost oldest name, which was used in the inscriptions of Lichchhai period. In the inscription of Ratnasangh of sambat 399 i.e.527 of Deopatan of the period of

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king Manadev 1st, the term Khopring came into use to denote a village (Bajracharya, 2030: 54). Khakampring, Makhopring, and Khrupung are other synonymous names of Khopring which being used in various inscriptions of Lichchhavi period (Bajracharya, 2030: 13, 50, 249 & 253). The words such as Khopring, Khakampring, Makhopring, Khrupung, which used in lichchhavi inscriptions are not considered the words of Samskri language. They belonged to Kirati language. It means these were the names of villages which were established by the Kirata kings themselves (Bajracharya, 2030: 251).

During the medieval period Bhaktapur was known as the several names

such as Bhaktagram, Bhaktpur, Bhaktpure, Bhaktapuri, Bhaktpuripattan,

Bhaktapattan, Khwopa etc. Among these, beside Khwopa other are directly

related with devotion to the gods and goddesses of the people. It means the

city which is literally called city of devotees. Likewise, the remaining name

Khwopa is to be believed the derivative forms of Khopring of Lichchhai

period which was especially used by Newar community. Khwopa was existed

from the very beginning of medieval period and is continuously practicing till

today in Newar community. Bhadagaon is not locally popular and traditional

name. But some time, in some historical documents especially after the king

Prithibinarayan Shah it is used as to denote the Bhaktapur city (Dhaubanjar,

2068: 198-200).

Bhaktapur Municipality area had the palace of Malla King during the

Malla period. So it is known as the advance of art and architecture of the

medieval period along with the importance of various deities of Hindu and

Buddhist religion. Most of the people have been living in the particular area

are Newar ethnic groups. They have been involving in the business associated

with tourism. Bhaktapur Municipality is famous for its unique culture and

cultural heritage. The city was known as the dirtiest among the three cities of

the valley about some years ago. In the very short period of time, people of

Bhaktapur could get success to beautify the city and preserve their cultural

80

heritage. In this period a lot of cottage industries associated with tourism are

introduced providing job opportunities to the local people. It is populated for

its elegant art, fabulous culture, colorful festival, traditional folk dances and

the typical Newar life style. Tourists visiting Nepal feel their visit incomplete

unless they get a mesmerizing glimpse of their ancient city of culture.

Painting, carvings, masonry, bronze casting, jewelry, pottery and so on are

major traditional enterprises. Monuments and artistic carving on woods, stone

and metal are shown all over the historical core of the city.

The Durbar of Bkaktapur as understood as oldest palaces of Kathmandu

Valley. It was only the capital city and central of administration before the

division of Malla Kingdom. According to the sources, it is believed that the

King Ananda Malla of 12th century was built for the frist time. Latter on the

main building of the palace was constructed in 1427 during the regime of King

Yaksha Malla. Then it has been renovating countinously till to the date. The

Durbar Square of Bkaktapur is one of the importances historical as well as

cultural site is enlisted in World Heritage List by UNESCO in 1979. It is

surrounded by numbers of shimmering pagoda temples with feagures different

God and Goddess and religious symbles. The Batsala Devi, the Pashupati

Nath, Nyatapola, Bhairab, Dattatraya, the Shiva temples and many other are

the show-peaces. The fifty five windows palace was constructed by the King

Bhupandra Malla now is known as one of the illustrative example of wood

work in Nepal.

Today Bhaktapur Durbar Square is considered as one of the famous and

popular tourist destinations of the world. Here, one can absorb the joy of

historical, archeological, religious, natural, cultural, art and architectural

things and activities very nicely. Moreover, this place is very important from

the point of view of tourism. This is the nearest cultural tourism cultural

destination from Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal. Even then, the all

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tourists who come to Kathmandu have not been taken to this place. It is a

pitiable fact that the significant potential of this place has not been exploited

till date. There is lack of proper management to boost of such fascinated

destination

Chitwan National Park

1. Introduction

The geographical location of Chitwan District is 840 03' east to 840 39'

west longitude and 270 20' north to 270 49' north latitude (NTB, 2008:65). The

shape of Chitwan looks like an equilateral triangle .It is located between

Mahabharat and Churia Hills in the north and South respectively. And

Narayani River in the western part and Makawanpur district with Parsa

Wildlife Reserve in the east. Chitwan has tropical and sub tropical monsoon

climate with high humidity and three main seasons i.e. summer, monsoon and

winter. Chitwan covers 2218 sq. Km. or 1.5 percent of the total area of Nepal

(NTB, 2008: 65). Due to high suffering of Malaria, high temperature, presence

of poisonous snakes like Cobra, and animals like rhinos, tiger, bears. Chitwan

was called Death Valley. The name of Chitwan has several meaning. The most

essential and suittable meaning is; Chitta means heart and Van means jungle.

Thus, Chitwan means the heart of the jungle where necessary food and shelter

are available for all types of wildlife.

Sauraha village a part of Bacchauli Village Development Committee is

located in the close proximity of the Chitwan National park. The Village is

connected to Tandi and Chitrasari village by 6 and 3 km. respectively. It is

known today an important tourists destination of Nepal. In Bachheuli VDC

comprise approximately 1500 households. The total population of this VDC is

about 9696. Temperature reaches a maximum of 450c in May and a minimum

of 0-60c in December, whereas, the maximum rainfall is 216mm which is

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witnessed during September and October. The Bacchauli VDC comprises

different villages such as Sauraha, Odra, Badreni, Malpur, Sisuwa, Jhuwani

and Tasauli (Kunwar, 2002: 81).

According to NEDS there are altogether 4422 Tharus and the remaining

other population (5244) in composed of Brahmins, Chhetris, Newars, Kamis,

Gurungs, Magars, Tamangs, Botes, Damais, Danuwars and Dhobis in this

VDC. River Budhi and Rapti have divided the VDC into three different parts.

Tandi, Chitrasari and Gothauli all located on the northern side of the river.

From the view point of tourism, Sauraha, Ordsa and Badreni villages are very

important because most of the resorts are located there (Kunwar, 2002: 81).

The Tharu population of Sauraha Village is approximately two hundred and of

Odra 220. Sauraha is occupied by 9 exogamous sub-groups whereas Odra is

occupied by 13 exogamous sub-groups only. Further to the south of Sauraha

there is a dense forest and near it there are few Tharus villages like Patna,

Dhindauli and Merchanli in Padampur VDC. The present Sauraha gives a

glimpse of today's Thamel of the Kathmandu Valley, the lake side of Pokhara

and Goa of India (Kunwar, 2002: 81-82).

2. Major Tourism products of Sauraha

At present, this park has become one of the nation treasures of natural

wonders. Recognizing its unique ecosystem of global significance, UNESCO

declared it a World Heritage Site in 1984. It is an eminent park of the country,

which consumes the largest number of the tourist in its lab-filled with the

unique ecosystem. Sauraha help to increase the national economic by luring

tourist to show its natural diversity as well as Tharu cultural heritage. There

are many prospects associated with tourism development in this destination.

The opportunity of scenic attraction, trekking, elephant safari, jungle safari,

community forestry, bird watching, elephant breeding centre, crocodile

breeding centre, vulture breeding centre, participating different water

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activities, observing the Tharu cultural heritage and tourism infrastructure are

the major tourism products of Sauraha.

2.1 Chitwan National Park

National Parks have been establishing the purpose to conserve and

preserve the natural resources, to protect the flora and fauna, to protect the

wildlife habitat, to pay a valuable part in the development of wildlife oriented

tourism industry and to provide the opportunities to carry out research and

investigation on jungle activities. National parks have been establishing from

the very early days in the world. At the first time, the first national park was

established in USA in 1872, as the name of Yellow Stone National Park

(Satyal, 1988:97-98). Once than the concept of National Park has spread

beyond the American frontiers and has flourished universally and this has new

resulted in the creation of 1024 National Parks or equivalent reserves,

throughout the world (Satyal, 1988: 97-98).

In order to protect the flora and fauna of Nepal which are declining at an

alarming rate, HMG Nepal has decided to established National Park and

wildlife Reserves in many parts of the country. After the declaration of the

HMG policies, the various numbers of National Parks and Wildlife Reserves

have came into establish in different part of the country. Among the various,

Chitwan National Park is one.

Physical Setting of the Park

The park contains Churia hills, ox-bow lakes and the flood plains of

Rapti, Reu and Narayani rivers. The churia hills elevates on increasing order

from west to east from 110 m. to 850m. The lower but more rugged

someshwor hills occupy most of western portion of the park. The park

boundaries are delineated by the Narayani and Rapti Rivers in the north and

west and Reu river in Someswor hills in the south and south west. Its eastern

boarder is joined with Parsa Wildlife Reserve. The Park has relatively high

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humidity tropical monsoon climate. Monsoon, winter and spring are the three

main seasons can found in the park. The winter season begins with the

beginning of October and ends with the ending of February. Spring begins in

March and ends with summer in early June. It get the maximum temperature

400c in May and minimum of 0-60c in December. Maximum rainfall recorded

in the park area is 216 mm. which is witnessed during September and October.

During this time most of the roads are impassable due to flood. Therefore the

period between December and February in considered being the best season

having a panoramic view of the Park.

History of Chitwan National Park.

Chitwan National Park has occupied important position in South Asia

for the conservation of rare animals and plants. The particular region which is

famous as the CNP today, was protected as hunting reserve area by the than

Prime Minister Janga Bd. Rana in 1962 B.S. and which is continuously

extended till to the Rana regime. In 2015/16 BS (1958) an American scientist

named E.P.G. of Fauna Preservation Society of America has recommended the

north part of the Rapti River as the best territory for establishment of National

Park,whereas, the South Part for the Rhinoceros Protected Area as well. At

the same time, the then King Mahendra has established a Deer's Protection

Area in the site in 1959. Keeping it is mind, the then king Mahendra has

suggested to his government and then the government has established

Rhinoceros Protected Area in 1963 (2017/18), which is extended about 8

hundred sq. km.

During the period, when Deers and Rhinoceros Protected Area has

established, the site was densely inhabitant by the people. Thus, at the first,

HMG of Nepal has needed to replacement to the people from the site.

Meanwhile, HMG of Nepal has launched rehabilitation program and has

rehabilitated about 22,000 households including 4000 households from the

particular site of Chitwan to the other parts of the country in 1964 (2020/21

85

B.S.) In this process, King Mahendra has approved the Rhinoceros Protected

Area as the first National Park of the country in 1970 (2026/27 B.S.). After the

resolution of the than king, department of forestry of Nepal and WWF (World

Wildlife Fund) have jointly provided the financial and technical support for

the preliminary development activities of the purposed National Park in 1971

(2027/28 B.S.). Finally, the Rhinoceros and Deers Protected Area has

transformed as the Royal Chitwan National Park in 1973. After establishing as

the National Park HMG of Nepal has formulated an act named Royal Chitwan

National Park Act 2030 in 1973. It is the first National Park of Nepal has

established for natural conservation by the government.

This Park is situated in the sub-tropical inner Tarai lowlands of South

Centre of Nepal. The park has roughly extended 100 km long and 40 km. wide

from east to west and north to south respectively. The covering area of the

park has widely extended through 544 sq. km. to 932 sq. km. in 1977 (2033/34

B.S.). This is the area of the park excluding 750 sq. km. buffer zone, which

has added in 1996. If the area of buffer zone is included within the park, the

total area goes to the 1682 sq. km. which is the 6.24% of the total land of the

National Park and Wildlife Reserves of Nepal. This Park is extended within

four districts i.e. Chitwan, Makawanpur, Parsa and Nawalparasi of Narayani

and Lumbini zones. The name of the park has changed as Chitwan National

Park from Royal Chitwan National Park after the public movement 2006

(2062/63). The headquarter of the Park is located in Kasara inside the Park,

which is about 165 km. for from Kathmadu the capital city of Nepal.

There are various conservation and preservation program functioning

inside the park today. With the help of Frankfort Zoological Society the

Ghadiyal Conservation Project has started and which established Ghadiyal

Breeding Centre in Kasara in 1978 (2034/35) inside the park. The centre has

86

begun functioning from 1981. Likewise, the Elephant Breeding Centre has

established in Khorasora in 1987 (2043/44 B.S.). As well as the vulture

breeding centre has established here in Kasara very recently in 2008 (Tripathi,

2008: 1). In 1983/84 this park has enlisted as a world Heritage Site of

UNESCO. Similarly IUCN has classified this park in second category.

Major Attractions inside the Park

500 Asiatic one horned

rhinoceros

100 Royal Bengal Tigers

600 plants and 526 birds

species

Different types and various

number of reptiles

120 species of fishes.

Ghadial Breeding Centre of

Kasara

Vulture Breeding Centre of

Kasara (established in 2008).

Elephant Breeding Centre in

Khorasora established in

2043/44.

River activities in Narayani,

Rapti and Reu River.

Bird Watching, Machan

Night Program, Jungle walk.

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2.2. Community Forest

Community forest is another tourism asset of Sauraha Chitwan.

There are three community forests known as Baghamara Community

Forest, Jankauli Community Forest and Kumoroj Community Forest.

Among three, first two are lie in Bachhauli and remaining third one lies in

Kumrose VDC. The Baghamara C.F. is located at ward no. 1 and extends

up to ward no. 4. The second i.e. Jankauli CF is located at ward No. 5 to

9. The third one i.e. kumroj CF is located in Kumroj VDC.

In October 1996, tourism was introduced in Baghamara

Community forest as jungle walk and elephant ride in the National Park

was in demand by quite a lot of tourists. To take the private elephants in

Baghamara CF, the owner have to pay a deposit of NRs. 15,000/- in the

beginning. The tourists are generally sent to Baghamara and Janakauli CF

for elephant ride. In order to go to Kumoroj CF one has to go via Jankauli

forest.

2.3 Buffer Zone

Buffer Zone is an adjoining area of Chitwan National Park, which

is considered other tourism assets of the destination. The government of

Nepal has established buffer zone in 1996. The area is covered 35 VDC

as well as Bharatpur and Ratnagar two municipalities. The total area

which is covered by the buffer zone is about 75000 hectors. As like the

area is extended in 750 squar k.m. The headquater of the buffer zone lies

in Kasara inside the Chitwan National Park.

2.4 Tharu Culture

Tharu culture is one of the important tourism assets of Sauraha.

Tharus are the main indigenous ethnic groups of Sauraha. Tharu have

their own unique culture and tradition, which makes them differ than

other ethnic groups. They have various traditional festivals in their

community. Among them 'Fagu' (festival of Colors), 'Jitiya (Festing

88

ceremony) and 'Soharai' are very popular in the Tharu community of

Sauraha Chitwan. Twice a year, the people of Sauraha perform two

rituals in their village shrine called 'baramthani' they are 'esaribaran' and

'leuribarana'. These rituals are observed in July and October respectively.

Which are performed by the village priest called 'gurau'. The Tharu of

Chitwan has their own traditional different types of equipments and

utensils. But almost the material culture of Sauraha is already replaced by

the modern materials. This day their traditional materials and the pictures

of the life can only be observed in to the museum, which is located in

Bachhauli VDC-2 Saruaha village.

2.5. Tharu Cultural Program

Tharu Cultural program is considered another significant product

of Sauraha Among the various cultural assets of Tharus in Sauraha

traditional dance is important one. From 1998 on ward, after the

translocation of the Tharus of Bhakatha, two goups from Patra and

Dorangi villages have started giving cultural programs in Sauraha. Since

the program was introduced at cultural house in 1998, majority of the

guides and hotel managers feel it conveninent to take their individual

guests at the centre. As for as the Tharu cultural program is concerned,

among the different items of dances the first 'bhajeti' in which they play

with large sticks, the second 'dhampu' which is played on the occasion of

'fagui' festival, the third 'thekara' is played on same occasion, the forth

item is 'thili' are the importance items of their traditional dances.

2.6. Tharu Cultural Museum

Tharu cultural museum is another important tourism product of

Sauraha Village. It is located at Sauraha village of Bachhauli VDC ward

no 2. The museum was established in 2005 A.D. with the financial and

technical support form National Trust for Natural Conservation, Bio-

diversity Conservation Center (NTNC / BCC) under the Tiger Rhino

89

Conservation Project, founded by UNDP/ GEF. The construction of

Tharu cultural museum is a collaborative effort between NTNC/ BCC,

Chitwan National Park, Mrigakunja Buffer Zone, Management

Committee, Hariyali Youth Club, Buffer Zone User Committees, and the

local community

The Tharu cultural museum offers to visitor a glimpse of Tharu

Culture and traditions they performed that are quickly disappering in their

community. The museum harbors a mosaic of cultural traditions of the

Tharu people during the three period i.e; Pre- martial, marital and Post

martial of their life cycle. It offers visitors a unique opportunity to view

existent Tharu Community along the way to the museum, where the

museum showcases culture and traditions as a replica. The museum

contains wealth information regarding the Tharu culture and traditions

that are depicted in paintings and display materials that are showcased in

the museum. It presents agricultural practices, various rituals performed

by the community during their lifecycle accompanied by displays

antiquates, equipment instrument and so on.

The museum is always open 8.00 am to 5.30. Pm in everyday. The

museum is managed 3 categories of its entrance fees for the visitors. In

this respect, Nepalese visitor should pay only Rs. 5/- and SAARC and

other countries should pay 10 & 15 Nrs for their entrance respectively.

Similarly the visitors who holds the Still Camera those should pay extra

15 Nrs for their Camera.

2.7. Village tour

Village tour is the important assets of tourism in Sauraha. From

Sauraha village to Churia hill, Kasara, Khagendraman, Badremi (a

famous spot for rhino) trekking can be carried on enjoing with wild

animals. Village tour is made by bullock cart or on foot. The tour covers

most of the villages of Bachhauli VDC and Patna, Marchauli and

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Dhindauli of Padampr VDC. In course of the village tour program, the

guides take the tourists to odra, Malpur, Badreni, Bachhauli, Sauraha and

Darangi villages inhabited by the Tharus, Gurung, Tamangs, Botes,

Danuwars, Magar, Dhobis Bahun-Chhetris and Damais. Besides it’s the

destination offers bird watching, elephant ride, jungle drive or safari,

bullock cart ride, sunset view, elephant breeding centre tour, elephant

stable tour, jungle walk, night walk, tower night, swimming program,

meditation program, Machan night program, Bicycle visit to 20,000

lakes, Canoes trip etc to the visitors.

Like as, in tourism activity night trekking and walking is

considerate an alternative form of business. Camp fire, singing, dancing,

trekking, night drinks and so on all these types of activities are done with

together by the hosts and guests in this form of tourism. Night trekking or

walking is an alternative concept because it tires to use the night hours for

business purpose of the local people. It is believed that this type of

activities can help earning more for stakeholders and prolongs the visitors

stay. The objective of this type of tourism is to attract more foreign

tourists in the particular destination.

2.7 Tourism Festivals ( Parayatan Mahotsav)

Tourism Festivals or Paryatan Mahotsav is another product of the

site, which can play the important role to promote the tourism business in

the country. These types of festivals also help to improve the social and

economic status of the local peoples, which hand to hand program, been

celebrating since last five years targeting both the domestic and

international tourists. On behalf of Nepal Tourism Board and its hand to

hand program with local communities to take initiation to organize such

types of festivals and request NTB to help them. Actually its opportunity

91

to expose what a destination possess, what peculiarities have and how

they can be further pushed up. Since last five years various tourism

festivals like elephant polo, International elephant racing competition,

Tharu cultural festival, Sauraha Mahotsav 2060, Street Festival, Sauraha

Food Festival, Christmas Festival, New Year Festival have been

celebrating in Sauraha Chitwan continuously.

3. Conclusion

Sauraha a village of Bachchauli VDC located adjoining area of the

Chitwan National Park. Tourist activities have started in Chitwan since

1964 with a few hundred tourists per year. The available data have

informed that, the Chitwan National Park is the third most important

destination to tourists visiting Nepal. There are so many places and

activities in Sauraha which are quietly concerned to tourism. Among

them, Jungle safari, Elephant safari, Jungle drive, Village tour, Tharu

culutural program, Tharu cultural museum, bullock cart ride, sunset view,

water activities, elephant Breeding centre, crocodile breeding centre,

vulture breeding centre and so on are highly realized important tourism

product of Sauraha of Chitwan. Thus Sauraha village, Chitwan, is

definitely one of the very important and exotic tourist destinations of

Nepal. Therefore Sauraha of Chitwan is compared with the Thamel of

Kathmandu, the lakeside of Pokhara and Goa of India today.

REFRENCES

Acharya, K.R. (2001). Socio-Economic Impact of Tourism on Local Communities, A Case Study of Patiani of Chitwan District, unpublished Thesis.

Chettri, P.B., et. al. 1993 Effects of Tourism on Culture and Environment, A Case Study of Chitwan Suaraha, A Report.

Department of Tourism, (1972) Statistics on Tourism on Nepal, 1962-19-70, Kathmandu: Published by Department of Tourism,.

Dulal L. N. (2007). "Changunarayan World Heritage Site of Nepal, A Study of Toursit and Tourism Perspectives", Voice of Culture Vol. IV Kathmandu: Dept. NeHCA, P.K.M. Campus, Bagbazar.

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Giri, M.R. (2001). Prospect and Problems of Tourism Development in and Around Chitwan, unpublished Thesis, T.U.

HMG/N, Department of Tourism, Annual Statistical reports of 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 2004 and 2005.

HMG/N 1996, Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, A Guide Book.

Kunwar, R.R., (1997). Tourism and Development Science and Industry Interface, Kathmandu: Laxmi Kunwar.

Kunwar, R.R., (2002). Anthropology of Tourism, A Case Study of Chitwan, Sauraha.

Kunwar, R.R., (2006). Tourist and Tourism Science and Industry Interface, Kathmandu: International School of Tourism and Hotel Management.

Lamsal, B.P. (1996). Tourism in Nepal; A Case Study of Sauraha, Kathmandu: An unpublished Master Level Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Economics, T.U.

NTB (2007), Nepal Tourism Statistics 2007

Pradhananga, S.B. (2002). Village Tourism in Chitwan, New Delhi: Adoit Publisher.

Satyal, Y.R. (1988). Tourism in Nepal a Profile, Varanasi: Nath Publishing House.

Satyal, Y.R. (2000). Nepal and Exotic Tourist Destination, Delhi: Adoit Publisher.

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Satyal, Y.R. (2004). Pilgrimage Tourism in Nepal, Delhi: Adoit Publisher, Delhi.

Tripathi, Vinod, (2065). ‘Gidhdha Prajanan Kendra Khulyo’, Kantipur Daily, Year 16, Vol. 62, Baisakha1-8, Wednesday.Uprety, Kailash,(2058). Tourism in Nepal, A Case Study of Sauraha Chitwan, Kathmandu: Unpublished Master Degree Thesis, Dept. of Socio-Anthropology, Patan Multiple Campus.

Case study of ethnic groupsTharus (see the class notes and the book entitled people of Nepal of D.B. Bista as well)Magars (see the class notes and the book entitled People of Nepal of D.B. Bista as well)Sherpas (see the class notes and the book entitled Fire of Himal of R.R.Kunwar as well)Newars (see the class notes and the book entitled The Newars of G.P. Nepali as well)

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