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7/28/2019 Curs Engleza Anul 1
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I. THE NOUN........................................................................................................................................................................... ...21.1. Kinds and function.............................................................................................................................................................2
1.2. Gender................................................................................................................................................................................21.3. Plurals............................................................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1. Uncountable nouns (also known as non-count nouns or mass nouns)........................................................................71.4. The form of the possessive/genitive case...........................................................................................................................8
1.5. Use of the possessive/genitive case and of + noun...........................................................................................................81.6. SEMINAR - NOUN..........................................................................................................................................................9
II. ARTICLES.............................................................................................................................................................................152.1. The definite article...........................................................................................................................................................15
2.2. Omission of the................................................................................................................................................................172.3. The indefinite article........................................................................................................................................................20
2.4. The zero article.................................................................................................................................................................21
2.5. SEMINAR - ARTICLE....................................................................................................................................................21III. ADJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................................................................25
3.1. Kinds of adjectives...........................................................................................................................................................25
3.2. Order of adjectives of quality...........................................................................................................................................263.3. Comparison .....................................................................................................................................................................27
3.4. Constructions with comparisons .....................................................................................................................................28
3.5. Possessive adjectives .......................................................................................................................................................293.6. SEMINAR - ADJECTIVE...............................................................................................................................................30
IV. ADVERBS............................................................................................................................................................................34
4.1. Kinds of adverbs..............................................................................................................................................................344.2. Form and use................................................................................................................................................................. ...34
4.3. Comparative and superlative adverb forms......................................................................................................................374.4 Position of adverbs............................................................................................................................................................37
4.5. Inversion of the verb........................................................................................................................................................394.6. SEMINAR - ADVERB................................................................................................................................................... .40
V. THE PRONOUN....................................................................................................................................................................435.1. Personal pronouns............................................................................................................................................................44
5.2. Uses of it..........................................................................................................................................................................455.3. Possessive pronouns.........................................................................................................................................................46
5.4. Demonstrative pronouns .................................................................................................................................................465.5. Reflexive pronouns ............................................................................................................................................ ......... ..475.6. Interrogative pronouns.....................................................................................................................................................47
5.7. Relative pronouns ...........................................................................................................................................................47
5.8. Indefinite pronouns .........................................................................................................................................................48All Some None ................................................................................................................................................................48
5.9. SEMINAR PRONOUN.................................................................................................................................... .......... .48VI. PREPOSITIONS...................................................................................................................................................................59
6.1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................596.2. SEMIAR - PREPOSITION..............................................................................................................................................69
1
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I. THE NOUN
1.1. Kinds and function
A There are four kinds of noun in English:Common nouns: dog, man, table
Proper nouns: France, Madrid, Mrs Smith, Tom
Abstract nouns: beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy
Collective nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team
1.2. Gender
A Masculine: men, boys and male animals (pronoun he/they).
Feminine: women, girls and female animals (pronoun she/they).
Neuter: inanimate things, animals whose sex we don't know and
sometimes babies whose sex we don't know (pronoun it/they).
Exceptions: ships and sometimes cars and other vehicles when
regarded with affection or respect are considered feminine.
Countries when referred to by name are also normally considered
feminine.
The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.
Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.
B Masculine/feminine nouns denoting people
1 Different forms:
boy, girl
gentleman, lady
son, daughter
bachelor, spinster
husband, wife
uncle, aunt
bridegroom, bride
man, woman
widower, widow
father, mother
nephew, niece
2
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duke, duchess
king, queen
prince, princess
earl, countess
lord, lady
2 The majority of nouns indicating occupation have the same form:
artist cook driver guide assistant dancer doctor etc.
Main exceptions:
actor, actress
host, hostess
conductor, conductress
manager, manageress
heir, heiress
steward, stewardess
Sometimes -person is used instead of-man, -woman: salesperson,
spokesperson.
C Domestic animals and many of the larger wild animals have
different forms:
bull, cow
duck, drake
ram, ewe
stallion, mare
cock, hen
gander, goose
stag, doe
tiger, tigress
dog, bitch
lion, lioness
1.3. Plurals
A The plural of a noun is usually made by adding s to the singular:
day, days
dog, dogs
house, houses
- s is pronounced /s/ after p, kor fsound. Otherwise it is
pronounced /z/.
When s is placed after ce, ge, se or ze an extra syllable (/iz/) is added
to the spoken word.
3
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Other plural forms
B Nouns ending in o or ch, sh, ss or x form their plural by adding
es:
tomato, tomatoes
brush, brushes
box, boxes
church, churches
kiss, kisses
But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in o add s only:
dynamo, dynamos
kimono, kimonos
piano, pianos
kilo, kilos
photo, photos
soprano, sopranos
C Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural by dropping
the y and adding ies:
baby, babiescountry, countries
fly, flieslady, ladies
Nouns ending in y following a vowel form their plural by adding s:
boy, boys
day, days
donkey, donkeys
guy, guys
Twelve nouns ending in for fe drop the for fe and add ves. These
nouns are calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife,wolf:
loaf, loaves
wife, wives
wolf, wolves
4
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Nouns
The nouns hoof, scarfand wharf takeeither s or ves in the plural:
hoofs or hooves
scarfs or scarves
wharfs or wharves
Other words ending in for fe add s in the ordinary way:
cliff, cliffs
handkerchief,
handkerchiefs
safe, safes
A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change:foot, feet
louse, lice
mouse, mice
woman, women
goose, geese
man, men
tooth, teeth
child children
ox, oxen.
Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural. fish isnormally unchanged, fishes exists but is uncommon. Some types of
fish do not normally change in the plural:
Carp pike salmon trout cod plaice squid turbot
mackerel but if used in a plural sense they would take a plural verb.
Others add s:
crabs herrings sardines eels lobsters sharksDeerand sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.
The word game, used by sportsmen to mean an animal/animals
hunted, is always in the singular and takes a singular verb.
Collective nouns, crew, family, team etc., can take a singular or
plural verb; singular if we consider the word to mean a single groupor unit:
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Our team is the bestor plural if we take it to mean a number of
individuals.
Our team are wearing their new jerseys.
Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb:
Clothes, garments consisting of two parts breeches pants
pyjamas trousers etc. and tools and instruments consisting of
two parts:
Binoculars pliers scissors spectacles glasses scales
shears etc.
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A number of words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics,
hysterics, mathematics, physics, politics etc., which are plural in
form, normally take a plural verb:
His mathematics are weak. But names of sciences cansometimes be considered singular:
Mathematics is an exact science.
Words plural in form but singular in meaning include news:
The news is good
And certain diseases:
mumps rickets shingles
and certain games:
billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes
2 The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verb +
er
nouns + adverbs:
hangers-on lookers-on runners-up and withcompounds composed of noun + preposition + noun: ladies-
in-waiting sisters-in-law wards of court
3 Initials can be made plural:
MPs (Members of Parliament) VIPs (very important persons)
OAPs (old age pensioners) UFOs (unidentified flying objects)
1.3.1. Uncountable nouns (also known as non-count nouns or mass
nouns)
1 Names of substances considered generally:
Bread, cream, gold, paper, tea, beer, dust, ice, sand, water,
cloth, gin, jam, soap, wine, coffee, glass, oil, stone, wood
2 Abstract nouns:
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advice, experience, horror, pity, beauty, fear, information ,
relief, courage, help, knowledge, suspicion, death, hope, mercy,
work
3 Also considered uncountable in English:baggage, damage, luggage, shopping, camping, furniture,
parking weather
1.4. The form of the possessive/genitive case
A 's is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s:
a man's job the people's choice
men's work the crew's quarters
a woman's intuition the horse's mouth
the butcher's (shop) the bull's horns
a child's voice women's clothes
the children's room Russia's exports
B A simple apostrophe (') is used with plural nouns ending in
s:
a girls' school the students' hostel
the eagles' nest the Smiths' car
C Classical names ending in s usually add only the apostrophe:
Pythagoras' Theorem Archimedes' Law Sophocles' plays
D Other names ending in s can take 's or the apostrophe alone:Mr Jones's (or Mr Jones' house) Yeats's (or Yeats') poems
1.5. Use of the possessive/genitive case and of + noun
A The possessive case is chiefly used of people, countries or
animals as shown above. It can also be used:
1 Of ships and boats: the ship's bell, the yacht's mast
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2 Of planes, trains, cars and other vehicles, though here the of
construction is safer:
a glider's wings or the wings of a glider
the train's heating system or the heating system of the train
3 In time expressions:
a week's holiday, today's pape, tomorrow's weathe, in two years'
time, ten minutes' break, two hours' delay,
4. With for + noun + sake: for heaven's sake, for goodness' sake
5 In a few expressions such as:
a stone's throw journey's end the water's edge
6. Sometimes certain nouns can be used in the possessive case
without the second noun, a/the
baker's/butcher's/chemist's/florist's etc. can mean 'a/the
baker's/butcher's etc. shop'.
Similarly, a/the house agent's/travel agent's etc. (office) and the
dentist's/doctor 'sivet's(surgery):
You can buy it at the chemist's. He's going to the dentist's.
1.6. SEMINAR - NOUN
EXERCISE 1. Nouns ending in -f/-fe form their plural in -fs/-fes or
-ves or both. Give the plural form of the following nouns and noun
groups into the respective three categories:
Half, cuff, wolf, belief, leaf, scarf, chief, calf, cliff, shelf,.dwarf, self,
thief, safe, gulf, proof, loaf, wife, roof, handkerchief, knife.
EXERCISE. a) Write the singular of:
allies countries taxes doves shoes toes
alleys enemies taxis halves kangaroos potatoes
dresses skies sizes pies valves
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houses skis buzzes eyes porches
b) Write the plural of: potato, radio, hero, cargo, echo, tango,
buffalo, concerto, Negro, volcano.
EXERCISE . Turn into the plural:
1. Englishman 2. Spaniard 3. Chinese 4. Frenchman 5. Pole 6.
Swede
7. Norwegian 8. German 9. Dutchman 10. Italian 11. Romanian 12.
Russian
13. Greek 14. Australian 15. Japanese 16. Dane 17. Finn 18.
Irishman 19. Scot 20. Pakistani.
EXERCISE Choose the right form of the verb :
1.a) The committee (consist, consists) of 12 members.
b) The committee (has, have) come to a common point of view.
2.a) My friend's family (is, are) small.
b) The family (was, were) asleep when we arrived.
3. a) The press (is, are) kindly requested to leave the Conference
Hall,
b) The press (is, are) always present on such occasions.
4. a) The audience (was, were) taking their seats.
b) The audience (was, were) applauding enthusiastically.
5. a) The mob (has, have) been fighting among themselves for some
time,
b) A mob (is, are) a disorderly crowd.
6. a) The Education Board (is, are) arguing about the cost of
textbooks,
b) The Selection Board (has, have) selected the best pupils from
the candidates.
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7. a) The government (has, have) announced further wage rises.
b) The government (stand, stands) firm in refusing to make
further concessions.
8.a) The new Cabinet (was, were) the result of his bargaining with
the
center-left parties,
b) The new Cabinet (is, are) reluctant to look into it.
9.a) A flock of sheep (has, have) invaded my garden.
b) Look out! Your flock (is, are) straying in all directions.
10. a) The Army (has, have) seized power.
b) The invading Army (was, were) defeated.
11. a) Canada (is, are) bilingual.
b) Canada (has, have) got into the semi-finals again.
EXERCISE . Choose the singular or plural form. Translate into
Romanian:
1.colour a) I simply hate this ....b)You must stand still when the country's ... is being raised.
c) My favourite . .. are blue and beige.
2.custom a) You have to declare everything at the ....
b) She was privileged to get acquainted with this ... of the
Burundians.
c) Hand shaking is one of the most frequent... in Europe.
3.damage a) I'll have to pay for the ...
b) In case of fire the insurance company will pay the ....
4.ground a) You must have solid ... if you want to ask for a
divorce.
b)What was the ... of this quarrel?
c) Children have taken good care of their sports . . .
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5.minute a) How many . . . does it take to get to the office?
b)We wanted him to read the ... of the previous meeting.
c) Wait a . . . !
6.pain a) She feels no . . . now.
b)What do you recommend for stomach . . . ?
c)You do take great. . . with your work.
7.scale a) My neighbour has been practising ... for hours.
b)Did you know he could play with a fish . . . . ?
c)The ... of this species of fish are phosphorescent.
d)On top of the Court House one can notice a sculptured ...of Justice.
8.term a) When does . . . end?
b)Are you on good . . . ?
c) What are the ... of the treaty?
9.spectacle a) It was a terrifying. . .
b) Why not wear .. . ?10. spirit a) That's the right. . .
b) How can you believe in ... ?
c) I shall never touch . . . again.
d) Is there no ... in your lighter?
EXERCISE . Form feminine nouns from the following masculine
nouns using the following suffixes: -ess, -ix, -a, -ine:
Actor, host, shepherd, administrator, sultan, god, lion, prior,
negro, hero, prince, tiger, heir, waiter.
EXERCISE . a) Give the corresponding masculine nouns of the
following feminine nouns; b) then give the generic term, if any:
MODEL: a) mother father
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b) mother father parent
Queen, woman, wife, daughter, nun, lady, sister, goose, bee, duck,
granddaughter.
EXERCISE . List the feminine nouns in the 2nd column and the
generic nouns in the 3rd column so as to correspond to the
masculine nouns in the 1st column:
hog mare pig/swine
cock vixen deer
hound hen dog
buck ewe oxbull bee horse
drone bitch fowl
stallion hind fox
fox cow sheep
ram doe deer
stag sow cattle
EXERCISE . Give the masculine of:
Bride, girl-friend, maidservant, female candidate,
policewoman, lady footballer, woman diplomat, lady speaker,
spinster, lady, nurse, female student.
EXERCISE .Arrange the following nouns into two columns according
to their usual gender when personified in poetry, etc. Remember
that the masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting
strength, harshness, cruelty, and negative features while those
denoting delicacy, feebleness, tenderness and other positive
features are feminine. On the other hand, the distinction
sometimes depends on the author's imagination or intentions:
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Friendship, anger, boat, fury, ship, terror, car, crime, moon,
spring, storm, morning, thunder, evening, sleep, night, sun, pride,
time, truth, fear, soul, death.
EXERCISE 39. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional
genitive forms. The former are generally used with animate nouns,
mainly with persons, with collective nouns (e.g. government,
company), and with certain kinds of inanimate nouns denoting: a)
geographical names (continents, countries, cities, towns); b) locative
nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions (e.g. the
region's welfare, the earth's core, the sun's impact, the Club's band);
c) temporal nouns (e.g. yesterday's reception, this year's
anniversaries); d) nouns of the type: body, mind, science, life, treaty,
play, book, car, ship etc. (e.g. the play's success, the ship's captain,
science's progress):
1. The new car of his friend is a Fiat 125. 2. What do you know
about the climate of this country? 3. I admired the hats of the ladies.
4. He has been studying the folklore of WTales for three years. 5.
What's the name of the new typist of the manager? 6. This is the
most important museum of/in London. 7. The parents of all the other
girls are present. 8. What are the first signs of spring? 9. These are
the best paintings of Turner. 10. He won't say a word about the
purpose of his life. 11. The interests of the Government lieelsewhere. 12. What do you know about the War of a Hundred
Years? 13. The future of Africa is in the hand of its own peoples. 14.
The blouses of the shop-girls are the best advertisment. 15. Bob
doesn't even know the time-table of his child. 16. Is it possible to
track the rays of the sun? 17. He is proud of the performance of his
car on the road. 18. Do you doubt the good intentions of myrelatives?
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II. ARTICLES
2.1. The definite article
A Form
the is the same for singular and plural and for all genders:
the boy the girl the day the boys the girls the days
B Use
The definite article is used:
1 When the object or group of objects is unique or considered to
be
unique:
the earth the sea the sky the equator the stars
2 Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being
mentioned
a second time:
His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.
3 Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:
the girl in blue the man with the banner the
boy that I met the place where I met him
4 Before superlatives andfirst, second
etc. used as adjectivesor
pronouns, and only:
the first (week) the best day the only way
C the + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things:
The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
The deep-freeze has made life easier for housewives.
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But man, used to represent the human race, has no
article:
If oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse.
D the + adjective represents a class of persons: theold = old people in general
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E the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers,
groups of islands, chains of mountains, plural names of
countries, deserts, regions:
the Atlantic the Netherlands the Thames the Sahara
the Azores the Crimea the Alps the Riviera
and before certain other names:
the City the Mall the Sudan the Hague the Strand the
Yemen
F the is used before the adjectives east/westetc. + noun in
certain names:
the East/West End the East/West Indies
the North/South Pole
but is normally omitted:
South Africa North America West Germany
G the with names of people has a very limited use. the + plural
surname can be used to mean 'the . . . family':the Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children)
2.2. Omission of the
A The definite article is not used:
1 Before names of places except as shown above, or before
names of people.
2 Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a
particular sense:
Men fear death but
The death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader.
3 After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective:
the boy's uncle = the uncle of the boy
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It is my (blue) book = The (blue) book is mine.
4 Before names of meals:
The Scots have porridge for breakfastbut
The wedding breakfast was held in her father's house.5 Before names of games: He plays golf.
6 Before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these
normally prefer a possessive adjective:
Raise your right hand. He took off his coat.
But notice that sentences of the type:
She seized the child's collar.I patted his shoulder.
The brick hit John's face.
7 Omission ofthe before home, before church, hospital,
prison, school etc. and before work, sea and town
A homeWhen home is used alone, i.e. is not preceded or followed by a
descriptive word or phrase, the is omitted: He is at
home.home used alone can be placed directly after a verb of
motion or verb of motion + object, i.e. it can be treated as an
adverb:
He went home. I arrived home after dark. I sent himhome. But when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive
word or phrase it is treated like any other noun:
They went to their new home.
We arrived at the bride's home.
For some years this was the home of your queen.
A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.
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B bed, church, court, hospital, prison,
school/college/university
the is not used before the nouns listed above when these
places arevisited or used for their primary purpose. We go:
to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients
to church to pray to prison as prisoners
to courtas litigants etc. to school/college/universityto study
Similarly we can be:
in bed, sleeping or resting in hospital as patients
at church as worshippers at school etc. as students
in courtas witnesses etc.
We can be/get back (or be/get home) from
school/college/university.
We can leave school, leave hospital, be released from prison.
When these places are visited or used for other reasons theis necessary:
/ went to the church to see the stained glass.
He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.
C sea
We go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as
passengers or crew). But to go to or be at the sea = to go to orbe at the seaside. We can also live by/near the sea.
D workand office
work(= place of work) is used without the:
He's on his way to work. He is at work.
He isn't back from work yet. Note that at workcan also mean
'working'; hard at work = working hard:
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He's hard at work on a new picture, office (= place of work)
needs the: He is at/in the office.To be in office (without the)
means to hold an official (usually political) position. To be out of
office = to be no longer in power.
E town
the can be omitted when speaking of the subject's or
speaker's own town:
We go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
We were in town last Monday.
2.3. The indefinite article
Its Romanian equivalent: un, o.
A is used in front of consonants: e.g. a good man, a map, a
window and an is used in front of vowels: an apple, an important
issue.
The indefinite functions as a numeral: one hundred a hundred
Used to show the number of happenings during a given period
of time: once a week, one apple a day
Used with nouns denoting jobs when after the verb to be: I am
a lawyer. (eu sunt avocat)
When the noun is unique, then it doesnt need the indefinite
article: He is chairman.
Used as appositions: Irving, a prose writer, ..
Used in expressions: for a time, lend me a hand, once upon a
time, to set an example, to pay a call on, to have a mind to,
once in a blue moon.
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2.4. The zero article
Zero article is used to express generalities, whole categories and
not individual items.
Children will be children
Clothes do not make the man
Barking dogs seldom bite.
Substance names: Oil is lighter than water; Blood is thicker
than water.
With abstract nouns: Love is a noble feeling;
Before human names: Michael, George, Daisy
Names of continents, countries, provinces, regions, counties,
towns, cities, villages: Europe, Africa, Wallachia exceptions:
the Ukraine, the United States, the Argentine, the Congo.
Months of the year, days of the week
Expressions: from time to time, by means of, at random, by
sea, on sale, at dawn.
2.5. SEMINAR - ARTICLE
EXERCISE 1. Insert definite or indefinite articles.
1. I have ordered . . . washing machine and . . . washingmachine has come. 2 . . . climate does not suit me. 3. How did . . .
press receive it? 4. Since lunch was not ready yet, my husband
read . . . paper for a while, then he rose from . . . armchair and
turned on . . . television. 5. I mentioned bridge; he was very good
at. . . game. 6. Give me . . . newspaper to clean the mirror with. 7.
Give me . . . newspaper, I want to have a look at the ads. 8. . . .moon rose out of the sea. 9. Is there . . . moon tonight? 10. The
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door opened and . . . teacher came in. 11. The door opened
and . . . headmaster came in. 12. I heard on . . . radio that they
have come to . . . truce. 13. . . . man has called and left. . .
present for you. 14. . . . moon goes round . . . earth and . . . earth
goes round . . . sun. 15. How have myths come into . . . world?
EXERCISE 2. Supply the necessary article(s): zero (0), the or alan,
used in their generic function. Make any necessary changes:
1. . . . verdict has to be unanimous. 2. . . . tiger is larger than . . .
lynx. 3.. witness may tell only what he himself knows to be true.
4. . . . French have good wines. 5. . . . leopard is a cat. 6. . . .
leopard is the fastest cat. 7. He's wasted his life in search of . . .
unusual. 8. You're rather partial to . . . asparagus, and . . . trout.
9. They have a fine taste in . . . music and . . . literature. 10. The
responsibility of. . . parents is stressed in the Declaration on the
Rights of. . . Child. 11. . . . fellow does a lot of crazy things when
he has been drinking. 12. . . . man has left his imprint here too.
13. What can . man do when he is cast on a far-off island?
14. . . . (rubber tyre, do, not, make a noise). 15. . . . (first
offender) should be treated with sympathy. 16. . . . rich have
always exploited . . . poor.
EXERCISE 3. Supply the necessary article: zero (0), ajan
1. He had served his country as . . . Minister of Finance and . . .
Ambassador to Finland. 2. She was . . . typist by trade. 3. Can
you act as . . . guide? 4. Who is going to hold the office of. . .
secretary? 5. Be . . foster parent!
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6. He had the help of two deputies, the economist Mark Webster, .
. . Director of the U.N. Population Division and Roy Wilkins, . . .
career U. N. officer.
7.You can get a job as . ... waiter. 8. He'll be acting the part of . . .
solicitor next week. 9. The castle in which Mary . . . Queen of
Scots was imprisoned is worth a visit. 10. He became . . .
unwilling sailor. 11. He fully well deserved to be awarded the
rank of. . . general. 12. He spent his adolescence as . . .
seaman, . . . prospector and . . . fireman. 13. He was . . . firm
believer in the triumph of good. 14. He has been elected . . .
President of the Conference. 15. Now he's had a go at solving a
difficult case, he might turn . . . detective. 16. I rather doubt he'll
remain . . . content accountant all his life. 17. I won't have you
take her for . . . fool. 18. What with everybody finding him ...
indispensable person! It's gone to his head.
EXERCISE 4. Supply the necessary article: definite or zero:
1. I hate . . . wet weather. 2. I spent four hours going from . . .
hotel to . . . hotel, trying to find a room. 3. . . . winter of last year
was pretty mild. 4. . . . youth look down on oldtimers. 5. A
humane leader is loved by . . . people. 6. That type of . . . skirt is
no longer fashionable. 7. He doesn't go by . . . train because he
can never find a seat. 8. Nobody liked . . . cheese but I; I thoughtit very tasty. 9. She has . . . youth and she has . . . taste. 10. Did
you see . . . van Eyke at the National Gallery? 11. I decided to
stay in . . . bed. 12. He hoped he would be inside the harbour
before . . . sundown. 13. He looked forward to leaving . . . school
and joining . . . army. 14. . . . dinner is being prepared by the
children today. 15. The number of. . . smokers has dropped. 16.She is suffering from . . . loss of . . . memory. 17. They generally
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have . . . breakfast out on the porch in . . . warm weather. 18.
Don't drive. Take . . . train. 19. Everybody feels . . . spring is
in . . . air. 20. There are no raspberries on . . . market. 21. Cover
the roots of the plant with . . . earth. 22. . . . lunch was good
but. . . breakfast was awful. 23. Granny went to . . . market to
buy . . . fruit for the family. 24. One can get tired of. . . fish and
chips. 25. . . . health is better than . . . wealth. 26. It is not visible
at. . . night. 27. The party went on far into . . . night. 28. The
party started in . . . evening and broke up after . . . midnight. 29.
Around . . . noon he can be found in his office. 30. . . .
atmospheric polluants turn . . . marble into . . . fine dust which is
washed away by . . . rain.
EXERCISE 5. Insert definite or zero articles before the
geographical names used in the following sentences:
1. . . British Isles have a total area of about 121,600 square
miles. The largest islands are . . . Great Britain proper (comprisingthe mainlands of. . , England,. . . Wales, and . . . Scotland) and . . .
Ireland (comprising . . . Northern Ireland and ... Irish Republic).
2. ... Isle of Man in... Irish Sea and . . . Channel Islands between . .
. Great Britain and . . . France have administrative autonomy. 3.
The latitude of 50 North cuts across... Lizard Peninsula and
latitude 60 North passes through... Shetland Islands. 4. Theboundaries of this region run from the mouth of . . . Tyne to the
mouth of. . . Exe. 5. . . . North Atlantic Current reaches the islands
from across . .. Atlantic. 6. . .. Highland Britain comprises the
whole of. . . Scotland (including the hills and moors of . . .
southern Scotland as well as the mountains of. . . Scottish
Highlands, which extend from . . . Forth-Clyde valley to theextreme north-west), . . . Lake District in . . . north-west England,
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the broad central upland known as . . . Pennines. 7. The whole
of. . . Britain north of a line joining... river Thames and . . . Bristol
Channel was covered by ice caps. 8. The red sandstone on . . .
Cumberland coast and the limestone masses and slates of . . .
Pembrokeshire coast in . . . South Wales are notable features of
the varied coastline. 9. Between 150 and 200 inches of rain fall
on the summits of . . . Snowdon and .. . Ben Nevis during the
average year. 10. The eastern coast of England between . . .
Humber and . . . Thames estuary is for the most part low-lying.
(Adapted from "Britain-An Official Handbook 1968")
III. ADJECTIVES
3.1. Kinds of adjectives
A The main kinds are:
(a) Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
(b) Distributive: each, every; either, neither
(c) Quantitative: some, any, no ; little/few ; many, much ;
one, twenty
(d) Interrogative: which, what, whose
(e) Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
(f)Of quality: clever, dry, fat, golden, good, heavy, square
B Participles used as adjectives
Both present participles (ing) and past participles (ed) can be
used as adjectives. Present participle adjectives, amusing,
boring, tiring etc., are active and mean 'having this effect'.
Past participle adjectives, amused, horrified, tired etc., are
passive and mean 'affected in this way'.
The play was boring. (The audience was bored.)
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The work was tiring. (The workers were soon tired.)
The scene was horrifying. (The spectators were horrified.)
an infuriating woman (She made us furious.)
an infuriated woman (Something had made her furious.)
C Agreement
Adjectives in English have the same form for singular and
plural, masculine and feminine nouns:
a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls
The only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this
and that, which change to these and those before pluralnouns:
this cat, these cats that man, those men
3.2. Order of adjectives of quality
A Several variations are possible but a fairly usual order is:
adjectives of
(a) size
(b) general description (excluding adjectives of personality,
emotion)
(c) age
(d) shape
(e)colour
(f)material
(g) origin
(h) purpose (these are really gerunds used to form compound
nouns: walking stick, riding boots).
a long sharp knife
a small round bath
new hexagonal coins
blue velvet curtains
an old plastic bucket
an elegant French clock
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3.3. Comparison
There are three degrees of comparison:
Positive Comparative Superlative
dark darker darkest
tall taller tallest
useful more useful most useful
B One-syllable adjectives form their comparative and
superlative by adding er and est to the positive form:bright brighter brightest
Adjectives ending in e add r and st:
brave braver bravest
C Adjectives of three or more syllables form their
comparative and
superlative by putting more and most before the positive:
interested more interested most interested
frightening more frightening most frightening
D Adjectives of two syllables follow one or other of the above
rules. Those ending in ful or-re usually take more and
most:doubtful more doubtful most doubtful
obscuremore obscure most obscure
Those ending in er, y or ly usually add er, est:
clever cleverer cleverest
pretty prettier prettiest(note that the y becomes i)
silly sillier silliestE Irregular comparisons:
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bad worse worst
far farther farthest (of distance only)
further furthest (used more widely; see F, G)
good better best
little less least
many/much more most
old elder eldest (of people only)
older oldest(of people and things)
F farther/farthest and further/furthest Both forms can be
used of distances:York is farther/further than Lincoln or Selby.
York is the farthest/furthest town
Further can also be used, mainly with abstract nouns, to
mean 'additional/extra':
Further supplies will soon be available.
Further discussion/debate would be pointless.
II elder, eldest; older, oldest
elder, eldest imply seniority rather than age. They are chiefly
used for comparisons within a family: my elder brother, her
eldest boy/girl; but elder is not used with than, so older is
necessary here:
He is older than I am. (elder would not be possible.)
3.4. Constructions with comparisons
A With the positive form of the adjective, we use as ... as
in the affirmative and not as/not so . . . as in the negative:
A boy of sixteen is often as tall as his father. He was as
white as a sheet. Manslaughter is not as/so bad as murder.
Your coffee is not as/so good as the coffee my mother makes.
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B Parallel increase is expressed by the + comparative . . .
the + comparative:
HOUSE AGENT: Do you want a big house?
ANN: Yes, the bigger the better.
TOM: But the smaller it is, the less it will cost us to heat.
C Gradual increase or decrease is expressed by two
comparatives joined by and:
The weather is getting colder and colder. He
became less and less interested.
the + adjective with a plural meaningA blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead,
rich/poor, unemployed and certain other adjectives
describing the human character or condition can be preceded
by the and used to represent a class of persons. These
expressions have a plural meaning; they take a plural verb
and the pronoun is they:The poor get poorer; the rich get richer. the can be used in
the same way with national adjectives ending in ch or sh:
the Dutch the Spanish the Welsh and can be used
similarly with national adjectives ending in se or ss:
the Burmese the Chinese the Japanese the
Swiss though it is just possible for these to have asingular meaning.
3.5. Possessive adjectives
my
your
his/her/its
our
your
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their
A Possessive adjectives in English refer to the possessor and
not to the thing possessed. Everything that a man or boy
possesses is his thing; everything that a woman or girlpossesses is her thing:
Tom's father is his fatherbut
Mary's father is her father. Everything that an animal
or thing possesses is its thing:
A tree drops its leaves in autumn.
A happy dog wags its tail. But if the sex of the animal isknown, his/her would often be used. If there is more than one
possessor, their is used:
The girls are with their brother.
Trees drop their leaves in autumn. Note that the possessive
adjective remains the same whether the thing possessed is
singular or plural:my glove, my gloves his foot, his feet
C To add emphasis, own can be placed after my, your, his
etc. and after one's:
my own room her own idea own can be an
adjective, as above, or a pronoun:
a room of one's ownNote the expression:
I'm on my own = I'm alone.
3.6. SEMINAR - ADJECTIVE
EXERCISE 1. Choose the appropriate adjective. Note that-icalternates with -ical with a difference of meaning:
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1. I am fond of classic / classical languages. 2. Caragiale's play
"The Lost Letter" is a comic / comical masterpiece. 3. Everybody
has realized that big cars are not economic / economical to run. 4.
It has taken long years of I historic \ historical research to gather
all the data about this historic / historical building. 5. The Royal
Ballet's performance of "The Nut-cracker" was a classic! classical
one. 6. Romania's economic \ economical performance is no
longer considered a miracle. 7. She was quite a sight with that
comic \ comical old hat on. 8. Many an innocent man has gone to
the electric \ electrical chair. 9. He is quite an expert in electric /
electrical engineering.
EXERCISE 2. Group the adjectives listed below under the three
heads of the table.
Note that there are two regular ways of marking the category
of comparison in English; a) by means of -er in the comparative
and (the) -est in the superlative (the synthetic comparison) withmonosyllabic adjectives; b) by means of the periphrastic forms
with more and (the) most (the analytic comparison), incase of
plurisyllabic adjectives. A series of monosyllabic adjectives, such
as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank, scarce, grave, promptdisplay both
patterns. Many disyllabic adjectives display both patterns too. It is
typically the case with adjectives ending in -y, -ow, -le, -er suchas: clumsy, sallow, humble, clever, as well as the following
adjectives: handsome, common, polite, quiet, pleasant, precise,
sincere etc.
sly, wicked, convenient, foolish, active, vague, afraid, common,
red, wounded, thin, pretty, startling, stupid, big, healthy, correct,
alive, fertile, worthy, pleasant, minute, eager, cruel, tiring,
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remote, early, comic, simple, easy, tender, low, calm, sore, fast,
just, docile, proper, distinct, high, sincere.
a) -er b) more+Adj. ) a) -er; (the) -est /
(the) -est (the) most+Adj. b) more + Adj. (the)
most + Adj.
EXERCISE 3. Provide the irregular degrees of comparison of the
following adjectives. Remember that some of them have two
forms of degrees of comparison :
1. good, 2. bad / ill, 3. little, 4. near, 5. much / many, 6. far, 7.late, 8. old.
EXERCISE 4. Use the correct form of the adjectives in brackets:
1. What is the (late) information you've got? 2. Her (old) brother is
called Jim. 3. We were in a hurry to catch the (late) bus. 4. Which
is (old) of the two ? 5. Who is the (old) member of the students'club? 6. They got down to business without (far) delay. 7. I've got
a still (old) edition of the dictionary. 8. The (old) sister was
twenty years (old) than the youngest. 9. The (late) half of May
was quite rainy. 10. I was told to wait until (far) notice. 11. I wish I
had bought it at the (near) shop. 12. He provided them with (far)
information as agreed. 13. The (near) station is Calea Victoriei.14. John's (late) novel was a (good) seller and for sure it won't be
his (late) one. 15. He is the (little) writer of the two. 16. I saw him
meet her at the (far) end of the street. 17. I shall need (far) help
with this.
EXERCISE 5. Supply the appropriate form of the adjectives given
in brackets :
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1. This is the . . . book I have read for a long time (good). 2. He
has one of the . . . cars on the road (fast). 3. The work you are
doing today is . . . than the work you did yesterday (easy). 4. Ann
often wears . . . dresses than her mother (expensive). 5. Which is
the . . . play you have lately read? (interesting). 6. The actress on
the stage was the . . . girl I have ever seen (striking). 7. Tom
is . . . than his friend (tall). 8. They have a. . . garden than ours
(lovely). 9. He said this was the . . . day in his life (important). 10.
He was . . . than his wife when the child broke the window
(angry). 11. He was the . . . man in the world to do that (late). 12.
A: 'Which was your . . . subject at school and which was your .. .
(good, bad)?' B:'Physics was my . . . and history my.. .'(good,
bad).' 13. Is Bucharest or Prague the . . . from London (far)? 14.
Tom is 17 years old, his brother Jack is 19 and his sister Jane is
15. Therefore Jane is the . . . and Jack is the.. . (young, old).
EXERCISE 6. Supply the comparative form of the adjectives givenin brackets. Note that the meaning of the pattern the
comparative of Adjective . . . , the comparative of Adjective is cu
cit. . . cu atit:
l. The (long) the speech is, the (tedious) it is. 2. The (weak) the
patient, the (great) his dependence on the nurse. 3. The (stormy)
the weather, the (dangerous) the trip. 4. The (humble) a man is,the (haughty) her manner becomes. 5. The (scarce) the food is
getting, the (wild) the beasts become. 6. The (prompt) the
answer, the (high) the grade. 7. The (proper) the word, the
(exact) the translation is. 8. The (narrow) the path was getting,
the (hostile) the horse was becoming. 9. The (eager) the child,
the (intricate) the questions he asks. 10. The (fertile) the land,the (little) the amount of fertilizer given to it.
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EXERCISE 7. Give the correct succession of the adjectives in the
following noun phrases:
1. a/an (blue, washable, good, cotton) skirt; 2. (blue, frightened,
small) eyes; 3. a/an (Asiatic, large, striped) quadruped; 4. (cold,
turbulent, greyish, de_ep) waters; 5. (volcanic, dark, tall) rocks; 6.
a (Greek, young, bright) student; 7. a/an (fifteen-foot, pale-red,
age-old) brickwall; 8. a/an (little, marble, Roman, brownish)
statue; 9. a/an (intelligent, Polish, wiry, elderly) logician; 10 a/an
(fluffy, orange, wide, wollen, Peruvian) shawl.
IV. ADVERBS
4.1. Kinds of adverbs
Manner: bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, well
Place: by, down, here, near, there, up
Time: now, soon, still, then, today, yet
Frequency: always, never, occasionally, often, twice
Sentence: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely
Degree: fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very
Interrogative: when? where? why?Relative: when, where,
why
4.2. Form and use
The formation of adverbs with ly
A Many adverbs of manner and some adverbs of degree are
formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives:
final, finally immediate, immediately slow, slowly
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Spelling notes
(a)A final y changes to i: happy, happily.
(b) A final e is retained before ly: extreme, extremely.
Exceptions: true, due, whole become truly, duly, wholly.
(c)Adjectives ending in a consonant + le drop the e and add y:
gentle, gently simple, simply
Note that the adverb ofgood is well.
B Adjectives ending in ly
daily, weekly, monthly etc., kindly and sometimes
leisurely can beadjectives or adverbs, but most other adjectives ending in ly,
e.g.
friendly, likely, lonely etc., cannot be used as adverbs and
have no
adverb form. To supply this deficiency we use a similar adverb
oradverb phrase:
likely(adjective) probably(adverb)
friendly(adjective) in a friendly way(adverb phrase)
C Some adverbs have a narrower meaning than their
corresponding adjectives or differ from them. coldly, coolly,
hotly, warmly are used mainly of feelings:
We received them coldly, (in an unfriendly way)
They denied the accusation hotly, (indignantly)
She welcomed us warmly, (in a friendly way)
But warmly dressed = wearing warm clothes.
coolly = calmly/courageously or calmly/impudently:
He behaved very coolly in this dangerous situation.
presently = soon: He'll be here presently.
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Adverbs and adjectives with the same form
A back hard" little right*
deep* high* long short*
direct* ill low stillearly just* much/more/most* straight
enoughkindly near* well
far late* pretty* wrong*
fast left
Used as adverbs: Used as adjectives:Come back soon. the back door
You can dial Rome direct. the most direct route
The train went fast. a fast train
They worked hard, (energetically) The work is hard
an ill-made road You look ill/well
Turn right here. the right answerShe went straight home. a straight line
He led us wrong. This is the wrong way.
B Starred words above also have ly forms. Note the
meanings. deeply is used chiefly of feelings:
He was deeply offended.
Directly can be used of time or connection:He '11 be here directly, (very soon)
The new regulations will affect us directly/indirectly.
Highly is used only in an abstract sense:
He was a highly paid official. They spoke very highly of
him.
Justly corresponds to the adjectivejust (fair, right, lawful), butjust can also be an adverb of degree.
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Lately = recently: Have you seen him lately?
4.3. Comparative and superlative adverb forms
A With adverbs of two or more syllables we form the
comparative and superlative by putting more and most
before the positive form:
Positive ComparativeSuperlative
quickly more quicklymost quickly
fortunately more fortunately most fortunately
Single-syllable adverbs, however, and early, add er,
est:
hard harder hardest
early earlier earliest(note the y becomes i)
B Irregular comparisons:
well better best
badly worse worst
little less least
much more most
far farther farthest (of distance only)
further furthest(used more widely)
4.4 Position of adverbs
Adverbs of manner
A Adverbs of manner come after the verb:
She danced beautifullyor after the object when there is
one:
He gave her the money reluctantly. They speak English
well.
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Do not put an adverb between verb and object.
B When we have verb + preposition + object, the adverb can
be either before the preposition or after the object:
He looked at me suspiciouslyor He looked suspiciously atme. But if the object contains a number of words we put the
adverb before the preposition:
He looked suspiciously at everyone who got off the plane.
Adverbs of time
A afterwards, eventually, lately, now, recently, soon,then, today, tomorrow etc. and adverb phrases of time: at
once, since then, till (6.00 etc.)
These are usually placed at the very beginning or at the very
end of the clause, i.e. in front position or end position.
Eventually he came/He came eventually.
Then we went home/We went home then.Write today. I'll wait till tomorrow.
Adverbs of frequency
(a) always, continually, frequently, occasionally,
often, once, twice, periodically, repeatedly,
sometimes, usually etc.
(b) ever, hardly ever, never, rarely, scarcely ever,
seldom
A Adverbs in both the above groups are normally placed:
1 After the simple tenses ofto be:
He is always in time for meals.
2 Before the simple tenses of all other verbs:They sometimes stay up all night.
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3 With compound tenses, they are placed after the first
auxiliary, or, with interrogative verbs, after auxiliary + subject:
He can never understand.
You have often been told not to do that.
Have you ever ridden a camel?
Order of adverbs and adverb phrases of manner, place and time
when they occur in the same sentence
Expressions of manner usually precede expressions of place:
He climbed awkwardly out of the window.
He 'd study happily anywhere.
Time expressions can follow expressions of manner and place:
They worked hard in the garden today.
He lived there happily for a year.
4.5. Inversion of the verb
Inversion of the verb after certain adverbs
Certain adverbs and adverb phrases, mostly with a restrictive or
negative sense, can for emphasis be placed first in a sentence or
clause and are then followed by the inverted (i.e. interrogative)
form of the verb. The most important of these are shown below.
The numbers indicate paragraphs where an example will be found.hardly ever on no account
hardly . . . when ) only by
in no circumstances only in this way
neither/nor only then/when
never scarcely ever
no sooner . . . than scarcely . . . whennot only seldom
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not till so
nowhere
1. Haven't got a ticket. Neither/Nor have I.
2. I had never before been asked to accept a bribe.Never before had I been asked to accept a bribe.
3. They not only rob you, they smash everything too. Not
only do they rob you, they smash everything too.
4. He didn 't realize that he had lost it till he got home.
Not till he got home did he realize that he had lost it.
5. This switch must not be touched on any account. On
no account must this switch be touched.
4.6. SEMINAR - ADVERB
EXERCISE Form adverbs from the following adjectives and nouns
by adding
the suffix -If or-ward(s),paying attention to their spelling.
Remember that certain adverb coincide in form with the
adjectives they derive from:
Gay, extreme, back, sincere, true, sensible, east, whole, final,
due, beautiful, good, sure, home, pleasant, hungry, whole-
hearted, deep, bad, thankful, late, devoted, striking, hard, west,unhappy, terrible, diligent, silent, fast, near.
EXERCISE 2. Choose the correct word:
1. You are an excellent cook. The food tastes (good, well). 2. It was a
lovely day with birds singing and the sun shining (bright, brightly)
and girls wearing (bright, brightly)-coloured dresses. 3. I hate
taking medicine. It tastes (bitter, bitterly). 4. I don't think he is ill.
His voice sounds (merry, merrily). 5. It rains (heavy, heavily). 6. It
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is (near, nearly) five o'clock. 7. You must work (hard, hardly) for
your exams. 8. He spoke so (quick, quickly) that we could (hard,
hardly) follow him. 9. When did you (last, lastly) see him? 10. I am
(direct, directly) interested in what you think. 11. He couldn't
move as he was (dead, deadly) tired. 12. His eyes hurt him (bad,
badly). 13. Mr. Jones held it (tight, tightly). 14. It was six o'clock
as (near, nearly) as he could guess. 15. (last, lastly) I must
account for my sister's behaviour.
EXERCISE 3. Rewrite these sentences substituting -ly adverbs forthe italicized phrases:
MODEL: 'Who's afraid?' he said in an uneasy manner. 'Who's
afraid?' he said uneasily.
1. He smiled a contemptuous smile. 2. I pick my staffin a
careful manner.
3.'Oh, John', she said in a hoarse voice. 4. He bade us farewell in
a cold voice.5. She cried with bitter tears. 6. He came up to me at
a slow pace. 7. He spoke about the trip in an excited voice. 8.
They defended their friend in convincing words. 9. She stared at
me with a fixed look. 10. The Indians lived a simple life, hunting
and fishing.
EXERCISE 4. Give the degrees of comparison of the following
adverbs:
Much, brightly, quietly, expressively, badly, quickly, late, fast,
high, often, well, swiftly, far, little, slowly.
EXERCiSE 5. Rewrite the following sentences using the adverbs
in parantheses in the correct degree of comparison:
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1. In a large city you must cross the street (carefully) than in a
small one. 2. He walked (far) than I did. 3. Please speak (slowly),
so that I can take notes. 4. She moved (awkwardly) an elephant.
5. He reviewed her work (unfavorably) than Dixon did. 6. Of the
three men, you behaved (disgracefully). 7. He's been sleeping
(badly) than myself the last few months. 8. Of the ten students
he has been working (hard). 9. I pick my staff (carefully) than you
do; that's why our results are worse. 10. The answer came back
(quickly) than I had expected.
EXERCISE 6 Fill in the blanks with rather orfairly:Note that fairly implies the idea of something "favourable" while
ratherthe idea of something "unfavourable". Rathercan be used
before alike, like, similar, different and before comparatives
conveying the meaning ofa little, slightly, (e.g. Your example is
rather similar to mine. The suitcase was rather heavier than I
expected). Fairly cannot be used before comparatives. Rathercan be used before certain "favourable" words such as: good,
well,pretty, clever, amusing, and the verbs to like, to enjoy, etc.,
its meaning becoming nearly equivalent to very. (e.g. The
performance was rather good.)
1. This cake is . . . good, but the other is . . . sour. 2. They
behaved . . . meanly. 3. You speak English . . . well. 4. It was . . .stupid of him to propose to Mary. 5. She looks . . . nice. 6. Lesson
25 is . .. difficult but Lesson 24 was . . . easy. 7. She was . . . kind
to me. 8. The teacher was . . . angry with us. 9. She is . . . tall for
her age. 10. It was . . . cruel of him to say that. 11. The lecture
was . . . interesting but. . . long. 12.1 didn't want to make friends
with them but now I . . . like them.
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V. THE PRONOUN
Pronoun is a word used to replace a noun.
Pronouns identify persons, places, things, and ideas withoutrenaming them.
EXAMPLE:John broke Johns arm.
ANSWER: John broke his arm.
The noun that a pronoun replaces is the antecedent of the
pronoun.
EXAMPLE:
Carmen and Joan walked into the theatre. It was so dark that
they could barely see the floor.
(Theatre is the antecedent of it. Carmen and Joan are the
antecedents of they.)
The antecedent usually appears before the pronoun. Pronouns
may be the antecedents of other pronouns
EXAMPLE: HE enjoys HIS free time. (He is the antecedent of
his)
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.
If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must be singular. If the
antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be plural
There are seven kinds of pronouns:
personal,
demonstrative,
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reflexive,
intensive,
interrogative,
relative, and indefinite.
5.1. Personal pronouns
Personal Pronouns are the largest group of pronouns. They have
different form to express person, number, and gender.
Expressing person
When you write or speak about yourself, you use first-person
pronouns: I, me, we, us.
When you refer to an audience, you use the second person
pronoun: you.
When you refer to other people or things, you use third-
person pronouns: he, she, they, it, and them.
Expressing number (are they singular or plural)
Personal pronouns also indicate whether the antecedent (the
noun that the pronoun is replacing) is singular or plural.
I , She, he, and it are SINGULAR pronouns.
We, they and us are PLURAL pronouns.
You can be EITHER singular or plural.
Expressing gender
Personal pronouns express gender.
He and His indicate the masculine gender.
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She and Her indicate the feminine gender.
Itindicates the neuter gender, which you use to refer
to things and ideas.
5.2. Uses of it
A it is normally used of a thing or an animal whose sex we
don't know, and sometimes of a baby or small child: Where's
my map? I left it on the table. Look at that bird. It always
comes to my window. Her new baby is tiny. It only weighs 2
kilos.
it can be used of people in sentences such as: ANN
(on phone): Who is that/Who is it? BILL: It's me. Is
that Tom over there? ~ No, it's Peter.
it is used in expressions of time, distance, weather,
temperature, tide: What time is it? ~ It is six. What's the
date? ~ It's the third of March
How far is it to York? ~ It is 400 kilometres.
How long does it take to get there? ~ It depends on how you
go.
It is raining/snowing/freezing. It's frosty. It's a fine
night.
It's full moon tonight. In winter it's/it is dark at six o'clock.
It is hot/cold/quiet/noisy in this room.
It's high tide/low tide. Note also:
It's/It is three years since I saw him =
I haven't seen him for three years.
E it/this can represent a previously mentioned phrase, clause
or verb: He smokes in bed, though I don't like it. (it= his
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smoking in bed) He suggested flying, but I thought it would
cost too much, {it= flying)
F it also acts as a subject for impersonal verbs:
it seems it appears it looks it happens
5.3. Possessive pronouns
Personal Pronouns have possessive forms to show ownership or
belonging.
EXAMPLE:
The house is ours.
The pen is mine.
The following chart contains the personal pronouns. The POSSESSIVE forms are in parentheses.
SINGULAR PLURALFIRST PERSON I, me (my, mine) we, us (our, ours)SECOND PERSON you (your, yours) you (your, yours)
THIRD PERSON
he, him (his)
she, her (her, hers)
it (its)
them, they (their,theirs)
5.4. Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns tell which one or which group is referred
to. A list of demonstrative pronouns follows: THAT THIS THESETHOSE
THIS and THESE point to people or things that are near in space
or time. THAT or THOSE point to people or things that are farther
away in space or time.
EXAMPLE 1: THIS is a new book.( the antecedent of THIS is book)
EXAMPLE 2: THOSE are rare coins. (the antecedent of THOSE israre coins)
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5.5. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns are used to indicate that people perform
actions TO, FOR, or UPON themselves. You form reflexive
pronouns with the suffixes -self, and -selves.
FIRST PERSON: myself, ourselves
SECOND PERSON: yourself, yourselves
THIRD PERSON: himself, herself, itself, oneself, themselves.
EXAMPLE 1: Brad bumped himself on the knee. (Brad performed
the action of bumping upon himself.)
EXAMPLE 2: The Hanson CHILDREN built themselves a tree house.
(The Hanson children built a tree house for themselves)
5.6. Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns introduce questions. A list of interrogative
pronouns follows.Who which whose whom what
EXAMPLE 1: WHO was at the door?
EXAMPLE 2: WHICH do you prefer?
EXAMPLE 3: WHOM did you elect?
5.7. Relative pronouns
Relative Pronouns introduce adjective clauses, which are word
groups that modify a word or a phrase. A list of reflexive pronouns
follows.
Who Whose That Whom Which
EXAMPLE 1: I know the PERSON who lives here. (PERSON is the
antecedent of who)
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EXAMPLE 2: He planted FLOWERS that bloom every year.
(FLOWERS is the antecedent of that)
*Remember, that INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS introduce
QUESTIONS only.
5.8. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns do not refer to a definite person, place or
thing; instead they refer to persons, places or things in general.
The following indefinite pronouns are singular. They are used withthe singular possessive pronouns HIS, HER, and ITS.
Another anything everybody neither one
anybody each everyone nobody somebody
anyone either everything no one someone
EXAMPLE: Each of the jobs has ITS rewards.
The following indefinite pronouns are plural. They are used withthe plural possessive THEIR.
Both many few several
EXAMPLE: Many of the viewers expressed THEIR opinions.
The following indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural,
depending on their meaning in the sentence.
All Some None
5.9. SEMINAR PRONOUN
EXERCISE 1. Substitute possessive pronouns for the italicized
groups of words:
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MODEL: His results are more impressive than my
results. His results are more impressive than
mine.
1. Jim's sense of humour is as unusual as her sense ofhumour. 2. Grandmother's pears are very juicy; our pears are
not. 3. Our employers will be as surprised as their employers. 4.
Tom boasted to his friend about his success and Bob boasted to
his friend. 5. I'm glad I haven't a mind likeyour mind.
6. You have your own interests, and I have my interests. 7.
The Browns tooktheir twins to the Zoo, and the Ashtons took their twins to the
circus. 8. He'll
take my hand and I'll take her hand and we'll start dancing. 9.
She is mad at
her daughter and I am mad at my daughter. 10. Scratch my back
and I'llscratchyour back.
EXERCISE 2. Use the possessive pronoun instead of the
possessive adjective:
MODEL: He is one of her fans. He is a fan of hers.
1. He is one of my friends. 2. Tom lent his friend one of hisbooks. 3. I gave him one of our dictionaries. 4. She played one of
her old records. 5. Some of their neighbours had come over to
tea. 6. He took a fancy to one of my cousins. 7 Here, John, meet
one of your well-known commentators. 8. Is this another of their
little schemes? 9. Was it one of her favourite puns? 10. That's
one of our favourite tunes.
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EXERCISE 3. Fill in the blanks with the suitable reflexive
pronouns:
1. If the child eats so little he'll make . . . ill. 2. Can a five-year-
old boy wash . . ., dress . . . , feed . . . ? 3. We find it still difficultto express ... in English. 4. Alice hurt. . . when she fell down the
tree. 5. They are likely to have enjoyed ... at your party. 6. One
has to serve ... in that restaurant.
7.My cousin switched the light off and finding ... in the dark
began to cry.
8. I was told you have devoted ... to science. 9. She cheers ... up
by talking about her youth. 10. I bought a new watch for . . .
yesterday. 11. One can lose . . .quite easily in London. 12. We
forced ... to smile. 13. Do pull. . . together! 14. The ringleader
shot .. . . 15. I chose to defend . . . against her. 16. The cat looked
at... in the looking glass. 17. Make ... at home (pi). 18. They could
only speak for .... 19. She cooked ... a good meal and went to
bed.
EXERCISE 4. Choose the necessary pronoun:
Note that prepositions denoting concrete spatial relations are
not followed by reflexive pronouns. With the following
prepositions as, like, but, exceptpersonal and reflexive pronouns
are used in variation:
1. He began to imagine how he might rescue her in spite of
(her/herself). 2. They tried to live up to a lot of people who were
better off than (them/ themselves). 3. The car was heading
straight towards (them/themselves). 4. Then he went crazy,
screamed and threw (him/himself) about. 5. Look about
(you/yourself)! 6. Somebody like (you/yourself) should set the
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fashion. 7. I winced inside (me/myself). 8. She was beside
(her/herself) with rage. 9. My sister and (I/myself) went shopping.
10. Do they have any money on (them; themselves) ? 11. When
he was (him/himself) again she was too happy to question him.
12. We'll place our paper in front of (us/ourselves). 13. I am
deeply touched to be offered help by so eminent a man as
(you/yourself). 14. He takes too much upon (him/himself). 15. For
somebody like (me/myself) this is no surprise. 16. I hope it'll
remain between (us/ourselves).
EXERCISE 5
Identify the two personal pronouns in each of the following
sentences. Tell whether each pronoun is in the first person, the
second person, or the third person.
1. I picked up Sams paycheck and sent it through the mail.
2. I would like to tell you about last summer.
3. It was a long winter, and to make the time pass more quickly, I
took up painting.
4. He couldnt quite hear what you said.
5. We thought that the team was out of the running, but it came
back to win the pennant.
6. Is the book Sandys, and does she want it?
7. Will you please try to write us more often?
8. We should not criticize other people too harshly, for those
people may turn around and criticize us.
9. They saw the exhibit when it was at the art museum last year.
10. Brad looked at the painting, and knew it was his.
EXERCISE 6
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Underline the pronouns used in place of nouns. Identify their
antecedents (the noun each pronoun stands for)
1. Carolyn and Katy waxed their skis.
2. Ms. Rodriguez played the guitar for her class.
3. Have you spoken to Jean? Sheila asked Rene.
4. The steam made a hissing sound as it escaped.
5. Dad and Marty finished their painting.
6. The Millers moved. Anthony helped them.
7. Are the gloves yours? the sales clerk asked Joe.
8. Kim won a trophy. She was excited.
9. I will write the invitations, said Kevin.
10. We met Jim at the movie, said Mike and Jan.
11. The test took half an hour. It was simple.
12. The results are in. They will be posted later.
13. Bob carried Sues picture with him.
14. Dolores deposited the money in her savings account.
15. Al and Lee are here. Did Sarah find them?
EXERCISE 7
List the antecedents of the pronouns in CAPITAL letters.
1. Shelley, will YOU please answer the phone? IT has been ringing
for five minutes.
2. Grandmother said that SHE would love to come for dinner
today.
3. Larry will give you the information when you need IT.
4. Juan should go to the fair before IT closes on Friday.
5. Peter and I will practice our duet before WE come to band
practice on Saturday morning.
6. The carpenter picked up HIS hammer.
7. You must wait YOUR turn.
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8. The columnist wrote HER article.
9. Two members have not paid THEIR dues.
10. Nora has improved HER grades.
EXERCISE 8 Write a correct demonstrative pronoun for each
sentence.
1._____________________ is the first Japanese restaurant Ive been
in.
2._____________________ were my favorite stores.
3._____________________ dont taste as fresh as the others.
4._____________________ was a good idea.
5._____________________ are my sisters with me.
6._____________________ over there are yours.
7._____________________ is his house across the street.
EXERCISE 9 Identifying DEMONSTRATIVE and INTERROGATIVE
pronouns.
Write whether each capitalized pronoun is DEMONSTRATIVE or
INTERROGATIVE.
1. WHO was at the door?
2. Are THESE left over?
3. We chose THAT for our theme song.
4. WHICH of the jackets is yours?
5. Sara preferred THOSE.
6. WHOSE is the blue pen?
7. THIS is best for everyone.
8. WHAT was that noise?
EXERCISE 10 Using Indefinite Pronouns Correctly.
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Underline the indefinite pronoun, then underline the correct
possessive pronoun.
1. Nobody lost (his or her, their) place.
2. Everyone has paid (his or her, their) fee.
3. Many of the musicians brought (his or her, their) instruments.
4. Each of the type writers comes with (its, their) own carrying
case.
5. All of the gymnasts practiced (his or her, their) routines.
6. Neither of the girls brought (her, their) swim suit.
7. If anyone is interested, have (him or her, them) see me.
8. Several of the containers were missing (its, their) labels.
9. Both of the stores raised (its, their) labels.
10. Neither of the scientists completed (his or her, their)
experiment.
11. Everything was returned to (its, their) owner.
12. Some of the architects sent in (his or her, their) designs.
13. None of the sulphur is in (its, their) flask.
14. No one offered (his or her, their) help.
15. Either of the girls can explain (her, their) answer
Ex. 11 Fill in the correct self pronoun (myself, yourself, himself,
herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves) or each other
into the gaps.
1. Bob cut .. while he was preparing supper.
2. The two climbers fell and hurt .. on the rocks.
3. Sandy and her friend Margie looked at . very
surprised.
4. "Don't worry, Mandy. We can take care of . ."
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5. Mr Smith is teaching Spanish but he thinks it's
very difficult.
6. What a nice sweater! - Thank you, I've knitted it
.. .
7. The clock came off the wall . .
8. Mrs Brown wallpapered the living room .. .
9. Both families haven't been talking to .. since the
big quarrel last year.
10. Cathy and Ann are sewing fancy costumes for .. .
Ex.12 Fill in with relative nouns
1. This is the boy . had an accident.
2. Yesterday I saw a car .. was really old.
3. Mandy is the girl . I met on Friday.
4. I haven't seen Peter, .. brother is five, for a long time
now.5. The robber stole the car. the lady parked in front of the
supermarket.
6. This is the man . house is on fire.
7. Can I talk to the girl is sitting on the bench?
8. The book .. you gave me is great.
Ex.13 Relative Clauses, Relative Pronouns
1. Where is the bottle of Coke . who which whose x I
bought this morning?
2. I talked to the girl . who which whose x car had broken
down in front of the shop.
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3. Mr Jones, who which whose x is a taxi driver, lives on
the corner.
4. There is the car . who which whose x I'd like to buy.
5. He cleaned the car . who which whose x had an
accident.
6. This is the girl . who which whose x comes from Spain.
7. That's Peter, the boy . who which whose x has just arrived
at the airport.
8. What did you do with the money .. who which whose x
your mother lent you?
Ex. 14 Correct the pronoun errors.
1. Keats wrote that "a thing of beauty is a joy forever." He added
that it's "loveliness increases."
2. At some schools, you have to take the courses they tell you to
take.
3. Everyone at the game brought their Thermos filled with hot
chocolate.
4. Marie and me will go with you and she to the craft fair.
5. You have a much higher GPA than me.
6. Make your reservations with either Dana or myself.
7. On the ten o'clock news, they announced that Pete and her will
be the new delegates.
8. Unless you grasp the concept, it can be really frustrating.
9. My barber and his boss are always arguing; he told me theymay never make peace.
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10. The band played a fanfare for the President and I as we
disembarked from the plane.
11. You and me are best buds. This makes me very happy.
12. When they drove to California, they were surprised at how
fast it went.
13. The photograph certainly did justice to the scenery; it's
quality was excellent.
14. Dad loves the wide open spaces. That is why he moved out of
the city.
15. Sarah says she is going to graduate with honors or die trying.
16. Mike, Susan, and I washed the floor ourself this morning.
17. One of the plans were drawn by the architect who is more
famous than me.
18. All of the lumber were warped by the heavy rain.
19. Joe is afraid of dogs, and he is allergic to cats. That is why he
doesn't have a pet.
Ex. 15 "Who" and "Whom," "Whoever" and "Whomever"Exercises
Fill in the correct form in the following sentences.
1. _____ kicked the field goal?
2. The governor appointed _____ for the position?
3. I will pick ______ needs the money.
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4. Dan Baker is not only the man ______ wrote the best-selling
novel but also the ex-convict about ______ everyone wonders.
5. Trudy and ______ will be co-chairs of the committee?
6. You and ______ bought the flowers for ______ ?
7. This is the woman for ______ the bell tolls.
8. The student ______ was wearing the blue shorts swore that he
would punch out ______he could catch.
9. Jody went to the history class admiring ______ could write an
"A" paper for that professor, ______ was noted for his tough
grading policies and about ______ everyone was gossiping.
10. The corporation was facing bankruptcy; consequently, it could
not advertise for the technicians ______ would be the most
qualified, and they had to settle for ______ they could find that
would be willing to work for low wages.
11. Martha is a very conscientious mother upon ______ the whole
family depends.
12. This general, with ______ many soldiers fought and under
______ more soldiers were trained, ______ disciplined soldiers
_______ disobeyed the slightest order, and ______ challenged
______ appeared to have the faintest spark of promise, died
ingloriously yesterday while sitting in his easy chair in the nursing
home, dreaming of the days when he could strike fear in the
hearts of ______ he commanded.
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VI. PREPOSITIONS
6.1. Introduction
Prepositions are words normally placed before nouns or
pronouns
The student has two main problems with prepositions. He has
to know
(a) whether in any construction a preposition is required or
not, and
(b) which preposition to use when one is required.The first problem can be especially troublesome to a European
student, who may find that a certain construction in his own
language requires a preposition, whereas a similar one in
English does not, and vice versa: e.g. in most European
languages purpose is expressed by a preposition + infinitive;
in English it is expressed by the infinitive only:I came here to study
Alternative position of prepositions
A Prepositions normally precede nouns or pronouns. In two
constructions, however, it is possible in informal English to
move the preposition to the end of the sentence:1 In questions beginning with a preposition +
whom/which/what/
whose/where:
To whom were you talking? (formal)
Who were you talking to? (informal)
In which drawer does he keep it? (formal)
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Which drawer does he keep it in? (informal) It used to
be thought ungrammatical to end a sentence with a
preposition, but it is now accepted as a colloquial form.
2 Similarly in relative clauses, a preposition placed beforewhom/which
can be moved to the end of the clause. The relative pronoun is
then
often omitted:
the people with whom I was travelling (formal) the
people I was travelling with (informal) the company
from which I hire my TV set(formal) the company I
hire my TV set from (informal)
B But in phrasal verbs the preposition/adverb remains after its
verb, so the formal type of construction is not possible, the
children I was looking aftercould not be rewritten with after
+ whom and Which bridge did they blow up? could not be
rewritten with up + which.
Time and date: at, on, by, before, in
at daw, at six, at midnight, at 4.30, at sixteen/at the age of
sixteen, on Monday, on 4 June, on Christmas Day, by the end
of July
C on time, in time, in good time
on time = at the time arranged, not before, not after:
The 8.15 train started on time. (It started at 8.15.) in
time/in time for + noun = not late; in good time (for) =
with a comfortable margin:
Passengers should be in time for their train.
I arrived at the concert hall in good time (for the concert).
(Perhaps
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the concert began at 7.30 and I arrived at 7.15.)
I Time: from, since, for, during
from is normally used with to or till/until:
Most people work from nine to fivesince is used for time, never for place, and means 'from that time
to the time referred to'.
He has been here since Monday, (from Monday till now)
He wondered where Ann was. He had not seen her since their
quarrel.
for is used of a period of time: for six years, for twomonths, for ever:
Bake it for two hours.
He travelled in the desert for six months. for + a period of
time can be used with a present perfect tense or past perfect
tense for an action which extends up to the time of speaking:
He has worked here for a year. (He began working here ayear ago
and still wor