© University of Reading 2008 www.reading.ac.ukApril 20, 2023

Developing vocabulary learning and teaching: a learner strategy perspective

Suzanne Graham, Institute of Education

Background

• More progress seems to occur in Year 12 - mean number of words known rises from 852 in Year 11 to 1,555 (Milton, 2006)

• Strong relationship between vocabulary levels and the A-Level grade learners achieve in French (Richards et al, 2008)

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Background

• Issues of motivation alongside issues of achievement• Reason for discontinuing with language study? –

McLaughlan (2006, in McLaughlan, 2007)• Source of difficulty and sense of being overwhelmed

(Graham, 1997; Richards et al, 2008)• Continues at undergraduate level (Gallagher-Brett,

2006)• Lack of sense of how to improve (Graham, 2004;

Williams et al, 2002))

Background

• Incidental vocabulary learning not enough; explicit learning also needed BUT

• Do learners know how to learn vocabulary effectively?

• Narrow range of strategies by Year 12 – Look, say, cover, write, check: ‘I read it through looking at it, and I usually have one side of the page in French and another in English, I look at the French and then I cover up the French side, look at the English and see if I can do the French bit and then the other way round. [It’s just] Continuous looking at it’ (Graham, 1997, 77)

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Background

• KS3 National Curriculum expectations but unassessed and lacking in explicit guidance for teachers:

• Key Processes - Developing language-learning strategies

• Pupils should be able to (…):

• • develop techniques for memorising words, phrases and spellings

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Background

• Vocabulary central to all aspects of language learning

• A problematic area within MFL in England – secondary school pupils lag behind European learners even accounting for differences in lesson time

• Learners learn on average 170 words a year in the first five years of schooling; slow down after a spurt in year 7 (Milton, 2006)

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Background

• National Curriculum gloss:

• Techniques for memorising

• These include identifying similarities between new and known words, associating words and phrases with a physical response, actions, images, the written form or sounds(including rhymes, repetition), practising with a friend or family member and using the technique

• ‘look, cover, write/say, check’.

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Background

• Textbooks: Expo 1, Module 1 Strategy box:

• ‘Stratégie 1:

• Look, say, cover, write, check’

• More advice and a worksheet in Module 2; advice to learn high-frequency words in Module 5.

• KS2 Framework includes LLS but not widely taught (Cable et al, 2010)

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Teaching learners how to learn vocabulary

• Studies of instruction in vocabulary learning strategies have provided generally positive results (Nyikos & Fan, 2007)

• Mirrors research in other areas – without explicit instruction in learner strategies, learners don’t develop them

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Learner strategies-definitions

• Macaro (2006) – ‘mental activity’, ‘specific task’, ‘in pursuit of a learning goal’ ‘transferrable’

• Metacognitive - 'higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity' (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, 44)

• Cognitive -'operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning' (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, 44)

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Macaro, 2006 - combinations

• ‘strategy clusters may be ineffective if individual strategies within them are inappropriately orchestrated. … Evaluation of strategy effectiveness, by learners, is likely to be undertaken against a background of the relative effectiveness of strategy clusters’. (pp. 327-328).

© University of Reading 2008 www.reading.ac.uk

Motivation

• Perception of lack of progress or real achievement, or sense of how to improve (Graham, 2004, 2006)

• Difficulty an important factor in giving up language learning (Graham, 2004; Macaro and Erler, 2007, and forthcoming)

© University of Reading 2008 www.reading.ac.uk

Theoretical perspectives

• Expectancy-value models of motivation (Eccles, 1983): individuals ‘ levels of motivation influenced by

a) their expectations of success in a given domain

b) The value they place on such success

• Expectancy and value closely related – those who expect success, tend to value it more (Mills et al, 2007)

© University of Reading 2008 www.reading.ac.uk

Self-efficacy and learner strategies

• Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993) as a sub-theory within expectancy-value framework (Dörnyei and Ottó,1998) central to persistence within ‘actional’ phase of a process model of motivation

• Self-efficacy beliefs linked to attributions, explanations for success/failure

• Adaptive versus maladaptive attributions: controllable/uncontrollable, internal/external

• Learner strategies clearly adaptive

Learner strategy instruction

Aims to:• ‘Demystify’ successful language learning: ‘Often

poorer learners don’t have a clue as to how good learners arrive at their answers and feel that they can never perform as good learners do. By revealing the process, this myth can be exposed’. (Rubin,1990:282)

• Develop greater awareness in learners that how they learn is just as important as what they learn

Learner strategies and self-efficacy

• Growing evidence that strategy instruction can significantly improve MFL learners’ self-efficacy:

• Studies so far in reading (Macaro & Erler, 2008) and in listening (Graham & Macaro, 2008).

• Why not in relation to vocabulary?

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Learner strategy instruction

cycle

Raising learners’ awareness

Strategy modelling

Guided practice

Teacher feedback

Evaluation/action planning

Macaro & Graham, 2007

The cycle illustrated through vocabularylearning – adapted from Grenfell & Harris, 1999)

• Awareness-raising – set task ‘cold’ – 10 words to learn – brainstorm – checklist;

• Modelling – by pupils, teacher, add to checklist

• General practice – 10 words to learn; each group of learners tries a different strategy; checklist for homeworks

• Action planning – personal needs and targets

• Focussed practice, fading out of reminders

• Evaluation – progress? What worked best?

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Examples of types of strategies

• Overview of interventions in Nyikos and Fan (2007):

• Elaboration/associative strategies (using imagery, colours, etc.) – more effective than simple repetition- depth of processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Lawson and Hogben, 1996)

• Keyword method Keyword strategy for vocabulary learning.ppt

• found to be effective in a number of studies, especially if keywords were self-generated (Laufer et al, 1997) and if L1 and L2 are related

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Nyikos & Fan (2007) cont.

• Vocabulary strategy instruction more likely to be successful if:

• Explicit

• On-going

• Practice of strategies available, with feedback from teacher

• A metacognitive element is included that allows learners to evaluate effectiveness of strategy use

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Further practical examples of strategies to introduce to learners

• Macaro (2001):

• Words into shapes:

• Word webs and hooks

• Word associations, e.g. ‘chips’, French sheep eat crisps (p. 206)

• Songs

• Raps

• Also the loci method

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Conclusions

• Vocabulary learning an important issue in MFL

• Improvement is possible

• Effective strategies unlikely to develop on their own except for the most effective learners – others need help

• Practice, evaluation and action planning key, with feedback from teacher on strategy use

• Improved vocabulary and improved motivation through underlining of link between what learners do and what they achieve

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