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Formal Definitions

The Structure of a Formal Definition

A formal definition is a one-sentence explanation of the meaning of a word. When you write a formal definition, first assign the term to a class and then explain how it is different from other members of the class.

Table 1 Parts of a Formal Definition

Term Verb Class Distinguishing Characteristics

Modems are devices that make possible the transmission of data to or from a computer via telephone.

Hypertext Mark-Up Language (HTML)

is a code used to make documents readable across a variety of platforms and software.

The Internet is a global system of networked computers

that allows user-to-user communication and transfer of data files.

Exercise 1

1. What do you notice about the grammar in the definitions in Table 1? 2. Which verb tense is used? 3. What type of clause is used in "distinguishing characteristics?"

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Guidelines for Writing Formal Definitions

Table 2 gives some guidelines for writing formal definitions.

Table 2 Guidelines for Formal Definitions

Guidelines Examples

Be specific about the class. A modem is a thing that [vague] A modem is a device that[specific] A modem is an electronic device that [more

specific ]

Use the same part of speech for the class as the word that is being defined.

HTML is used when[incorrect] (noun) (passive verb)

HTML is a code used when.. [correct] (noun) (noun)

Whenever possible, don't repeat the term in the class or distinguishing characteristics section.

Hypertext Mark-up Language is a language.[incorrect]

Hypertext Mark-up Language is a code used when[correct]

Make sure there is sufficient information in the adjective clause to distinguish the term from other members of the class.

A modem is a device that is used with a computer and a telephone. [insufficient]

A modem is a device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from a computer via telephone. [sufficient]

Avoid long words and long sentences in technical writing. If necessary, break the formal definition into two sentences, rather than producing a very long sentence.

The Internet, which is commonly confused with the World Wide Web, is a global system of networked computers that allows user-to-user communication and transfer of data files from one machine to another. The World Wide Web is the concept for presenting and linking information on a network.[too long]

The Internet is a global system of networked computers that allows user-to-user communication and transfer of data files. It is commonly confused with the World Wide Web, a concept for presenting and linking information on a network. [improved]

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Exercise 2 Revise these definitions to comply with the conventions for writing a formal definition. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) gives users access to the Internet.

1. Unlimited service refers to the time a user wants to spend on the Internet. 2. A set-up fee is a fee that ISPs charge to begin an account. 3. Point to Point Protocol (PPP) is the most common type of dialup account that ISPs

provide because it is easy to use, especially if the modem is fast. 4. Peak times are when many people are accessing the Internet. 5. Flat rate accounts are a way to charge users.

The Grammar of Definitions

Indefinite Articles

Formal definitions commonly use indefinite articles for the term and class, forms of the verb be and an adjective clause or reduced adjective clause to express the distinguishing characteristics.

Exercise 3 Decide if a, an, or nothing [( )] is missing from these sentences.

a) The Web is _____ enormous collection of HTML documents which are linked together over the Internet.

b) Links are highlighted words which point to _____ additional information. c) A web browser is_____ special communications program that reads and interprets

HTML documents. d) _____ web server is a computer program that responds to requests from Web

browsers e) ____ Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is an address that you feed Web browsers

Exercise 4 Reduce the following adjective clauses, where possible. Change the highlighted part of each sentence. If no reduction is possible, write no . Ex.: The Oxford Text Archives is a database which contains electronic books in many different languages around the world. containing a)Search engines are not the same as directories. Search engines send out spiders that create lists automatically. b)Then users search through the lists the search engines have created. c. If you change your web pages, it takes longer for search engines to find the changes, which may affect how you are listed. d. Directories depend on short descriptions that are written for web sites. e. A directory search looks for matches only in the descriptions that have been submitted by the owners of the sites. f. Some search engines, which are called hybrids, maintain an associated directory.

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Reduced Adjective Clauses in Definitions Technical writers should avoid wordiness. One way to eliminate unnecessary words is to reduce adjective clauses. There are several important rules when doing this.

Table 3 Rules for Reducing Adjective Clauses

Guidelines Examples

Drop the relative pronoun and the verb be if the adjective clause contains a prepositional phrase, an adjective, or a passive verb.

[adjective clause with an adjective] An electronic book is a document that is lengthy enough to be considered a book. => An electronic book is a document lengthy enough to be considered a book.

[adjective clause with a prepositional phrase] An electronic book is a document that is on diskette or hard drive. => An electronic book is a document on diskette or hard drive.

[adjective clause with a passive verb] A campus wide information system is an online service that is used as a central source of information at a college or university. => A campus wide information system is an online service used as a central source of information at a college or university.

Reduce the adjective clause by changing the word or word form in these two situations:

1. The adjective clause contains the verb have. [Drop the relative pronoun and change have to having.] or [Drop the relative pronoun and have. Replace using with.]

PPP is a method for connecting a personal computer that has a modem to the Internet. => PPP is a method for connecting a personal computer having a modem to the Internet. => PPP is a method for connecting a personal computer with a modem to the Internet.

2. The verb is in an active state and the relative pronoun is the subject. [Drop the relative pronoun and change the verb to the -ing form.]

Links are highlighted text that point to additional information. => Links are highlighted text pointing to additional information.

None of these rules apply to modal auxiliary verbs, e.g., should, may, can, or must, since the meaning of the modal is lost in the reduction.

[original] This information, which must be accessed via the Internet, is useful.

[reduced with different meaning] This information, accessed via the Internet, is useful.

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Classification Extended Definition

Introduction Analyzing the parts of an object or concept is a useful way to make the item clearer to the reader. Read this example of classifying in an extended definition.

A Uniform Resource Locator, commonly called a URL, is an addressing system which is used to identify sites on the Internet. A URL consists of four separate parts that together define the location of any file. The parts are the protocol, domain name, path, and filename.

Exercise 8 Answer these questions about the text above.

a) Which sentence is the formal definition? b) What are the elements of the classification? c) What key vocabulary is used to indicate classification?

The Language of Classification

In the URL example in Exercise 8 above, "consists of" and "parts" were used to indicate classification. There are a variety of words or phrases which have similar meanings.

Exercise 9a Rephrase "A URL consists of four separate parts" using the structures given.

a. include b. (can) be divided into c. (can) be split into d. (can) be classified into

Exercise 9b Before you do this exercise, look up these words in a dictionary.

branch characteristic component division feature pieces section segment trait unit

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Exercice 10 Which word best completes the sentences below?

1.The field of electrical engineering can be divided into three main __________

components branches traits

2 .There are two _____________ to look for in an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Features pieces segments

3.Their homepage includes three main _____: products, customer service, and purchasing.

Characteristics sections units

4.The computer consists of a number of ____________.

Divisions components branches 5. A good search engine includes the following _____: speed, frequency in indexing, and review of relevant pages.

Divisions components traits

Exercise 10a Complete this classification definition of "hypertext" by choosing a word or phrase below. . These consist of is a used

a) Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) _____ code _____ to make documents readable across a variety of platforms and software.

b) __________ codes are translated into specific formats to be displayed on the screen.

c) These formats _____ but are not limited to links, lists, headings, titles, images, forms, and maps.

Exercise 10b. In sentence "c" above, why didn't the writer give the number of formats?

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Exercice A Can you remove any words in the following sentences without changing the meaning? 1 The planet that the astronomers observed is Saturn. 2 Invertebrates are animals that have no backbone. 3 The hospital was not satisfied with the nurse whom the doctor hired. 4 The food that you eat should be varied. 5 Iodine is an element that aids in the prevention of goiter. 6 A geologist notices the manner in which strata are deposit. Exercice B Can you remove any words or phrases in the following sentences without changing the meaning? 1 One solvent that is used in dry cleaning is benzine. 2 A leaf that is growing on the left does not respond to light 3 A physicist who is at the CERN laboratory noticed the particle track. 4 The only water that is drinkable here is bottled water. 5 The pump that is the closest to the venturi valve has broken down twice. 6 Venus is a planet that is covered with clouds. Exercice C 1 The person who is responsible is the doctor who gave the injection. 2 The most distant object that is known in the universe is a quasar. 3 Stars that are red are older than stars that are blue. 4 The sentences that are italized must be included in the report. 5 The computer is a system that is simple enough for a child to use 6 The liquid that is boiling in the Sewar jar is liquid helium. 7 The only theory that was possible did not account for all the data 8 A problem that is in many pressurized-water nuclear reactors is the deterioration of steam-generator tubes. precede eruptions 9 Apnea is a sleep disorder that is characterized by frequent respiratory failure. 10Scientists who are studying volcanoes know that small earthquakes usually precede eruptions Exercice D 1 Nurses who live in infected areas should be inoculated. 2 The river that supplies water to the central valley contains small amounts of dioxin, a known carcinogen. 3 The animal that can run faster than any other is the cheetah. 4 Researchers that test new undersea cables prefer optical-fiber cables for long distances. 5 The physicists who discovered radium and polonium in 1898 were Marie and Pierre Curie.

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Writing Definitions

In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. Academic writers generally, however, define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic.

Introductory phrases:

It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by ..... This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word X. X is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about ......

Simple three-part definitions

A university is an institution where knowledge is "produced" and passed on to others.

Social Economics may be broadly defined as

the branch of economics

[which is] concerned with the measurement, causes and consequences of social problems.

Research may be defined as

a systematic process

which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data.

General meanings / application of meanings:

The term X has come to be used to refer to ...... The term X is generally understood to mean ...... The term X has been applied to situations where students ...... In broad biological terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is ....... The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated with ...... The term disease refers to a biological event characterised by ....... In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to ...... X can be defined as ...... It encompasses ......

Indicating difficulties in defining a term:

In the field of language teaching, various definitions of fluency are found. Fluency is a commonly used notion in language learning and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely. A generally accepted definition of fluency is lacking. Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term fluency: a) ..... The term poststructuralism embodies a multitude of concepts which ......

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Specifying terms that are used in an essay/thesis:

In this essay the term overseas student will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all students who ...... Throughout this thesis, the term education is used to refer to informal systems as well as formal systems. While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is X In this dissertation the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean ......

Referring to people's definitions (author prominent):

Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term ...... Chomsky writes that a grammar is a 'device of some sort for producing the .....' (1957, p.11). According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), fluency is 'the maximally ...... The term "fluency" is used by Smith (2001) to refer to ...... Smith (2001) uses the term "fluency" to refer to ...... For Smith (2001), fluency means/refers to ....... Macro-stabilisation policy is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as "......................" Aristotle defines the imagination as "the movement which results upon an actual sensation." The term "matter" is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying ....... Secondly, it is the potential which ...... Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: "health is a state of being with physical, cultural, psychological ....."

Referring to people's definitions (author non-prominent):

Validity is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures what it is intended to measure (Smith et al., 1986)

Language

X is ... X is called ... X is known as ... X may be defined as ... X is a type of Y that/which ... A type of Y which ... is X

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