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Copyright

©1

98

5

byPrinceton

University

PressP

RE

FA

CE

TO

AL

LV

OL

UM

ES

vii

Publishedby

PrincetonU

niversityPress,

42

William

Street,E

DtT

OR

IAL

NO

TE

TO

VO

LU

ME

VPrinceton,

New

jersey08540

Inthe

United

Kingdom

:Princeton

University

Press,C

hichesrer,W

estSussex

AB

BR

EV

IAT

ION

S

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION

TO

VO

LU

ME

V3

All

Rights

Reserved

Library

ofC

ongressC

ataloging-in-PublicationD

ataP

AR

T

Dilrhey, W

ilhelm,

3833-1

911.

PO

ET

ICS

Poetryand

experience.(Selected

works/W

ilhelmD

iltheyv.

Includesindex.

xT

heIm

aginationof

thePoet:

Elem

entsfor

a

r.Poetics—

Addresses,

essays,lectures.

i.L

iterature—Philosophy—

Addresses,

Poetics

(1887)29

essays,lectures.

I. Makkreel,

Rudolf

A.,

‘939--

II.R

odi,Frithjof,

t93

0.

Translated

byL

ouisA

gostaand

Rudolf

A.

Makkreel

Ill.T

itle.Series:

Dilrhey,

Wilhelm

,1833-1

91

1.

Selections,E

nglish.1985;

V.5

.

B3116.D

81E

5‘9

85

vol.5‘93

s1801’;9511

84-419905E

CT

ION

ON

E

1PN1044]

Traditional

Insightsand

New

Tasks

ofPoetics

37

ISB

N0-6

91-0

7297-3

SE

CT

ION

TW

OISB

N0-6

91-0

1928-8

(pbk.)C

hapterO

ne:D

escriptionof

thePoet’s

Constitution

Preparationof

thisvolum

ehas

beenm

adepossible

inpart

bya

grantfrom

the-

Chapter

Tw

o:A

nA

ttempt

toE

xplainPoetic

Creativity

Translations

Programof

theN

ationalE

ndowm

entfor

theH

umanities,

anPsychologically

68independent

federalagency

.C

hapterT

hree:C

orroborationProvided

bythe

Testim

onyof

This

bookhas

beencom

posedin

Lrnorron

SahonPoets

Them

selves1

07

SE

CT

ION

TH

RE

E

PrincetonU

niversityPress

booksare

printedon

acid-freepaper

andm

eetthe

The

Typical

inPoetry

11

5

guidelinesfor

permanence

anddurability

ofthe

Com

mittee

onProduction

Guidelines

forB

ookL

ongevityof

theC

ouncilon

Library

Resources

SE

CT

ION

FO

UR

Prospectsfor

aT

heoryof

PoencT

echniqueto

beD

erivedfrom

Secondprinting,

andfirst

paperbackprinting,

These

PsychologicalFoundations

11

9

Chapter

One:

PoeticC

reativityand

Aesthetic

Impression

ito

Printedin

theU

nitedStates

ofA

merica

Chapter

Tw

o:T

hePoet’s

Technique

11

7by

PrincetonA

cademic

PressC

hapterT

hree:T

heH

istoñcityof

Poe&

Technique

i6o

3579208642

a.T

heT

hreeE

pochsof

Modern

Aesthetics

andIts

PresentT

ask(‘892)

175

Translated

byM

idmel

Neville

1.T

heT

hreePreceding

Methods

ofA

estheticsi8o

-

II.Ideas

Concerning

theSolution

ofthe

PresentT

askof

Aesthetics

10

5

AB

BR

EV

IAT

ION

S

CE

Conversations

ofG

oethew

ithE

ckermann,

trans.by

JohnO

xenford.

(D)

Dilthey’s

own

footnote.A

llothers

havebeen

addedby

theeditors.

ED

Dilthey,

Das

Erlebnis

unddie

Dichtung.

FG

oethe,Faust,

trans.by

Walter

Kaufm

an.

GC

EG

oethe:C

onversationsand

Encounters,

ed.and

trans.by

David

Luke

andR

obertPick.

GS

Dilthey,

Gesam

melte

Schriften.

GSA

Holderlin,

Samtliche

Werke,

Grosse

StuttgarterA

usgabe.

GSM

Ludw

igL

ewisohn,

Goethe:

TheStory

ofa

Man.

HH

olderlin,H

yperion:O

rthe

Herm

itof

Greece,

trans.by

Willard

R.

Trask.

HPF

Holderlin,

Poems

andFragm

ents,trans.

byM

ichaelH

amburger.

SWD

ilthey,Selected

Works.

TFT

heA

utobiographyof

Goethe,

Truth

andFiction:

Relating

toM

yLife,

trans.by

JohnO

xenford.

WA

Goethes

Werke,

Weim

arerA

usgabe.

F.T

heIm

aginationof

theP

oet:V

I.103

Elem

entsfor

aPoetics

(1827)’

TR

AN

SL

AT

ED

BY

LO

UIS

AG

OS

TA

AN

DR

UD

OL

FA

.M

AK

KR

EE

L

The

Poetics

ofA

ristotlew

asthe

organonfor

allpoetic

techniquethrough

thesecond

halfof

theeighteenth

century,and

thefeared

standardof

criticsuntil

Boileau,

Gottsched,’

andL

essing.It

was

them

osteffective

instrument

ofphilology

forthe

interpretation,criticism

,and

evaluationof

Greek

literature.T

ogetherw

ithgram

mar,

rhetoric,and

logic,the

Poetics

was

aconstituent

ofthe

cur

riculumof

highereducation.

But

thena

newaesthetics,

bornof

thespiritofthe

greatperiodofG

erman

literature,came

toguide

Goethe

andSchiller

intheir

work;

itw

asalso

ableto

raisethe

levelof

understandingin

Hum

boldt,7K

örner,and

theSchlegels,

andto

securetheir

aestheticjudgm

ents.T

hisaesthetics

dominated

theen

tirerealm

ofG

erman

poetry:G

oetheand

Schillerw

ereits

princelyrulers

while

Hum

boldt,M

oritz,K

örner,Schelling,

theSchlegels,

This

isa

translationof

“Die

Einbildungskraft

desD

ichters:B

austeinefür

einePoetik,”

originallypublished

ina

Festschriftfor

Eduard

Zeller

andreprinted

inC

S,V

I,1

03-1

41.

Paginationin

them

arginsrefers

tothis

volume.

—

JohannC

hristophG

ottsched(1700-661. A

follower

ofC

hristianW

olff,heupheld

formand

rulesin

literatureover

againstthe

excessesof

thelater

Baroque

period.•W

ilhelmvon

Hum

boldt(1

76

7-1

83

5).

Philologistand

statesman;

brotherof

Alexander

vonH

umboldt;

oneof

thefounders

ofthe

University

ofB

erlinand

them

odernG

ymnasium

;a

friendof

Schillerand

Goethe.

•C

hristianG

ottfriedK

örner(1

75

6-1

83

1).

Official

inthe

PrussianM

inistryof

Culture

anda

friend,adm

irer,and

benefactorof

Schiller.A

nexchange

ofletters

between

themdiscussing

aestheticm

ailersexercised

considerableinfluence.

•Karl

PhilippM

orita(1

75

6-9

3).

Author

andaesthetic

theorist.H

ebecam

eclosely

acquaintedw

ithG

oetheduring

thelatter’s

stayin

Italy(1

786)

andlater

InW

eimar

(1788).

Adefender

ofthe

autonomy

ofart,

hisbest-know

naesthetic

writings

areV

ersuchein

er

deutschenPoesie

(1786)and

Uher

diebildende

Nachahrnung

desSchonen

(i88

).

30

PO

ET

ICS

andfinally

Hegel,

servedas

theirm

inistersof

thefine

arts,so

tospeak.

This

newaesthetics

transformed

philology,for

itsupple

mented

rationalherm

eneutics,w

hichhad

beencreated

inthe

con

troversybetw

eenT

rentineC

atholicismand

Protestantismand

de

velopedby

Ernesti,6w

itha

hermeneutics

alongaesthetic

lines.Schleierm

acher,using

FriedrichSchlegel’s

method,

derivedthe

rulesof

thisaesthetic

hermeneutics

fromthe

principleof

theform

ofa

literaryw

ork.It

replaceda

mode

ofevaluation

andcriticism

which

hadprescribed

rulesto

theunderstanding

andhad

establishedco

rresponding

gramm

atical,m

etrical,and

rhetoricaltechniques,

with

am

odeof

aestheticcriticism

proceedingfrom

ananalysis

ofform

.T

hem

ajorachievem

entsof

thiscriticism

arefound

inW

olf,’L

achm

ann,’and

theirsuccessors.

This

Germ

anaesthetics

hastenedthe

declineof

theold

forms

inFrance

andE

ngland,and

influencedthe

firstcreations,

stilltentative

andunsure,

ofa

newpoetic

age.T

odayanarchy

rulesthe

wide

fieldof

literaturein

everycountry.

104

The

poeticscreated

byA

ristotleis

dead.Its

forms

andrules

were

models

drawn

frompast

artisticgenres,

which

hadalready

become

powerless

shadows

ofunreality

when

juxtaposedw

iththe

beautifulliterary

wonders

ofa

Fieldingor

Sterne,a

Rousseau

orD

iderot.O

urG

erman

aestheticsdoes

indeedstillsurvive

insom

euniversities,

butno

longerin

theconsciousness

ofthe

leadingartists

andcritics

where

itshould

liveabove

all.In

France,D

avidlost

hisinfluence

inthe

visualarts;

insteadD

elaroch

eand

Gallait”

came

tothe

6JohannA

ugustE

rnesti(1

707-8

1).

Germ

antheologian

andphilologist;

hereiected

bothm

ysticalinterpretation

andextrem

erationalism

,upholding

insteadthe

gramm

atical—and

thusthe

logicaland

historical—interpretation

ofScripture.

His

most

influentialvork

was

theInstitutio

InterpretisN

.T.

(‘76

1).

FriedrichA

ugustW

olf(1759-1814).

Aclassical

philologistespecially

influentialthrough

hisProlegom

enaad

Hon,eru,n

(17

96

),w

hichconcerns

theorigins

ofH

om

ericpoetry.

Seealso

hisV

orlesungenfiber

dieA

itertumsw

issenschaft(VOls.,

183I-

where

hedevelops

abroad, com

prehensiveview

ofthe

natureofclassical

studies.K

arlL

achmann

(1793-1

851).

Aclassical

philologistw

hoapplied

them

ethodsof

classicalphilology

toearly

Germ

antexts.

Seeespecially

hisw

orkon

theN

thelungenbed

(,8z6

).‘Jacques

Louis

David

(1748-1

815).

Frenchclassicist

painterw

hooften

paintedpolitical

themes

(“Marat

Assassinated,”

i793)and

classicalsubjects,

suchas

the“R

apeof

theSabines.”

‘Paul

IHippolyte)

Delaroche

(1797-1

856

).A

Frenchpainter

whose

work

fallsm

idway

between

classicismand

romanticism

.Som

eof

hispaintings

areT

heD

eathof

Queen

Elizabeth”

(18

17

)and

them

onumental

mural

ofthe

‘Ecole

desB

eaux-A

rts”(finished

in1841).

Louis

Gallait

(t8io-8z).B

elgianpainter

known

forhis

classicaltableaus

andhis

historicalpaintings.

Some

ofhis

paintingsare

“La

mort

duM

aréchalde

Birun”

(1835)and

“La

conquëted’A

ntiochepar

Godefroy

deB

ouillon”(1

84

0).

TH

EtM

AG

INA

TI0

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

31

fore.In

Germ

any,the

frescodesigns

ofC

orn

elius”

vanishedinto

theobscurity

ofthe

museum

andm

adew

ayfor

therealistic

dep

ictions

ofpeople

foundin

works

byS

chadow”

andM

enzel.i4B

othchanges

meant

that

thecode

ofideal

beautyadopted

byG

oethe,M

eyer,’

andtheir

Weim

arcircle

hadbeen

rescinded.Since

theF

renchR

evolutiona

newpoetry

currentin

London

andP

arishas

attractedthe

interestof

poetsand

publicalike.

As

soonas

Dickens

andB

alzacbegan

tow

ritethe

epicof

modern

lifeas

foundin

thesecities,

thebasic

poeticprinciples

oncedebated

byS

chiller,G

oethe,and

Hum

boldtin

idyllicW

eimar

became

irrevelant.T

odaya

col

orfulm

ixtureof

forms

fromall

periodsand

peoplesis

breakingin

uponus

andseem

sto

undoevery

delimitation

ofliterary

genresand

everyrule.

Especially

fromthe

East,i6

we

areinundated

byelem

ental,form

lessliterature,

music,

andpainting—

halfbarbaric

butfilled

with

vitalem

otionalenergy

ofpeoples

who

stillfight

thebattles

ofspirit

innovels

andtw

enty-foot-wide

paintings.In

thisanarchy,

theartist

isforsaken

byrules;

thecritic

isthrow

nback

uponhis

personalfeeling

asthe

onlyrem

ainingstan

dard

ofev

aluation.

The

publicrules.

The

masses

thronginto

colossalexhibition

halls,theaters

ofall

shapesand

sizes,and

lendinglibraries.

They

make

orbreak

theartist’s

reputation.T

hisanarchy

oftaste

always

characterizesperiods

when

anew

way

offeeling

realityhas

shatteredthe

existingform

sand

rules,and

when

newform

sof

artare

strivingto

unfold.It

can,how

ever,not

beperm

ittedto

last.A

ndit

isthus

oneof

thevital

tasksof

contemporary

philosophy,art

history,and

literaryhistory

tore

establisha

healthyrelationship

between

aestheticthought

andart.

The

artist’sneed

forhonesty

andgripping

effectsof

allkinds

todaydrives

himonto

apath

whose

goalis

stillunknow

nto

him.

Itleads

himto

sacrificethe

cleardelim

itationof

forms

andthe

pureelevation

ofideal

beautyabove

comm

onreality.In

thisw

ayhe

feelsin

tunew

itha

transformed

society.T

hestruggle

forexistence

and

r

ios

Petervon

Cornelius

(17

83

-18

67

).G

erman

paintercom

missioned

byL

udwig

Iof

Bavaria

topaintthe

frescodecorations

inthe

Glyprothek

ofM

unich;also

designeddecorations

forthe

mausoleum

ofFrederick

William

IIof

Prussia.G

otririedSchadow

(17

64

-18

50

).Perhaps

them

ostim

portantsculptor

ofG

erm

anclassicism

,also

known

forhis

graphicw

orkand

lithography.Som

eof

hisbest-

known

works

arehis

statueof

Frederickthe

Great

(Stetrin,1793)

andthe

Blücher

Monum

ent(R

ostock,1

81

9).

‘4A

dolphvon

Menzel

(18

15

-19

05

).Painter

andgraphic

artistw

how

asfam

ousfor

hishistorical

paintingsof

thecourt

lifeof

Frederickthe

Great.

JohannH

einrichM

eyer(1

76

0-1

83

1).

An

arthistorian

andpainter

who

met

Goethe

inItaly

andthen

livedin

Weim

aras

Goethe’s

friend.“

Dilthey

means

Eastern

Europe,

especiallyR

ussia.

32

PO

ET

ICS

influencein

thissociety

hasbecom

em

oreruthless

anddem

andsthe

exploitationof

thestrongest

effects.T

hem

asseshave

obtainedrec

ognitionand

nowhave

avoice.

They

assemble

with

greatfacility

atcentral

placesw

herethey

demand

thesatisfaction

oftheir

desirefor

gripping,heart-rending

effects.T

hespirit

ofscientific

investigation

isapplied

toall

objects.It

penetrateseven

kindof

spiritualprocess

andproduces

theneed

tosee

throughevery

kindof

disguiseor

mask

toapprehend

realitytruthfully.

Inthe

eighteenthcentury

ourideal

was

aliterature

inw

hicha

poetinvested

histrue

nature.T

henecessary

expressionof

thisw

asa

representativeart

which

perfectedinner

beauty.T

odayour

idealdoes

notlie

inform

,but

ratherin

thepow

erw

hichaddresses

usthrough

forms

andm

ovem

ents.T

hustoday

artis

becoming

democratic,

likeeverything

elsearound

us,and

isfilled

with

thethirst

forreality

andscientifically

securetruth.

Today’s

artistsand

poetsfeel

thattrue

andgreat

artof

thepresent

oughtto

expressthe

coreor

secretof

ourage,

which

must

beas

powerful

asthat

which

confrontsthe

eyein

theM

adonnas

ortapestries

ofR

aphael,or

speaksto

usin

Iphigenia.T

heartist

feelsa

passionateresistance—

allthe

more

passionate,the

more

unclearhis

notionof

thegoal

ofhis

own

art—against

are

actionaryaesthetics

which

derivesa

conceptof

idealbeauty

fromw

orksof

thatpast

orfrom

abstractideas,

andhe

measures

theproductive

work

ofthe

strugglingartist

byit.

These

influenceshave

completely

transformed

poetry,but

theyhave

alsodebased

it.G

reatgeniuses

ofnarrative

literaturesuch

asD

ickensand

Balzac

haveaccom

modated

themselves

alltoo

easilyto

apublic

voraciousfor

readingm

atter.T

ragedyis

languishingfor

lackof

anaudience

inw

hichaesthetic

reflectioncould

preservethe

consciousnessof

thehighest

taskof

poetry.U

nderthe

same

circum

stances,the

comedy

ofm

annershas

lostits

subtletyin

thestructure

of itsplotand

refinementof

resolution.That tragic

element

with

which

Moliere

seasonedhis

greatcom

edies(and

which

lentthem

theirdepth)

hasbeen

replacedby

superficialsentim

entalityto

suitthe

tasteof

them

asses.In

theG

erman

visualarts

am

isologyhas

arisenfrom

theconflict

with

anaesthetics

which

hasbecom

eunproductive—

foran

aestheticsw

hichno

longerw

orkscoopera

tos

tivelytow

ardthe

idealof

anage

isunproductive.

Artists

havede

velopedan

aversionto

thinkingabout

art,som

etimes

evento

everykind

ofhigher

culture.T

odaythe

resultsof

thisaversion

areas

evidentto

theartists

themselves

asto

thepublic.

But there

existstrong

impulses

inour

artthat leadto

truthfulness,to

theapprehension

ofpow

erbehind

allform

,and

toefficacy;

if

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

33

theseim

pulsesare

notto

atrophy,then

thenatural

relationshipbetw

eenart,

aestheticraisonnem

ent,and

anengaged

publicm

ustbe

reestablished.A

estheticdiscussion

enhancesthe

positionof

artin

society,andit invigorates

thew

orkingartist. T

heartists

of Greece

andof

theR

enaissanceas

well

asC

omeille,

Racine,

Moliere,

Schiller,and

Goethe

worked

injust

sucha

livelym

ilieu.D

uringthe

periodof

theirgreatestartistic

exertionsw

efind

Goethe

andSchiller

completely

surroundedand

thussupported

bysuch

nationalaes

theticvigor

incriticism

,aesthetic

judgment,

andlively

debate.T

heentire

historyof

artand

literatureshow

show

thethoughtful

apprehension

ofthe

functionsand

laws

ofart

maintains

theco

nsciousness

ofits

significanceand

idealgoals,

whereas

thelow

erinstincts

ofhum

annature

constantlystrive

tolead

artastray.

Ger

man

aesthetics,especially,

hasgiven

seriousreasons

tosupport

thebelief

thatart

isan

imm

ortalhum

anoccupation.

Only

ifw

hatis

lastingin

thisaesthetics,

particularlyits

insightinto

thefunction

ofart

forthe

lifeof

society,is

groundedm

oredeeply,

canthe

artistalso

maintain

thehigh

positionin

theesteem

ofsociety

which

thepoet

attainedin

thehundred

yearsbetw

eenthe

misery

ofpoor

GU

nther”7and

thestate

funeralof

Goethe.

Inevery

goldenage

ofthe

visualarts

orliterature,

aestheticreflection

aboutthe

goalsand

techniquesof

theparticular

artshas

providedessential

supportfor

theunfolding

ofa

lastingstyle

anda

coherentartistic

tradition.From

therem

ainsof

thepoetics

andrhetoric

ofthe

Greeks

we

seehow

theunfolding

ofa

lastingstyle

forthe

poetand

oratorw

enthand

inhand

with

thefram

ingof

rules.It

isw

orthnoting

howthe

longgolden

ageof

theFrench

theaterw

asprom

otedby

theaesthetic

raisonnement

made

possibleby

Cartesian

philosophy.Lessing,

Schiller,and

Goethe

preparedfor

theirliterary

work

byintense

aestheticand

technicalreflection;

thisreflection

playedan

activerole

inthe

development

ofW

allenstein,H

ermann

andD

orothea,W

ilhelmM

eister,and

Faust;and

italso

assureda

sympathetic

reception

ofthese

works

bythe

public.In

short,art

requiresthe

thoroughschooling

andeducation

ofthe

artistand

thepublic

throughaesthetic

reflectionif

itshigher

aspirationsare

tobe

un

folded,appreciated,

anddefended

inthe

faceof

thevulgar

instinctsof

them

asses.Is

itnot

thecase

thatthe

grandstyle

ofG

erman

literaturew

aspreserved

onlybecause

ofthe

majestic

power

ofthosetw

oauthors

who

livedin

Weim

ar?By

means

oftheir

comprehensive

aestheticinfluence,

emanating

fromW

eimar,

supportedby

several

rp

07

“Johan

nC

hristianG

unther(1

69

5-1

71

3).

Poet

fromSilesia.

34P

OE

TIC

S

journals,even

resortingto

terror-inspiringsatire

inthe

Xenien’—

thesetw

oauthors

keptK

otzebue,Iffland,

andN

icolai’9in

theirplace

andencouraged

abenign

Germ

anpublic

toplace

theirfaith

inH

ermann

andD

orotheaand

The

Bride

ofM

essina.Such

faithdid

notcom

enaturally

tothe

public.T

hetask

ofa

poeticsw

hichderives

fromthis

livingrelationship

tothe

artisticpursuit

itselfis

todeterm

inew

hetherit

canattain

universallyvalid

laws

thatare

usefulas

rulesof

creativityand

asnorm

sfor

criticism.

And

howis

thetechnique

ofaparticular

periodand

nationrelated

tothese

universalrules?

Flow

dow

eovercom

ethe

difficulty,which

allthe

human

sciences’°m

ustface,

ofderiving

universallyvalid

principlesfrom

innerexperiences,

which

areper

sonallylim

ited,com

posite,and

yetincapable

ofanalysis?

The

oldtask

ofpoetics

reappearshere,

andthe

questionis

noww

hetherit

canbe

carriedout

bym

eansof

thosetools

which

theexpansion

ofour

scientifichorizons

putsat

ourdisposal.

Forcontem

poraryem

piricaland

technicalhorizons

doindeed

allowus

toascend

frompoetics

andthe

otherparticular

aestheticdisciplines

toa

universalaesthetics.

Fromanother

perspectiveas

well,

apoetics

hasbecom

ean

un

deniableneed

ofthe

present.T

heim

mense

stockof

literaryw

orksof

allnations

must

beclassified

inlight

ofits

contributionto

oureducation,

spontaneousenjoym

ent,or

knowledge

ofhistorical

causes;accordingly

itm

ustbe

assessedin

value,and

appliedto

thestudy

ofm

anand

history.T

histask

canbe

carriedout

onlyif

a

“G

oetheand

Schillerpublished

acollection

ofX

enien(x)

inw

hichthey

usedsatire

aboutother

authorsw

hileasierting

theirow

nliterary

position.“A

ugust

v.K

nnebue(1

761-1

819),

August

Wilhelm

lifiand(1

75

9-1

81

4),

andFriedrich

Nicolai

(1733-1

811).

Kotzebue

was

theauthor

ofover

two

hundreddra

matic

piecesci

secondaryim

port.T

ogetherw

ithIffland,

hedom

inatedthe

popularstage

ofhis

day.A

foeof

Goethe

andSchiller,

hew

asalso

anti-Rom

antic.B

ecauseof

hislater

oppositionto

Germ

anunity

andto

thepolitical

studentorganizations,

hew

asassassinated

bya

studentradical.

Ifflandw

asan

actor,theater

director,and

playwright,

with

oversixty

piecesto

hiscredit.

After

i8aa

hew

asthe

General

Director

ofthe

Berlin

Nat,onaitheater.

Nicolai

was

anauthor

anda

publisherw

how

orkedw

ithLessing

andM

osesM

endelssohn.H

ew

roteseveral

works

criticalof

romanticism

,Sturm

undD

rang,and

classicism,

anda

number

ofsatirical

parodiesaim

edat

Goethe,

Schiller,K

ant,H

erder,and

Fichte;the

bestknow

nw

asthe

Freudendes

jungenW

erthers(1

77

5).

liehum

ansciences

(Geistesw

issenscha[ten)encom

passboth

thehum

anitiesand

thesocial

sciences.A

llprevious

translationsof

Dilthey

andm

ostof

thew

ritingson

Dilthey

inE

nglishhave

usedthe

term“hum

anstudies.”

But

currentconceptions

aboutthe

roleof

interpretationin

allscience

havem

adeit

possibleto

referto

theG

ejsjeswissenschaften

aseither

human

sciencesor

human

studies.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

35general

scienceof

theelem

entsand

laws

onthe

basisof

which

literatureis

formed

accompanies

thehistory

ofliterature.

“The

material

isthe

same

inboth

cases.N

om

istakeof

method

ism

oredisastrous

thanthe

renunciationof

thescope

ofhistorical

andbi

ographicalfacts

inthe

formation

ofa

generalscience

ofhum

annature.

The

achievements

ofhum

annature

existfor

usand

canbe

studiedonly

inthe

midst

ofsociety.

This

same

relationshipobtains

between

universalscience

andthe

analysisof

historicalphenom

enafor

allother

major

expressionsof

sociallife.”

The

startingpoint

ofsuch

atheory

must

liein

theanalysis

ofthe

creativecapacity,

whose

processescondition

literature.“T

hepoet’s

imagination

andhis

attitudetow

ardthe

world

ofexperience

providethe

pointof

departurefor

everytheory

seriouslydirected

toexplaining

them

anifold

world

ofpoetry

andliterature

inthe

successionof

itsm

ani

festations,Poetics

inthis

senseis

thetrue

introductionto

thehistory

ofliterature,

justas

thetheory

ofscience

isthe

introductionto

thehistory

ofspiritual

orintellectual

movem

ents.”T

heartist

andhis

publicneed

suchan

evaluationof

literatureon

thebasis

ofa

stand

ardthatis

assecure

aspossible.W

ehave

enteredan

ageof historical

consciousness.W

efeel

surroundedby

ourentire

past—this

isalso

truein

thefield

ofliterature.

The

poetm

ustcom

eto

terms

with

it,and

onlya

historicalperspective

appliedto

poeticscan

emancipate

him.

Furthermore,

philology,w

hichfirst

producedan

understanding

ofthe

innercoherence

among

theliterary

productsof

anation

andtheir

relationto

thevitality

ofthe

nationalspirit,

constantlyfinds

historicallylim

itedpoetic

techniques.T

heproblem

ofthe

relation

oftechnique

tothe

generallaw

sof

literaturenecessarily

leadsphilology

tothe

principlesof

poetics.W

ethus

arriveat

thesam

ebasic

question,but

inits

historicalform

:C

anw

ecom

eto

knowhow

processesgrounded

inhum

annature

and,consequently,

ofuniversal

scopeyield

thesevarious

kindsof

poetry,w

hichare

separatedaccording

tonations

andpe

riods?H

erew

etouch

onthe

most

fundamental

factof

thehum

ansciences:

thehistoricity

ofpsychic

lifeas

itis

manifested

inevery

systemof

cultureproduced

bym

an.H

owis

thesam

enessof

ourhum

annature,

asexpressed

inuniform

ities,related

toits

variability,its

historicalcharacter?

Poeticsm

ayhave

agreat

advantageover

thetheories

ofreligion

Thisis

how,

inan

1877essay

inthe

Zeuschrift

fürl’blkerpsychologie

onthe

poet’sfaculty

ofim

agination,I

justiledthe

needto

takeup

againthe

oldtask

ofa

poetics.(D

)ibid.

108

36P

OE

TIC

S

orethics

with

respectto

thestudy

ofthe

basicfact

ofthe

human

sciences,w

hichis

thehisroricity

offree

human

nature.In

noother

areaexcept

thatof

sciencehave

theproducts

ofhum

anactivities

beenso

perfectlypreserved.

The

historyof

literaturehas

preservedthem

assuccessive

strata.A

ctivepow

ersstill

appearto

pulsatevigorously

insuch

products.T

odaypoetic

processesoccur

injust

thesam

ew

ayas

inthe

past.T

hepoet

isalive

beforeour

eyes;w

e109

seeevidence

of hiscreative

work.T

husthe

poeticform

ativeprocess,

itspsychological

structure,and

itshistorical

variabilitycan

bestu

died

especiallyw

ell.T

hehope

arisesthat

therole

ofpsychological

processesin

historicalproducts

will

beexplained

indetail

throughpoetics.

Our

philosophicalconception

ofhistory

was

developedfrom

literaryhistory.

Perhapspoetics

will

havea

similar

significancefor

thesystem

aticstudy

ofhistorical

expressionsof

life.T

heform

ationof

sucha

sciencew

ouldalso

havea

great practicalsignificance

forour

systemof

highereducation.

Before

thereform

ofphilology

throughH

umboldt’s

andW

olf’sconception

ofthe

Greeks

fromthe

perspectiveof

anideal

ofhum

anity,the

Gym

nasi:i;;F

aimed

toderive

fromthe

classicsa

rationalco

nsciousness

ofrules

oflanguage

andthought,

ofrhetorical

andlit

erarystyle,

asw

ellas

asecure

techniquebased

onthis.

This

legitim

ateidea

was

replacedby

anotherduring

theheyday

ofour

humanistic

rediscoveryof

theG

reeks,but

itsvalidity

was

more

limited.

The

historicalknow

ledgeof

theG

reekspirit

inits

idealityw

asnow

supposedto

educateone

toattain

fullhum

anity.If

theG

ymnasium

isto

returnto

itsform

erbasic

aimin

am

orem

atureform

,w

hichtakes

intoaccount

ourhistorical

consciousness,then

itwill

alsoneed

anew

poetics,anew

rhetoric,anda

more

developedlogic.Secondary

schoolw

itha

classicalem

phasis.

SE

CT

ION

ON

E

TR

AD

ITIO

NA

LIN

SIG

HT

SA

ND

NE

WTA

SKS

OF

PO

ET

ICS

i.P

OE

TIC

SA

sA

TH

EO

RY

OF

FO

RM

SA

ND

TE

CH

NIQ

UE

The

poeticsfounded

byA

ristotle,used

andenriched

insucceeding

times

untilthe

eighteenthcentury,

was

atheory

ofform

sand

atechnique

basedthereon.

Aristotle

always

appliedthe

method

ofgeneralization

which

de

rivesform

sfrom

particularfacts

andcoordinates

them,

andthe

method

ofanalysis

which

shows

howform

sare

composed

fromunits.

His

method

providesdescription,

notgenuine

causalexpla

nation.H

isgram

mar,

logic,rhetoric,

andpoetics

areclearly

basedon

observations,analyses,

conceptsof

form,

andrules,

allof

which

arosefrom

thepractice

ofthe

respectiveart

itselfand

which

were

refinedby

thesystem

atizationsof

theSophists.

Inidentifying

andordering

constantform

s,and

analyzingthem

insuch

aw

ayas

totic

make

manifest

howunits

come

togetherinto

basicconnections

andthese,

inturn,

intohigher

systems,

Aristotle

was

ableto

utilizethe

resultsof

practiceitself

asw

ellas

thetechnical

rulesdeveloped

bythe

Sophists.A

major

partof

Greek

educationconsisted

ofinstruc

tionin

analyzinglanguage

interm

sof

basicsounds

asits

units,analyzing

metrical

orm

usicalw

holesinto

basictem

pi,analyzing

proofsinto

terms;

thenin

arrangingand

classifyingthe

forms

asthey

arosethrough

composition;

finallyin

recognizingand

applyingthe

rulesaccording

tow

hichthe

means

availablein

suchform

sm

ustbe

combined

forcertain

purposes.T

heP

oeticsof

Aristotle

was

atheory

ofform

andtechnique

inthis

sense.T

hroughoutthe

fragm

entso

thisw

orkw

ediscern

acom

ing-to-terms

with

theresults

ofthe

techniqueacquired

inliterary

practiceand

academic

analysis.A

ndit

isto

thisthat

theP

oeticsow

esits

systematic

completeness

andits

didacticperfection.

Although

theextant

textof

theP

oeticslacks

coherentorgani

zationand

isrem

arkablysilent

aboutits

relationshipto

itsprede

cessorsand

tothe

restof

theA

ristoteliancorpus,

thelogical

con

nectionsdiscernible

inw

hatis

extantw

arrantthe

conclusionthat

Aristotle’s

theoryof

poeticform

sand

techniquew

asnot

derived

from

gen

era

laesthetic

principles,w

hetherof

beautyor

ofan

artisticfaculty.

Instead,it

seems

tobe

abstractedfrom

actualw

orksof

literatureand

theireffects,and

basedon

generalizationsabouttech

nicalrelations

between

them

eansof

imitation,

theobjects

ofim

itation,

andthe

possiblem

odesof

imitation.

The

rulesfor

thispoetics

were

derivedw

ithoutexception

fromthe

propertiesof

literaturew

hichconsist

inthe

imitation

ofm

enin

action,as

presentedin

speech(to

which

rhythmand

pitchcan

beadded),

inthe

variousm

annersin

which

thispresentation

canbe

carriedout. T

hisprinciple

ofimitation

isoblectivistic

LikeA

ristotle’slogic

andtheory

ofknow

ledge.A

ccordingto

thelatter,

perceptionand

thoughtcorrespond

tobeing,

sothat

beingm

anifestsitself

inthought.

This

objectivisticprinciple

was

theexpression

ofa

natu

ralisticconception

ofknow

ledgeas

well

asof

art.O

nthe

onehand,

thisprinciple

ofim

itationis

thesim

plestexpression

ofa

kindof

artisticpractice

andappreciation—

which

pertains,to

besure,

onlyto

thevisual

artsand

poetry,not

tom

usic,decorative

art,and

architecture.O

nthe

otherhand,

thisprinciple,

inaccord

with

thisobjectivistic

mode

ofregarding

thew

orld,subordinates

thepleasure

ofpoetry

tothat

oflearning

andcontem

plation.A

lthoughthis

principleis

notw

ithoutim

plicationsw

hichreach

backto

more

fundamental

levels,the

technicalperspective

predominates

when

thispoetics

findsit

sufficientto

explainthe

originof

poetryby

adelight

inim

itationand

inperceiving

imitations,

combined

with

enjoyment

ofharm

onyand

rhythm.

All

furthereffects

tobe

producedby

poetrythen

followfrom

thenature

ofthe

objectthat

isim

itated,nam

ely,m

anin

action.In

thiscontext,

poeticshas

recourseat

important

placesto

thepsycholog

icaland

ethicalnatureof

theprocess

tobe

imitated.T

husitgrounds

atheory

which

ism

erelyan

abstractform

ulationof

apeculiarity

ofG

reektragedy,

viz.,that

theplot

isthe

principleor

soul,as

it

were,

oftragedy,

andthat

characteris

secondary.T

hisis

groundedin

theethical

axiomthat

thegoal

andhappiness

ofm

anlies

inaction.

Accordingly,

intragedy’s

concentratedreproduction

oflife,

actionsm

ustnot

occursolely

forthe

sakeof

characterportrayal.

Furthermore,

thispoetics

views

thepeculiarity

oftragedy

aslying

inthe

kindof

effectproduced

bythe

objectsto

beim

itated,i.e.,

fearand

pity.It

notesexplicitly

thatthe

definition,to

which

thischaracterization

ofthe

tragiceffectbelongs,

was

basedon

anearlier

discussion.This

grounding,which

hasunfortunately

beenlost,

must.

havederived

thiseffectin

anethical-psychological

manner

fromthe

natureof

theprocess

tobe

imitated.

TH

EtM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

39

Soin

theend,

we

may

assume

thatthe

Poetics

takesfor

granteda

multiplicity

ofeffects

correspondingto

thechanges

inthe

objectsim

itated,just

asanother

familiar

passagefrom

Aristotle

empirically

enumerates

avariety

ofcom

pletelydifferent

effectsof

musical

art:pleasures

ofvarious

kinds,and

values,ethical

education,and

catharsis.

Ina

spiritof

empirical

impartiality,

theP

oeticsthus

recognized

am

ultiplicityof

poeticeffects.

But

itbased

theseeffects

onlyon

therelation

between

imitation,

itsobject,

andits

means.

Fromthis

relationshipalone

didit

derivethe

forms

andrules

ofliterature.

Inthis

relationit

foundits

unifyingprinciple.

The

poetw

asconceived

asproducing

hisw

orkaccording

torules

forthe

purposeof

adefinite

effect.Itw

asa

techniquein

which

theintellect

dominates.

Fromits

simple

andbasic

idea,the

Poetics

definedthe

forms

ofliterature

with

unsurpassedclarity,

analyzedits

parts,and

establishedthe

rulesaccording

tow

hichthese

partsm

ustbe

formed

andcom

posed.W

ehave

herea

theoryof

theelem

entsand

techniqueof

poetryw

hichis

constrainedby

thelim

itsof

theabove-m

entionedprinciple

andby

theavailable

literature.Butw

ithinthese

limits

itisexem

plaryand

highlyeffective.

The

schema

byw

hichit

operatesregards

eachof

thearts

asa

kindof

imitation.

The

artsw

hichdepict

realityby

means

ofcolor

andform

aredistinguished

fromthose

which

havetheir

means

ofrepresentation

inspeech,

rhythm,

andharm

ony.L

iteraturefinds

itsdeterm

inateplace

among

thelatter.

The

dis

tinctionbetw

eennarrative

anddram

aticliterature

isbased

onthe

mode

ofreproduction

employed

byeach.

Inparticular,

atechnical

viewof

tragedyw

asbased

onthe

theoryof

unityof

action,the

intricaciesof

plotdevelopm

entand

itsdenouem

ent,peripety,

andrecognition—

eventhough

thediscussion

ofthese

possibilitiesfre

quentlydegenerated

intocasuistry.

Although

thistechnique

ofthe

drama

hasbeen

contestedas

anabstraction

fromthe

limited

sphereof

Greek

theatricalart,

itnevertheless

didserve

todevelop

inlater

dramatists

anaesthetic

aware

nessofthe

techniqueofthe

stage.The

creatorofthe

Spanishtheater,

Lopede

Veg

a,”

contrastedA

ristotle’stechnique

with

rulessuch

asthat

ofthe

connectionbetw

eenthe

seriousand

thecom

ic,w

hichhe

tookfrom

theactual

practiceof

theSpanish

theater.H

ejustified

hisow

ntechnique

byclaim

ingthat

therules

andm

odelsof

theancients

couldnot

bebrought

intoagreem

entw

iththe

tasteof

his

38P

OE

TL

CS

r

Ill

FelixL

opede

Vega

Carpio

(1562-1

635);

seehis

New

Art

of

Writing

Plays

(1609),trans.

by\V

.T

.B

rewster

(New

York:

Colum

biaU

niversityPress,

1914).

40

PO

ET

ICS

contemporaries.

The

poeticsof

Corneille

andB

oileau,w

hichhad

beeninfluenced

byD

escartes,developed

thestructure

ofFrench

drama

intoa

rigoroustechnique

bycom

ingto

terms

with

thetra

ditionof

Aristotelian

theory.The

more

closelyw

elook

atthe

formof

Shakespeariantragedy,

which

isin

essencequite

regular,the

more

we

areled

tosurm

isethat

theprocess—

itselfhistorically

un

known

tous—

byw

hichthe

earlyEnglish

theaterup

toShake

speare’sim

mediate

predecessors,M

arlowe

andG

reene,developed

itsform

alrigor

requireda

coming-to-term

sw

ithextant

technicaltheories.

Gottsched

andthe

conflictbetw

eenA

ristotelian-Frenchpoetics

andthe

poetictheory

ofthe

Swiss

mark

thebeginning

ofm

odernG

erman

literature.Lessing

planneda

comm

entaryon

thePoetics

ofA

ristotle:he

wanted

torestore

andvindicate

itin

itspurity.

He

builtfurther

onthe

foundationof

thispoetics

inhis

Laocoön

andH

amburg

Dram

aturgy,in

agenuine

Aristotelian

spiritbutw

ithhis

own

characteristicindependence.L

ater,when

thestorm

againstall

ruleshad

subsided,our

two

greatpoets,

Goethe

andSchiller,

stroveto

producea

techniquefor

Germ

anpoetry;

inthe

113

17

905

theycarried

ontheir

remarkable

debatesabout

epicand

drama

which

containa

wealth

ofobservations

aboutliterary

formthat

isstill

notfully

exploited.T

heyw

ereastonished

anddelighted

tofind

themselves

inharm

onyw

ithA

ristotlein

som

anyrespects.

On

April

z8,1

79

7,

Goethe

wrote:

“Iread

throughA

ristotle’sPoetics

againw

iththe

greatestpleasure.

Itis

abeautiful

thingto

witness

thehum

anintellect

inits

highestm

anifestation.It

isvery

noteworthy

howA

ristotlesticks

exclusivelyto

experienceand

thisis,

perhaps,a

littletoo

concrete;yet

justfor

thisreason,

hisw

orkappears

allthem

oresolid.”

Likew

ise, inhis

replyof

May

,Schiller

isvery

satisfiedw

ithA

ristotleand

ishappy

abouthis

agreement

with

him.

With

truesensitivity

henotes

howthis

isnot

aphilosophy

ofliterature

ofthe

kindproduced

bym

odernaestheticians.

Rather

itis

aconception

“ofthe

elements

fromw

hicha

poeticw

orkis

composed,”

howit

would

haveto

ariseif

one“had

anindividual

tragedyto

considerand

inquiredinto

everyaspect

thatcould

befound

init.”

“But

surelyhe

cannever

becom

pletelyunderstood

orappreciated.

His

entireview

oftragedy

restson

empirical

grounds.H

ehad

accessto

agreat

numher

ofstaged

tragedies%

vhichare

nolonger

availableto

us.H

ereasons

onthe

basisof

thisexperience.

Forthe

most part,

we

lackthe

entirebasis

ofhisjudgm

ent.”Schiller

was

righthere,

andthis

insightcould

haveled

himto

discernthe

technicalaccom

plishments

ofthe

Greek

artists,com

mentators,

andart

criticsprior

toA

ristotle.B

utw

henw

eread

further,w

enotice

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

41

thatSchiller

isan

interestedparty,

andthat

hisjudgm

entabout

Aristotle

must

thereforebe

more

favorablethan

ourstoday;

“And

ifhis

judgments

..

.are

genuinelaw

sof

art,this

luckyaccident

isdue

tothe

factthat

therew

erethen

artworks

which

representedtheir

genrein

anindividual

case.”T

hisis

preciselythe

familiar,

ahistoricalconception

ofan

ideathatis

realizedin

asingle

instance,of

aspecies

thatis

embodied

inone

exemplar.

The

legacyof

thispoetics

hasbeen

considerablyextended,

notonly

byL

essing,but

alsoby

Goethe

andSchiller.

On

thebasis

ofthe

way

techniqueis

conditionedby

them

eansof

representation,L

essing,like

Aristotle,

hadderived

thehighest

laws

ofthe

visualarts

and,even

more

successfully,those

ofpoetry.

Incontrast

tothe

French,L

essingexhibited

thetrue

unityof

thedram

aticaction

inan

exemplary

analysisthat

agreesw

iththe

textof

Aristotle,

butis

simultaneously

supportedby

hisow

ndram

aticsense

oflife.

Then

Goethe

derived,w

ithgreat

insight,the

basicdifferences

inthe

ar

tisticpractices

ofepic

poetsand

dramatic

poetsfrom

thedivergence

intheir

respectiveoverall

attitudestow

ardtheir

material.

He

didthis

bygathering

thetechnical

reflectionsw

hichhad

accompanied

Schiller’sand

hisow

ncreative

work

intoa

comm

onfram

ework.

“Both

theepic

writer

andthe

dramatistare

subjecttogeneral

poeticlaw

s,especially

thelaw

ofunity

andthe

lawof

development.

Fur

thermore,

bothtreat

similar

objectsand

bothare

ableto

useall

kindsof

motives.

The

essentialdifference

consistsin

thefact

thatthe

epicw

riterrecites

anevent

assom

ethingcom

pletelypast

andthe

dramatist

representsit

ascom

pletelypresent.

Ifone

wanted

toderive

fromthe

natureof

man

thedetails

ofthe

laws

accordingto

which

eachm

ustproceed,

itw

ouldbe

necessaryto

conjureup

firsta

rhapsodist,surrounded

bya

quietlyattentive

circleof

listeners,and

thena

mim

e,surrounded

bya

groupim

patientlyw

atchingand

listenin

g.”

Schilleradds

thefollow

ingdistinctions:

becauseof

thew

aythe

narratorrepresents

hism

aterialas

past,he

isable

toco

nceive

theaction

statically,as

itw

ere.H

ealready

knows

thebegin

ning,m

iddle,and

end.H

em

ovesfreely

aroundthe

action,can

puthim

selfout

ofstep

with

it,anticipate,

andrefer

back.H

owever,

“When

dramatic

actiontranspires

beforem

e..

.Iamstrictly

boundby

thepresent,

andm

yim

aginationloses

allits

freedom.

An

en

“Uber

epischcund

dramatische

Dichtung

vonG

oetheund

Schiller,”supplem

entto

aL

etterto

Schiller,z

Decem

ber1797.

(Dl

SeeJohann

Wolfgang

vonG

oethe,G

oethesW

erke(W

eimar:

Herm

anoB

ohIau,1

88

7-1

91

9),

143

vols.(W

eimarer

Aim

gabe,hereafter

IVA

),I,

41

(11

:12

0-1

14

.

F

‘‘4

4Z

PO

ET

ICS

duringdisquietude

wells

upin

me.”’6

Goethe

andSchiller

combine

thesefundam

entalpropositions

with

extremely

valuabledetailed

technicalobservations.

Itonly

remains

forus

toidentify

what

itis

intheir

idealof

formthat

canbe

derivedw

ithuniversal

vatidttyfrom

therelation

between

theproductive

process,the

object,and

them

eansof

representation,and

separateit

fromthat

which

was

influencedby

theirhistorical

situation.”T

hefurther

influenceby

Herder

andF. A

.W

olfhelped

togenerate

aseries

offruitful

studiesof

epicpoetry:

oneby

FriedrichSchlegel

inhis

Die

Griechen

mid

Röm

er(T

heG

reeksand

Rom

ans)(x797),

oneby

A.

W.

Schiegelin

areview

ofG

oethe’sH

ermann

andD

orothea,w

hichw

asinflu

encedby

hisbrother

Friedrich,and

anotherby

Hum

boldtin

aw

ell-know

nessay

of1

79

8,

which

alsodeals

with

Herm

an;:‘a7;d

Do

rothea.

InA

ristotlethe

epicw

asovershadow

edby

tragedy,w

hichhe

preferredand

which

was

stillvigorousin

hisday.

But

theseG

erman

writers

carriedthe

studyof

thefundam

entaldifference

between

thesetw

okinds

ofliterature

beyondA

ristotle’spoetics.

Also

atthe

same

time, Friedrich

Schlegelapplied

hisaesthetic

geniusto

producethe

firststudy

ofform

inprose

literature.

115

2..IN

QU

IRIE

SIN

TO

TH

EC

RE

AT

IVE

PO

WE

RF

RO

MW

HIc

H

WO

RK

SO

FA

RT

,IN

CL

UD

ING

LIT

ER

AT

UR

E,

AR

ISE

Aristotelian

poeticsas

atheory’

ofform

sand

techniqueproved

tobe

inadequate.T

hetechnique

itderived

byabstraction

fromthe

Greek

poetsclashed

with

thetechnique

ofthe

Spanishand

Englishtheaters

asw

ellas

thatof

them

odernnovel.

Thus

theuniversality

ofG

reekpoetics

hadto

becalled

intoquestion,

andsoluttons

tothe

disputesarising

therefromhad

tobe

soughton

thebasis

ofprinciples.T

hem

odelsof

Greek

arthad

furnisheda

firmfoundation

foraesthetic

dehatefor

along

time.

When

theybecam

edoubtful,

afoundation

hadto

besought

inprinciples.

Itw

asfinally

foundin

human

nature.T

heA

ristotelianprinciple

ofim

itationw

asobjec

tivistic—an

analogueof

theA

ristoteliantheory

ofknow

ledge.E

ver

idSchiller

toG

oethe,i6

Decem

ber1797,

tierB

riefwechsel

uv,sd,enSchiller

saidG

oethe,3

volt.(Frankfurt

a.M.

IntelV

erlag,,9

, zi.(D

)I

shouldparticularly

liketo

drawattention

tothe

following

lettersin

theB

riefw

ecl,seiSchifler-G

oethe:aS

June1

79

6;

2.8N

ovember

1796;

April

1797;

7A

pril1

79

7;

8A

pril,i9

;1

9A

pril1

79

7;

2.1A

pril1797;

24A

pril:7

97

;25

April

17

97

;

7July

17

97

;1

0O

ctober1

79

7;

15N

ovember

17

97

;9

Decem

ber1797;

30

June1798;

21

August

17

98

;2.1

August

1798;1

March

17

99

;1

9M

ay1799;

23O

ctober6

March

t8oo;2.7

March

t8ot.

(D)

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

43

sincephilosophers

beganto

probethe

subjectivepow

erof

human

natureand

graspthe

independentforce

whereby

ittransforms

what

isgiven

inthe

senses,the

principleof

imitation

became

untenablein

aesthetics.T

henew

standpointof

consciousness,expressed

inepistem

ologysince

Descartes

andL

ocke, alsoasserted

itselfin

mod

emaesthetics.

Here

too,as

inthe

fieldsof

religion,law,and

science,investigation

intocauses

orvirtual

relationssought

todeterm

inethe

facultyor

power

fromw

hichart

andliterature

originate.B

aconand

Hobbes—

genuinecontem

porariesof

Shakespeareand

hisschool—

hadalready

glimpsed

thispow

erin

theim

agination.A

ddison

recognizedthe

facultyof

imagination

asthe

power

which

containsthe

particularbasis

ofliterary

creations:a

kindofextended

senseof

visionw

hichm

akesthe

absentpresent.

David

Young,

Shaftesbury,and

Dubos

(who

hasnot

beenadequately

recognized)derived

thebasic

featuresof

am

odernaesthetics

fromthis

creativepow

er.In

Germ

any,this

aestheticsthen

became

asystem

aticw

hole.it

proceededfrom

theperspective

ofa

creativepow

erfound

inm

anand

innature

asa

whole—

apow

erw

hichproduces

beauty.W

ew

illnow

brieflydescribe

what

Germ

anaesthetics,

thehighest

expressionof

thisperspective,

hascontributed

tothe

progressof

poetics,and

tow

hatextent

itstill

needsto

besupplem

ented.T

heaccom

plishments

ofG

erman

aestheticscan

becorrectly

evaluated

onlyw

henit

isnot

investigatedsolely

interm

sof

abstractsystem

s.R

ather,w

eshould

alsoexam

inethe

livelyobservations

anddiscussions

foundin

Herder’s

earlyw

ritings,in

theentire

life’sscork

of Goethe

andSchiller,in

theliterary

andcriticalachievem

entsof

theSchlegels,

etc.T

hehistorical

andcritical

works

ofZ

imm

erm

annaand

Lotze’

foundthe

contributionsto

aestheticknow

ledgem

adein

thisgolden

ageof

Germ

anliterature

inprecisely

thosetheories

which

arem

ostabstract

andcontroversial.

How

ever,the

actualsignificance

ofthis

aestheticsfor

literatureconsisted

inthe

factthat,

when

ourpoetry

reachedits

peak,both

poetsand

phi

losophersw

erereflecting

onthe

productivepow

er,the

goaland

them

eansof

literature.Germ

anpoetics

ofthattim

em

ustberecognized

asa

nexusor

system3°

thatincluded

them

ostgeneral

aestheticprinciples,

thedebate

between

Goethe

andSchiller

abouttechnique,

asw

ellas

theanalyses

ofform

andcom

positionby

theSchlegels

“R

obertZ

imm

ermann,

Gesci,,chte

derA

sthetikall philosophischer

W:ssenschaft

(Vienna,

‘88

).-

Herm

annLorze,

Geschichte

derA

sthetikin

Deurschlatzd

(Munich,

‘868).1

°Z

usanzrnenhangcan

betranslated

asboth

nexus(especially

ina

psychologicalcontext)

andsystem

(especiallyin

ahistorical

context).

r

I16

andSchleierm

acher.It

was

avigorous,

fertilem

odeof

thoughtthat

influencedpoetry

andliterature,

criticism,

understanding,and

Literary-hisw

ricalor

philologicalresearch.

Only

insofaras

philo

sophicalthought

exertsan

influencedoes

ithave

aright

toexist.

The

firstachievem

entof

Germ

anaesthetics

was

anim

portanttenet thatw

asabstracted

fromthe

development

ofpoetryin

modern

times

andthat

couldbe

clearlyseen

inthe

epochof

Goethe

andSchiller.

Inthe

processof

differentiationby

which

theparticular

culturalsystem

sof

modern

nationshave

become

increasinglysep

aratedfrom

eachother

sincethe

beginningof

theM

iddleA

ges,art

toodeveloped

asan

independentexpression

oflife

with

itsow

ncharacteristic

content.In

theeighteenth

century,poetry

became

adom

inantpow

erin

Germ

any;it

became

consciousof

acapacity—

rootedin

genius—to

generatea

world

ofits

own.

This

capacityw

asem

bodiedin

Goethe.

Thus

poetryw

asled

torecognize

thefollow

ingfundam

entaltruth:

poetryis

notthe

imitation

ofa

realityw

hichalready

existsprior

toit;nor

isitthe

adornmentof truths

orspiritualm

eaningsw

hichcould

havebeen

expressedindependently.T

heaes

theticcapacity

isa

creativepow

erfor

theproduction

ofa

meaning

thattranscends

realityand

thatcould

neverbe

foundin

abstractthought.

Indeed,it

isa

way

orm

odeof

viewing

thew

orld.T

huspoetry

was

acknowledged

asan

independentpow

erfor

intuitingthe

world

andlife.

Itw

asraised

toan

organonfor

understandingthe

world,

alongsidescience

andreligion.

Both

truthsand

exaggerations

were

mixed

inthis

tenetand

itis

clearthat

anyfuture

poeticsw

illhave

greatdifficulty

inseparating

thetw

o.Schiller

was

thefirst

toattem

ptto

expressthe

natureof

aesthetic117

geniusin

aform

ula.W

ew

illexplicate

itby

ignoringits

imperfect

basisin

atheory

ofdrives

orim

pulses.For

Schiller,beauty

isliving

form.

This

isproduced

whenever

we

intuitlife

inan

image,

orw

heneverform

isendow

edw

ithlife.

Formm

ustbecom

elife,

andlife

form.

-.

.a

human

being,though

hem

aylive

andhave

form,

isfar

frombeing

onthat

accounta

livingform

.In

orderto

beso,

hisform

would

haveto

belife,

andhis

lifeform

.A

slong

asw

em

erelythink

abouthisform

,itis

lifeless,am

ereabstraction;

aslong

asw

em

erelyfeel

hislife,

itis

formless,

am

ereim

pression.

Only

when

hisform

livesin

ourfeeling

andhis

lifetakes

onform

inour

understanding,does

hebecom

eliving

form;

andthis

will

always

bethe

casew

heneverw

eadjudge

himbeautiful.’”

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TiO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

45

Ishall

designateas

Schiller’slaw

thethesis

thatthe

aestheticprocess

caneither

discerna

livelinessof

feelingin

outerform

andthus

enlivenw

hatis

visible,or

make

lifevisible

inouter

formand

thusgive

lifeform

.T

hislaw

thusinvolves

theconstant

translationof

livedexperience

intoform

andform

intolived

experience.W

eshall

laterseek

toform

ulatethis

principlein

more

exactpsycho

logicalterm

sand

toprovide

aproper

foundationfor

it.W

hatH

erder

saysin

hisK

alligone“is

akinto

Schiller’sthesis.

According

toH

erder,beauty

isperceived

when

theperfection

ofthings

thatis

sensedin

feelLngas

satisfactionresonates

inour

own

satisfaction.T

histhesis

concerningthe

unityof

innerand

outer,of

lifeand

form,

became,

asis

well

known,

thevehicle

fora

world-view

ora

way

ofphilosophizing.

This

aestheticw

orld-view,

stimulated

byreflection

onthe

poeticprocess—

especiallyon

what

operatedso

powerfully

inG

oethe—w

asreinforced

bySchiller’s

power

ofre

flectionand

broughtinto

connectionw

iththe

requirements

ofspec

ulationby

Schelling.O

uraesthetic

capacityconsists

invivifying

therelationship

we

experiencebetw

eeninner

andouter

andin

alsoextending

itto

nature,w

hichis

regardedas

deadby

theintellect.

This

experiencedrelationship

thenbecom

esa

formula

forthe

groundand

nexusof

thew

orldin

thesystem

ofidentity.

Naturally

itcould

thenbe

employed

inthe

reversedirection

asan

objectiveprinciple

forderiving

beautyin

natureand

thecreativity

ofthe

artist,w

hichserves

tohighlight

thisbeauty

andto

intensifyit.

Schelling’saesthetic

world-view

was

firstdeveloped

inhis

Dar

stellungm

einesSystem

sder

Philosophic(E

xpositionof

My

SystemofPhilosophy)”

which

conceivesthe

world

asthe

productofgenius,is

i.e.,absolute

reason—a

world

inw

hichnature

andspirit

areone.

The

creativecapacity

tow

hichSchiller

referredhas

herebecom

ethe

groundof

thew

orld.In

Novem

berr8

oi,

A.

W.

Schiegelbegan

hislectures

onliterature

andart,

which

constitutea

fullyw

orked-out

aestheticsin

oursense;

herebeauty

isdefined

asthe

symbolic

presentationof

theinfinite.

Partlybased

onSchlegel’s

lectures,Schelling

beganhis

i8oi

lectureson

art,w

hichderive

thecreativity

ofthe

artistfrom

“artin

itself,”the

rootof

artin

theabsolute—

without,

however,

addinganything

ofim

portanceto

therichness

ofA

.W

.Schlegel’s

lectures.T

hem

ostcom

pleteexposition

ofthis

metaphysical

principleof

artis

containedin

Schelling’slater

dis

courseon

The

Philosophyof

Art:

An

Oration

onthe

Relation

tran

s.

byE.

M.

Wilkensen

andL.

A.

Willoughby

(Oxford:

The

Clarendon

Press,1967),

p.x

ci.

“Published

IntR

ocas

am

etacritiqueci

Kant’s

Critique

ofJudgm

ent.Z

eitschriftfü

rspekulacive

Physik,II,

a(iS

o,)

.S.

W.,

IV,

pp.io

fi.(D

)

44

PO

ET

ICS

r

“Friedrich

SchilIer,O

nthe

Aesthetic

Education

ofM

a”;In

aSeries

of

Letters,

46P

OE

TIC

S

Betw

eenthe

PlasticA

rtsand

Nature.4

The

artistm

ust“em

ulatethe

creativespirit

ofnature

activein

theinner

natureof

things.”T

heaesthetics

ofH

egeland

hisschool

hasapplied

thism

etaphysicalprinciple

tothe

entirerealm

ofart.

Negatively,

thisaesthetic

ph

ilosophy

hasthe

virtueofdoing

away

with

theprinciple

ofim

itation.A

ndyetits

positiveform

ulation,which

wentbeyond

thatof Schiller,has

blurredthe

boundariesthat

separatethe

aestheticvivacity’

ofintuition

fromscientific

thoughtand

philosophicknow

ledge.T

hesecond

tenetof

Germ

anaesthetics

providesthe

basicbun

dationfor

Schiller’slaw

.It

was

convincinglyenunciated

byK

antin

hisanalyses

oftaste

andpleasure.

Itcan

beextended

tothe

creativeprocess

bym

eansof

theclaim

thatthe

same

complex

pro

cess

isinvolved

inaesthetic

receptivityas

inaesthetic

creativity,though

theform

eris

lessstrong.T

hejudgm

entof

tasteis

aesthetic,i.e.,

ithas

itsdeterm

iningground

inthe

relationof

theobject

tothe

feelingsof

pleasureand

displeasure,”but

without

anyrelation

tothe

facultyof

desire“this

mere

representationof

theobject

isaccom

paniedin

me

with

satisfaction,how

everindifferent

Im

aybe

asregards

theexistence

ofthe

objectof

thisrepresentation.”

“The

satisfactionw

hichdeterm

inesthe

judgment

oftaste

isdisinter

ested.”’“T

asteis

thefaculty

ofjudging

ofan

objector

am

ethodof

representingit

byan

entirelydisinterested

satisfactionor

dissatisfaction.T

heobject

ofsuchsatisfaction

iscalled

beautifuL”3’

Since119

thereis

noconceptual

transitionto

pleasureor

displeasure,the

furthercondition

isadded

thataesthetic

satisfactiondoes

notarise

throughthe

mediation

ofconcepts.T

hus,the

Kantian

analysisco

mpletely

negatesthe

views

thatbeauty

isa

mode

oftruth

ora

representation

ofthe

perfectionof

thingsin

asensuous

form.

Itfocuseson

thesignificance

offeelings

forthe

aestheticprocesses.

This

secondtenet

ofG

erman

aestheticshas

beenpresented

especially

brilliantlyby

Schopenhauer.T

hetask

isto

supplya

completion

anddeeper

groundingby

investigatingthe

significanceof

feelingsfor

theprocesses

ofcreativity,the

metam

orphosisofim

ages,and

composition.

Only

thencan

thism

ostcertain

panof

thefoun

dationof

aestheticsto

date,receive

therequisite

universalityand

psychologicalgrounding.

“Tran

s.of

Uber

din‘erbhItuis

derbildenden

KU

nsreCu

derN

atur

(Munich,

t8o).K

ant,C

ritiqueof

Judgment,

sectionr.

(D)

nIbid.,

sectio

na,

trans.by

J.H

.B

ernard(N

ewY

ork;H

afnerPress,

1956),

pp.43,

58

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

47

Athird

tenetof

Germ

anaesthetics

isderived

byproceeding

regressively

fromSchiller’s

lawto

theconditions

which

externalreal

itym

ustsatisfy

inorder

forit

tobe

aestheticallyintuitable

assom

ething

living.This

tenetalsopoints

backto

thephilosophy

ofidentityas

well

asto

aestheticalm

etaphysics.It

imm

ediatelyfollow

sfrom

thisthat

itw

illbe

verydifficult

togive

adequateform

ulationto

it.V

erydiverse

accountsof

therelationship

ofartistic

creauvityto

externalreality

havebeen

given.T

heygo

backto

Herder’s

discussion

ofsculpture

andM

oritz’sU

berdie

bildendeN

achahnrungdes

Schanen(O

nthe

Artistic

Imitation

of theB

eautiful),which

isknow

nto

haveinfluenced

Goethe

while

hew

asin

Italy.T

heycan

alsobe

foundin

Kant,Schiller,G

oethe,Schelling,andH

egel,among

others.T

heyare

eithervery

thinand

lackingin

contentor

areopen

todoubt.

Art

constantlyw

orksout

problems

forw

hosesolution

theconditions

must

liein

externalreality.T

herem

ustbe

arelationship

between

externalreality

andthe

eyethat

perceivesbeauty

which

makes

itpossible

tobehold

beautyin

thew

orld.T

hecreativity

ofthe

artistintensifies

qualitiesthat

alreadyexist

inreality.

The

taskis

torecognize

thesequalities

asw

ellas

therelationship

which

obtainshere;

andonly

them

oderntheory

ofevolution,

combined

with

psychology,seem

sto

make

thatpossible.

Afourth

tenetcan

beem

piricallyabstracted

fromaesthetic

impressions

inan

indeterminate

form.

But

itsm

oreexact

determ

inationon

thebasis

ofprinciples

alreadyexpounded

offersco

nsiderable

difficulties.T

heA

ristoteliantheory

of

techniqueclaim

eduniversal

validity,and

subsequentpoetics

preservedthis

claim.

Kant

formulated

thispresupposition

ofa

naturalsystem

ofartin

thefollow

ingw

ay:in

ajudgm

entof

taste(about

thebeautiful)

thesatisfaction

inthe

objectis

imputed

toeveryone,

without

beingbased

ona

concept(for

thenit

would

bethe

good).Further,

thisclaim

touniversal

validityso

essentiallybelongs

toa

judgment

byw

hichw

edescribe

anythingas

beautifulthat,

ifthis

were

notthought

init,

itw

ouldnever

come

intoour

thoughtsto

usethe

expressionat

all,but

everythingw

hichpleases

without

aconcept

would

becounted

aspleasant.”38

This

propositiontransfers

theconcept

ofuniversal

va

lidityfrom

thefield

ofknow

ledgeto

thatof

taste.In

bothcases

Kant

envisionsa

timelessly

validsystem

ofdeterm

inations.Further,

notonly

here,but

alsoin

thefields

oflaw

,religion,

andm

orality,K

antaccepted

anatural

orrational

systemtim

elesslyvalid

inits

FI

110

“Ibid

.,section

s,p.

45“Ib

id.,

p.48.

48P

OE

TIC

S

determinations.

This

isw

hyneither

Kant’s

hypothesesabout

theorigin

anddevelopm

entof

theplanetary

systemnor

hisview

son

thehistorical

development

ofa

perfectcosm

opolitanconstitution

leadus

toconceive

ofhisstandpointas

developmental.

Inagreem

entw

ithK

ant,G

oetheand

Schillerundertook

toderive

auniversally

validtechnique

forall

poetryfrom

afoundation

ofaesthetic

con

cepts. inthe

same

vein,we

findSchiller’s

idealhum

anbeing

realizingthe

highestfreedom

bym

eansof

thebeautiful

inhim

self.Further,

thisideal

personthen

emerged

inG

oethe,thoughnot

without

Schil

ler’sinfluence,

asthe

goalof

development

inhis

two

greatliterary

works,

Faust

andW

tlhebnM

eisrer,w

ithw

hichhe

was

occupiedthroughout

hisw

holelife.

The

wonderful

spellof

thesetw

ow

orksoriginates

inpart

fromthe

way

inw

hichG

oethe’srealistic

natureaccepts

human

strivingsas

conditionedby

theconfines

ofthe

real,and

yetraises

themto

thispure

idealitv.H

istoricallyconsidered,

thisuniversal

idealof

humanity

isthe

most

profoundm

eaning-content

ofG

erman

poetry.in

contrastto

thisstandpoint

we

findH

erder,the

founderof

theH

istoricalSchool,

who

emphasized

noless

one-sidedlythe

historicalm

ultiplicityof

nationaltastes.

He

tookas

hisstarting

pointliterary

works

completely

beyondthe

scopeof

technicalpoetics,

which

asw

esaw

hadproceeded

byabstracting

forms

andrules

fromthe

literatureof

theancients.

Herder

foundthe

germof

poetryin

thenatural

tonesand

lyricalcadences

ofthe

folksong,

inH

ebrewpoetry,and

inthe

poeticartofprim

itivepeoples.H

esaw

thenucleus

ofpoetry

inthe

musical

andthe

lyrical.T

hushe

capturedthe

othernonintuitive

aspectof

poetryw

hichhad

notpreviously

beenat

tendedto.

Further,he

was

ableto

recapture,w

itha

uniquesubtlety

offeeling,

howindigenous

nationalpoetry

originatedfrom

thelan

guageof

apeople.

Ham

annhad

alreadysaid:

“The

fieldof

languagein

extendsfrom

theart

ofspelling

allthe

way

tothe

masterpieces

ofliterary

art,andthe

most subtle

philosophyoftaste

andcriticism

.””H

erderw

rote:“T

hegenius

oflanguage

isalso

thegenius

ofthe

literatureof

anation.”°

How

poetryis

producedby

languageas

thefirst

expressionof

psychiclife

hadalso

beenobserved

earlier.T

heancients

hadseen

howthe

formation

ofpoetry

precededthe

development

ofprose.

Inhis

lifeof

Hom

er,B

lackwell4’

hadex

9Jo

han

nG

eorgH

amann,

Schri[ten,

vol.a

(Berlin:

Reim

er,i8

ai),p.

raS,(0)

4’Johann

Gortfrkd

Herder,

San,,,icI,cheW

erke,vol.

r,ed.

byB

ernhardS

uphan(B

erlin:\V

eidmann,

1877),

p.1

48

.ID

)T

homas

Blackw

ell,A

nE

;iqn

;’into

theL

ifeand

Writings

of

Hom

er,and

ed.(L

ondon,1735).

TH

EiM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

49

pressedthe

viewthat

inthe

earliesttim

eshum

answ

ereable

tohear

tonesm

uchm

orekeenly

thanw

ein

ourpresent-day

speech.T

heirspeech

was

akind

ofsinging.

Original

languagew

asfull

ofm

etaphors,

andthe

ruleof

poetrythat

instructsus

touse

metaphors

expressesthe

originalnature

oflanguage.

Ham

anncollected

theseobservations

inhis

Aesthetica

inm

ice:“Poetry

isthe

mother

tongueof

thehum

anrace.

As

barterpreceded

comm

erce,song

precededspeech.

The

sensesand

passionsspeak

andunderstand

nothingbut

images.”

Eversince

hisessay

onthe

lifestages

oflanguage,

Herder

developedthe

historicalcausal

nexusin

which

poetrygrow

sindig

enouslyfrom

thefoundation

oflanguage

inevery

nation.H

erderim

mersed

himself

fullyin

theancient

poetryof

them

ostdiverse

peoplesby

translating,recreating,

andanalyzing

itw

ithcongenial

vivacity.H

ebecam

ethe

founderof

thehistorical

studyof

literaturein

itsrelationship

tolanguage

andnational

life,because

hesensed

thepulse

ofnationallife

inlanguage

andliterature.

The

perspectiveof historicalpoetics

thusbegins

toopen

upw

ithH

erder.The

infinitevariations

ofm

an’ssensuous-spiritual

constitutionin

itsrelation

tothe

externalw

orldis

forhim

thecondition

ofbeauty

asof

taste,and

thesechange

asm

an’sdisposition

changes.H

erderis

historicallyjustified—

notonly

overagainst

Aristotle,

butalso

againstK

antand

Schiller.B

uthe

was

overwhelm

edby

theseopponents

becausehe

lackedclarity

ofconcepts

anda

firmfoundation.

The

embryonic

thoughtof

thisgenius

didnot

solvethe

probleminherent

inthe

relationof

theuniversal

elements

ofpoetry

tothose

which

changehistorically—

indeed,it

evenfailed

torec

ognizethe

problemfully.

Instead,he

wasted

hisenergy

onone-

sidedpolem

icsagainst

theidea

ofa

rationalsystem

anduniversal

validity.T

heim

portantw

orksof

Schillerand

theSchlegels,

wherein

thehistorical

forms

ofliterature

were

recognizedand

distinguishedin

terms

ofnaive

andsentim

ental,classical

androm

anticpoetry,

were

alsonot

employed,

eitherby

theauthors

themselves

orby

subsequentaestheticians,

todeal

with

thisproblem

.O

nthe

basisof

thesestill

imperfectly

formulated

andgrounded

tenetsthatw

erepartially

distortedby

one-sidedexplication

interm

sof

discreteclaim

sand

counterclaims,

Germ

anaesthetics

developeda

greattreasury

ofprofound

andsensitive

insightsinto

thepoetic

realm,ranging

fromthe

conceptofbeauty

tothe

forms

ofindividualliterary

genres.T

hetenets

thatw

eexposited

indicatethat

thisaes

theticsalw

ayssought

toestablish

arausal

relationbetw

eenthe

psychicstate

which

producesa

literaryw

orkand

theform

ofthat

work.

This

was

undoubtedlythe

main

advancew

hichdistinguished

I

‘La

50

PO

ET

ICS

thestudy

ofliterary

works

inthis

epoch;w

ecan

thereforecall

thephilology

andcriticism

ofthis

period“aesthetical.”

The

analysisof

formaccording

tothis

explanativem

ethodw

hichproceeds

frominner psychic

lifehas

sincebeen

extendedto

all European

literatures.A

fterH

umboldt

analyzedthe

epic,he

appliedthis

aestheticm

odeof

analysisto

languageitself

interm

sof

hisconcept

ofthe

innerform

oflanguage.

Goethe

andSchiller

alternatebetw

eencreative

work

andaesthetic

reflection.T

heSchlegels

were

thefirst

torec

ognizethe

formof

theSpanish

andR

enaissanceE

nglishdram

aand

toinvestigate

theform

inthe

proseof

Lessing,B

occaccio,and

Goethe.

Schleiermacher

understoodPlato

asa

philosophicalartist

bythis

method

andtransform

edherm

eneuticsby

means

ofit.4

1T

hegreat

periodof

Germ

anphilology,

criticism,

andaesthetics

beganw

henK

ant,for

whose

criticalm

ethodthe

distinctionbetw

eenform

andcontent

andthe

relationof

formto

theactive

processof

them

indw

erealw

ayscentral,

encounteredthese

tendenciesin

aestheticand

philologicalanalysis.

Yet

atthe

same

time,

Germ

anliterature

andpoetics

tendedto

overestimate

theim

portanceof

form.

Schiller,w

horevered

arealm

ofpure

andideal

forms

separatefrom

realityas

aregion

offreedom

andbeauty,

was

finallyled

toconsider

itan

advantageof

Greek

tragedythat

itscharacters

were

“idealm

asks.”H

eregarded

theprose

formof

Wilhelm

Meister

asa

limitation,and

eventold

Goethe

thatin

thefuture

heshould

presentbeautiful

contentonly

inm

etricaT

form.

The

Rom

anticw

orldof

beautifulillusion

emerged.

Otto

Ludw

igw

rote:“T

hroughm

yunderstanding

ofShakespeare,

Ihaveovercom

ethe

unnaturalseparation

introducedby

Goethe,

Schiller,and

theR

omantics

who

followed

theirlead

inseparating

theaes

theticand

thebeautiful

fromthe

goodand

thetrue,

making

poetryinto

afata

morgana,

anim

aginaryisland

of dreams,

which

estrangesm

anfrom

thew

orldand

fromhim

self,robbing

himboth

ofhis

113

feelingat hom

ein

thew

orldand

ofhisability

toact.Ihave

overcome

thisunnatural

separation, which

stamps

ourculture

with

aneffem

inatecharacter,

andm

yendeavor

isto

impart

my

cureto

other

WhatD

ilthey’sbrief

referencesto

Hum

boldt, Goethe,

Schiller,and

theSchlegels

pointto

isthe

expansionof

thenotion

ofform

fromthe

strictlyobjective

senseof

classicaldram

a.Since,

accordingto

Germ

anaesthetics,

formis

rootedin

them

ind,it

canalso

beem

bodiedin

epic,ordinary

language,prose

writing,

philosophy,and

nonclassicalm

odesof

literature.T

hisleads

tothe

notionof

innerform

which

isnot

onlym

oresubjective

thanthe

traditionalconcept

ofform

,but

alsom

oreencom

passing.It

allows

usto

discernform

where

previouslyliterary

crincismsaw

onlyform

lessnessor

disorder.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

51

patien

rs.”G

erman

aesthetictheory

was

alsonegatively

influencedby

itsuse

ofthem

etaphysicalmethod.

If todayw

ew

ereto

attempt

toascertain

them

entalstates

which

produceand

manifest

themselves

inliterary

forms,

thenonly

apsychology

which

leadsus

tore

co

gn

ize

thehistorical

natureof

man

coulddo

so.Since

sucha

psychologyw

asnot

availablethen,

thesem

entalstates

were

merely

surv

ey

ed

intu

itively

or

byarbitrary

methods.

This

holdsfor

thew

aySchiller

juxtaposednaive

andsentim

entalpoetry

asw

ellas

forthe

way

inw

hichthe

aestheticsof

theH

egelianschool

broughtpoetic

statesof

mind

inrelation

toone

anotherby

means

ofan

externaldialectic.

3.

PR

OB

LE

MS

AN

DR

ES

OU

RC

ES

OF

AC

ON

TE

MP

OR

AR

YP

OE

TIC

S

Athreefold

task

arise

s:first,

totra

nsport

theproblem

son

which

thisp

erio

dof

aesth

etic

specu

latio

nw

orkedinto

thecontextof

mod

ernem

piricalscience;

second,to

exploitthegreatw

ealthof

inspiredobservations

andgeneralizations

which

were

accumulated

thenfor

purposesof

empirical

research;and

third,to

putthe

findingsof

technicalpoetics

intoa

scientificrelation

tothose

ofaesthetic

speculation.

What

resourcesand

methods

dow

ehave

atour

disposalfor

thesetasks?

Poetics,w

hichhas

remained

farbehind

ingenerating

empirical

causalknow

ledge,w

illat

firstseek

tolearn

fromthe

methods

andresources

ofrelated

disciplines.T

hem

ostclosely

relateddiscipline,

rhetoric,has

unfortunatelyrem

ainedat

thepoint

which

itreached

inantiquity.

Itis

atheory

ofelem

entaryform

sand

technique.It

hastaken

nosteps

inthe

directionof

causalknow

ledge.H

owever,

rhetoriccould

beuseful

forphilology

andeveryday

life,both

inthe

limited

sensein

which

itw

asunderstood

inantiquity

asw

ellas

inthe

wider

senseof

atheory

ofpractical

discourse(i.e.,

prosedesigned

todem

onstrateand

persuade).T

heresources

providedby

gramm

arand

metrics,

byour

senseof

logicalcoherence,

andby

theaesthetic

sensitivityof

philologyhave

nearlybeen

exhausted.O

nlythrough

comparison

andpsychological

groundingcan

ithe

establishedto

what

extentand

inw

hatproportions

theelem

entsof

stylevary

within

anin-

4’

Otto

Ludwig,

Sk,zze,,m

idFragnienre

(Leipzig:C

.C

hobloch,:874),

p.84.

Dilthey

neverdefines

what

am

etaphysicalm

ethodis,

buthe

seems

tom

eanby

thisthe

constructionof

polaritiesand

dialecticalopposites.

r

i14

52

.P

OE

TIC

S

dividual.T

hisw

ouldC

reatea

systematic

foundationfor

investigating

Certain

questionsof

lower

andhigher

criticism.

Herm

eneuticsis

alsoclosely

relatedto

poetics.A

lthoughh

erm

eneuticsadvanced

tothe

standpointof

theaesthetic

contempla

tionof

formunder

Schleiermacher,

neitherit

norpoetics

hassince

thenprogressed

beyondthis

standpoint.G

ramm

arand

metrics, how

ever,canprovide

thegroundw

orkfor

poeticsand

them

odelsfor

acom

parativeapproach

topoetics

which

will

first establishindividualcausal

relationsin

theiruniform

ityand

thusgradually

allowus

toattain

athorough

knowledge

ofthecausal

nexus.T

hedistinction

which

must

nowbe

developedbetw

eenthe

meth

odsof

gramm

arand

thoseofpoetics

shouldnot

beunderrated. T

hegram

marian

ispresented

with

veryelem

entaryphonetic

transform

ationsand

heis

ableto

establishseries

ofthese

transformations

within

diverselanguages

andcom

parethem

with

oneanother.

He

canobtain

heLpfrom

thegenealogical

relationsam

onglanguages.

He

isable

toascertain

thephysiological

conditionsfor

theu

ni

formities

inthese

elementary

phonetictransform

ations.Poetics,

however,

cannotem

ploya

genealogicalanalysis

ofliterary

schools.N

oris

itable

toorder

thetransform

ationsof

atype

ora

motif

intofixed

sequences.T

hephysiological

aspectof

thepoetic

processcan

notbe

usedfor

theelem

entarygrounding

ofa

poeticsin

thesam

ew

aythat

thephysiological

aspectof

thelinguistic

processgrounds

gramm

ar.C

hangesin

phoneme,

accent,and

tempo

doindeed

per

vadeall

poetryas

well

asliterary

prose.B

utthis

sideof

poetryis

manifestly

lessw

ellsuited

forthe

elementary

foundationof

poetrythan

isphonology

forthat

ofgram

mar.

Attem

ptsto

detectthe

physiologicalphenom

enathat

accompany

thehigher

poeticp

roc

esses(such

asthose

made

bythe

Frenchin

theirtheories

ofhallu

cination)are

atpresent

stillw

ithoutresults.

Sopoetics

canhardly

expectresults

asfavorable

asthose

ingram

mar

ifit

usesthe

latteras

am

odeland

remains

contentwith

externalem

pirical observation,w

iththe

reciprocalelucidationof one

causalnexus

throughanother,

with

generalizationby

means

ofcom

parison,and

with

am

erephys

iologicalgrounding.

We

must

attempt

toproceed

asfar

aspossible

with

suchm

eans;but

thefollow

ingreasons

warrant

ourgoing

beyondthe

sphereof

theseresources

andm

ethods.T

hegram

marian

encounterslanguage

asa

basicallyfixed

system,

LI

inw

hichchanges

takeplace

soslow

lythat

theyescape

directap

prehensionthrough

observation.T

heproductive

powers

involvedin

theprocess

oflanguage

formation

areindeed

thesam

eas

those

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

53

which

canbe

apprehendedin

psychiclife

ingeneral.

Their

relationship

tospeech

processesis

neverexperienced,

butis

obtainedthrough

inference.T

hisis

thebasis

forthe

kinshipbetw

eenthe

methods

oflinguistic

researchand

thoseof

thenatural

sciences.By

contrast,the

livingprocess

inw

hichpoetry

originatescan

beo

bserved

fromits

inceptionto

itscom

pletedform

inour

contemporary

poets.Every

personw

itha

developedpoetic

senseis

capableof

fullyrecapturing

thefeeling

ofthis

process.In

addition,w

ehave

thepoet’s

own

testimony

abouthis

processof

creation.T

hisprovides

literarydocum

entation,w

hichperm

itsus

toestablish

thelife

his

tories,as

itw

ere,of

thedevelopm

entof

outstandingpoetic

works.

The

resultsof

thesecreative

processesare

preservedin

anim

mense

mass

ofliterature

which

isnearly

unlimited.

Poeticw

orkspossess

propertiesw

hichm

akethem

—com

paredto

prosew

orks—m

ostsuited

forcausal

investigation.T

hecreative

lifethat

producedlit

eraryw

orksstill

visiblypulsates

inthem

.Frequently,

thelaw

,oftheir

formation

canstill

beapprehended

inthe

finalform

(Gestalt).

These

observationsaboutpoetic

creativityand

aestheticreceptivity,

andthe

testimony

aboutthese

processes,m

ustbe

made

availableto

us;the

psychologicalinsights

thusattained

must

betransferred

tothe

externalhistory

ofthe

development

ofliterature;

andfinally

thefinished,

transparentform

ofliterary

works

must

beanalyzed

tocom

pleteand

confirmour

insightinto

theirgenesis—

when

allthis

hasbeen

done,an

excitingprospect

will

openup

inthis

field.Perhaps

we

canhere

succeedfor

thefirst

time

inderiving

acausal

explanationfrom

productiveprocesses.

Poeticsseem

sto

beat

astage

thatmay

perhapsm

akeitpossible

togive

aninnerexplanation

ofa

spiritualand

historicalproduct

accordingto

acausal

method.

Only

throughsuch

aninner

causalexplanation

canw

ehope

toansw

erthe

centralquestions

ofpoetics—

with

which

we

sawspec

ulativeaesthetics

strugglingin

vain—and

thusreconstitute

poeticsso

thatit

will

become

usable.T

herelation

ofthis

inneror

psychological

method

tothe

centralquestions

ofpoetics

andits

actualutilization

canhere

beindicated

onlyw

ithreference

tothe

following

threeproblem

s.T

heindependent

valueof

poetryand

thefunction

which

ithas

insociety

cannever

bebrought

tolight

byan

external,em

piricalm

ethod.If

spiritw

ereto

confrontits

own

creationsonly

asobjec

tive,em

piricalphenom

enaand

analyzethem

accordingto

theex

ternalm

ethodof

thenatural

sciences,thena

self-alienationof

spiritfrom

itsow

ncreations

would

arise.Socratic

self-knowledge

would

givew

ayto

anexternal

descriptivem

ethod.Poetics

would

beunable

r

T16

54P

OE

TIC

S

torecognize

theliving

functionof

poetryin

societyand

therebyto

secureits

placeand

dignityin

society.T

hecentral

questionof

allpoetics—

thatconcerning

theuniversal

validityor

historicalvariability

ofthe

judgment

oftaste,

ofthe

conceptof

beauty,of

techniqueand

itsrules—

must

beansw

eredif

poeticsis

tobe

ofuse

tothe

creativepoet,

toguide

thepublic’s

judgment,

orto

furnisha

firmfoundation

foraesthetic

criticismand

philology.B

utevery

empirical,

comparative

method

canonly

derivea

rulefrom

thehistorical

past,w

hosevalidity

isthus

his

toricallyrestricted.

Itcannotm

akeany

bindingclaim

sor

judgments

aboutw

hatis

newand

belongsto

thefuture.

Sucha

ruleapplies

onlyretrospectively,

andcontains

nolaw

forthe

future.Since

we

haveceased

topresuppose

theparadigm

aticvalue

ofancient

literature,

thelaw

ofbeauty

andthe

rulesof

poetrycan

bederived

onlyfrom

human

nature.A

tfirst,

poeticshad

afirm

basisin

aclassical

model

fromw

hichit

abstracted,then

laterin

some

kindof

am

etaphysicalconcept

ofthe

beautiful.N

owpoetics

must

seekthis

firmbasis

inthe

lifeof

thepsyche.

There

existsa

generalrelation

between

thepsychological

andthe

historicalw

hichpervades

allfields.

The

uniformconditions

underw

hichall

poeticcreation

occursand

theuniversally

validrules

tow

hichitis

boundoriginate

fromthe

poeticprocess,

fromthe

means

ofrepresentation

which

thepoet

employs,

andfrom

theobjects

heportrays.

Specialconditions

arethen

addedto

attainthe

individualform

sof

poetry.T

husthe

universallyvalid

norms

oflyrical,

epic,and

dramatic

literaturearise.

Inthese

forms

andaccording

tothese

rules,a

poetictechnique

develops—the

techniquesof

theG

reek,Spanish,

orthe

Renaissance

Englishtheater.

Technique

canalso

bedeveloped

intoa

theoryof

forms

andrules,

which,

however,

ishistorically

conditioned,notuniversalfor

mankind

assuch.Itw

orksw

iththe

givensof

historicallife,

theoverall

stateof

mind

ofthe

poet,and

traditionsof

representation.T

husa

mode

ofportraying

personsand

connectingtheir

actionsarises

thatis

specificto

anation

anda

time.

The

techniquedeveloped

ingreat

poetryby

creative1

L7

geniusesrem

ainsbound

bythese

determinations

andis

ableto

achieveunity,

necessity,and

heightenedartistic

effectonly

throughthe

factualand

historicalcharacter

ofpoetry.

The

poet’sim

agination

ishistorically

conditioned,not

onlyin

itsm

aterial,but

alsoin

itstechnique.

Poetictechnique

isregarded

asuniversally

validonly

dueto

alack

ofhistorical

consciousness.W

ithoutdoubt

theR

enaissanceE

nglishpoets—

especiallyShakespeare,

asw

ellas

theSpanish

andFrench

poets—invested

much

reflectioninto

them

as

55

terfultechniques

theycreated.

Otto

Ludw

igperform

eda

greatserv

iceby

analyzingthis

techniquew

iththe

congenialsensitivity

ofa

genuinedram

aticpoet,

buthe

failedto

recognizeits

historicalorigins

andlim

its.T

heparticular

forms

ofliterature

cannotbe

explained,as

regardstheir

innerim

pulses,by

them

ethodof

externalobservation

andcom

parison;nor

canthey

bebrought

underuniversally

validrules

inthis

way.

But

what

canbe

discernedin

allpoetry,

beginningw

iththe

most

elementary

creations,is

afundam

entalpsychological

dis

tinctionbetw

eenexpression

ofone’s

own

innerlife

andsubm

issionto

what

isobjective.

Thus

poeticsm

ustm

akeuse

ofthe

advantageit

has,and

relateall

thetools

ofexternal

observation,cross-illum

ination,generali

zationthrough

comparison—

alsothe

constructionof

aseries

ofrelated

mom

entsinto

adevelopm

entalsequence

andits

comple

tion—to

thepsychological

studyof

poeticcreativity.

Because

ofour

concernw

itha

foundationfor

poetics,psychologicalconsiderations

will

predominate

inw

hatfollow

s.B

utthe

complete

working

outof

apoetics

would

make

clearw

hatcan

begained

fromthat

otherside

ofthe

modern

method—

especiallyw

henthe

oldestaccessible

documents

andthe

literaryaccom

plishments

ofprim

itivepeoples

become

thebasis

fora

comparative

approach.

rT

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T

SE

CT

ION

TW

O

CH

AP

TE

RO

NE

.D

ES

CR

IPT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T’S

CO

NS

TIT

UT

ION

i.T

heProcesses

ofH

isPsychic

Life(D

isregardingH

isP

rivateD

isposition)

Our

firstand

simplest

taskis

toobserve,

collect,and

unite,ac

cordingto

literaryor

biographicalm

ethods,all

thetraits

thatpoets

manifest

incom

mon.

They

arebrought

intofocus

againstthe

back

groundof

what

appearsnot

onlyin

thepoet,

butalso

inthe

ph

ilosopher,

naturalscientist,

orpolitician.

This

comparison

would

beIZ

Ssuperfluous

ifboth

theclassical

andR

omantic

orientationshad

notfailed

torecognize

thesefacts

andfalsely

placedthe

poetin

anethereal

realmof

idealform

sor

inan

illusoryw

orldcut

offfrom

reality.A

ccordingto

Aristotle,

theobjects

ofliterature

arehum

anac

tions.A

lthoughthis

formula

istoo

narrow,

we

may

neverthelesssay

thatonly

tothe

extentthat

apsychic

element,

ora

combination

ofthem

, standsin

relationto

alived

experienceand

itspresentation

canit

bea

constituentof

literature.C

onsequently,the

substratumof

alltrue

poetry’is

alived

orliving

experiencesand

whatever

psychicconstituents

arerelated

toit.

Everyim

ageof

theexternal

world

canindirectly

become

them

aterialfor

thecreativity

ofthe

poetthrough

justsuch

arelationship.

Everyoperation

ofthe

un

derstandingw

hichgeneralizes

experience,orders

it,and

increasesits

applicabilityassists

thew

orkof

thepoet.

This

sphereof

experience

inw

hichthe

poetoperates

isno

differentthan

thatfrom

which

thephilosopher

orpolitician

draws.

The

youthfulletters

ofFrederick

theG

reator

ofany

contemporary

statesman

arefull

ofelem

entsalso

tobe

foundin

thepsyche

ofa

greatpoet;

many

ofSchiller’s

thoughtscould

havebeen

thoseof

apolitical

orator.A

powerful

psychiclife,

intenseexperiences

ofthe

heartand

ofthe

world,

acapacity

forgeneralization

anddem

onstration—all

these

•‘E

riebnis,lebendige

Erfabrung.

Erjehnis

villbe

translatedas

‘livedexperience’

todistinguish

itfrom

Erfal,rung

excrprw

henother

adiecticesrender

“lived”aw

kw

ard.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

57

form

thefertile

gro

und

for

hum

an

acco

mp

lishm

en

tsof

the

most

diversekinds,

includingthose

ofthe

poet.O

neof

thefew

thingsw

ecan

inferfrom

Shakespeare’sw

orksabout

what

heread

isthat

hem

usthave

likedM

ontaigne.T

hisprim

ordialrelation

ofa

po

werful

IntellecttO

life-experience4and

generalizationsderived

fromitm

ustexist

inevery

greatpoet.

According

toG

oethe,“all

dependsupon

this:one

must

besom

ethingin

orderto

dosom

ething.”’“G

enerally,the

personalcharacterof the

writer

influencesthe

publicrather

thanhis

talentsas

anartist.”4i

Thus

representationsof

lifeare

always

thesoil

fromw

hichlit

eraturedraw

sits

essentialconstituents.

The

elements

ofpoetry—

motif,

plot,character,

andaction—

aretransform

ationsof

representations

oflife.

We

imm

ediatelysense

thedifference

between

heroesconstructed

fromstage

props—paste,

paper,and

glitter—no

matter

howtheir

armor

may

shimm

er, andthose

composed

fromreality.

Particularor

generalrepresentations

ofcharacters

whose

elements

alreadyexist

eitherin

ourselvesor

inreality

asconstituted

byothers

needonly

undergoa

transformation

forthe

personaeof

adram

aor

anovel

tobe

created.Sim

ilarly,the

nexusof

eventsprovided

byour

experiencesof

lifeneed

onlyundergo

atransfor-

119

mation

inorder

tobecom

ean

aestheticplot.

There

isno

specialm

ora

lityof

thetheater,

thereare

noresolutions

which

satisfyus

ina

novelbut

notin

lifeitself.

That

isprecisely

what

ispow

erfullygripping

abouta

work

ofliterature—

thatit

originatesin

apsyche

simila

rto

ours,

onlygreater

andm

orevigorous.

Itexpands

ourheart

beyondits

actualconfines

without

displacingus

intothe

thin,rarefied

atmosphere

ofa

world

unfamiliar

tous.

The

activitiesand

functionsof

theim

aginationdo

notarise

ina

vacuum.

They

shouldoriginate

ina

healthy,pow

erfulpsyche

filledw

ithreality;

accordingly

theyshould

fosterand

strengthenw

hateveris

bestinthe

readeror

listener,teach

himto

betterunderstand

hisow

nem

otions,to

lookfor

hiddenlife

inthe

monotonous

stretchesof

hisow

npath,

totend

hism

odestgarden,

asit

were,

andthen

alsoto

beequal

tow

hateverextraordinary

thingsoccur

there.A

llgenuine

poetryfeeds

onhistorical

fact.A

specificw

ayof

viewing

people,enduring

charactertypes,

complexities

ofhum

an

46

Lebenserfabrung

ism

oreencom

passingthan

Eriebnis

andincludes

theunder

standingof

lifeobtained

throughothers.

47Johann

PeterE

ckermann,

Gesprache

mit

Goethe,

zoO

ctoberi8

i8(Leipzig:

Brockhaus,

rBj6),

trans.by

JohnO

xenfordas

Conversations

ofG

oethew

ithE

ther-m

ann(hereafter

CE)

(London:

George

Belland

Sons,1

90

9),

p.3

41

.4’

Eckerm

ann,G

esprache,30

March

1814;C

E,p.

77.

F

58P

OE

TIC

S

action,and

theirresolution

inaccordance

with

them

oralfeeling

ofa

periodand

anation,

andfinally

thecontrasts

andrelations

among

theim

agesand

symbols

thatare

especiallyprom

inentat

agiven

time:

theseare

thealready

naturallypow

erfulelem

entsthat

allpoetictechnique

mustacceptand

transforminto

aproductw

hichis

necessary,unified,

andw

hoseeffect

isfocused.

Poetictechnique

ishistorically

conditioned.

i.T

heP

rimary

Function

of

theP

oet

How

doespoetic

creativitydevelop

within

thishistorical

matrix?

Ifw

eare

toansw

erthis

questionon

thebasis

ofthe

factsof

literature,

thenw

em

ustfirstprovide

adescription

ofthe

characteristicachievem

entof

thepoet—

hisfunction,

asit

were—

onthe

basisof

biographicaland

literaryfacts.

Only

thencan

we

observeand

de

scribethe

particularfeatures

ofthe

specificprocesses

thatgo

intohis

achievement.

We

cannotfollow

idealisticaesthetics

when

itdefines

theessence

andfunction

ofart

interm

sof

thehighest

idealof

artthat

we

arecapable

ofconceiving

today.M

ostof

thetheories

ofculture

stemm

ingfrom

theperiod

ofGerm

anspeculation

sufferfrom

thisdefect.

Whathas

beendeveloped

underthe

mostfavorable

conditionsm

aynot

beprojected

asthe

impulse

thatexplains

theentire

seriesof

phenomena

constitutiveof

artas

asphere

oflife.

Art

isto

befound

wherever

something

isexhibited—

beit in

tonesor

ina

more

lastingm

edium—

andis

notexpected

eitherto

serveour

knowledge

ofIO

realityor

tobe

convertedinto

reality,but

satisfiesour

intuitiveinterest

forits

own

sake.A

rtencompasses

adom

ainw

hichextends

fromthe

outlinesofreindeers

andw

halesw

ithw

hicheskim

osadorn

theirw

eaponsand

theim

agesof

idolsm

adeby

Africans

onthe

oneextrem

e,to

thecreations

ofG

oetheand

Raphael

onthe

other.It

isa

domain

inw

hichw

hatispresented

isatthe

same

time

developedand

transformed,

andw

hichhas

atleast

onecom

mon

feature,nam

ely,thatmere

presentationas

such,andits

contemplation,p

rovide

satisfaction.This

feature—satisfaction

inperceiving

what

ispresented—

belongsto

everyw

orkof

art.H

owever,

we

must

guardagainst

thetem

ptationto

seethe

essenceof

artin

thissim

plefea

ture—a

dangerwhich

Aristotle

didnotescape.W

em

ustalsobew

areof

tryingto

definew

hatelse

belongsto

thew

orkof

artby

means

ofblanket

statements.

Thepoet

depictsthrough

asequence

ofw

ords.O

necould

thinkthatin

thecourse

of time

thoseobjects

betterrepresented

byanother

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

59

artform

would

havebeen

cededto

thatart,

andthat

thoseobjects

which

were

most

suitedfor

them

ediumof

speechw

ouldhave

beenallotted

toliterature

tocom

priseits

subjectm

atter.O

necould

thusargue

thatthe

descriptionof

natureas

such,and

thebeauty

ofthe

human

body,are

notappropriate

objectsof

literature,although

theycan

veryw

ellaffect

theem

otionsvery

deeplyin

paintingsand

candelight

theeye

inm

arble.C

ompetition

among

thearts

hascertainly

worked

insuch

adirection.

How

ever,w

hathas

separatedpoetry

fromthe

otherarts

anddeterm

inedits

functionin

societyis

notthe

medium

ofspeech,

butrather

apeculiar

corecontent

which

ispoetry’s

own.

The

comparative

method

canultim

atelyarrive

atarchetypal

units,as

itwere,

atsim

plelife-form

sof

poetry.A

lthoughI

amhere

postponingthis

investigation,Ishall

neverthelesstry

todescribe

thecore

contentof

poetryw

hichis

comm

onto

allliterature

beginningw

ithits

simplest

forms.

The

poet’screative

work

always

dependson

theintensity

oflivedexperience.T

hroughhis

constitution,which

maintains

astrong

resonancew

iththe

moods

oflife,

evenan

impersonal

noticein

anew

spaperabout

acrim

e,a

dryreport

ofa

chronicler,or

astrange,

grotesquetale

canbe

transformed

intolived

experience.Justasour

bodyneeds

tobreathe,our

soulrequiresthe

fulfillment

andexpansion

ofits

existencein

thereverberations

ofem

otionallife.

Our

feelingof

lifedesires

toresound

intone,

word,

andim

age.Perception

satisfiesus

fullyonly

insofaras

itis

filledw

ithsuch

contentof

lifeand

with

reverberationsof

feeling.T

histo

andfro

oflife

atits

fullest,of

perceptionenlivened

andsaturated

byfeeling,

andof

thefeeling

oflife

shiningforth

inthe

clarityof

anim

age:that

isthe

essentialcharacteristic

ofthe

contentof

allpoetry.

Suchlived

experienceis

fullypossessed

onlyw

henit

isbrought

intoan

innerrelation

with

otherlived

experiencesand

itsm

eaningis

graspedthereby.

Livedexperience

cannever

bere

ducedto

thoughtsor

ideas.How

ever,itcan

berelated

tothe

totalityof

human

existencethrough

reflection,especially

throughgener

alizationand

theestablishm

entof

relationships,and

thusit

canbe

understoodin

itsessence,

thatis,

itsm

eaning.A

llpoetry—

itsele

ments

andtheir

forms

ofconnection—

iscom

posedof

livedexpe

rienceunderstood

inthis

sense.Avital

mood

permeates

andshapes

everyouter

intuitionof

thepoet.

Apoet

possessesand

enjoyshis

own

existencethrough

astrong

senseoflife

which

oscillatesbetw

eenpleasure

andsuffering,

andover

againstthe

clear,purebackground

ofhis

circumstances

andof

thesym

bolsof

human

existence(des

Daseins).

We

thereforesay

thatsom

eonehas

apoetic

naturew

ho,

r

131

6oP

OE

TIC

S

evenw

ithoutbeing

creative,allow

sus

toenjoy

thisbeautiful

senseof

lifeor

vitality.A

ccordingly,w

ecall

aw

orkfrom

anotherart

formpoetic

ifits

soulis

livedexperience

orlife,

eventhough

itaddresses

usthrough

them

ediumof

coloror

line,in

sculpturalform

s,or

inm

usic.T

hefunction

ofpoetry

isthus,

atits

root,one

ofpreserving,

strengthening,and

awakening

thissense

oflife

inus.

Poetryco

ntinually

leadsus

backto

thisintensity

ofthe

feelingof

Life,w

hichfills

usin

ourfinest

mom

ents,to

thisinw

ardnessof

visionthrough

which

we

enjoythe

world.

Our

realexistence

isone

ofrestless

movem

entbetw

eendesire

andenjoym

ent;a

more

restfulhappiness

isonly

possibleon

theserare

occasionsw

henw

etake

aholiday

fromordinary

existence.B

utthe

poetcan

bringus

am

orehealthful

appreciationof

life.H

ecan

furnishus

with

long-lastingsatisfaction

throughhis

creations,w

ithoutany

bitteraftertaste,

andcan

teachus

tofeel

andenjoy

thew

holew

orldas

livedexperience—

always

asfull,

whole,

healthyhum

anbeings.

3.T

hisFunction

isC

onditionedby

theG

reaterIntensity

oftJe

Poet’sPsychic

Processes

This

function,like

everyother

functionof

anindividual

ora

classof

peoplein

society,does

notinvolve

aspecial

processor

combi

nationof

processespeculiar

tothat

individualor

class.R

ather,w

efind

herethe

same

processesw

hichoccur

inevery

psyche—they

onlydiffer

intheir

intensity.T

hecreative

imagination

ofthe

poetrja

confrontsus

asa

phenomenon

totallytranscending

theeveryday

lifeof

mankind.

Nevertheless,this

imagination

ism

erelya

functionof

them

orepow

erfulconstitution

ofcertain

human

beings,origi

natingfrom

theunusual

intensityand

durationof

certainof

theirelem

entaryprocesses.

The

lifeof

them

indis

constitutedfrom

thesam

eprocesses

andaccording

toidentical

laws,

andyet

itm

anifestsform

sand

functionsw

idelydivergent

fromeach

otherby

means

ofthese

mere

differencesin

theintensity,

duration,and

integrationof

theseprocesses

Agreat

poetarises

inthis

way

too.H

eis

abeing

who

differsfrom

every’other

classof

human

beingsto

am

uchgreater

extentthan

isusually

assumed.

Eventhe

averagew

riterdisplays

noneof

thedem

onicm

ightor

incalculable,passionate

power

with

which

Rousseau,

Alfieri,

byron,or

Dickens

havegone

throughlife.

At

first,psychology

was

sopreoccupied

with

thein

vestigationof

uniformities

thatthe

explicationof

differenttypes

ofhum

anbeings

was

necessarilyneglected.

Literary

historyhas

had

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

6i

tow

aitfor

theassistance

ofthe

psychologicalaesthetician.

Only

with

theaid

ofhis

explorationofthe

poeticim

aginationw

illliterary

historybe

ableto

providea

thoroughand

exactaccount

ofthe

specialkind

ofcreative

lifethat

characterizesthose

poetsabout

whom

we

havesufficient

information.

The

poetis

distinguishedfirstof

allby

theintensity

andprecision

ofhis

perceptualim

ages,their

multiplicity,

andthe

interestw

hichaccom

paniesthem

.T

hatis

thefirst

constituentof

livedexperience,

anditem

ergesw

ithunusual

forcefulnessin

thepoet.T

hefirstreason

forthis

liesin

thesensory

constitutionof

thepoet—

theeye

with

which

heview

sthe

world

andthe

sensitiveear

with

which

hehears

it.If

we

want

totake

stockof

thew

ealthof

preciseim

agesaccu

mulated

bythe

poet,w

em

ustconsider

howthey

arestored

inm

emory.

According

toM

axM

flller’scalculation,

Shakespearehad

some

r,ooo

words

athis

disposal.G

oethetoo

hadjust

asim

pressivea

comm

andof

hism

othertongue.

Shakespeare’sacquaint

ancew

ithjurisprudence

hasbeen

tracedback

tothe

specialtraining

ofa

lawclerk,

andpsychiatrists

believethey

canlearn

fromhis

descriptionsof

insanityas

fromnature

itself.We

seeG

oethedealing

asan

expertw

ithan

anatomist

oneday,

with

abotanist

thenext,

andthen

with

ahistorian

ofan

orphilosopher.

Inaddition

tothis

sortoftalent,

aspecial

sort ofinterest isalso

necessary.Fora

personw

hoseim

agesstand

inrelation

tointended

actionsor

knowledge

tobe

attained,im

agesare

signsfor

something

which

occupiesa

determinate

placein

thecalculation

ofhis

intentionsor

inthe

relations

tow

hatis

knowable.

But

apoetic

geniusyields

himself

tolived

experienceor

toan

image,

with

anindependent

interestin

them,

with

aquiet

satisfactionin

intuition,how

everfrequently

hem

ayhe

distractedby

externallife

orby

science.A

poeticgenius

islike

atraveler

ina

foreignland,

who,

with

greatenjoym

entand

complete

freedom,

abandonshim

self,w

ithoutany

utilitarianm

otives,

tothe

surroundingim

pressions. This

lendshim

thecharacter

ofchildlike

naivetéevident

inM

ozart,G

oethe,and

many

othergreat

artists,w

hichis

verym

uchcom

patiblew

ithan

accompanying

systemof

goal-directedactions.

The

poetis

thenfurther

setapart

bythe

clarityof

delineation,strength

ofsensation,

andenergy

of projectionpeculiar

tohis

mem

oryim

agesand

theirform

ations.W

hena

stimulus

ceases,the

excitation

inthe

sensoryorgan

cannevertheless

continue.T

heper

ceptionthen

becomes

anafter-im

age.W

henthis

excitationof

thesensory

nervesno

longerexists,

thecontent

ofperception

canco

ntinue

toexist

asa

representationor

bereproduced

asone.

The

r

t33

POETICS

representationw

hichim

mediately

follows

aperception,

withoutthe

interventionof

anotherrepresentation,

ism

ostclosely

relatedto

it

asregards

itscharacter.

Fechnercalls

ita

“mem

oryafter-im

age.”If

otherrepresentations

intervenebetw

eenthe

impression

andits

reproduction,the

vivacity,clarity,

anddistinctness

ofthe

representation

isreduced.

How

ever,this

differencebetw

eensensory

per

ceptionand

representationvaries

considerablyin

differentpersons,as

Fechnerhas

establishedthrough

asurvey.

Fromnearly

colorlessand

indistinctlyform

edim

agesof

recollection—w

hichare

indeedm

ereshadow

sof

reality—w

efind

transitionsto

sharplydelineated,

intensivelycolored

forms

projectedinto

sensoryspace,

ofw

hichartists

andm

ostpoets

arecapable.

Balzac

spokeabout

thepersons

inhis

Cornedie

hurnaineas

ifthey

were

alive.H

escolded,

praised,and

analyzedtheir

actionsas

ifthey

belongedto

thesam

erespect

ablesociety

thathe

was

partof.

The

basisof

thisattitude

was

Balzac’s

sensoryconstitution.Even

asa

childhe

hadm

emory

images

which

were

realisticallydelineated

andcolored.

Accordingly,

hisdescriptions

were

ableto

attainphotographic

accuracy.A

t thesam

etim

e,he

was

astonishedto

discoverin

himself

theability

“likethe

dervishin

theT

housandand

One

Nights

toassum

ethe

bodyand

soulof

thepersons

hew

antedto

present.”Indeed,

hecom

paredthis

ability,which

was

frighteningeven

tohim

self,“of

relinquishinghis

own

moral

habitsand

transforming

himself into

something

else,to

beingable

todream

while

awake

orto

asecond

sight.”49T

hisrem

indsus

ofG

oethe’sstatem

entthat

“IfIhave

spokento

someone

‘31

fora

quarterof

anhour,

Iw

antto

lethim

talkfor

two

hours.”soT

urgenevtold

friendshe

solived

theroles

ofhis

heroesthat

fora

time

hethought,

spoke,and

walked

asthey

did.W

henhe

was

writing

Fathersand

Sonshe

spokelike

Bazarov

fora

considerabletim

e.G

oethesaid

thefollow

ingabout

suchinnate

capacitiesin

general:“T

hatis

what

isinherent

togreat

talent.N

apoleonco

ntrolled

thew

orldas

Hum

mel’

playedhis

grandpiano.”5a

That

isthe

facilityw

hichalw

aysexists

whereverthere

isrealtalent.

Flaubertw

rites—and

why

shouldw

edoubt

hisw

ord?—”T

hefigures

ofm

y

4’See

Theophile

Gautier, H

onorOde

Baizac,sa

vieetses

oeuvres(B

russels:M

elline,C

ans&

Co.,

i88

);B

aizac’sliterary

presentationof

itin

hisL

ouisL

ambert;

asw

ellas

AlexandreJ.F.B

. deB

oismont,

Des

hallucinations,ouhistoire

desapparitions

(Paris,1

84

5),

pp.46iff.

(D)

“Eck

erman

n,

Gesprache,

a6February

1824.

•‘Johan

nN

.H

umm

el(1

778-1

837).

Famous

pianistand

composer.

Eckerm

ann,G

esprache,A

pril1

81

9.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

63

imagination

affectand

pursuem

e;or,

rather,I

amthe

onew

holives

inthem

.A

sI

describedhow

Em

ma

Bovary

poisonedherself,

Ihad

sucha

distincttaste

ofarsenic

thatI

sufferedtw

oattacks

ofindigestion.””

And,

thebiography

ofD

ickens,too,

isfilled

with

evidenceabout

howhis

charactersconfronted

hisim

aginationw

ithincom

parablesensory

vividnessand,

atthe

same

time,

howclose

theyw

ereto

hisheart.

Evenm

orethan

bythe

intensityof

hism

emory

images,

thepoet

distinguisheshim

selfby

thepow

erw

ithw

hichhe

(expressesor)

recreates

psychicstates,

bothstates

experiencedin

himself

andthose

observedin

others,and,

consequently,the

situationand

charactersconstituted

bythe

interconnectionof

suchstates.

Inthe

fieldof

innerexperience,

thedistinction

between

alived

experienceand

itsre-creation

correspondsto

thatbetw

eenexternal

perceptionand

itsrepresentation.

One’s

own

psychicstate

becomes

anobject

inthis

re-creation.First,

thoseexternal

perceptionsw

hichare

conjoinedw

ithaffective

orvolitional

statesbecom

erepresentations.

Images

ofpersons,

ofthe

environment,

andof

thesituation

arereproduced

asrepresentations

connectedw

ithone’s

stateof

mind.

On

thebasis

ofthis

complex

ofrepresentations,

there-creation

offeelings

andvolitional

processesis

theninitiated.

Ifthe

effectthat

astate

ofaffairs

hason

feelingand

will

persists,then

theaffective

andvo

litionalacts

derivingfrom

thatstate

ofaffairs

will

naturallyappear

aneww

henit

isvividly

reproduced.B

utbeyond

thatthere

isa

recreation

ofthe

affectiveor

volitionalprocess

which

isas

distinctfrom

theoriginal

livedexperience

asrepresentation

isfrom

per

ception.N

ewform

ations(N

eubildungen)offeelings

orofvolitional

forcesare

asa

rulem

ixedin

with

thesere-creations

(Nachbild

ungen),thus

lendingthem

acertain

vivacity.B

utthese

newfor-

usm

ationsdisturb

thepurity

ofthe

re-creation,especially

inliterary

works.

Suchare

theassociations

which

falsifypity

andfear

inm

iddle-classdram

abecause

theyevoke

arecollection

ofone’s

own

painfulpredicam

entor

one’sapprehension

aboutit.

This

isnot

theleast

ofthe

reasonsw

hytragedy

neededaristocratic

heroesw

hoare

separatedfrom

theview

erby

greatdistance.

Here

we

enterthe

poet’sow

nmost

domain:

livedexperience

andits

expressionor

recreation

inthe

imagination.

First,the

vivacityof

thesere-creations

dependson

theoriginal

forceof

feelings,em

otions,and

volitional

r

“Com

municatio

nby

Flaubert

toT

ame,

quotedin

Hippolyte

Adoiphe

Tam

e,D

el’intelhgence,

vu’.a,

4thed.

(Paris:H

achette&

Co.,

1883),p.

i.(D

)

64P

OE

TIC

S

processes.Second,

thesere-creations

differin

variousdegrees

fromthe

originalprocesses

with

respect totheir

distinctness,energy,

andthe

resonanceof

one’sow

ninner

state.Since

thesere-creations

arenever

separatedfrom

them

emory

ofexternal

perceptions,w

ehave

alreadygiven

anindication

aboutthe

possiblevivacity

ofthese

recreations

with

ourearlier

examples

ofthe

intensityof

mem

oryim

ages.Let

me

addto

thata

remark

byD

ickens.A

she

was

approaching

theend

ofhis

story“T

heC

himes,”

hew

rote:“Since

Iconceived,

atthe

beginningof

thesecond

part,w

hatm

usthappen

inthe

third,I

haveundergone

asm

uchsorrow

andagitation

asif

thething

were

real;and

havew

akenedup

with

itat

night.I

was

obligedto

lockm

yselfin

when

1finished

ityesterday,

form

yface

was

swollen

forthe

time

totw

iceits

propersize,

andw

ashugely

ridiculous.”5O

nO

ctoberI9],

1786,G

oetherelates

howhe

discoveredthe

plotof

iphigeniain

Delphi

when

hew

asm

idway

between

sleepingand

waking.

About

therecognition

scenehe

writes:

“Im

yselfcried

likea

childover

it””

Goethe

toldSchiller

thathe

didnot

knowif

hew

ascapable

ofw

ritingan

authentictragedy,

thatthe

veryen

deavorterrified

him,

andthat

hew

asnearly

convincedthe

mere

attempt

might

destroyhim

.In

thechildhood

yearsof

apoet,

thelively

power

tore-create

causesthe

poeticfigures

fromfairy

tales,novels,

andplays

tobe

interwoven

with

realityitself,

asw

eknow

fromthe

casesof

Goethe

andD

ickens.O

bviouslydraw

ingon

hisow

nexperience,

Goethe

describedthe

limits

ofthe

imagination

inre-creating

asfollow

s:“T

heim

aginationcan

neverconceive

ofa

virtueas

perfectlyas

itactually

appearsin

anindividual.

The

imag

inationconceives

ofit

more

vaguely,hazily,

indeterminately,

andless

sharplydelineated—

butnever

with

thecom

pletenesscharac

teristicof

reality.”56L

36

The

poetis

alsoset

apartby

acapacity

totruly

enlivenim

ages,and

theattendant

satisfactiongained

fromperception

issaturated

with

feeling.T

heintensity

ofhis

feelingof

lifeperm

itsim

agesof

thecircum

stancesof

them

anyphases

ofhis

lifeto

ariseand

remain

presentto

him.

Goethe

says,“C

laudeL

orrainknew

byheart

thesm

allestdetails

ofthe

realw

orld,and

heused

themas

them

eans

JohnF

orster,T

heLife

ofC

harlesD

ickens,vol.

z(london:

Chapm

an&

Hall,

1873),p.

131.

(D)

“Goeth

e,T

agebich,B

ologna,r

October

,786,in

\%‘A,

III,1:3

04.

0G

oetl,esU

nrerhaltungennut

deniK

anzlerFnedncl,

vonM

uller,ccl.

byC

arlA

ugustH

ugoB

urkhardr(S

tuttgart,1870),

p.81.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

65

svithw

hichto

expressthe

world

ofhis

beautifulsoul.

That

istrue

ideality

.”T

hesam

ething

holdsfor

thepoet.

Cham

isso,”asked

aboutthe

significanceof

PeterSchlem

ihl,declined

tom

akeany

pronouncement

aboutit

andnoted

instead:“H

eseldom

wanted

toexpress

anythingthrough

poetry.B

utif

ananecdote,

aw

ord,or

anim

age(in

thiscase

ajoking

conversationw

ithFouqué)9

made

hisleft

pawitch,

hereckoned

itm

ightstrike

home

forothers

asw

ell.T

henhe

would

strugglelaboriously

with

languageuntil

hebad

it.”W

hatw

ehave

saidabove

makes

itclear

thatgreat

poetsare

drivenby

anirresistible

impulse

toundergo

everykind

ofpow

erfulexperience

suitableto

theirnature,

torepeat

itand

gatherit

inthem

selves.Shakespearerushed

throughhis

lifefilled

byexperiences

with

thefeverish

tempo

ofhis

heroes.T

heson

ofa

well-to-do

landowner,

thenapprentice

toa

lawyer,

hew

asm

arriedat

eighteenand

burdenedw

itha

family

thenext

year.A

lmost

stilla

boy,he

alreadyhad

theexperiences

oflove

andm

arriagebehind

him.

He

was

castupon

thesea

ofL

ondonlife

andexisted

fromthen

onin

thathighly

complex

situationof

actor,poet,

andtheater

proprietorw

ithdifficult

relationsto

thecourt

andnobles

ofE

ngland.H

eattained

theheight

offam

eand

prosperityin

histhirties,

andat

fortyhe

was

aw

ell-to-dolanded

gentleman

inStratford,

recoveringin

hisstately

housefrom

thestorm

ofhis

life.A

llthis

occurredin

theage

ofE

lizabeth,in

thatheroic

epochof

England’s

historyfilled

with

powerful

figuresand

bloodypolitical

events,w

hileE

nglandbecam

ethe

predominant

seapow

er.In

fact,these

politicalevents

were

takingplace

onthe

streetsof

London.

Itw

aspossible

forShakespeare

tobe

anunbiased

andclear

observer,thanks

tothe

influenceof

Renaissance

authors.Sim

ilarly,w

efind

thecareer

ofC

ervantesalso

filledw

ithchange

andadventure.

He

was

thesec

retaryto

apapal

envoyand

asoldier

inthe

most

diversecam

paignsand

thenfell

incaptivity.

Aeschylus

andSophocles,

noless

thanthe

greatEnglish

poets,acquired

theirunderstanding

ofthe

world

Pthrough

anactive

life.C

orneilleand

Racine

learnedat

them

ostF

powerful

andsplendid

courtof

thew

orldhow

todepict

theheroic

r;

dispositionsand

tragicdestinies

ofkings

andprinces

insuch

aw

aythat

thisage

ofroyalty

sawits

mirror

image

intheir

work.

InE

ckermann,

Gesprache,

soA

pril1829.

“A

dalbertvon

Cham

isso(‘7

81-1

838).

Rom

anticauthor

ofballads

andother

folknarratives,

includingPeter

Schlernihisw

undersarneG

esch,chte11814).

Friednchde

IaM

otteFouque

(1777-1843).G

erman

Rom

anticpoet

ofFrench

origin.See

alsofootnote

ii.

r

I

66P

OE

TIC

S

Weim

ar,G

oetheexem

plifiedand

expoundedthe

joyof

atrue

poetabout

thebroadening

ofexperience

throughan

activelife.

Finally,D

ickens,the

creatorof

ourcontem

porarynovel,

accumulated

anincredible

stockof

images

andlived

experiencesas

anapprentice,

lawclerk,

reporterin

Parliament,

andon

thehighw

aysand

byways

ofE

ngland,and

finallyon

longjourneys

totw

ocontinents,

con

stantlystudying

societyand

people,from

thosein

schoolsand

pris

onsup

tothose

inthe

palacesof

Italy.H

econtrolled

theseim

agesand

livedexperiences

with

anauthority

equalto

thatof

Rubens

overthe

colorsof

hispalette.

Other

poetshave

focusedtheir

existenceon

thefullness

ofinner

experience.T

heydirected

theirattention

inwards

totheir

own

sub

jectivestates,

andthey

turnedaw

ayfrom

externalreality

andthe

colorfulchanges

ofcharacters

andadventures

init.

The

bestem

bodiment

ofthis

kindof

poetis

JeanJacques

Rousseau.

We

knowfrom

hisow

nw

ordshow

,w

henhe

was

forty-fourand

livingin

theH

ermitage

ofLa

Chevrette

Park,he

formed

thefigure

ofH

elolsefrom

thedream

sof

hislonely

heartand

fromhis

lovefor

theC

ountessd’H

oudetot—w

hich, tobe

sure,w

asalso

littlem

orethan

adream

.H

einfused

Helolse

with

apow

erfulstream

ofpassions

which

hefound

inhim

self,w

ithhis

livedexperience

ofa

dynamic

nature,and

with

theinner

dreamlike

livedexperiences

ofhis

own

lonelyheart.

How

ever,w

ithE

mile

hew

rotean

evenm

oredeeply

feltinner

historyof

apsyche

which

soughttruth

inthe

ageof

theE

ncyclopedists.if

we

turnto

antiquity,w

ealso

findsuch

anin

wardly

relatedpoet

inE

uripides:he

livedw

iththe

writings

ofthe

philosophers,in

theM

iddleA

ges,w

efind

Dante.

His

livedexpe

riencesw

erecom

pletelyintertw

inedw

iththe

great theological,phil

osophical,and

politicalbattles

ofhis

age,and

hispsyche

was

theirstage. W

hereasw

efind

abalance

between

innerand

outerin

Goethe,

innerexperience

seems

topredom

inatein

theearly

Schiller.T

hesecond

halfof

Schiller’sshort

lifeis

characterizedby

anundertone

ofresignation

andan

overridingconcern

toraise

thesoul

toa

freeideal

statethrough

philosophicaland

historicalthought,

while

heincreasingly

losttouch

with

externalreality.

Finally,the

poetstands

apartin

thathis

images

andtheir

con

nectionsunfold

freelybeyond

thebounds

ofreality.

He

createssituations,

figures,and

fates,w

hichtranscend

thisreal

world.

The

main

problemof

thisinvestigation

isto

determine

howthese

pro

c138

esses,in

which

thegenuinely

creativew

orkof

thepoet is

completed,

areconstituted.

The

designation“poetic

imagination”

providesus

with

am

erew

ordw

hichhides

theseprocesses

fromus.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

67

4.T

heR

elationof

thePoet’s

Imagination

toD

reams,

Insanity,and

Other

Statesthat

Deviate

fromthe

Norm

ofW

akingLife

Firstof

allw

em

ustobserve

anddescribe

theseprocesses

inw

hicha

metam

orphosisof

realityis

accomplished,

andapprehend

howthey

bothresem

bleand

differfrom

thoseprocesses

thatare

most

closelyrelated

tothem

.T

heseclosely

relatedprocesses

emerge

indream

s,m

adness,and,

ingeneral,

instates

thatdeviate

fromthe

normof

waking

life.It

seems

tohave

beenone

ofthe

acceptedprinciples

ofancient

poeticsthat

poeticcreativity

was

akind

ofm

adness.D

emocritus,

Plato,H

orace,and

Aristotle

arein

accordon

thispoint.

Subse

quently,the

Rom

anticshave

repeatedlyem

phasizedthe

affinitybe

tween

geniusand

madness,

dreams

andall

kindsof

ecstaticstates.

Here

aselsew

hereSchopenhauer

hassought

tofurnish

scientificevidence

fora

Rom

anticidea.

He

gavea

complete

descriptionof

thepersonality

ofa

genius.O

fcourse,

itwas

verysubjective

indeed,because

heused

himself

asa

model.

Ahigh

andbroad

forehead,an

energeticheartbeat,

small

stature,a

shortneck—

hefound

thesecharacteristics

tobe

especiallyfavorable.A

ccordingto

him,a

geniusshould

evenhave

astrong

stomach.W

henthe

verygreatintelligence

ofthe

genius,conditioned

bytrem

endouscerebral

vitality,frees

itselffrom

theservice

ofthe

will,the

abnormal

dispositionof

geniusem

erges.In

particular,genius

elevatesitself

abovetim

eand

temporal

relations,It

producesphenom

enaakin

tom

adnessbecause,

accordingto

Schopenhauer,m

adnessinvolves

adisorder

ofthe

mem

oryw

herethe

temporal

continuumis

suspended.G

eniusalso

involvesan

intensifiedsensitivity

ofthe

functionsof

thebrain,

anda

complete

alienationfrom

thew

aysof

thew

orldand

ofthe

man

onthe

street.T

hisaccounts

forthe

melancholy

lonelinessof

thegenius.

Sucha

bleakw

ayof

praisinggenius

does,as

we

cansee,

capturesom

eof

thetraits

ofB

yronand

Alfieri.

Richard

Wagner,

following

Schopenhauer,also

exalted“m

adness”and

therebyplaced

allnoble

achievements

andsacrifices

onthe

same

levelw

ithpathological

phenomena.

Then

Frenchpsychiatry

made

thisaffinity

ofgenius

andm

adnessthe

theme

ofa

whole

seriesof

psychiatricfantasies.

Iam

notgoing

todiscuss

allthat

canbe

saidabout

thesim

ilaritiesbetw

eengenius

andm

adness;I

intendonly

toindicate

thepoints

ofcontact

between

thecreative

work

ofthe

poetand

thedelusions,

dreams,

andfantasies

thatoccur

inother

abnormal

con

ditions.In

allthese

conditions,im

agesarise

which

transcendex

r

‘39

68P

OE

TIC

S

perience.It

isthe

mark

ofthe

greatw

riterthat

hisconstructive

imagination

produces—out

ofelem

entsof

experienceand

basedon

analogiesw

ithexperience—

atype

ofpersonor

plotwhich

surpassesexperience

andyet

throughw

hichw

enevertheless

come

tounder

standit

better.M

oreover1the

writer

islike

adream

eror

madm

anin

thathe

views

situationsand

eventsw

itha

clarityand

vividnessapproaching

that0f

hallucinations.H

elives

with

figuresw

horeside

solelyin

hisim

aginationjust

asif

theyw

erereal

persons—he

lovesthem

andfears

forthem

.A

furtheranalogy

between

geniusand

insanitylies

inthe

capacityto

transformone’s

own

egointo

thatof

thehero

andto

speakfrom

hisperspective

much

asan

actordoes.

One

ofthe

mosrinteresting

problems

ofpsychology

isim

plicitin

theserelations.

CH

AP

TE

RT

wo.

AN

AT

TE

MP

TT

OE

XP

LA

INP

OE

TIC

CR

EA

TIV

ITY

PsY

CH

OL

OG

ICA

LL

Y

Today,

establishedpsychological

theorystarts

with

representationsas

fixedquantities.

Changes

inrepresentations

areallow

edto

occurexternally

throughassociation,fusion,and

apperception.Im

aintainthat

thispsychology

isincapable

ofexplaining

theim

agesof

thedream

er,the

madm

an,or

theartist.

Ifone

conceives,through

abstraction,

mere

relationsof

representationsin

apurely

representational

being,no

onecan

sayw

hichlaw

sthese

representationsw

ouldfollow

.B

utas

perceptionsor

representationsappear

inthe

realnexus

of psychiclife

theyare

permeated,

colored,and

enlivenedby

feelings.T

hedistribunon

offeelings,

interests,and

thew

aythey

influenceour

attentiveness,bring

about,in

conjunctionw

ithother

causes,the

appearance,the

gradualunfolding,

andthe

disappearance

ofrepresentations.

Efforts

ofattention—

which

derivefrom

feelings,but

areform

sof

volitionalactivity—

impart

anim

pulsiveenergy

toindividual

images

orperm

itthem

tofade

away

again.In

thereal

psyche,therefore,

everyrepresentation

isa

process.Even

thesensations

which

areconnected

inan

image,

andthe

relationsexisting

among

them,

aresubject

toinner

transformations.

Percep

140

tionand

theim

ageitself

arealso

processessubject

tolively

trans

formations.

Perceptionm

anifestsproperties

which

stemfrom

theseprocesses

andcannot

beunderstood

onthe

basisof

representationsas

such.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

69

r.E

lementary

ProcessesR

e(atingIndividual

Representations

Despite

thesecircum

stances,the

real,living

psychefirst

manifests

certainelem

entaryprocesses

thatrelate

individualrepresentations

andcan

beexplicated

withoutconsidering

theinner

transformations

inthese

representations.T

hefirst

classof

theseprocesses

relateperceptions

andrepresen

tationsw

hichate

alreadyin

consciousness,as

aconsequence

oftheir

existingtogether

inthe

unityof

thisconsciousness,

andinsofar

asconditions

ofinterest

andattention

operatein

adeterm

inatedirection.

Representations

heldtogether

byattention

inthis

way

aredistinguished

fromone

another.T

heirdivergence

issensed

interm

sof

degrees;their

kinshipin

terms

ofsim

ilarityor

likeness.T

heserelations

canbe

sensedor

possessedin

anim

mediate

reflexiveaw

areness6’just

asm

uchas

thesensory

contentsthat

arethus

heldtogether.

Suchreflexive

awareness

implicit

insense

alsoapprehends

elementary

relationsbenveen

perceptionsand

representationsas

theycoexist

inspace

orsucceed

eachother

intim

e.T

hesecond

classof

theseprocesses

comes

intoplay

wherever

perceptionsand

representations,or

theirconstituents,

areevoked

byone

anotherin

consciousness.H

erethe

laws

offusion

andof

associationapply.

The

pervasivesignificance

ofthese

two

laws

forpsychic

lifecan

becom

paredto

thatof

thelaw

sof

motion

forour

explanationof

externalnature.

They

designateelem

entaryp

rop

ertiesof

psychiclife

which

decisivelydistinguish

itfrom

thecourse

ofnature.

Therefore,

everyattem

ptto

determine

theselaw

sm

oreprecisely

byanalogies

with

mechanics

will

fail.T

obe

sure,it

isnecessary

toborrow

illustrationsfrom

theexternal

world

toch

aracterize

psychicprocesses.

This

isbecause

thelatter

onlyrecently

came

underobservation

andw

erefirst

apprehendedin

lightof

thealready

developednatural

sciences.B

utthis

shouldnot

deceiveus

abouthow

basicallyunsuitable

theseillustrations,

takenfrom

thespatial

realmand

itsm

otions,are

forgrasping

laws

whose

char

acteristicfeatures

areconditioned

bythe

totallydifferent

natureof

psychicprocesses.

Firstlaw

:perceptions,

representations,or

theirconstituents,

which

aresim

ilaror

alike,interpenetrate

oneanother,

independently

ofthe

positionw

hichthey

occupyin

thepsychic

nexus.T

hey“

Reflexive

awareness

{Innewrrdenl

isan

Imm

ediateprerefiective

mode

ofself

givennessin

which

thedichotom

iesof

formand

content,subject

andobject

char

acteristicof

reflectiveconsciousness

donot

yetexist.

Seethe

Introduction.

r

‘4’

70

PO

ET

ICS

producea

content,w

hich,as

arule,

isconnected

with

aconscious’-

nessof

thedifferent

actsthat

constituteit,

andw

hichincorporates

thedifferences

among

theconstituent

contentsunless

theyare

pur

poselydisregarded.

Incontradistinction

tothe

causalnexus

ofthe

externalw

orld,all

representationsinvolved

inthis

psychicprocess

areequally

nearand

equallyfar

fromone

another.Even

thoserepresentations

which

arefarthest

fromeach

otherin

thepsychic

nexusinterpenetrate

oneanother

simply

becausethey

areakin.

Because

consciousnessis

ledfrom

thesim

ilarto

thedissim

ilarac

cordingto

theconditions

ofinterestand

attention,it can

reproducecontents

thatare

eithersim

ilar,alike,

unlike,oreven

opposedfrom

agiven

perceptionor

representation.Second

law:

perceptions,representations,

ortheir

constituents,w

hichw

ereunified

inthe

unityof

oneprocess

ofconsciousness,

canreproduce

eachother

reciprocallyunder

certainconditions

ofinterest

andattention.

We

characterizethis

basicrelationship

as“association,”

butw

euse

thisexpression

ina

narrowsense,

sinceFlum

eand

hisEnglish

successorsalso

includedthat

conjunctionw

hichm

akespossible

areproduction

throughlikeness

orcontrast.

Thislaw

tooshould

notbe

interpretedm

echanisticallyor

atomist

ically.For

we

seehow

,on

thebasis

ofassociation,

contentsare

linkedw

ithone

anotherin

perceptionand

thoughtin

them

ostvaried

ways

toform

anexus

ofpsychic

lifew

hichcontinually

ori

ents,as

itw

ere,w

hateveroccurs

inconsciousness.

Thus

reproduction

isnot

instigatedby

acontiguous

representationor

perception.R

ather,it

isconditioned

bythis

overallpsychic

nexus,in

which,

tobe

sure, theparts

arenotclearly

andsharply

distinguished. Although

therelations

ofthese

partsare

notbrought

tocom

pleteconscious

ness,theyare

activenevertheless.T

hishas

certainconsequences

forthe

reproductionof

composite

images

which

arealso

important

forartistic

creativity.Furtherm

ore,the

factorsthat

cooperateto

make

reproductionpossible

arevery

complicated.The

following

processescondition

reproduction:first,the

constitutingprocess

ofexperiencew

hichproduced

acom

plexof

contents;then,

subsequentacts

inw

hichthis

complex

occurredagain,

eitherin

fullor

inpart,

takinginto

accountthe

interveningintervals;

finally,the

presentstate

ofconsciousness

which

instigatesthe

reproduction,again

takinginto

accountthe

intervalseparating

itfrom

theprevious

instanceof

141

reproduction.C

oncerningthese

processes,w

ealso

distinguishthe

following

asproperties

influencingreproduction:

thecharacter

ofthe

contentsand

theirm

odesof

connection;the

intetestthat

individual

psychicacts

bestowon

thesecontents

andthe

stimulation

rT

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T7’

ofconsciousness

conditionedthereby;

thefrequency

oftheir

recurrence;and

finally,theam

ountof time

separatingthese

individualacts

fromone

another.Feelings

andacts

ofw

illexpress

themselves

ininterestand

attentionto

raiserepresentations

intoconsciousness.

z.T

heN

exusof

PsychicLife

andthe

Formative

ProcessesProduced

By

It

We

shallnolonger

ignorethe

more

comprehensive

andsubtle

nexusin

which

individualrepresentations

function.O

nlyby

abstractingfrom

thisnexus

couldw

eisolate

theelem

entaryprocesses

justpre

sentedfrom

thelife

ofthe

psyche.W

eshall

alsono

longerignore

theinner

transformations

which

takeplace

inperceptions,

representations,or

theirconstituents.

Only

bym

eansof

suchan

abstraction

couldw

eregard

theseperceptions,etc.,as

fixed, self-subsistingelem

entsw

hichcan

merely

bedistinguished,fused,related,

broughtto

consciousness,orsuppressedfrom

it.61

Inreality

apsychic

processis

usually—I

donot

sayalw

ays—at

thesam

etim

ea

formative

process.ft

isconditioned

bythe

entirenexus

ofpsychic

life;and

italso

containsinner

transformations

of perceptions,representations,or

theirconstituents

which

arebrought

aboutby

thisnexus.

All

them

orecom

plexpsychic

processes, insofaras

theyare

pro

ducedby

thenexus

ofpsychic

life,are

thusform

ativeprocesses.

Theydo

notjust

distinguish,fuse,

orrelate

fixedrepresentations,

raisethem

toconsciousness

or suppressthem

,but alsoeffectchanges

inthese

perceptionsor

representations.In

fact,such

changesnever

consistinthe

creationofnew

contentsthat have

not beenpreviously

experienced,but

ratherin

excludingparticular

contentsor

connections,

intensifyingor

diminishing

them,or

intheir

completion,

i.e.,the

additionof

contentsor

connectionsdraw

nfrom

experienceto

aperception

orrepresentation.In

additionto

this,we

finda

constantvariation

inthe

arousalof

consciousnessand

inthe

strengthof

•interest

focusedon

individualconstituents

ata

givenm

oment,

as•

well

asin

therelated

distributionof

theinvolvem

entof

feelingand

will.

“T

hefusion

ofdiscrete

representations,the

raisingof

some

intoconsciousness

andthe

suppressionof

others,defines

apperceptionfor

JohannF.

Herbari

(1776-

1841).H

erban’stheory

ofapperception

isbased

onthe

mechanistic

hypothesisthat

•representations

arediscrete

elements,

eachhaving

atendency

topreserve

itself.In

thenextchapter

we

will

seeD

iltheyredefining

apperceptionas

adynam

icform

ativeprocess

rootedin

theoverall

connnuumof

psychiclife.

Apperception

will

beused

notto

explainconstancy,

butto

describechange.

71

PO

ET

ICS

t4

The

entireacquired

nexusof

psychiclife

actson

theseform

ativeprocesses.

Ittransform

sand

shapesthose

perceptions,representa

tions,and

stateson

which

theattention

isdirectly

focused,and

which

thusengage

ourconsciousness

most

strongly.T

hisacquired

nexusof

ourpsychic

lifeencom

passesnot

onlyour

representations,but

alsoevaluations

derivedfrom

ourfeelings

andideas

ofpurpose

which

havearisen

fromour

actsof

will—

indeed,the

habitsof

ourfeeling

andw

ill.T

hisnexus

consistsnot

onlyof

contents,but

alsoof

theconnections

which

areestablished

among

thesecontents;

theseconnections

arejust

asreal

asthe

contents.T

heconnections

arelived

andexperienced

asrelations

between

representationalco

ntents,

asrelations

ofvalues

toone

another,and

asrelations

ofends

andm

eans.T

hiscom

plexnexus

ischaracterized

byan

articulationw

hichis

rootedin

thestructure

ofpsychic

life. The

playof

stimuli

stemm

ingfrom

theexternal

world

isprojected

inpsychic

lifeas

sensation,perception,

andrepresentation.

The

changesso

producedare

experienced

andjudged

ina

multiplicity

offeelings,

accordingto

theirvalue

forour

own

life.T

henour

feelingsactivate

certaindrives,

desires,and

processesof

thew

ill.E

itherreality

isadjusted

toour

own

life(the

selfin

turninfluencing

externalreality)

orour

own

lifeadapts

itselfto

ahard

andintransigent

reality.T

husthere

isa

constantinteraction

between

theself

andthe

milieu

ofexternal

realityin

which

theself

isplaced,

andour

lifeconsists

ofthis

interaction.In

thislife,

thereality

ofperceptions

andthe

truthof

representationsare

interwoven

with

ahierarchy

ofvalues

projectedonto

thew

holeof

realityby

thefeelings.T

heseare

thenlinked

with

theenergy

andconsistency

ofthe

expressionsof

thew

ill—and

thenorm

ativeconcerns

thatconstitute

thesystem

ofends

andm

eans.D

espitethe

highlycom

positenature

ofthis

nexusof

psychiclife,

itw

orksas

aw

holeon

therepresentations

orstates

onw

hichour

attentionis

focused.T

heindividual

constituentsof

thenexus

arenot

clearlyconceived

ordistinctly

differentiated,nor

arethe

relations

between

themraised

tothe

lightof

consciousness.Y

etw

epossess

thisacquired

nexusand

itis

effective.W

hateveris

tobe

foundin

consciousnessis

orientedtow

ardit,

boundedand

determ

inedby

it,and

groundedin

it.T

hroughit

principlesderive

theircertainty,

conceptsreceive

theirsharp

delineation,and

ourposition

inspace

andtim

eobtains

itsorientation.

Likew

ise,it

isfrom

this,.

nexusthat

feelingsreceive

theirsignificance

forthe

totalityof

ourlife.

Finally,it

isbecause

ofthis

same

nexusthat

ourw

ill,w

hichis

usuallyoccupied

with

means,

remains

constantlycertain

aboutthe

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

73system

ofends

inw

hichthe

means

aregrounded.

These

arethe

ways

inw

hichthe

acquiredpsychic

nexusw

orksin

us,although

we

possessit

obscurely.It

evenregulates

andcontrols

thosefer

vent,m

omentary

wishes

which

seemto

absorbconsciousness

completely

asw

ellas

newconcepts

orfacts

which

arestill

alienor

hostileto

it.

3.T

hreeM

ainTypes

ofForm

ativeProcesses:

The

Placeof

Artistic

Creativity

inthe

Nexus

ofPsychic

Life

We

acceptthedistinctions

between

representation,feeling,andw

illing

asa

factof

innerexperience.

Our

descriptiveattitude

inlaying

thefoundations

ofpoetics

excludesexplanatory

hypotheses,and

allows

usto

preservethese

empirically

givendistinctions.

To

besure,

thesethree

classesof

processesas

we

findthem

inthe

structureofpsychic

lifeare

connectedw

ithone

another.They

constitutethree

major

domains

ofform

ativeprocesses.

The

formative

processesof

thinkingand

knowing

proceedfirst

ofallin

thew

aysw

ehave

alreadyindicated.

But

ifwe

move

beyonddistinguishing,unifying,

relating,reproducing,

andsuppressing

representations,

rhenw

eim

mediately

encounterapperception

among

thesekinds

ofform

ativeprocesses.

Itconstitutes

thesim

plestcase

inw

hichthe

nexusof

psychiclife

actson

anindividual

processand

receivesa

reciprocalinfluence

fromit.

By“apperception”

we

mean

theprocess

whereby—

throughthe

directionof

attention—expe

rientialcontents,

sensations,or

innerstates

areincorporated

intothe

nexusof

consciousness.A

pperceptionis

firstconditioned

bythe

totalor

partialinterpenetration

ofexperiential

contentsinto

analready

givenrepresentation.

Itm

ediatesthe

incorporationof

theresulting

perceptualrepresentation

intothe

nexusof

theoriginal

representation.T

hiscan

producea

changeeither

inthe

contentof

experienceor

inthe

nexusof psychic

life.O

therform

ativeprocesses

areinitiated

byinner

impulses,

which

areinherent

inthe

playof

representations.T

heseprocesses

takecontrol

ofour

perceptionsand

reshapethem

.T

hedevelopm

entof

ourpsychic

lifeconsists

ofthe

continualm

odificationof

externalstim

ulithrough

perceptualcontents

andinner

impulses.61

Furthermore,

thereexist

formative

Heym

annSteinthal,

Abnfl

derSprachw

issezzscha[t(O

utlineof

Linguistics),

vol.x

(Berlin:

flumm

ler,1871),

p.‘661.,

andM

oritzL

azarus,D

asL

ebentier

Seele(T

heLife

ofthe

Soul),vol.

r(B

erlin:D

umm

ler,1876),

pp.253ff.,

employ

theexpression

“apperception”to

characterizethe

more

complex

formative

processesas

such.W

il

r

‘45

74P

OE

TIC

S

processesw

hichrelate

onlyreproduced

representations.Thus

apoet

characterizesan

inventedfigure

throughfurther

featuresw

hichhe

borrows

fromhis

mem

ory.O

ra

scientistderives

fromdata,

which

healready

possessed,an

explanationof

afact

with

which

hehas

longbeen

acquainted.W

henthe

will

controlsthese

elementary’

andform

ativeprocesses

with

intenseenergy

andw

itha

consciousnessof

itsgoal,

afu

nd

am

entaldistinction

arisesw

hichdifferentiates

theplay

ofour

rep

resentationsfrom

logicalthought.

Ifpsychology

beginsw

iththe

totalityof

life,if

itgrasps

theinrerm

eshingof

volitionaland

rep

resentationalprocesses,

thenit

doesnot

needto

separatethe

playof

representationsfrom

relationalthought

andto

posita

higherform

ofspiritual

lifeabove

theinvoluntary

processes.F

orit

would

bem

ostpeculiar

toacknow

ledgea

processof

fusionand

thenposit

overand

aboveit,

andcom

pletelyseparate

fromit,a

logicalprocess

ofidentification;

itw

ouldbe

equallypeculiar

toacknow

Ledgea

processof

theassociation

ofideas

andthen

placeover

thisa

completely

independent, logicalconnection

ofrepresentations.6’

Inreal-

helmW

undt,in

hisG

ruodzügedir

physioiogischenP

sychologfe(Principles

ofP

hysiological

Psychology),vol.

II(L

eipzig:W

.E

ngelmann,

‘874),

pp.zioff.,

characterizes

everyprocess

inrepresentation

which

isguided

byan

innervolitional

anof

attentionas

“apperception.’H

owever,

sincethis

expressionreceived

afixed

sensethrough

Leibniz

andhis

schooland

sinceother

expressionsare

availablefor

thegroup

ofprocesses

identifiedby

theresearchers

justcited,

Ihavepreserved

theolder

usage.(D

)M

oritzL

azarus(1

824-1

903)

andH

eymann

Steinthal(1

82

3-1

89

9)

were

followers

ofH

erbart.T

heyapplied

Herbart’s

conceptof

apperceptionto

thedevelopm

entof

language(see

Dilthey,

CS,

XV

II,155).

In1

85

9,

Lazarus

andSteinthal

foundedthe

Zeitschrift

fürV

olkerp,ychofogleturd

Sprachwissenschaft

(Journalfor

Ethno-psy

chologyand

Linguistics).

Dilthey

was

criticalof

Herbarts

mechanistic

hypothesisthat

apperceptionis

afunction

ofrepresentations

strivingto

preservethem

selves.H

ew

aseven

more

skepticalabout

thespiritual

hypothesisof

asoul

ofa

peopleas

proposedby

Lazarus

andSteinthal.

According

toD

ilthey,W

ilhelmW

undt(1

831

-19

20

)places

toom

uchem

phasison

therole

ofthe

will

inapperception.

Wundt’s

conceptionof

apperceptionis

lessm

echanisticthan

Herbart’s,

yetit

appealsto

specialacts

ofw

illto

producew

hatare

called“creative

syntheses.”T

hroughsuch

asynthesis,

aperception

canhave

aneffect

which

isgreater

thanthe

sumof

itscom

ponents.If

onestarts

with

fixedelem

entsof

psychiclife, then

Lhehypothesis

ofcreative

synthesisbecom

esnecessary.

How

ever,if

onestarts

with

theoverall

continuumof

psychiclife,

thehypothesis

becomes

dispensableand

thenature

ofapperception

changesfrom

beinga

synthetican

toan

articulativeprocess.

L,D

iltheyis

herearguing

fora

continuitybetw

eenpsychological

andlogical

pro

cesses.

All

processesof

consciousnessare

inherentlyform

ativeand

donot

needto

havea

logicalform

imposed

fromabove

asclaim

edby

theK

antians.

TH

EtM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

75

iry,the

latterare

onlym

oreadvanced

stages,as

itw

ere,of

theprocesses

we

havedescribed.

The

processesof

thoughtinvolve

ahigher

degreeof

complexity,

hutespecially

agreater

participationof

thew

ill.Thus

we

obtainfirstof

alla

sphereof

elementary

logicaloperations.

The

more

complex

logicalprocesses,

forms,

andrules

ofthought

areconditioned

byit.

Their

development

isborne

bylanguage,

which

preservesthe

acquisitionsofthe

lifeof

thepsyche,

fixesthem

inform

s,and

transmits

themfrom

onegeneration

toanother.

The

sciencesem

ergeas

powerful

organsof

theform

ativeprocesses

thatrender

representationsadaptable

tothe

descriptionand

explanationof

reality.In

thiscontext

hypothesesalso

arise,i.e.,

conceptsand

combinations

ofconcepts

thattranscend

thesphere

ofexperience

inthe

interestof

explanation.If

we

were

toapply

theconcept

ofim

agination,then

hypothesesw

ouldhave

tobe

subsumed

underthe

conceptof

thescientific

imagination,

When

impressions

fromthe

externalw

orldproduce

changesin

ourrepresentational

lifew

hichinduce

formative

processesof

per

ceptionor

thoughtand,

ofcourse,

alsochange

thestate

ofour

feelings,then

impulses

originatew

hichreact

backupon

theexternal

world.

For,under

certainconditions

ofthe

psychicnexus,

feelingsevoke

volitionalprocesses.

Another

classof

formative

processesarises

onthe

basisof

thesevolitional

processes.A

volitionalprocess

doesnot

derivefrom

representationsand

feelingsby

means

ofthe

mere

additionof

aphysiological

processfrom

ourm

otorsystem

,as

isshow

nby

innervolitional

acts.R

ather,volitional

processesare

justas

important

asem

otionalprocesses

forinner

experience.T

hissuffices

forthe

requirements

ofour

descriptiveprocedure.

There

areouter

volitionalacts

aimed

atadjustingthe

externalw

orldto

ourow

ninner

lifeand

itsneed

tocontrol

theprocesses

ofnature

anddirect

thoseof

society;from

thesew

enow

distinguishinner

volitionalacts

which

directthe

courseof

ourrepresentations,

feelings,

andpassions.

Outer

volitionalacts

arethe

sourceof

oureco

nomic

life,our

legaland

politicalinstitutions,

andour

domination

ofnature.

Am

ongother

things,inner

volitionalacts

arethe

sourceof

ourinner

moral

development

andthe

religiouspractices

sup

portedby

it.T

obe

sure,our

religiouspractices

were

atfirst

intertw

inedw

ithouter

volitionalacts.

Man

wanted

toensure

thesuccess

ofhisundertakings

throughhis

religiousacts.

Religion

isalso

boundup

with

theproblem

of knowledge

inits

primitive

form.M

anw

ishedto

penetratethe

darknessthat

surrounds,conditions,

andburdens

him.

But

innervolitional

actsbecom

ethe

authenticnucleus

ofthe

religiousattitude

inm

oredeveloped

cultures.

rI

i46

76

PO

ET

ICS

Acts

ofw

illare

connectedw

itha

multitude

ofrepresentational

formative

processes.T

heircom

mon

featureis

thatthe

contentsof

will

andtheir

relationin

thew

illfind

theirexpression

inrepresen

tations.First

ofall,

inevery

volitionalact

thereis

arelation,

con

ditionedby

thefeelings,

between

thew

illand

ananticipatory

image

ofan

effect.T

hisim

ageof

aneffect

isform

ednaturally

bythe

will

ina

manner

thattranscends

reality.C

onsequently,these

purposesstand

toone

anotherin

arelationship

whose

basisis

thestructure

ofthe

will

extendingback

toelem

entaryim

pulses.T

hesum

totalof

thesepractical

representationalcontents

andtheir

connectionsis

comprised

inthe

relationsof

thesepurposes

tothe

manifold

ofpossible

means

andin

therelations

ofdom

inationand

subordi‘4

7nation

thatexist

between

wills.

Then

practicalcategories

suchas

“good,”“purpose,”

“means,”

or“independence”

arisethrough

abstraction,and

arethen

appliedthroughout

thesphere

ofhum

anvolition.

Idealsoriginate

frominner

actsof

thew

ill.W

esee

thusthat

formative

processesof

thisclass

alsoproduce

representationsw

hichtranscend

reality.If

we

were

toclassify

themunder

theco

ncept

ofthe

imagination,

we

would

haveto

speakof

a“practical

imagination.”B

etween

thesetw

odom

ainsof

thoughtand

actionthere

isa

thirdregion

comprising

thoseform

ativeprocesses

inw

hichrepresenta

tionalcontents

andtheir

connectionsare

determined

andform

edby

thefeelings,

without

producingan

impulse

eitherto

adaptex

ternalreality

tothe

will

orthe

will

toreality.

This

canoccur

onlyin

two

cases.The

firstinvolvesa

temporary

equilibriumof

feelings,in

which

lifetakes

aholiday,

asit

were.

Suchan

affectivestate

isam

plified,intensified,

andform

edby

festiveenjoym

ent,social

life,gam

es,and

art.T

othe

extentthat

thisstate

ofm

indincludes

arelation

toreality, our

mood

seeksto

subordinateall representations

toitself.

The

secondcase

comes

aboutw

henour

affectivestate

encompasses

atension

which

cannotbe

overcome

eitherby

anouter

oran

inneract

ofw

ill.U

nnervingand

ineradicablefacts

impart

theirsom

berqualiry

toall

things,and

images

correspondingto

themare

producedin

melancholy

brooding.T

heform

ativeprocesses

which

occurin

ourrepresentations

underthe

influenceofthe

feelingsunder

suchcircum

stancesalso

constitutea

veryextensive

sphere.It

extendsfrom

thegloom

yprojections

ofthe

hypochondriacabout

hiseye

infectionor

theim

agethat

aninsulted

persondevelops

aboutsom

eonew

hohas

offendedhim

,on

theone

hand,to

theV

enusof

Milo,

Raphael’s

Madonnas,

andF

aust.on

theother.

This

entiresphere

isgoverned

bythe

basiclaw

rT

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T77

thatrepresentations

which

havebeen

formed

bya

certainstate

offeeling

areregularly

ableto

evokeit

again.In

particular,intense

statesof

feelingare

discharged,so

tospeak,

ingestures,

vocalizations,

andrepresentational

complexes,

which

then,as

symbols

ofthese

affectivecontents

againarouse

thesestates

offeeling

inthe

viewer

orlistener.T

husa

lowering

orraising

ofthe

voice,a

specifictem

po,a

changein

volume,

pitch,or

speedevokes

afeeling

thatcorresponds

tothe

stateoffeeling

fromw

hichitarose.T

heschem

ataused

inm

usicare

ofthis

nature.T

heseform

ativeprocesses

make

possiblethe

establishment

ofcontinuity

inthe

development

ofthe

higherfeelings,

bothfor

theexistence

ofthe

individualand

forthe

evolutionof

humanity.

Here

too,as

inthe

spheresof

representingand

thinking,the

will

con-,43

tributesto

theform

ationof

coherentim

ages.Fixed

forms

ofsocial

life,festivity,

andart

thusarise.

And

here,too,

images

transcendthe

boundsof

reality.W

ecan

characterizethe

capacityto

producesuch

processesvery

simply:

itis

theartistic

orthe

poeticim

agination.

We

nowm

oveto

theconsideration

ofthat

topic.

.Spheres

ofFeelings

andthe

Elem

entaryL

aws

ofA

estheticsO

riginatingfrom

Them

Sincethe

formative

processesof

theartistic

imagination

arepro

ducedby

theplay

offeelings,

thebasis

oftheir

explanationm

ustbe

soughtin

ananalysis

offeelings.

The

significanceof

ouraffective

lifefor

artisticcreativity

hasnever

beencom

pletelyoverlooked.

The

experienceof

therelations

ofform

sto

ourfeelings

isthe

sourceof

thesignificance

possessedby

relationsof

line,by

thedistribution

offorce,

weight,

andsym

metry

inarchitectural

andpictorial

compositions.

Fromthe

perceptionof

therelations

between

ourfeelings

andvocal

changesin

pitch,rhythm

,and

volume,

we

developac

centuatedspeech

andm

elody.A

cquiredinsights

aboutthe

effectsof

characters,fates,and

actionson

ourfeelings

haveproduced

idealform

ationsof

characterand

plot.W

hatis

idealin

theplastic

artsem

ergesfrom

mysterious

relationsbetw

eenfelt

distinctionsin

psychiclife

andthe

manifold

ofcorporeal

forms.

An

analysisof

feelingthus

containsthe

keyto

theexplanation

ofartistic

creativity.In

reallife,feelingsalw

aysconfront

usw

ithintricate

complexities.

Justas

aperceptual

image

iscom

posedof

am

anifoldof

sensorycontents,so

toodoes

anaffective

statearise

fromelem

entaryfeelings

which

must

bestudied

throughanalysis.

SupposeI

amstanding

infront

ofR

aphael’spainting

The

SchoolofA

t?jens.Each

individual

r

78P

OE

TIC

S

colorhas

itsow

naffective

tone.T

henI

noticethat

theharm

onyof

thecolors

andtheir

contrasts, thebeauty

ofthe

linesand

theexpres

sionof

thepersons

inthe

pictureall

havetheir

specialfeelings.

All

ofthese

aspectscom

etogether

inthe

feelingw

ithw

hichthe

paintingcom

pletelyfills

andsatisfies

me.

These

feelingsappear

inform

sw

hichare

shapedby

aspecific

kindof

combination

ofelem

entaryfeelings.

Joy,sorrow

,or

hatredare

examples

ofsuch

forms.

But

147

theseform

sdo

notrelate

toone

anotherin

anyobvious,

purposivenexus,

norcan

theybe

arrangedinto

asystem

.D

ifferencesam

ongfeelings

manifest

themselves

first ofall

asdif

ferencesin

degree.Feelings

canbe

arrangedin

aseries

accordingto

theirintensity,

proceedingfrom

azero-point

ofindifference

toincreasingly

intensedegrees

ofpleasure,

satisfaction,and

approvalin

onedirection,

andto

degreesof

displeasure,dissatisfaction,

anddisapproval

inthe

other.B

utfeelings

alsodisplay

qualitatived

istinctions,

Forthe

time

being,w

ecannot

determine

whether

thesequalitative

distinctionsoriginate

exclusivelyfrom

therepresenta

tionalcontent

andfrom

thew

ill,or

whether

thelife

ofthe

feelingscan

onits

own

generatedistinctions

overand

abovethose

ofthe

degreeof

pleasureor

displeasure.T

hisis

sobecause

lifeconsists

preciselyin

thereciprocity

ofthe

differentaspects

ofthe

psyche.W

eare

notable

tosay

which

representationalprocesses

remain

when

we

excludethe

participationof

feelingand

will

ininterest

andattention.

Nor

arew

eable

tosay

whether,

takenby

itself,the

functionm

anifestedin

affectiveprocesses

would

provideus

with

am

erem

onotonousscale

ofpleasures

andpains.

We

will

investigatethe

elementary

affectiveprocesses

within

thegiven

qualitativem

anifold

contentof

thefeelings.

The

simpler

constituentsfrom

which

ourfeelings

arecom

posedrecur

inthe

way

thatsensations

orthe

constituentsof

perceptiondo.

Indeed,w

efind

thata

determinate

classof

affectiveprocesses

regularlyarises

inthe

causal nexusofpsychic

lifefrom

adeterm

inateclass

ofantecedents.

Justas

aclass

ofstim

ulicorresponds

toa

sphereof

sensoryqualities,

sotoo

adeterm

inateclass

ofaffective

antecedentscorresponds

toa

determinate

sphereof

feeling.I

canthus

arrangethe

elementary

feelingsinto

spheres,and,

inthis

sense,they

forman

easilysurveyed

manifold.

Stimuli

unmediated

byrepresentations

areonly

antecedentsof

feelingsof sensory

painand

pleasure. Their

connectionis

aproblem

forpsychophysics,

which

seeksout

them

ediatingprocesses

within

thebody,

leadingfrom

astim

ulusto

afeeling.

But,

naturally,the

transitionfrom

thelast

phaseof

aphysiological

processto

feeling

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

79

assuch

cannotbe

graspedany

more

readilythan

thetransition

fromthe

former

tosensation.

How

ever,in

allother

casespsychic

pro

cesses

arethe

antecedentsof

feelings.T

hetransition

froma

psychicprocess

asantecedent

toa

feelingas

consequencecontains

theself-

evidencew

hichalw

aysaccom

paniesone’s

inneraw

arenessof

pro

ducingan

effect.T

hisconnection

canbe

assignedthe

innercom

pulsionthat

we

characterizeas

“necessity.”Finally,

thereis

aco

nstancy

accordingto

which

agiven

sensoryor

representationalcontentalw

aysproduces

aspecific

feelingunder

otherwise

identicalcircum

stances.How

ever,w

eknow

nothingahout

howthathappens

andw

hya

specificclass

ofprocesses

isconnected

with

justthis

particularclass

ofelem

entaryfeelings.

Also,

thisrelationship

doesnot

illuminate

therule

accordingto

which

thevalue

ofa

stateor

atransform

ationis

experiencedin

afeeling.

Forvalue

isindeed

onlythe

representationalexpression

ofw

hatis

experiencedin

feeling.

And

preciselybecause

certainprocesses

producefeelings

with

aconstancy

similar

tothat

with

which

certainstim

uliproduce

sensations,

dothe

elementary

feelingsdisclose

asphere

ofexperience

whose

objectsw

ecan

characterizeas

evaluations.In

pleasurew

epartly

enjoythe

propertiesof

objects—their

beautyand

theirm

eaning—

andpartly

theintensification

ofourow

nexistence—

propertiesof

ourow

nperson

thatgive

valueto

ourexistence.

This

twofold

relationis

basedon

theinteraction

between

ourselvesand

theex

ternalw

orld.Just

asw

eexperience

theexternal

world

throughsensations,

we

experiencevalue,

meaning,

andan

increaseor

de

creaseof

existencein

ourselvesor

insom

ethingoutside

ofourselves

throughfeelings.

Letussurvey

thespheres

offeeling

byproceeding

fromthe

outsideto

theinside,

asit

were.

The

firstsphere

ofelem

entaryfeelings

comprises

thosethat

make

upgeneral

andsensuous

feelings.What

ischaracteristic

aboutthemis

thata

physiologicalprocess

evokespain

orpleasure

without

them

ediationof

representations.M

eynerthas

made

plausibleconjec

turesabout

theconstituents

ofthis

causalnexus.’

The

secondsphere

offeelings

isconstituted

bythose

elementary

feelingsw

hichem

ergefrom

thecontents

ofsensation

when

accompanied

bya

concentratedinterest.

Thedegree

ofintensity

ofa

sensationalready

standsin

aregular

relationto

pleasureand

displeasure.

Degrees

ofintensity

which

aretoo

greatortoo

small

haveM

eynert,Psychiatne;

Khnth

derE

rkrankungendes

Vorderh,rns

begrundetauf

dessenB

an,Leistungen

undE

rnabrung(V

ienna:B

raumuller,

1884),pp.

,76ff.

(D)

ISO

SoP

OE

TIC

S

adisagreeable

effect, w

hilethose

inthe

middle

rangeare

inherentlyenjoyable.

How

ever,the

qualitiesof

asensation

arealso

relatedin

areguiar

way

toan

affectivetone

which

accompanies

thesensation

when

concentratedattention

isgiven

toit.

Goethe

carriedout

experim

entsabout

thesesorts

ofeffects

ofsim

plecolors.

Suchan

effectalso

existsin

thesensation

ofsim

pletones.

Here

theeffort

toestablish

which

sensationsare

elementary

andw

hichare

theresult

isi

ofa

fusionof

severalsensations

butare

neverthelessseparable

throughattentiveness

andpractice

presentsthe

familiar

difficultiesthat

surroundthe

elementary

theoryof

music.

Inpoetry,

thesefeel

ingscondition

theaesthetic

effectin

thatthe

mere

predominance

ofsoft

soundsin

thephonetic

material

ofm

anylyric

poems—

Goethe’s

inparticular—

alreadyprovides

anunexpected

charm.

We

candesignate

theaesthetic

principleaccording

tow

hichthe

simple

sensoryelem

entsem

ployedin

artare

suitedto

producean

effectas

theprinciple

ofsensuous

charm.

The

thirdsphere

offeeling

encompasses

thosefeelings

which

originatein

perceptions, andare

evokedby

therelations

ofsensuouscontents

toone

another.T

hisis

howharm

onyand

contrastaffect

usin

toneand

color.T

heenjoym

entof

symm

etryis

them

ostcom

mon

ofthe

spatialfeelings,

andthat

ofrhythm

them

ostcom

mon

among

temporal

feelings.B

utan

imm

easurableexpanse

ofa

un

iform

lyblue

skyor

ofthe

seaalso

evokesa

strongaesthetic

feeling.T

hroughthe

relationsof

tonesto

oneanother

inits

linguisticm

aterial,

quiteapart

fromthe

meaning

ofindividual

words,

poetryproduces

asensuous

enjoyment

ofgreat diversity

andstrength.

One

ofthem

ost importantfoundations

of poeticslies

inthe

investigationof

theseelem

entaryfeelings,

inparticular,

poeticsm

ustsearch

howthe

rhythmic

feelingis

rootedin

thefeeling

oflife

itself.For,

justas

ourbody

displayssym

metry

onits

surface,rhythm

pervadesits

internalfunctions.

Our

heartbeatand

breathingare

rhythmical.

Walking

isa

regular,pendulum

likem

otion.W

akingand

sleep,hunger

andeating

followone

anotherin

more

protracted,but

stillregular,

alternation.O

urw

orkis

facilitatedby

rhythmic

move

ments.

Water

drippingin

regulardrops,

therhythm

ofrecurring

waves,

orthe

monotonous

rhythms

with

which

thenurse

singsto

thechild

allhave

asoothing

effecton

thefeelings

andso

inducesleep. T

heexplanation

ofthe

generalpsychic

significanceof

rhythmis

stillan

unsolvedproblem

.For,

thefact

thatw

em

oreeasily

anduniform

lyapprehend

thetotality

ofsensory

changeby

means

ofrhythm

doesnot

seemto

explainthe

primal

power

ofrhythm

.If

we

considerthe

relationshipof

asim

plesensation

tow

hatis

rhyth

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

8r

mical

inthe

movem

entsw

hichaffect

visionand

hearing,then

we

canregard

theenjoym

entof

rhythmas

therepetition

ofa

similar

relationshipat

ahigher

level(since

theparts

ofthis

rhythmical

processare

sensations).Butthis

isonly

ahypothesis

which—

atleast

forthe

time

being—is

undemonstrable.

There

poeticsm

ustprovide

acom

parativetreatm

ent—atfirstem

pirically—ofthe

extensivefield

stretchingfrom

thesongs,m

elodies,and

dancesofkrim

itivepeoples

tothe

structureof

theG

reekchorus.

Only

thenw

illthe

studyof

rhythmand

meter,

asabstracted

fromhighly

developedliterature,

entera

wider

contextw

hichw

illfurnish

them

eansfor

decidingbetw

eenthe

conflictingpsychological

hypotheses.W

edesignate

theprinciple

accordingto

which

theelem

entsof

sensationofan

artwork

muststand

inrelations

thatstimulate

feelingpositively

asthe

principleof

thepleasurable

pro

portio

nam

ongsensations.

Inpoetry,

one’spleasure

inw

hatis

rhythmical

asw

ellas

inphonetic

combinations

is,to

besure,

conditionednot

onlyby

theseelem

entaryrelationships,

butalso

byassociations

thatprovidem

eaningto

rhythmical

patternsand

phoneticcom

binationsbased

oncontent.

The

fourthsphere

offeelings

comprises

thegreat

varietyof

feelings

thatspringfrom

thecognitive

connectionof our

representationsand

which

arearoused

bythe

mere

forms

ofour

representationaland

thoughtprocesses,

without

regardto

therelationship

oftheir

contentto

ourbeing.

Inthis

wide

sphereof

feelingsw

efind,

among

others,gradations

inthe

feelingof

successw

hichaccom

paniesour

representingand

thinking,the

agreeablefeeling

ofconfirm

ingev

idence

andthe

disturbingone

ofcontradiction,

pleasurein

theunity

underlyingthe

manifold,

enjoyment

incom

prehendingchange,

thefeeling

ofboredom

,the

enjoyment

ofjokes

andof

thecom

ical,the

surpriseevoked

bya

penetratingjudgm

ent,and

soforth.

Itis

worth

notinghow

ananalysis

intoelem

entaryfeelings

be

comes

significantforpoeticsin

thatitillum

inatesthe

extenttow

hichfeelings

areintegrated

ina

poeticim

pression.Since

onesphere

offeelings

isjoined

toanother,

itbecom

esclear

howelem

entaryfeel

ingsas

yetuninfluenced

bythe

meaning-content

ofa

poemcan

combine

toproduce

aneffect

whereby

evena

sorrowful

contentcan

beconveyed

ina

medium

characterizedby

melody,

harmony,

rhythm,

andform

sof

representationand

thoughtw

hichare

livelyand

uplifting.W

enow

recognizehow

formin

poetryis

something

composite,

andhow

,precisely

bycom

biningfeelings,form

becomes

most

effective.T

hisis

why

thefourth

sphereof

feelingsis

veryim

portant,and

r

IS

’

poeticsencounters

problems

ofconsiderable

scopehere.

Fromthe

relationsof

representationsto

oneanother

inthought

thereorigi

nateform

sand

theirconstituents

which

areim

portantfor

poetry:153

theloke,

thecom

ical,the

simile,

theantithesis,

andthe

relationbetw

eenhow

thoughtcom

prehendsthe

unityof

am

anifoldand

therichness

actuallypresented

bythis

manifold.

This

relationshipm

akesit

possiblefor

usto

findsatisfaction

ina

receptiveattitude,

equallyfar

removed

fromchaotic

confusionand

boringm

onotony.6’

Similarly,

thefollow

ingfeelings

emanate

fromthe

relationsam

ongrepresentations

inthought:

“When

thereexist

two

divergingoccasions

forrepresenting

oneand

thesam

em

atter,it

ispleasing

tobecom

eaw

arethat

theyteally

leadto

aharm

oniousrepresen

tation,and

displeasingto

become

aware

thatthey

leadto

aco

ntradictory

representation.”66N

aturally,the

relationsam

ongrep

resentationsin

thought,such

asidentity

anddifference,

agreement

andcontradiction,

must

beelevated

intoclear

consciousnessifthese

relationsare

tohave

aneffect

onone’s

aestheticfeeling.67

Insum

mary,

we

findan

artwork

pleasingbecause

theform

sof

therep

resentationaland

thinkingprocesses

which

occasionits

apprehension

bythe

recipientare

accompanied

bypleasure,

stillquite

apartfrom

therelation

ofthe

contentto

ourconcrete

impulses.

Ich

aracterize

thisas

theprinciple

of pleasurein

thecognitive

connectionof

representations.Special

principlesof

historicalsignificance

arecontained

init:

theunity

ofinterest;

Leibniz’sidea

thatplurality

must em

ergefront unity

andreem

ergein

unity;unity

inm

ultiplicity;intelligibility.

At

theend

ofthe

seventeenthcentury

andthe

beginning

ofthe

eighteenth,this

principlew

asm

adethe

basisfor

artand

poetryespecially.

The

rulesim

plicitin

theprinciple

were

explicatedto

make

itsim

portancefor

thew

orkof

artfully

obvious—although

one-sidedly.Itisin

thespirit of

thisperiod

that onem

ust understandthe

secretof

itspoetry

asform

ulatedby

Montesquieu:

tosay

much

with

onew

ord.A

ccordingto

him,

agreat

thoughtis

onethat

encompasses

much;

with

onestroke

itm

akesus

consciousof

anabundance

ofrepresentations.

Here

greatnessis

conceivedas

aform

6T

hebest

treatment

ofthis

sinceancient

times

canbe

foundin

Fechner’sschule

derA

esthetik,vol.

i(Leipzig:

Breitkopf

undH

ärtet,1

87

6),

pp.j3

ff.See

his

principleof

theunified

connectionof

what

ism

anifold.(13)

66

This

isFechner’s

formulation

ofthe

principleof

,roncontradiction,agreem

ent,or

truth.See

ibid.,pp.

8off.(13)

This

principleis

characterizedby

Fechneras

thatof

clarityib$d.).

The

threeprinciples

mentioned

aboveate

groupedtogether

byFechner

asthe

“thteehighest

formal

principles.”(13)

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

POE

T83

ofcognitive

apprehension.T

hatw

asthe

spiritof

thepoetry

ofV

oltaireand

Frederickthe

Great,

The

for,,:of

literatureis

naturallyrelated

toits

meaning-content,

andw

henthe

many

elementary

feelingspertaining

tothe

formof

literaturew

orktogether

sothat

eventhe

most

crueland

bitterdestiny

iselevated

intoa

sphereof

harmony—

asis

manifested

inso

many

ofthe

versesof

Hom

eror

Shakespeare,or

alsoin

Goethe’s

Elective

Affinities—

thenw

eenter

thesphere

offeelings

inw

hichthe

aestheticeffects

stemfrom

them

eaning-contentof

literature.T

hefifth

sphereof

feelingsresults

fromthe

particularm

aterialim

pulsesw

hichpervade

thew

holeof

lifeand

whose

entirecontent

ispossessed

ina

reflexiveaw

arenessobtained

throughfeelings.

These

feelingsem

ergew

henelem

entarydrives

areeither

obstru

ctedor

aidedby

thesurrounding

milieu

orby

innerstates.

They

pervadethe

entirem

oralw

orldand

areinterw

ovenw

ithour

instincts,w

elling

upfrom

thedepths

ofour

sensuousfeelings.

The

listof

drivesth

atem

ergefrom

thedep

ths

ofsensuous

feelingincludes

thedrives

fornourish

men

t,fo

rself-p

reservatio

nor

thew

ill-to-live,for

pro

creation,

andlove

ofoffspring.

These

arethe

strongest

springsin

theclockw

orkof

life,the

muscles

which

propelthat

imm

enseleviathan,

society.T

hesensuous

forceof

theseim

pulsesis

almost

matched

bythe

pow

erof

motives

belongingto

ahigher

region.W

hat

presentsitself

asself-consciousness

becomes,

fromthe

pra

ctical

side,a

strivingfor

thepreservation

andperfection

ofthe

personand

forself-esteem

.T

heseare

onlydifferent

sidesof

thesam

estate

ofaffairs,

andfeelings

ofthe

most

powerful

sortare

attached

toit.

When

thesefeelings

areeither

obstructedor

furtheredand

theirrelations

areapprehended,

thenparticular,

andoften

composite,

feelingsof

vanity,honor,

pride,sham

e,and

envyarise.

But

societyis

justas

thoroughlydom

inatedby

asecond

groupof

feelingsin

which

we

experiencethe

painan

dpleasure

ofothers

aso

ur

own.

We

appropriateanother’s

lifein

ourow

nego,

asit

were,

throughsym

pathy,pity,

orlove.

The

more

subtleactivities

andattitudes

ofsociety

restprimarily

uponthese

two

major

traitsof

human

feeling,T

heelem

entarym

aterialof

poetryis

tobe

foundin

thissphere

offeelings.

The

more

firmly

motif

andplot

arerooted

inlife,

them

orepow

erfullydo

theym

oveour

senses.T

hegreat

elemental

drivesof

human

existence,the

passionsthat

derivefrom

themand

thefate

ofthesepassions

inthe

world,

theseconstitute

theauthentic

basisof

allpoetic

abilityw

henthey

arelived

andexperienced

intheir

essentialpsychological

power,

What

makes

apoet

greatis

thefact

thatthese

drivesoperate

much

more

powerfully,

extensively,

8zPO

ET

ICS

r

84P

OE

TIC

S

andconcretely

inhim

thanin

hisreader

orlistener;

thisproduces

ian

expansionand

intensificationof

thesense

oflife

which

isthe

most

elementary

effectof

allpoetry

onthe

readeror

listener,If,

likeFechner,

we

areto

formulate

principles(law

s)that

regulatecreativity

andare

embodied

inw

hatis

beautiful,then

we

must

hereestablish

aprinciple

oftruth

fulnessin

thesense

ofthe

powerful

realityof

aperson

andof

theelem

entarydrives

inhim

.68T

hisprinciple

will

holdfor

allthe

arts.For,

where

noexternal

truth,in

thesense

ofa

depictionof

reality,is

aimed

at,as

inarchitecture

andm

usic,there

theform

sare

rootedin

theinner

power

ofa

substantialhum

anbeing,

ratherthan

inthe

mere

imitation

ofthe

lifeof

othersor

eventhe

forms

createdby

them.

Itis

thispow

erw

hichprovides

am

usicalw

orkor

acathedral

itstruthfulness.

The

will, through

which

thedrives

work

themselves

outandevoke

passions,has,

however,

generalproperties

thatexpress

themselves

inthese

drivesand

passions.W

ecan

alsoobtain

areflexive

aware

nessof

theseproperties

throughim

pressionsw

hichare

tobe

dis

tinguishedfrom

thegroups

offeelings

justdescribed,

nom

atterhow

closelyrelated

theym

aybe.

Thus

thelast

sphereof

feelingsarises

when

we

possessa

reflexiveaw

arenessof

thegeneral

pro

perties

ofacts

ofw

illand

experiencetheir

value.T

hevery

greatdiversity

inthis

sphereof

feelingsoriginates

fromthe

multiplicity

ofthese

properties,from

therelations

intow

hichthey

breakup,

asit w

ere, orfrom

thedifferences

inour

experienceofthem

, dependingon

whether

we

merely

feel theseproperties

powerfully

orexperience

theirvalue

throughjudgm

entsm

adeabout

usor

aboutothers.

Letus

brieflyenum

eratesom

eexam

ples:the

enjoyment

ofpow

er;the

reflexiveaw

arenessof

consistentlyadhering

tow

hatthe

will

holdsto

beessential

despitechanges

incircum

stances—an

awareness

thatpersists

throughtim

e,even

negatesit

forthe

purposesof

thew

ill,and

definesw

hatw

em

eanby

characterand

steadfastness.T

othese

examples

we

may

addthe

following:

loyalty,courage,

disregardof

dangeror

sufferingin

upholdingw

hatisessential to

one’scharacter;

therich

contentof

lifeappropriated

andunified

bythe

will,

andenjoyed

ina

joyousexpansion

ofthe

feelingof

life;responsibility

which

honorsan

obligationto

anotherw

ill,and

which

recognizes6

thisobligation

regardlessof

whether

itis

derivedfrom

anact

ofreceiving,

orof

enjoyment

orof

positing—nam

ely,responsibility

Fechner’sprinciple

oftruth

(ibid.,pp.

Soff.lis

connectedw

iththat

ofnoncon

tradicnonand

saysthat

we

areonly

sansfiedby

arrworks

which

meet

thedem

andfor

externalreality

tothe

extentthat

we

canpresuppose

anagreem

entof

theartw

orkw

ithexternal

objectsaccording

toan

ideaor

purposeof

thelatter.

(D)

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

rootedin

integrityor

faithfulnessto

duty;related

tothese

aregrat

itudeand

devotion.A

ndjust

asI

esteemm

yselfas

aperson

anddefend

thedom

ainof

my

rights,I

alsoam

constrainedto

acknowl

edgethat

theother’s

personalityis

valuablein

itselfand,

thus,to

respecthis

domain.

Thus

we

developa

senseof

justiceand

lawfulness.

Many

feelingsare

involvedin

thisprocess,

rangingfrom

theim

pulseto

punishw

rongdoing,on

theone

hand,to

asense

offairness

onthe

other.Finally,

thepow

erof

thew

illcontains,

asthe

highestexpression

ofall

this,the

capacityof

aperson

todedicate

himself

toand

sacrificehim

selffor

acause

orfor

peopleto

whom

heis

boundby

strongattachm

ents.T

hishighest

attributeof

thew

ill,its

peculiarcapacity

fortranscendence,

elevatesit

abovethe

lawof

self-preservationand

theentire

courseof

nature.T

hem

oralideas

positedby

Herbart

areonly

shadowy

abstractions

derivedfrom

apprehendingthe

propertiesof

thew

illand

theirvalue.

But the

overalllife

orvigor ofthe

will can

neverbe

completely

penetratedby

theintellect.69

Because

we

canapprehend

andgrasp

thevalue

of thislife

of thew

illonlythrough

suchspecific

properties,and

becausethe

innerstructure

inw

hichthese

propertiescoexist

isvery

difficultto

penetrate—indeed,

may

beim

possibleto

penetratefully—

Herbart

settledfor

anaccount

ofelem

entarym

oralideas

gainedfrom

ananalysis

ofm

oraljudgm

ents.T

hefeelings

pertainingto

thelife

ofthe

will

canbe

refractedin

variousw

ays:they

appearsom

etimes

asthe

consciousnessof

one’sow

nw

orth,som

etimes

asa

judgment

aboutother

persons,and

sometim

esas

theenjoym

entof

theintuition

ofperfectionin

itspure

types.It

isim

portantto

realizethat

thesefeelings

andtheir

refractions

havea

specialsignificance

forthe

poet’sw

ayof

seeingthings.

When

theim

agesof

thesegrand

attributesof the

willand

thefeelings

stemm

ingfrom

themare

atwork

inthe

poet, anidealof

lifebecom

esthe

soulof

hispoetry.7°

This

processof

idealizationshapes

hischaracters

andstory.

At

thesam

etim

e,it

isthe

sourceof

idealityin

thestructure

ofthe

plotw

hichis

groundedin

thew

ill;in

par

ticular,itaccounts

forthescope

andnobility

oftheplots

ofSchiller’sdram

as.Since,

throughprocesses

we

will

soonbe

discussing,this

“‘‘V

entand’’is

translatedas

‘intellectto

distinguishit

fromD

ilthey’s“V

erstehen’

(understanding).

r‘1

firstanalyzed

them

eaningof

thepoet’s

idealof

lifeand

howit

contributesto

theform

ingof

hisw

or]d-viewin

“Lessing,”

PreuflischeJahrbucher

IBerlin:

G.

Reim

er,18671,

ppii7

-16i

(republishedin

Das

Erlebnis

unddie

Dicbtung).

Seealso

“Schererzum

personhchenG

edichmis,”

Deutsche

Rundschau

(October

t8B

).

r

(0)

86PO

ET

ICS

idealityis

alsoim

parted

tothe

formal

elements

which

arefreely

com

bin

edin

oth

erarts,

ageneral

principleof

theefficacy

ofall

thearts

stems

fromthis

feeling-sphere.W

em

aydesignate

thisas

theprinciple

ofideality.

IS

All

ofthese

feeling-spherespro

duce

elementary

aestheticeffects;

and

everyartistic

effectis

firstof

allbased

ona

com

bin

ation

ofthem

.S

ome

ofthe

principles(law

s)th

atF

echnerab

stractedfrom

empirical

consid

erations

ofaesthetic

effectshave

beengiven

ap

sychological

deriv

ation

inthe

precedingdiscussion.

But

our

deriv

ation

has,at

thesam

etim

e,show

nth

atoth

erprinciples

couldhave

beenestablished

alongw

iththem

with

equaljustification.

Itis

hereth

atw

efirst

obtain

afirm

footingin

thedom

ainof

aestheticlaw

sw

hich,independently

ofchanges

intaste

andtechnique,

receiveen

durin

gvalidity

froma

con

stant

hum

ann

ature.

We

nowrecognize

that

thep

rob

lemfacing

modern

poetics,w

hichfirst

emerged

inthe

op

po

sitionbetw

eenH

erder

andK

ant,is

soluble.T

heanalysis

ofhum

ann

ature

yieldslaw

sw

hich,independently

oftem

poral

change,de

termine

bothaesthetic

receptivityand

poeticcreativity.

The

stateof

consciousnessof

anatio

nat

agiven

time

conditio

ns

apoetic

techniquew

hichcan

bepresented

inrules

whose

validityis

histo

rically

circumscribed;

butfrom

our

hum

ann

ature

therearise

prin

ciplesth

atregulate

tasteand

creativityjust

asuniversally

and

nec

essarilyas

logicalprinciples

regulateth

ou

gh

tand

science:T

henum

ber

ofthese

principles,norm

s,or

laws

isin

determ

inate.

They

are,after

all,m

erelyrules

specifyingthe

conditio

ns

ofthe

individualelem

entsth

atcan

pro

duce

aestheticeffects.

The

num

ber

ofsuch

elements

isunlim

itedbecause

ofthe

infinitedivisibility

ofthe

total

aestheticeffect.

Som

eof

theseelem

entarylaw

sw

erepresented

inour

discussionof

thespheres

offeeling.

How

ever,w

henthe

ele

men

taryfeelings

enterinto

higherconnections,

thenhigher

laws

ofpoetics

alsoresult.

y.U

niformities

inthe

Causal

Nexus

ofthe

Lifeof

theFeelings

andSom

eH

igherL

aws

ofPoetics

We

haveseen

howp

articular

classesof

antecedentspro

duce

par

ticular

spheresof

feeling.H

owever,

theseelem

entaryfeelings

arerelated

toone

anoth

er.Ju

stas

sensationsare

repro

duced

asre

presen

tations,

sotoo

arefeelings

recalled.F

urth

er,since

thesefeelings

canbe

convertedinto

impulses,

theythem

selvesco

nstitu

tea

causeof

transfo

rmatio

n.

These

threecausal

relationshipsare

thesource

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

POE

T87

oflaw

sof

aestheticeffects

andaesthetic

creativity,w

hichm

ust

now

beestablished

forpoetics.

The

way

inw

hichelem

entaryfeelings

combine

isdifferent

fromthe

way

inw

hichsensations

orrep

resentatio

ns

areconnected.

Ou

rfeelings

fuseinto

anundifferen

tiatedgeneral

life-feelingw

henthey

arenot

kep

tsep

arateby

means

ofrep

resentatio

ns.

When

pleasu

rable

feelingsof

disp

aratech

aracter,deriving

fromutterly

differen

tan

teceden

ts,are

arousedby

anobject,

theintensity

ofthe

pleasuregro

ws;

thusw

henthe

aestheticpleasures

within

thevarious

spheresof

feelingw

ehave

described—pleasures

associatedw

itha

particu

lartone,

am

elodicline,

rhythm,

theconnection

ofim

agesinto

aunity,

and

thepow

erof

thisunity—

combine,

theresult

isan

intensityof

total

effectw

hichw

efeel

asa

unity.It

ishighly

no

tewo

rthy

that

aco

nsid

erable

poeticeffect

iselicited

when

wh

atare

inthem

selvessm

alleffects

ofa

particu

larsound,

rhyme,

and

rhyth

mare

combined

with

theaesthetic

effectsof

theco

nten

t.If

onereduces

them

ostbeautiful

poemto

prose,its

aestheticeffect

isalm

ost

entirelylost.

Fechner

believedth

atthis

warran

tedthe

deriv

ation

ofthe

following

aestheticprinciple—

which,

tobe

sure,w

ould

thenhave

avery

striking

psychologicallaw

asits

back

gro

und.

When

conditio

ns

ofpleasure,

which

donot

amo

un

tto

much

inthem

selves,com

eto

geth

erw

ithout

conflict,this

releasesa

greater—very

oftenm

uchgreater—

pleasu

rable

resultth

anth

atco

rrespondin

gto

thevalue

ofthe

individualelem

entsof

pleas

ure—

greater

than

wh

atcould

beexplained

asthe

sumof

theindividual

effects.Indeed,

apositive

pleasu

rable

resultcan

beattain

edby

aco

mbin

ation

ofthis

sort,w

hichexceeds

theth

reshold

ofpleasure

where

theindividual

elements

were

toow

eakto

doso;

itis

onlynecessary

that

theseelem

entsshow

aco

mparativ

ead

van

tage

overagainst

othersin

regardto

satis

faction-in

ducin

gpro

perties.”

But

Fechner’s

example,

takenfrom

thelyrical

poem,

canbe

ex

plainedw

itho

ut

theassu

mptio

nof

thisstriking

law.

When

rhyth

mand

rhyme

areregularly

usedto

reinforcethe

expressionof

feelingin

poetryso

thatw

eexpect

it,its

absenceelicits

afeeling

ofdep

rivation—thus

ofdispleasure—

which

diminishes

orcancels

one’spleasure

inthe

affectivecontent.

This

canbe

observedin

thew

ellknow

npolym

etricverses

ofJean

Paul.T

hesam

eapplies

tothe

otherexam

plem

entionedby

Fechner,in

which

meter,

rhythm,

and

Fechner,

Vorschuk,

vol.i,

p.so.

(D)

F

88P

OE

TIC

S

rhyme

elicitonly

asm

alleffect

without

anaffective

contentw

hichw

ecan

grasp.Further,

therelation

ofthe

affectivecontent

tothe

formappropriate

toit

isthe

sourceof

anew

feelingthat

intensifiesthe

strengthofthe

pleasure.SoFechner’s

principlem

ightbereplaced

bythe

more

cautiousprinciple

oftotal

effect,according

tow

hicha

manifold

ofelem

entaryfeelings

combines

toform

atotal

strengthw

hichis

furtherenhanced

throughthe

relationsof

theseelem

entary

iYfeelings

toone

another,sincethese

relationsproduce

afeeling

which

augments

thesum

totalof

pleasure.O

nthe

basisof

theaffective

statethat

arosein

thisw

ay,the

changein

ourstate

ofconsciousnessis

manifested

ina

newfeeling.

When

avital

stimulus

appears,then

thetransition

fromthe

existingaffective

stateis

experiencedas

anew

feeling. Fromthis

thereresults

firstof

alla

generalcondition

forthe

emergence

ofthe

aestheticim

pression.Fechner

designatesthe

relationshipexpressed

bythis

conditio

nas

theprinciple

of

theaesthetic

threshold.

Forevery

determinate

degreeof

receptivityand

attentionthere

isa

determinate

degreeof

externalinfluence

thatm

ustbe

exceeded,

i.e.,a

correspondingdeterm

inateexternal

threshold.B

utas

theinternal

conditionschange,

agreater

orlesser

external

influencebecom

esnecessary,

andthe

externalthreshold

isthereby

raisedor

lowered.”

And

when

thisrelation

issuch

thatthe

stimulus

isable

toevoke

afeeling,

thenthe

strengthand

typeof

thisfeeling

isa

functionof

therelations

tothe

existingaffective

stateand

theother

stimuli

appearingatthe

same

time. T

hisprinciple

canbe

designatedas

thatof

therelativity

of feeling.Fechner

thenderives

thefollow

ingpar

ticularaesthetic

principles:the

principleo

faesthetic

contrast,ac

cordingto

which

“what

furnishespleasure

doesso

allthe

more

when

itis

contrastedw

ithw

hatgives

displeasureor

lesspleasure,

andvice

versa,”

andthe

principleo

f aestheticsequence,

accordingto

which,

ina

(positive)series

froma

smaller

toa

largerpleasure

orfrom

largerto

smaller

displeasure,the

totalpleasurable

resultis

greateror

theunpleasurable

resultis

smaller

thanin

theopposite

caseofa

(negative)series.’

Forexam

ple,thefeeling

of gettingbetter

thataccom

paniesconvalescence

canoffset or

outweigh

thediscom

fortstill

existingin

theconvalescent’s

situation,how

evergreat

it

Ibid.,p.

49f.(D

)“Ib

id.,

vol.a,

pp.13

ill.(D

)Ibid.,

pp.134ff.

(D)

rT

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T

may

be.Further,

sincean

canoften

bringpleasurable

stimuli

into

playonly

inconnection

with

unpleasurablestim

uli,this

same

relationship

holdsfor

theprinciple

ofaesthetic

reconciliation,ac

cordingto

which

unpleasantstim

ulican

beoffset

bysubsequent

pleasantstim

ulithrough

properarrangem

ent.So

adisharm

oniouschord

isresolved

intoa

harmonious

one,andin

literaturea

situationfull

ofdanger

anddistress

isbrought

toa

happyconclusion—

thedispleasure

vanishesin

thesubsequent

pleasure.’sFinally,

thereare

propertiesof

feelingsin

relationto

theirduration,

theirgrow

thand

i6o

decay,w

hichlikew

iseregulate

theaesthetic

effectand

which

aretreated

byFechner

inthe

principlesof

summ

ation,satiation,

ha

bituation,dulling,

andchange.

We

nowturn

fromthe

connectionand

successionof

elementary

feelingsand

therelationships

arisingfrom

themto

theproblem

oftheir

reproductionor

renewal.H

erew

eenter

avery

obscuredom

ain.T

othe

reproductionbased

onassociations

thatrelate

representations,

therecorrespond

processesw

hichat

thesam

etim

eindicate

anotherkind

ofrelation

offeelings

toeach

otherand

torepresen

tations.Let

ushere

stayw

ithw

hatis

simple

andcertain.

Feelingsare

revivedby

theconditions

which

producedthem

previously,as

longas

theseconditions

retainthe

same

relationshipto

thelife-

needsof

theindividual.

This

renewal

canbe

regardedas

arepro

ductionor

asa

repeatedproduct

fromthe

same

antecedents.A

lossevokes

apainful

feelingw

henthe

representationis

recalledas

longas

theloss

remains

linkedto

adim

inutionof

theself.

Ifthis

isno

longerthe

case,the

lossis

representedw

ithindifference.

How

ever,w

henone

representationis

relatedby

thelaw

sof

associationand

fusionto

anotherw

hichprovides

astim

ulusfor

feeling,then

thefirst

representationbecom

esthe

bearerof

anaffective

contentthrough

aprinciple

ofassociation.

Eachthing

integrallyconnected

toour

lifeem

bodies,as

itw

ere,all

thatw

ehave

experiencedabout

itor

aboutthings

similar

toit.

Ho

wm

uch

afra

gra

nce

we

inhaleor

aleaf

blowing

inthe

autumn

wind

canm

eanto

us!T

hisdry

leaf,floatingslow

lyto

theground,

containslittle—

when

consideredm

erelyas

asensible

image—

thatcould

evokean

aestheticim

pression;

butall

thethoughts

thatare

evokedby

itrevive

feelingsin

usw

hichunite

toform

astrong

aestheticim

pression.In

addition,by

means

ofa

kindof

transference,the

affectivecontent

fromone

parr

Ibsd.,p.

138.In

subsequentsections

ofFechner’s

Vorschule

derA

esthetikone

canobtain

anoverview

ofthe

relationshipof

thesum

mation

ofaesthetic

impressions,

satiation,habituation,

dulling,change,

ptoportion,etc.

Tbeir

psychologicalplace

isindicated

bythe

nextsentence

inour

text.(D

)

89

I

90

PO

ET

ICS

ofthe

representationalstructure

ofan

image

canalso

spreadto

otherparts

thatare

notrelated

toit.A

greatportion

ofall

aestheticeffects

isa

functionof

thisprocess.

Insofaras

bothaesthetic

receptivfty

andaesthetic

creationdepend

onthis

processof

thestim

ulation

ofaesthetic

pleasurethrough

association(and

fusion),a

prin

x6jciple

ofassociation

canbe

established.Fechner

formulates

itas

follows:

Inproportion

tow

hetherw

eare

pleasedor

displeasedin

recalling

something,

therecollection

alsocontributes

anelem

entof

pleasureor

displeasureto

theaesthetic

impression

ofthe

thing,which

caneither conflictor

agreew

iththe

otherm

oments

ofrecollection

andthe

directim

pressionof

theth

ing

.76

This

principleis

extraordinarilyim

portantfor

allaesthetic

impressions.

The

imm

ediateim

pressionsof

feelingw

hichare

con

nectedw

ithsensations

receivecontinual

supportthrough

association.

ftis

onthis

basisthat

inm

usicsensory

satisfactionin

toneis

augmented

bythe

principleof

meaning

oftone

andrhythm

,since

changesin

thevolum

eand

pitchof

thenotes

orin

therapidity

oftheir

successionstand

inregular

psychologicalrelations

tochanges

infeeling.

This

canalready

beperceived

inboth

childrenand

anim

als.A

veryfertile

fieldforexperim

entalpsychology

andaesthetics

opensup

here.T

hisprinciple

isof

greatsignificance

forpoetics

asw

ell.For,

livedexperience,

which

forms

theessential

contentof

allliterature,

always

involvesa

stateof

mind

assom

ethinginner

andan

image

ora

nexusof

images,

aplace,

situation,or

personas

something

outer.T

heliving

power

ofpoetry

residesin

theindis

solubleunity

ofthesetw

oaspects. T

husan

image

itselforsom

ethingakin

toitrepresents

am

entalcontent,

andthis

mental

contenttakes

onsensory

concretenessin

thisim

ageor

oneakin

toit.

All

literarym

etaphorsand

symbols

work

inthis

way.W

henShakespeare

wants

torepresent

Ham

let’sdeep

attachment

andsense

ofduty

tohis

father,these

innerstates

evokepow

erfulvisual

images

which

cor

respondto

thesestates.

Letus

againproceed

further.A

nothercause

ofthe

changeof

ourfeelings

isquite

peculiarto

them;

itis

groundedin

theirrelations

tothe

impulses

which

extendover

ourreflexive

awareness

ofthe

lifeof

thedrives

andthe

will,

of whatobstructs

themand

aidsthem

.T

hisreflexive

awareness

ofthe

statesof

thew

illthrough

affectivestates

producesthe

elementary

feelingsof

thelast

two

spheres.O

n

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

91

theother

hand,the

volitionalprocess

isalw

aysactivated

bythe

feelings,w

hichare

constantlybeing

convertedinto

impulses,

de

sires,andacts

ofw

ill.In

thesam

ew

aythat

inm

anystates

offeeling

For

reflexiveaw

arenessan

unnoticeabletransition

offeelings

takesplace,

we

alsofind,

within

thesphere

ofdesires

andem

otionsof

variouskinds,

transitionsfrom

feelingsto

volitionalprocesses.

Without

becoming

entangledin

hypotheses,w

eare

hereonly

con

cernedto

justifya

distinctionfor

empirical

observation,based

onI6

zthe

innerexperience

ofthe

differencebetw

eenfeeling

andw

illing,and

onthe

factthattheintensity

offeelings

isby

nom

eansa

measure

ofthe

power

ofthe

will.

Indeed,strong

feelingsm

aybe

linkedw

ithvery

weak

volitionalprocesses.

The

conversionof

ourfeelings

intovolitional

processesis

regulatedby

thelaw

thatwe

striveto

preservepleasant

feelingsand

todim

inishunpleasant

feelings,at

leastto

theextent

ofattaining

astate

ofequilibrium

.T

hefirst

way

inw

hichthe

will

seeksto

diminish

afeeling

ofdispleasure

intoa

stateof

equilibriumconsists

inthe

adaptationof

theexternal

conditionsof

lifeto

innerneeds:

thisis

howexternal

actionsof

thew

illarise.

Another

way,

however,

consistsin

thew

illseeking

toadapt

itselfto

areality

itcannot

change.O

urinner

naturestrives

tobe

inharm

onyw

ithunalterable

externalconditions.

This

happensby

means

ofinner

actsof

will.

Inthe

beginning,the

religiousprocess

ispredom

inantlya

way

ofcom

ingto

terms

with

mysterious

powers

thatsurround

us,a

way

ofdistancing

ourselvesfrom

what

iso

ppressive

andthreatening,

orof

attainingw

hatw

ew

ish—i.e.,

anexternal

mode

ofvolitional

action.T

hedevelopm

entof

religioninto

something

higheroccurs

when

areconciliation

with

what

isinsuperable

issought

inthe

mind

itself,in

them

oralcapacities,

andin

theinner

volitionalact

ofchanging

one’slife.

Superstitionm

usttherefore

givew

ayif

atrue

innerreligiosity

isto

unfoldpow

erfully.O

btrusivesensations

ofdispleasure

areconstantly

guidedtow

ardequilibrium

orpleasure

throughthe

deepeststruggles

ofthe

will.

The

processof

diminishing

unpleasantfeelings

proceedsvery

dif

ferentlyin

aestheticcreativity

andaesthetic

receptivity.H

ere,w

hereeverything

takesplace

inthe

imagination,there

isnothing

toprevent

displeasurefrom

moving

freelyinto

astate

ofequilibrium

,just

asalldissonances

ina

musical

composition

areresolved

intoharm

ony.It

follows

fromthe

principleof

truthfulnessthat

literature,as

thedepiction

ofthe

world,

cannotdispense

with

pain,that

thehighest

expressionofhum

annature,

itstransfiguration,

canbe

made

visibleonly

insuffering.

The

privilegedposition

oftragedy

isbased

ulti

mately

onthe

factthat

onlyhere

canthe

highestpow

erand

trans

rI

76Ibid.,

vol.,,

p.94.

(D)

92

PO

ET

ICS

figurationof

thew

illbe

expressed.From

thetendency,

asalready

discussed,to

convertdispleasure

intoa

stateof

equilibriumor

ofpleasure,

thereresults

theaesthetic

principleof

reconciliation.A

ccording

tothis

principle,every

poeticw

orkthat

expressesm

orethan

transientsentim

entsbut

aims

insteadto

producea

lastingsatisfaction

must

endw

itha

stateof

equilibriumor

pleasure,in

any163

casew

itha

finalstate

of reconciliation,evenif this

end-stateconsists

ofa

mere

ideaw

hichtranscends

life.Even

theschem

aof

am

etaphysical

myth,

asinvented

byPlotinus,

Spinoza,or

Schopenhauer,displays

thisreturn

topeace

andreconciled

unity.Lyric

poetry—to

theextent

thatit

notonly

resoundsm

usicallybut

alsoperm

itsan

innerprocess

tobe

livedout—

strivesfor

sucha

stateof

equi

librium.

The

most

beautifulexam

plesof

thisare

providedby

Goethe.

The

tragediesof

Shakespearehave

beenfrequently

andexhaustively

shown

tocorrespond

tothis

principle.A

lthoughthe

structureof Faust

islacking

intechnique,

itdoesat

leastcorrespondfully

tothis

schema

ofthe

processof

feeling.Even

greatepic

literature,

which

somehow

permits

theentire

world

andits

orderto

beview

ed,m

ustbe

compared

toa

symphony

inw

hichone

dissonance

afteranother

isresolved

untilfinally

thew

holeresounds

inpow

erfullyharm

oniouschords.”

This

relationshipalso

groundsthe

important

aestheticprinciple

of tensionor

suspense(Spannung).O

fcourse, tensioninvolves

many

diversephenom

ena.In

itthe

innerre-creation

ofstrong

impulses

suchas

fearor

anticipationare

at work.

Athought

processin

which

oneseeks

toansw

era

statedquestion

canalso

resultin

tensionor

suspense—m

ostespeciallyin

novelsw

hosecom

plicationconsists

ofan

eventthat

transpiredbefore

itsbeginning;

andw

hereour

be

coming

aware

ofthis

eventthen

occasionsthe

resolutionof

thesuspense.

The

way

inw

hichthis

sortof

motif

canlead

toinvention

isshow

nby

Goethe’s

remark

thatM

anzoni”uses

fearto

producean

emotional

suspense;and

thatif

hehim

selfw

ereyounger,

hew

ouldw

ritesom

ethingin

which

fearis

aroused,to

which

hew

ouldthen

addadm

irationthrough

thehero’s

exemplary

conduct,w

herebythe

fearw

ouldbe

resolvedinto

thisadm

iration.”T

hereby

“This

aestheticprinciple

hasalso

beenreferred

toby

Fechneras

theprinciple

ofaesthetic

reconciliation;see

Vorschute,

vol.i,

p.138.

(D)

‘A

lessandroM

an,oni(1

78

5-r8

73

).T

heleader

a1the

ItalianR

omantic

school.E

ckermann,

Gesprache

mit

Goethe,

vol.i,

p.77

(D);

ii

Julyt8z;

CE,

p.171.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

93

Goethe

would

alsohave

revivedthe

motif

ofm

anyA

rthurianro

mances.

6.L

aws

Governing

theFree

Transform

ationof

Representations

Beyond

theB

oundsof

Reality

underthe

Influenceof

theLife

ofthe

Feelings.The

Poet’sC

reativeW

ork.The

Resources

ofPoetic

Technique.

We

haveseen

howelem

entaryfeelings

arise,are

comhined,

inten

sified,and

renewed;

howdispleasure

evokesthe

impulse

togo

overinto

astate

ofequilibrium

orpleasure;

andfinally

howpleasure

strivesto

maintain

itself.T

hisentire

web

offeelings,

conditionedas

itis

byrepresentations

andim

pulses,in

turnconditions

theform

ationof

representationsand

theforce

ofour

impulses.

We

havealready

beenable

toderive

elementary

andsecondary

aestheticprinciples.

We

will

nowlook

more

carefullyinto

theorigin

ofa

poeticw

orkand

itsim

pressionby

consideringhow

representationalelem

entsare

changedunder

theinfluence

ofthe

feelingsand

trans

formed

beyondthe

boundsof

reality.Initially

anaesthetic

impres

siondevelops

fromthe

constituentsof

consciousnessas

theyexist

inlife.

We

havederived

theprinciples

accordingto

which

theseim

pressionsare

combined,

connected,and

strengthened.B

utthe

powerful

effectof

artand

literaturedoes

notdepend

solelyon

ourenjoym

entof

thoseconstituents

ofconsciousness

thatalready

po

ssess

anaesthetic

effectin

thecourse

ofour

life;it

alsodepends

onim

agesthat

areform

edto

evokea

stillpurer

kindof

aestheticpleasure.

These

images

areunconcerned

abouttheir

relationshipto

reality,and

areproduced

merely

tosatisfy

theneed

forthe

feelingo

flife.

We

nowencounter

andshall

attempt

tosolve

them

ostdifficult

problemof

thepsychological

foundationof

apoetics.

Forthis

we

transposeourselves

intothe

realityof

apsyche

filledw

ithlife-experiences

andreflection

onthem

—for

suchis

thepoet’s

psyche.A

llproductsofpsychic

life,including

literature,are

composed

ofperceptions

astheir

elements.

This

tenetis

establishedthrough

thefollow

ingconsideration:

Evenw

henacts

ofw

ill,scientific

inventions,or

artisticim

agestranscend

what

isreal,

we

will

notbe

ableto

findany

constituentsin

themthat

couldnot

bedraw

nfrom

perception.I

holdthe

same

view

r

164

94P

OE

TIC

S

aboutcom

binationsof

suchconstituents.

How

ever,according

tothis

view,

itis

essentialthat

innerexperLence

informouter

perception

ifw

eare

tobe

ableto

positsubstances

standingin

causalrelations.

The

proofof

thisis

tooinvolved

toallow

me

tofurnish

ithere.°W

henthe

physicistconstructs

hisconcept

ofthe

atom,

hecan

onlycom

bineelem

entsofexperience

onthe

basisof

relationsdraw

nfrom

experience,w

hiledisregarding

othersw

hichare

usuallyco

nnected

with

them.

When

Hom

er,D

ante,or

Milton

transcendour

earthto

showO

lympus

andH

ades,heaven

andhell,

theym

ust takethe

colorsand

impressions

fortheir

sensoryim

agesfrom

thera

dianceof

thesky

which

delightsus

inthis

world

andfrom

thedarkness

andthe

firew

hichterrify

ushere

andnow

.In

orderto

I65

portraythe

beatitudeof the

godsand

of pureangels, the

helplessnessof

thedeparted

souls,or

thetorm

entsof

thedam

ned,they

must

connectand

intensifythe

innerstates

ofpleasure

andpain

which

theyhave

livedand

experiencedthem

selves.W

henW

alterScott

orC

onradFerdinand

Meycrit

transposeus

intohistorical

circumstances

thatare

completely

foreignto

ourow

n,they

canem

ployno

elementary

feelingsor

representationsthat

arenot

createdfrom

ourow

npresent

lifeand

thestates

experiencedin

it.Locke

andH

ume

hadalready

attempted

toform

ulatethe

psychologicalbasis

forthis.

We

arenot

ableto

inventany

element

ofthe

lifeof

thepsyche,

butrather

must

drawevery

element

fromour

experience.T

obe

sure,this

propositionholds

onlyw

ithincertain

limits,

which

we

will

discusslater.

Fromthis

proposition,w

eobtain

arule

forartistic

creation,nam

ely,that

anappropriate

relationshipm

ustexist

between

thepoet’s

taskand

theenergy,

scope,and

interestof

theexperiences

thatcontain

them

aterialfor

itsexecution.

Thus

inthis

respect,onem

ustalready

beborn

anartist

orpoet.

The

poetis

governedby

thelaw

thatonly

thepow

erand

richnessof

hislived

experiencesfurnish

them

aterialfor

genuinepoetry.

This

isthe

sourceof

aprinciple

accordingto

which

thebasis

forthe

poet’sspecific

effectsm

ustbe

soughtw

ithinthe

sphereof

therichness

andenergy

ofhis

experience.

This

isthe

pointat

which

theobjective

poetis

distinguishedfrom

thesubjective—

indeed,even

thepathological

poet.

Seethis

essayon

p.1041.

ForD

ilihey’sattem

ptto

demonstrate

howcategories

likesubstance

andcause

arerooted

ininner

experience,see

Lifeand

Know

ledge”in

SW,

vol.a.

‘Sw

isspoet

(i815-98).M

anyof

hisnovellas

areabout

theItalian

Renaissance.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

95

The

images

ofreality

consistingof

theseelem

ents,and

theconnections

among

suchim

agesw

hichobtain

inreality,

arefreely

transformed

bythe

creativityof

thepoet,

unrestrictedby

theconditions

ofreality.This

creativityis

thereforeakin

todream

sand

otherrelated

states,including

insanity.Idesignate

thatw

hichthe

poetor

artisthas

incom

mon

with

onew

hois

dreaming,

hypnotized,or

mad

asa

freeform

ationofim

ages,unrestricted

byconditions

ofreality.

The

kinshipw

hichexists

herebetw

eenthe

poeticprocess

andthose

statesw

hichdiverge

fromthe

normof

waking

lifetouch

preciselyon

what

isessential

aboutthe

poeticprocess

ofim

agination.A

scientificinvention,

orthe

projectof

am

anof

practicalgenius,

takesits

standardfrom

reality,to

which

thinkingand

actingconform

inorder

tocom

prehendand

beeffective.

Bycontrast,

thedevelopm

entsof

representationsw

eare

discussingare

notrestricted

byreality.

Goethe

gavea

moving

accountof

thiskinship

between

thepoetic

andthe

abnormal

inT

orquatoT

asso.It

alsoem

ergesin

thetw

ogreatest

subjectivepoets

ofthe

eighteenthand

nineteenthcenturies:

Rousseau

andB

yron.If

we

readabout

Rousseau’s

lifebeginning

April

9,I75,

when

hew

entto

theH

ermitage

inLa

Chevrette

Parkand

“beganto

live,”nIl

hisdeath,

which

putan

endto

hisdream

s,disappointm

ents,and

delusionsof

persecution,it

isim

possibleto

separatehis

delusionsfrom

thereal

factsofhis

life.Byron’s

demonic

hypersensitivityenorm

ouslyam

plifiedall

theprocesses

ofhis

life;and

thereproach

ofinsanity

was

hurledback

andforth

between

himand

hisw

ifein

theirquarrels.

But

evenin

them

ostnorm

alachievem

entsof

apoet,

thefollow

ingtraits

showa

kinshipw

ithstates

thatdiverge

fromthe

normof

waking

life.M

ererepresen

tationalim

agescan

receivethe

mark

ofreality

andappear

inthe

visualfield

oras

partof

thew

orldof

sounds.In

thisrespect,

thepoet’s

image

approachesa

hallucination.T

hen,through

aprocess

ofm

etamorphosis,

images

receivea

shapew

hichdiverges

fromreality,

andeven

when

transformed

inthis

way,

theyare

accompanied

byan

illusion.Im

agesare

transformed

underthe

influenceof

feelings.T

heyare

shapedby

ourem

otions,just

asthe

uncertainoutlines

ofrocks

andtrees

aretransform

edby

theinfluence

ofthe

emotions

ofa

travelerin

thew

oodsat

night.G

oethedescribes

theexperience:

I

And

thecliffs

thatbow

with

ease,C

raggynoses,

longand

short,H

owthey

snoreand

howthey

snort!

1r

r66

1

96

PO

ET

ICS

And

theroots,

asserpents,

coilFrom

therocks

throughsandy

soilW

iththeir

eeriebonds

would

scareus,

Block

ourpath

andthen

ensnareus;

Hungry

asa

starvingleech,

Their

strongpolyp’s

tendrilsreach

Forthe

wanderer.hL

Indeed,it

isa

characteristicm

arkof

thepoetic

geniusthat

heis

capablenot

onlyof

convincinglyreproducing

experience,but

alsothat

bym

eansof

akind

ofconstructive

spiritualpow

erhe

canproduce

afigure

which

couldnot

begiven

tohim

inany

experience,and

throughw

hichthe

experiencesof

dailylife

become

more

comprehensible

andm

eaningfulto

theheart.

Pleasanteffects

canbe

createdby

aptdescriptions

ofsocial

life,but

onlythose

figures,situations,

andactions

thatcom

pletelytranscend

thehorizon

ofeveryday

experiencelive

form

ankindat

large.Finally,

akind

ofsplitting

ofthe

self,a

transformation

intoanother

person,can

takeplace

inthe

poet.A

curiousproblem

iscontained

inthe

kinshipbetw

eenthe

poeticprocess

andthose

statesw

hichdiverge

fromthe

normof

waking

life.N

atureherself

offersus

certainexperim

entsby

means

ofstates

which

display—under

circumstances

othenviseextrem

elydiverse—

thesam

estrength,

vivacityand

freedevelopm

entof

representationsof

theim

aginationbeyond

thebounds

ofreality.

Forall

thesequite

diversecases,

we

findourselves

forcedto

seekthe

causesfor

theabsence

ofthoseconditions

which

normally

regulaterepresentations

andkeep

themclearly

andcorrectly

orientedto

reality.

Thiskinship

arisesfrom

theabsence

of conditionsw

hichoth

erw

iseregulate

representations.H

owever,

inone

who

isdream

ing,insane,

orhypnotized

theyare

producedby

causesof

acom

pletelydifferent

kindthan

inthe

artistor

poet.In

theform

ercase,

thestrength

ofthe

acquirednexus

of psychiclife

isdim

inished,w

hilein

thelatter,

itsentire

energyis

directedtow

ardfree

creativity.

There

isa

structureof

psychiclife

which

isas

clearlyrecognizable

asthat

ofthe

physicalbody.

Lifealw

aysconsists

inthe

interactionof

aliving

bodyand

anexternal

world

which

constitutesits

milieu.

Sensations, perceptions,and

thoughtsconstantly

originatefrom

the

Faust,P

an1,

lines3878-80,

3894-3

900;

inFaust,

trans.by

W.

Kaufm

ann

(Garden

City,

N.Y

.:D

oubleday,1961)

(hereafter0,

pp.361,

163.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

97

playof

externalstim

uli.C

hangesin

ouraffective

stateon

thebasis

ofa

generalfeeling

arealso

aroused.T

hefeelings

thenevoke

vo

litionsand

thestrivings

ofdesire

andw

ill.V

olitionsresult

inex

ternalactions

ofthe

will,

andam

ongthem

them

ostpow

erfulare

thosethat

areperm

anentlyem

beddedin

bodilystates—

suchas

theim

pulsefor

self-preservation,the

needfor

nourishment,

theim

pulseto

propagate,and

thelove

ofoffspring.

Alm

ostas

powerful

arethe

needfor

esteemand

thesocial

instincts,w

hichare

embedded

inthe

will.

Other

volitionsproduce

innerchanges

inconsciousness.

The

hierarchyof

theanim

alkingdom

isbased

onthis

structure.W

esee

them

ostsim

ple,bare

formof

lifew

herea

stimulus,

inw

hichfeeling

andsensation

areundifferentiated,

producesa

movem

entin

ananim

al.In

thechild,

we

seethe

transitionfrom

stimuli

todesires

bym

eansof

sensations.A

ccompanying

this,there

isa

separatetransition

throughfeelings

todesires.

Inthe

child,both

transitionsproduce

movem

ents,but

without

theinterpolation

ofrepresenta

tionsstored

inthe

mem

ory.How

ever,sensationsdo

eventuallyleave

behindtraces.

Habits

offeeling

anddesire

areform

ed.G

radually,as

thepsyche

develops,an

acquirednexus

ofpsychic

lifeem

ergesbetw

eensensation

andm

ovement.

Experience

furnishesus

onlyw

ithprocesses

andthe

way

theyaffecteach

other.T

helatter

alsofalls

within

thescope

ofim

mediate

experience,indeed,

ourconcepts

offreedom

andnecessity

aregrounded

inthe

manner

inw

hichone

processis

producedby

another.

Anexus

ofprocesses

isthe

most

comprehensive

stateof

affairsthatfalls

within

ourpsychic

experienceor

thatcanbe

derivedfrom

itthrough

indubitablecom

binations.W

hetherone

affirms

ordenies

thatthis

nexusof

processesis

heldtogether

byhidden

forcesthat

liebehind

themor

bya

psychicunity

thatoperates

beneaththem

,in

eithercase

onetranscends

thesphere

ofem

piricalpsy

chologyand

resortsto

transcendenthypotheses.

Inaccordance

with

thism

ethodologicalinsight

we

proposethe

conceptof

theacquired

nexusof

psychiclife—

encounteredin

experienceitself—

andof

itseffects

onthe

individualprocesses

occurringin

consciousness.W

ehave

alreadyshow

nabove

howthis

nexusoperates

asa

whole

uponthe

transformations

which

takeplace

inconsciousness.

Although

itsconstituents

arenot

representedclearly

anddistinctly

andits

connectionsare

notexplicit,

neverthelessits

acquiredpicture

ofreality

regulatesour

understandingofw

hateverim

pressionour

con

sciousnessis

occupiedw

ith.Its

acquiredstandard

ofevaluation

determines

thefeeling

ofthe

mom

ent;and

itsacquired

systemof

r

i68

I

thepurposes

ofour

will,

oftheir

interrelationsand

ofthe

means

requiredby

them,

controlsour

passionsof

them

oment.

Naturally,

theeffect

ofthis

entirenexus,

composite

asit

is,on

thechanges

inconsciousness

isthe

most difficult

and,accordingly,

thehighest

functionof

psychiclife.

Itrequires

thegreatest

energyand

healthof

thecerebral

functions.T

heconditions

forthe

repro

ductionof

representationsand

theirconnections

areassem

bledin

thecerebral

cortex.O

nlythe

highestenergy

ofcerebral

lifem

akesitpossible

forthis

entireapparatus

tohave

aw

ide-rangingefficacy

allowing

eventhe

most

remote

representationsto

come

intocontact

andto

beused.

Alogical

inferencerequires

much

lessenergy

fromconsciousness

thanthe

operationof

theacquired

psychicnexus.

Forinference

involvesrelating

onlya

fewconcepts

with

theassist

anceof

theattention

thatis

concentratedupon

them.

The

greatachievem

entsof

geniusand

thecontrol

ofa

powerful

mind

aregrounded

inthe

efficacyof

theacquired

psychicnexus.

Preciselyw

henthere

isa

periodof

relaxationafter

astretch

oflong,

deepstim

ulationof

theoverall

acquirednexus

throughintense

work,

thencreative

combinations

suddenlyem

ergefrom

thedepths

ofthis

nexus.T

hisap

paratu

sfu

nctio

ns

unintentionally,as

itw

ere,to

keepour

169

representationsand

desiresadapted

tothe

acquirednexus

of psychiclife,

inw

hichreality

isrepresented.

When

thisoperation

ofthe

regulatoryapparatus

breaksdow

nin

thosestates

which

divergefrom

thenorm

ofw

akinglife,

thisinvolves

completely

differentcauses

thanw

henthe

regulatoryoperation

issuspended

asthe

poetcreates

figuresand

situationsthat

transcendreality.

The

firstcase

involvesa

diminution

inthe

efficacyof

thisacquired

nexus,the

second,a

utilizationof

thenexus,

which

atthe

same

time

inten

tionallytranscends

thereality

representedw

ithinit.

Adim

inutionof

theoperation

ofthe

acquiredpsychic

nexusis

exemplified

firstof

allby

insanity.In

contrastto

theparticular

stimuli

which

thesubcortical

centersproject

intothe

brainhem

ispheres,

thecerebral

cortexoperates

asan

apparatusof

classification,

inhibition,and

regulation.In

thecase

ofinsanity,

thenorm

alfunctioning

ofthisapparatus

breaksdow

nas

aresultofpathological

irritabilityand

weakness.

Stimuli

suchas

thoseinvolved

inhallu

cinations,;vhichcan

assuch

beaccom

paniedby

awareness

oftheir

subjectiveorigin,

nowreceive

them

arkof

realitydue

tothe

breakdow

nof

theregulatory

apparatusand

become

thebasis

fordelu

sions.Pathological

changesin

ourgeneral

stateof

feelingor

anym

orbidchanges

inits

intensityare

modifications,

which

would

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

99otherw

isebe

regulatedby

theacquired

nexusof

evaluationsand

which

areacknow

ledgedas

havinga

subjectiveorigin,

nowescape

fromits

controland

similarly

become

themselves

thesubstratum

forfurther

delusions.N

ext,especially

when

them

emory

becomes

fragmentary,

we

encounterinterpretations

andinferences

thatare

prompted

bypathological

changesin

ourgeneral

stateof

feelingand

aresupported

byhallucinations.

They

areno

longerregulated

bythe

acquirednexus

ofpsychiclife

asitrepresents

andharm

onizesw

ithreality.

Surelyw

eare

allfam

iliarw

iththe

overlysubtle

reasoning

ofthe

insane,w

hoon

thebasis

ofsuch

afoundation

demonstrate

theirdelusions

with

logicallyim

peccableform

.W

eare

accustomed

toregard

thought,in

thesense

oflogical

inference,as

thehighest

achievement

ofintelligence.

Metaphysical

philosophy,w

ithits

cultof

reasonas

abstractthinking,

hasalso

exercisedits

influencein

thisdirection.

Itistherefore

oftenconsidered

surprisingto

seea

derangedperson

who

isproficient

inm

akinginferences.

An

inferenceis

aprocess

throughw

hichone

compares

orrelates,

bym

eansof

am

iddleterm

,thatw

hichcannot

bedirectly

compared

orrelated.

Ifone

includesw

ithinthe

scopeof

theinference

thediscovery

ofthe

middle

term,

thena

materially

correctinference,

which

capturesa

relationshipactually

existingin

reality,requires

thehighestachievem

entof

psychiclife,nam

ely,the

contributionof

theentire

acquirednexus.

What

ispeculiar

aboutthe

madm

anis

thathis

inferenceslack

objectivereference,

which

isto

saythat

neitherthe

processof

connectingthe

subjectand

predicatein

theconclusion

northat

ofdiscovering

them

iddleterm

iscontrolled

bythe

acquiredpsychic

nexus.H

isconclusions

aretherefore

oftenm

ateriallyfalse

andindeed

frequentlyridiculous.

They

areso

dueto

hisfailure

toutilize

factsprovided

byhis

experience.W

henconfronted

with

thisoversight

orerror,

heis

forcedto

raiseobjec

tionsw

hich,for

theirpart,

containthe

same

error.For

thisreason

itis

generallyfutile

toattem

ptto

correctsom

eonew

hois

insane.B

uthis

inferencesare

unobjectionablew

ithrespect

tothe

externalrelationships

among

theterm

she

haschosen.

His

thinkingis

for

mally

correct.N

oone

candeny

thatthere

aretransitions

which

graduallylead

fromm

ental

healthto

statesno

longerregulated

bythe

acquirednexus

andits

representationof

reality.A

lreadyin

ordinarylife,

when

hypersensitivityabout

something

specificin

psychiclife

iscom

binedw

itha

lowcapacity

tosee

thingsin

perspective,a

dis

tortionof

thetrue

valueof

thingsoccurs,

fromw

hichthere

stems

inturn

aone-sided

hypersensitivityand

something

likea

despotism

98

PO

ET

ICS

r

170

Too

PO

ET

ICS

ofa

particularattitude

thatignores

reality.If

someone

criticizesthe

tulipsof

apassionate

gardenerw

hois

likethis,

thegardener

may

come

tohate

him.

We

areinclined

toregard

thisas

am

ildform

ofcraziness.

The

limit

ofinsanity

liesin

thepathological

stateof

thebrain,

andthe

onlyouter

symptom

ofthis

limit

thatforensic

med

icinem

ayapply

toliving

subjectsis

adecrease

inthe

functioningof

thebrain

which

isso

greatthat

theacquired

psychicnexus,

andthe

way

itrepresents

ourcurrent

viewof

realityand

theharm

onyof

feelingsand

actionsw

ithit,

canno

longerserve

asa

basisfor

responsibleaction.

This

occursw

hen,as

aconsequence

ofsuch

adim

inutionof

theenergy

ofthe

nexus,the

actionsof

theperson

inquestion

nolonger

allowus

topresuppose

anadequate

number

ofreasons

orm

otivesnecessary

toascribe

moral

responsibility.D

reams

alsopresent

images

which

transcendthe

boundsof

reality,

butw

hichare

neverthelessaccom

paniedby

abelief

intheir

reality.T

hey,too,

area

functionof

adim

inutionof

theenergy

ofthe

psychicnexus

andthe

accompanying

changein

thefunctioning

,tof

thebrain.

Achange

inthe

circulationof

bloodin

thebrain

takesplace

duringthe

onsetand

durationof

sleepY’

The

functioningof

thecerebral

cortexis

modified.

At

thesam

etim

e,only

isolatedand

indefiniteim

pressionspass

throughthe

senseorgans. T

heseim

pressions

andthe

changesinduced

inthe

organismitself

produceas

sociationsand

inferencesw

hichare

notdeterm

inedand

regulatedby

theacquired

psychicnexus.

So,for

example,

feelingsconnected

with

aspecific

organ,w

hichhave

afixed

referencew

hena

personis

awake,

nowappear

indefinitein

theirspatial

location,and

with

outthe

causalrelations

which

would

normally

berecognized

tohold;

thusshortness

ofbreath

couldevoke

images

ofa

heavyobject

weighing

onedow

n.Sim

ilarly, combinations

establishedby

thoughtbetw

eenparticular

dreamim

agesare

unregulatedand,

therefore,frequently

odd.Sleepw

alking,w

herethe

courseof

adream

isacted

outas

acom

pletedram

a,is

perhapsthe

most

noteworthy

example

ofthe

imagination

activein

statesw

hichdiverge

fromthe

normof

waking

lifeand

yetare

akinto

itspoetic

use.It

providesthe

transition

between

dreams

andhypnotic

states.In

hypnotism,

too,the

acquirednexus

ofpsychic

lifeis

setaside.

But

thedream

likeaction

which

dominates

hereis

characterizedby

itsdependence

oila

hyp

notizingw

ill.O

new

hois

hypnotizedis,

soto

speak,an

imitative

mechanism

.T

hetranscendence

ofreality

increative

work

ofthe

poethas

rT

ilEIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

I0I

causesof

acom

pletelydifferent

kind.T

hetotal

energyof

ahealthy

andpow

erfulpsyche

isactive

here.A

richand

extensivefund

ofexperience

isem

ployed,w

hichhas

beenordered

andgeneralized

bythought.

The

transformation

ofim

agesis

effectedin

apsyche

inw

hichthe

entireacquired

nexusthat

representsreality

ispresent

andefficacious.

Aw

illconscious

ofits

purposem

odifiesthe

images

beyondthe

boundsof

reality.C

onsequently,there

areconsiderable

differencesbetw

eenthe

metam

orphosisof

images

inthe

creativew

orkof

thepoet

andin

thosestates

which

divergefrom

thenorm

ofeveryday

life.T

hepoet

isaw

areof

thenexus

ofreality

andhe

distinguisheshis

images

fromit.

He

differentiatesreality

fromthe

realmof

beautyand

illusion.H

owever

much

theseim

agesap

pro

xim

atethe

characterof

reality,they

neverthelessrem

ainseparated

fromit

bya

fineline.

During

hiscreative

work,

thepoet

livesin

adream

world

where

theseim

agesreceive

them

arkof

reality.B

utthey

donot

receivethis

throughthe

obscurenatural

power

ofhal

lucinations,but

ratherthrough

thefreedom

ofa

creativecapacity

‘nin

possessionof

itself.Further,

becausethe

nexusof

psychiclife

activelyaffects

theform

ationof

theseim

ages,they

acquirea

relationship

toreality

appropriateto

thepurpose

ofthe

artwork.

When

images

losethis

relationthey

ceaseto

move

us. The

typicaland

theideal

inpoetry

transcendexperience

sothat

itcanbe

feltandunder

stoodm

oreprofoundly

thanin

them

ostfaithful

copiesof

reality.T

hiskind

ofbelief

inim

agesof

thingsthat

areunreal,

andthe

illusionthat

results,can

bestbe

compared

with

what

takesplace

inchildren

atplay.

Literature

isakin

toplay,

asSchiller

hasdem

onstrated.In

play,the

energyof

thechild’s

psychiclife

becomes

activeand

free,inasm

uchas

itdoes

notas

yetpossess

anyother

channel.T

hew

ill,w

hichhas

notyet

beengiven

seriouspurposes

byreality,

setsends

foritself

which

lieoutside

thenexus

ofreality.

Inlater

stagesof

lifethe

distinguishingtrait

ofplay

isthat

itsactivities

standin

nocausal

relationto

thepurposive

nexusof

thislife.

Thus

playbecom

esseparated

fromthe

seriousnessof

reallife;

and,in

thatrespect,

itis

likeart

andliterature.

The

illusionw

hichthus

arisesis

groundedin

voluntaryor

deliberatepsychic

processesand,

accordingly,has

itsbounds

inthe

consciousnessof

thisorigin.

The

laws

accordingto

which

images

andtheir

connectionsfreely

unfoldbeyond

thebounds

ofreality

undersuch

diverseconditions

will

alsobe

more

easilygrasped

ifw

ebegin

bycom

paringthese

conditions.N

atureperm

itsus

toperceive

everywhere

thefree

un

foldingof

images

underotherw

isecom

pletelyvarying

circumstances.

hSee

thestudies

ofD

onders,von

RihIm

ann,\V

inkovski,and

Mosso.

(D)

10

2P

OE

TIC

S

These

processesare

notas

differentfrom

thoseof

mem

oryas

isusually

assumed.

Everym

emory

image

isconstituted

fromacquired

constituents,but

them

omentary

stateof

consciousnessdeterm

ines

which

ofthese

constituentsare

employed

inthe

formation

ofthe

image.

Forthe

same

image

canno

more

returnthan

thesam

eleaf

cangrow

backon

atree

thefollow

ingspring.

IfI

make

presentin

imagination

aperson

who

isabsent,

thecurrent

stateof

my

con

sciousnessdeterm

inesthe

positionof

thefigure

andthe

expression

onhis

face.

Images

aretransform

edw

henconstituents

eitherdisappear

orare

excluded.

173

Indream

sand

inm

entaldisturbances

certainproperties

ol images

disappearw

hichin

realityare

inseparablefrom

thembecause

theyare

givenand

fixed,so

tospeak,

bythe

acquirednexus

ofpsychic

lifethat

representsreality. T

husdream

sare

not constrainedby

time,

space,and

thelaw

ofgravity.

Am

adman

connectsconstituents

ofim

agesw

itha

seemingly

extraordinarypow

erto

combine,

without

beingaw

areof

thecontradictions

inthe

propertiesof

theseco

nstituents.

Incontrast,

thecreative

work

ofthe

artistand

poetin

volvesthe

deliberateexclusion

ofrefractory

traits.It

strivesfor

clarityand

harmony

inthe

constituentsof

images—

which,

tobe

sure,w

ouldin

itselfonly

bethe

superficialharm

onyof

anem

ptyidea)

ifother

laws

didnot

alsooperate

intransform

ingim

ages.

Images

aretransform

edw

het:they

expandor

contract,ruben

theintensity

ofthe

sensationsof

which

theyare

composed

isincreased

ordecreased.

Dream

sperm

itim

agesto

beexpanded

orintensified

inaccord

ancew

iththe

influenceof

ourfeelings.

Aside

fromthe

directin

terventionof

physiologicalfunctions

insensation,

dreamrepresen

tationsare

freefrom

thecom

petitionof

externalim

ages,and

theintervention

ofthe

acquirednexus

ofreality

iscancelled

toa

certaindegree.

Also, under

theinfluence

of feelings, thecolors

inour

dreams

glowm

oreintensively;

soundsresound

more

powerfully

andcharm

ingly. Barely

audiblestim

uliare

amplified

enormously. Figures

seemto

growin

sizebefore

ourvery

eyes.A

lternatively,the

number

ofanalogous

images

ism

ultipliedw

hilew

edream

.H

opeand

fearsim

ilarlylend

images

aquality

which

transcendsreality.

?vlelancholy,

onthe

otherhand,

makes

thecolors

ofreality

fade.H

ypochondria

intensifiesbeyond

actualitythose

images

which

areview

edas

thecause

ofthe

mental

stress.A

ndyet

forthe

hypochondriac

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

T0

3

theacquired

nexusof

psychiclife

stillacts

asa

corrective,pan

icularly

throughits

evaluations.A

slong

asthe

hypochondriacretains

hissocial

contactshis

feelingsrem

ainregulated.

His

conditionde

terioratesw

henhe

seekssolitude

inorder

toescape

suchintrusions

onhis

imagination.

With

insanitysuch

controlsno

longerexist.

Inparanoia

theim

ageof

aperson

whose

actionthw

artsthe

will

ofthe

patientis

intensifiedand

expandedinto

acaricature

ofa

hostilepow

er.T

hesam

eprocess

ofm

odifyingthe

intensityand

extensionof

elements

throughthe

influenceof

feelingscan

beobserved

inthe

caseof

thepoet.

Inparticular,

oneperceives

howfeeling

coloredthe

visionof

theE

nglishpoets,

evenof

historianssuch

asM

acaulayand

Carlyle.

Evena

simple

letterby

Dickens,

Carlyle,or

Kingsley

containsexam

plesof

thisnervous

intensificationof

realityw

herethings

become

largerthan

life.C

liffsbecom

em

oresteep

andm

ead

ows

more

lush.T

hisem

otionalpow

ercontained

inim

agesis

thendischarged

inthat

peculiarE

nglishm

odeof

humor

which

works

throughexaggeration,

onem

oment

reducingsom

ethingdelicate

toa

mere

shadow,

thenext

capriciouslyexpanding

something

pow

erfulinto

bizarreextrem

esof

forceor

frenzy.In

Shakespeare

andD

ickensthis

isintensified

intoa

kindof

artificialillum

ination.It

is•

asif

images

were

exposedto

electricallight

andm

agnifyingglasses.

•T

hetransfiguration

ofm

emory

images

andthe

intensificationin

volvedin

representationsof

thefuture

areconditioned

bythe

factthat

representationalcontents

areexpanded

andtransform

edas

ifthey

existedin

openspace.

There

thusexists

aninner

affinitythrough

which

mem

oryim

agesand

dreams

ofthe

futureprepare

thepoet

forcreating

hisrepresentations.

Exclusion

andintensification

resultin

theidealization

ofim

agesin

allthe

arts.Indeed,

fora

sensitiveperson

thisoccurs

evenin

theunintentional

processesof

recollection.T

heim

ageof

alandscape

ora

personis

notcalled

backby

am

echanicalm

emory

process,but

ratheris

formed

anewon

thebasis

ofan

affectivestate.

Not

everyconstituent

ofthe

earlierperception

contributesto

thenew

image,

butonly

what

isof

interestin

thepresent

stateof

conscio

us

ness.N

or

dothe

elements

appearin

exactlythe

same

strengthor

scopethat

characterizedthe

image

ofperception.

Rather,

inthis

respect,too,

theyare

determined

toa

certainextent

bytheir

rela

tionshipto

one’spresent

state.Since

thepoet

hasno

intentionof

I“

ProbablyC

harlesK

ingsley(18,9-75),

Englishclergym

an,novelist,

andpoet,

whose

novelslitton

Locke

andY

eastdealt

with

Christian

socialism.

r1II

‘74

104PO

ET

ICS

producinga

faithfulreproduction,

thew

illsupervenes

andshapes

theseim

agesin

aw

aythat

issatisfring

toone’s

feelings,and

exclusion,intensification,and

diminution

generatea

progressiveideal

izationof

images.

Evenin

thegreatest

achievements

ofthe

imagi

nation,exclusion

leadsto

harmonious

charactersand

actions,and

intensificationstrengthens

theaffective

content.H

owever,

bothof

theseprocesses

would

notbe

sufficientto

fillapoem

with

satisfyinglife.

The

most

important

processof

allnow

comes

intoplay:

Images

andtheir

connectionsare

transformed

when

newcom

ponentsand

connectionspenetrate

intotheir

innermost

coreand

thuscom

pletethem

.

175A

nim

agin

ation

which

onlyexcludes,

intensifiesor

diminishes,

increasesor

decreases,is

feebleand

attainsonly

asuperficial

idealization

orcaricature

of reality.Wherever

atrue

work

ofart

emerges,

we

findan

unfoldingof

thenucleus

ofan

image

throughpositive

completion.

Itis

difficultto

make

thisprocess

intelligible.A

per

ceptionor

representationis

first ofall

transformed

accordingto

thelaw

sof

associationor

fusionso

thatanother

image

penetratesit

or

isassociated

with

it.B

utassociation

containsno

principlethat

goesbeyond

theefficacy

ofactual

contiguity,and

fusionproduces

mere

integration.O

nlyw

henthe

whole

acquiredpsychic

nexusbecom

esactive

canim

agesbe

transformed

onthe

basisof

it:innum

erable,im

measurable,alm

ostimperceptible

changesoccur

intheir

nucleus.A

ndin

thisw

ay,the

completion

ofthe

particularoriginates

fromthe

fullnessof

psychiclife.

Thus

we

obtainfrom

images

andtheir

connectionsw

hatis

essentialabout

astate

ofaffairs:

what

givesit

itsm

eaningin

thenexus

ofreality.

Eventhe

styleof

theartist

isinfluenced

inthis

way.

That

processof

completion,

byw

hichsom

ethingouter

isen

livenedby

something

inneror

something

inneris

made

visibleand

intu

itable

byso

meth

ing

outer,

isespecially

imp

ortan

tfor

poetry

which

proceedsfrom

livedexperience.

Contents

andrelations

acquired

ininner

experienceare

transferredto

outerexperience.

And

thisis

what

makes

possiblethe

metaphysical

constructionsof

nat

uralthought

throughw

hichthe

relationsof

thingand

property,cause

andeffect,

essenceand

accidentare

constituted.T

heappli

cationof

suchform

sof

relationto

ourexperience

always

dependson

thecom

pletionof

something

outerby

something

innerw

hichis

oftenconnected

with

it,and

thisrests

onthe

primary

factthat

we

ourselvesare

simultaneously

innerand

outer.A

bstractconceptual

categoriesgradually

emerge

fromthis

animation

ofaggregates

of

FT

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EPO

ET

10

5

sensationsin

evolu

tionary

stages,w

hichproceed

thro

ugh

languageand

scientificth

ought.

This

relationsh

ipto

something

outer

isin

generalthe

most

es

sentialand

centralconnection

byw

hichw

ejoin

ourexperiences

intoa

whole,

The

way

inw

hichstate

andim

ageare

interwoven

asinner

andouter

isnot

acquired,but

ratheris

rootedin

thepsycho

physicalnature

ofm

an.W

em

ightsay

thatan

extensionor

projection

ofw

hatw

efind

inour

own

lifetakes

placehere;

thisis

thendeveloped

throughoutour

life.H

erew

efind

thedeepest

basisfor

language,m

yth,m

etaphysics—the

conceptsthrough

which

we

con

ceivethe

world,

evenour

basiclegal

conceptions.For

example,

theidea

ofproperty

isthe

necessaryexternal

expressionfor

alived

experienceof

thew

ill.H

erew

ealso

findthe

reasonthat

thepoet

canform

images

asthe

expressionof

aninner

statein

sucha

way

thatthey

canevoke

thesam

einner

lifein

others.W

ecan

nowm

akea

more

generalobservation.

The

metam

orphosis,

effectedthrough

thesethree

kindsof

transformation

onthe

basisof

feelingsand

impulses

proceedingfrom

theoverall

acquiredneu

sof

psychiclife

isa

livingprocess,

forthe

image

which

isthus

producedis

noiform

edin

asingle

act.R

ather,it

follows

fromthe

lawthat

attentivenessinvolves

alim

itedquantum

ofenergy,

thatpsychic

lifeis

onlyable

toproduce

theseim

ageform

ationsin

atem

poralsequence.

Familiar

elements

areconnected

inthese

for

mations,butthe

constructivedim

ensionthatdifferentiates

theartist

fromthe

mathem

aticianlies

inthe

way

theseelem

entsare

joined,certain

desiredones

beingpreserved

andnew

onesadded.

Now

,since

theartist’s

constructiveprocess

stems

fromhis

mood,

hisaffective

state,it

hassom

ethinginstinctive

orim

pulsiveab

ou

tit.

The

mode

andm

annerin

which

thetransform

ationsoccur

isthat

of unfolding.Im

pulseand

unfoldingcorrespond

toone

another.A

tthis

pointw

erecognize

thatthe

whole

ofspiritual

lifeis

notdom

inatedby

mechanical

relationshipsofassociation

andreproduction.

The

emergence

ofan

image

isa

livingprocess.

Images

donotsim

plyrecur

without

change.Furtherm

ore,certain

relationsam

ongpro

cesses

become

habitual.A

sim

agesbecom

em

oreeasily

reproduced,w

eget

usedto

certainrelations

andto

certainw

aysof

advancingfrom

oneelem

entto

another.T

hestyle

ofan

artistis

sucha

habitbased

inhis

nature—for

instance,histendency

toim

agineand

model

garments

inw

oodor

otherm

aterialsm

aylead

himto

elongatethe

linesof

thebody.

Accordingly

we

callthe

regularrelatio

nsh

ipw

hichlinks

asa

tisfying

arousalof

feeling(or

aco

nstitu

ent

ofsuch

anarousal)

toa

r

176

i

io6

PO

ET

ICS

stateof

affairs,and

throughw

hich,correspondingly,

artisticcrea

tivityseeks

satisfactionin

theproduction

of sucha

state,anaesthetic

principle.A

tfirst

sucha

principleoperates

spontaneouslyin

theinner

formative

processesof

anartistic,

poeticsoul,

without

theintention

ofm

akingan

impression

onsom

eoneelse.

Insofaras

sucha

principle(as

we

will

soonsee

inm

oredetail)

simultaneously

appearsas

thebasis

form

akinga

pleasingim

pressionon

someone

else,an

impression

which

noreader

orlistener

isable

toevade,

theform

ulationof

thisprinciple

assumes

theform

ofa

rule

tow

hichthe

impression

isuniversally

connected.T

heprinciple

canthus

becharacterized

asa

universallyvalid

norm.

When

theseprinciples

producetransform

ationsof

images

onthe

basisof

theacquired

psychicnexus

ofa

poet,aesthetic

laws

ofa

higherlevel

arise.T

hesatisfaction

thata

creativeartist

findsin

hisw

orkdepends

onthe

extentto

which

theentire

nexusof

hisacquired

psychiclife

hasinfluenced

hiscreative

processesand

theirend

product.C

or

respondingto

this,regarded

fromthe

sideof

theim

pression,is

theprinciple

thata

poeticw

orkonly

satisfiesto

theextent

thatit

alsodoes

justiceto

what

itarouses

andactivates

inthe

acquiredpsychic

nexusof

thelistener

orreader.

Sincethis

nexusbecom

esm

oreand

more

complex

with

theprogress

ofthe

human

race,it

follows

thatboth

poeticcreativity

andreceptivity

demand

andproduce

anas

cendingdevelopm

entof

poetry.T

hesetenets

indicatea

principlew

hichcan

beform

ulatedm

oreexactly

onlyafter

more

thoroughanalysis

ofthe

natureof

theaesthetic

impression.

Inparticular,

thefull

realityof

theem

ployedconstituents

andtheir

relations,exclu

sion,intensification,

diminution,

andcom

pletionconstitute

prin

ciplesto

which

boththe

processof

creativityand

theaesthetic

impression

arebound.

Apoet’s

styledepends

onthe

predominance

ofone

oranother

ofthese

principles.W

erecognize

herethe

psychological

factorsw

hichcondition

important

differencesin

style.In

literature,the

relationsbetw

eena

psychicstate

anda

nexusof

images,

between

innerand

outer,are

tobe

developedthrough

completion;

thisim

portantlaw

ofcom

pletionhas

asa

consequencethe

furtherprinciple

thatall

poetrygives

visualshape

tolife

asit

isenjoyed

infeeling,

and(conversely)

transfersthe

vivacityenjoyed

infeeling

intow

hatis

visiblein

perception.In

short,poetry

con

stantlyrestores

thetotality

oflived

experience.W

efind

inthese

principlesand

theirgrounding

them

orecom

pletepsychological

formulation

ofw

hatw

asdesignated

as“Schiller’s

law”

inthe

his

toricalintroduction.

CH

AP

TE

RT

HR

EE

.

CO

RR

OB

OR

AT

ION

PR

OV

IDE

DB

YT

HE

TE

ST

IMO

NY

OF

PO

ET

ST

HE

MS

EL

VE

S

L.etus

nowelucidate

thew

aythe

processesof

exclusion,intensifi

cation,and

completion

work

togetheras

we

examine

thefield

inw

hichim

agesbecom

efree

andunfold

unhampered,

asin

empty

space.W

ew

illproceed

herefrom

thesim

pleto

thecom

plex,and

thusarrive

atthe

poets’ow

naccounts

oftheir

aestheticcreativity.

Ishall

offeronly

some

accounts.O

thersm

ightw

antto

addm

oreto

producea

complete

collection.T

hesim

plestcaseofsuch

anunfolding

isprovided

byhypnagogic

orslum

berim

ages.W

ecan

regardthese,

following

Goethe’s

lead,as

thebasic

phenomena

ofpoetic

creativity.T

heycan

apparentlynot

bereduced

tothe

processesof

differentiation,com

parison,fu

sion,

asso

cia

tion,

apperc

eptio

n,

etc.G

oeth

edesc

ribes

themas

follow

s:

Ihad

thegift

ofim

agininga

flower

inthe

centerof

my

visualfield

when

Iclosed

my

eyesand

lowered

my

head,It

didnot

remain

inits

firstshape

foreven

onem

oment.

But

itim

me

diatelydisintegrated,and

fromits

innercorenew

flowers

would

unfold,com

posedof

bothcolored

andgreen

petals.T

heyw

erenot

naturalflow

ers,but

ratherfantastical

ones,w

hichnever

thelessw

ereregular

likea

sculptor’srosettes.

Itwas

impossible

tostop

thisspontaneous

creation;rather,

itw

ouldlast

aslong

asIpleased,

neitherw

eakeningnor

strengthening.Icould

pro

ducethe

same

effectif

Iim

aginedthe

patternson

astained-

glassw

indow,

which

would

thensim

ilarlydisplay

continualchanges

pro

ceedin

gfro

mthe

cente

rto

ward

theperiphery.s

IfI

amto

compare

boththis

andother

descriptionsof

hypnagogicim

ages—especially

theclassical

oneofjohannes

MulIerS&

_with

my

own

experiences,then

Im

ustbegin,

forexpository

reasons,w

ithour

abilityto

attendcalm

lyto

ouroverall

visualfield

andits

colorfulhazes.

Given

thism

odeof

attention,the

distributionof

thesensory

elements

inthis

fieldm

akesit

possib

leto

projecta

comm

onor

customary

configurationof

theseelem

entsinto

it.B

utthis

configuration

may

alsobe

variedin

accordancew

iththe

laws

discussedabove.

Indeed,according

toour

psychologicalaccount

thisinvolves

‘‘W

A,

II,ii

z8z.tibet

thepbarnastzschen

Gesichrserscheinungen

(Koblenz:

j,H

olscher,8z6),

p.zc.

(D)

IFT

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T107

178

I

io8

PO

ET

ICS

aprocess

which

isspontaneous

andm

anifestsitself

asthe

unfoldingof

images.

This

unfoldingof

hypnagogicim

agesbeyond

realitycounts

asa

verificationof

ourpsychological

account.In

hisE

lectiveA

ffinities,w

hichin

thespirit

ofour

centuryexplicates

thephysi

ologicalconditions

ofthe

highestrevelations

ofthe

lifeof

them

ind,this

power ofG

oethe’sim

aginationis

transferredto

Ortilie. B

etween

waking

andsleeping,

shesees

anillum

inatedspace

containingher

absentlover

invarious

locationsand

situations.Let

usbroaden

thecontext

ofdiscussion

byconsidering

contiguous

data.T

heprocess

exemplified

byhypnagogic

images

isakin

tothat

inw

hicharabesques

andpatterns

arise.In

thelatter,

how

ever,the

will

participatesactively,

thusgenerating

intentionalm

odesof

formation

andcreation

ofan

artisticsort.

Habits

ofrep

resentationserve

toproduce

symm

etryand

unityin

multiplicity.

Experiences

ofm

echanicalrelations

between

bodies,betw

eenforce

andresistance,

alsoexert

theirinfluence.

Butthe

processof

creationultim

atelytranscends

everythinggiven

inthese

experiences,how

everm

uchit

may

havebeen

conditionedby

them.

To

thesephenom

enaof

visualrepresentation

therecorresponds

anotherseries

inaural

representation:the

way

childrenplay

with

variationsin

sounds.A

sa

functionof

thechild’s

surplusenergy,

it

isstrongest

inearly

morning.

High

andlow

pitch,strength

andrapidity

inthe

successionof

tones,and

evenvariations

invow

els,stand

inregular

relationsto

thechild’s

moods.

They

providethe

basisfor

musical

expression,certain

naturalelem

entsof

everylan

guage(nam

ely,the

way

thesym

bolicalaspect

ofphonetic

material

standsin

fixedrelations

tospiritual

processes),as

well

asaccen

tuationand

rhythmin

speech.T

heconstant

formation

andtransform

ationthat

takepLace

inthe

poetbecom

em

orereadily

discerniblew

henw

eobserve

thesesim

plerdata

ofthe

imagination.

Whenever

we

areable

toget

aglim

pseinto

apoet’s

lifew

esee

howonly

asm

allpart

ofthis

incessantinner

shapingand

experimenting

isever

embodied

inhis

works.

This,

too,has

beenexpressed

ina

moving

way

inT

asso,and

hasits

analoguein

theincessant

variationof

shapesproduced

ina

dream(that

hiddenpoet

inus).

Hypnagogic

images

arerelated

todream

son

theone

handand

tothe

creationsof

poetson

theother.

JohannesM

ullerhim

selfem

phasizeshow

theseim

agesm

akean

imperceptible

“transitioninto

thedream

images

ofsleep.”

The

generalpattern

ofw

hathap

pensin

dreams

isthat

which

was

observedin

hypnagogicim

ages.

The

elements

givenin

thesensory

fieldare

reproducedby

images

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

10

9

orthe

habitualconfigurations

among

image

elements.

Transfor-

ho

mations

takeplace

accordingto

thelaw

sdiscussed

above,but

theattentiveness

within

thetem

poralflow

thatis

requiredfor

thepro

ductionof

images

inducesa

spontaneousunfolding

andtransfor

mation

ofone

image

intoanother.

Ina

passagerelated

tothe

de

scriptionalready

cited,G

oetherelates

hypnagogicim

agesto

thepoet’s

creativity.“O

necan

seem

oreclearly

what

itm

eansto

saythat

thepoet

andevery

authenticartist

must

beborn.

Nam

ely,the

innerproductive

capacitym

ustbring

intoprom

inencethose

after-im

agesor

images

lingeringin

thesensory

organ,m

emory,and

imag

ination;it

must

doso

spontaneously,w

ithoutplan

andintention,

andvigorously.

These

after-images

must

unfold,grow

,expand

andcontract

inorder

totransform

superficialschem

atainto

trueo

bjective

bein

gs.”

This

isrelated

tothe

dreamlike

qualitythat

issom

etimes

dis

cerniblein

thepoet’s

creativew

ork.G

oethesays

thefollow

ingabout

some

ofhis

ballads:“I

carriedthem

allin

my

headfor

many

years.T

heyoccupied

my

mind

ascharm

ingim

ages,as

beautifuldream

sthat

came

andw

ent.”T

henhe

adds:“A

tother

times

thingsw

entcom

pletelydifferently

inw

ritingm

ypoem

s.I

hadabsolutely

noprevious

impression

orintim

ationabout

them.

Instead,they

sud

denlyoverw

helmed

me

andinsisted

thatthey

becreated

imm

ediately,

with

theresult

thatI

feltforced

tow

ritethem

down

onthe

spotinstinctively

andin

adream

likew

ay.”

Carlyle

attributesto

Shakespearethis

spontaneousaspect

ofdream

formation

inpoetic

creativity,although

admitting

itto

beon

thebasis

ofhonest,

preparatoryw

ork:“Shakespeare

isan

exam

pleof

what

Im

ightcall

anunconscious

intellect.T

hew

orksof

sucha

man

growunconsciously

fromunfam

iliardepths

inhim

,how

everm

uchhe

may

alsoachieve

bythe

greatesteffort

andde

liberateactivity.”’9

Ina

passagein

hisV

orschuleder

Asthetik

(IntroductoryC

oursein

Aesthetics)

which

containsan

accountof

hisow

npoetic

work

inthe

formof

anaesthetic

principle,Jean

Paulw

rites:“T

hech

aracter

must

bealive

andcontrol

youin

thehour

ofinspired

pro

duction.Y

oum

usthear,

notm

erelysee,

him.

He

must

inspireyou

asin

adream

,and

insuch

aw

aythat,

ina

previoussober

mom

ent

“WA

,II,

iI:183.hS

Eckerm

ann,G

esprache,1

4M

archi8

jo.

1C

arlyle,H

eroesa,,d

Hero-W

orship,rd

lecture,“D

anteand

Shakespeare,”in

Thom

asC

’arlylesC

ollectedW

orks,vol.

ii

(London:

Chapm

an&

Hill,

1869),p.

iz6.

11

0P

OE

TIC

S

youcould

haveapproxim

atelypredicated

the‘w

hat,’but

notthe

‘how.’

Ifa

poethas

toreflect

whether

heis

tom

akehis

character

say‘Y

es’or

‘No’

ina

givensituation,

heshould

throwhim

away,

forhe

isjust

acold

cadaver!”°T

hefollow

ingrem

arkcan

beadded

isi

fromthe

notesto

hisletters:

“While

writing,

thegenuine

poet(like

thedream

er)does

not prompt his

charactersbut only

watches

them.

He

seesthem

asif

theyw

erein

adream

,and

thenhe

listensto

them.

Viktor’s

remark

thata

dreamt

opponentoften

made

more

difficultobjections

thana

realone

isalso

frequentlym

adeby

theplayw

rightw

hoprior

tobecom

inginspired

couldnot

atall

haveprovided

words

fora

groupof

actors,w

hilehe

findsno

difficultyin

creatingdram

aticroles

when

heis

inspired.”’It

hasbeen

reportedto

me

byH

einrichvon

Steinthat

when

Wagner

was

inParis

engagedw

ithw

orkon

theT

eutoniclegends,

hesim

ultaneouslysaw

beforehim

allof

hism

aterial.Siegfried,

Tannhäuser,

Lohengrin,

Tristan,

Parsifal,and

eventhe

Meister

singerw

eregiven

inquite

determinate

specificintuitions—

suchas,

forinstance, a

scenefrom

theM

eistersinger, adeterm

inatelegendary

confro

nta

tion

.

Intotal

agreement

with

Goethe’s

remarks

andthe

relatedtesti

mony

we

havecited

isthe

testimony

ofthe

well-know

nR

ussiannovelist

Goncharov,91

who

writes:

Aspecific

figurealw

ayshovers

beforem

e, andat

thesam

etim

ea

main

motif.

Guided

byit,

Iproceed,

and,along

thew

ay,I

availm

yselfof

whatever

Ihappen

tocom

eacross,

althoughonly

what

fitsin.

Then

Iw

orkactively,

assiduously,and

soquickly

thatm

ypen

canbarely

followm

ythoughts,

untilI

againrun

intoa

brickw

all.M

eanwhile,

my

headkeeps

work

ing.M

ycharacters

donot

permit

me

anypeace,

andthey

appearto

me

invarious

scenes;I

seemto

hearfragm

entsof

theirconversations.

Itoften

seems

asif

thesethings

were

not

my

thoughts,but

ratheroutside

me

andthat

1only

neededto

watch

inorder

toproject

myself

intothem

.

Other

reportsallow

stilldeeper

insightsinto

theprocess.

They

illustratew

hatw

ehave

saidabout

theinfluence

ofthe

feelingson

JeanPaul,

Vorscbule

derA

sthetik,in

flea.’

PantsW

erke,section

49-51(B

erlin:

6.

Hem

pel),p.

ni.

(D)

Ibid.,section

;8,p.

54.(D

),‘v

anA

lexandrovichG

oncharoy(1

811-9

1).

His

best.known

novelis

Obiom

ov

(1855).

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

III

poeticcreativity.

These

reportsstress

moods

and

statesof

feelingas

thestarting

pointof

theprocess.

Letus

beginw

ithSchiller:

Ido

notbelieve

thatit

isalw

aysthe

vividrepresentation

ofone’s

subjectm

atterthat

generatesw

orksof

inspiration,but

frequentlyit

isonly

aneed

forsubject

matter,

anindefinite

impulse

todischarge

aspiringfeelings.

The

musical

structureof

apoem

ism

uchm

oreoften

onm

ym

indw

henI

sitdow

nto

write

itthan

aclear

conceptof

thecontent,

aboutw

hichI

havefrequently

notm

adeup

my

mind.”

Regarding

theorigin

ofW

allensteinSchiller

writes:

“Form

e,feelingis

atfirst

without

aclear

ordete

rmin

ate

object,w

hichonly

takesshape

later.A

certainbasic

musical

mood

comes

first, andthe

poeticis

a

ideafollow

supon

thelatter.”94

Inhis

autobiography,A

lfierirelates

thatm

ostof

histragedies

originatedeither

duringor

afterlistening

tom

usic.K

leist,too,

rem

ark

s:

Iregard

music

asthe

root,or

rather,(expressing

myself

more

precisely)as

thealgebraic

formula

ofall

otherarts.

Justas

we

alreadyhave

apoet

(Goethe)

who

drewall

histhoughts

aboutart

froma

theoryof

colors,so

with

me

sinceearly

youthall

my

generalthoughts

aboutthe

artof

literaturehave

regardedit

inits

relationto

sound.I

believethat

them

ostim

portantkeys

tothe

artof

literatureare

containedin

harmonics.

..

-Ifa

work

comes

freelyfrom

thehum

anm

ind,it

must

necessa

rilybelong

tothe

whole

ofhum

anity.”

Ifone

addsthat

which

iscontained

inthis

testimony

aboutthe

relationshipof

feelingsand

moods

topoetic

images,

tothat

aboutthe

unfoldingofim

agesand

theirrelations,

thenthe

frequentlycited

testimony

ofO

ttoL

udwig

nolonger

seems

soparadoxical, although

theoverstim

ulationof

hisnervous

systemis

byno

means

without

influenceupon

theprocesses

ofhis

poeticcreativity

ashe

describesthem

.O

fthe

threeaccounts

hehas

givenus,

them

ostcom

pleteand

theclearest

isthe

following:’

r9’

Schillerto

Kdrner,

ayM

ay(D

)‘

Schillerto

Goethe,

i8M

arch1796.

(D)

Heinrich

vonR

leisr,Sarntliche

Werke

undB

riefe,ed.

byH

.Sem

bder(M

unich:H

anser,1961),

p.

87475.

“Otto

Ludw

ig,Skizzen

undFragm

enten,em

Berkht

ausden,

Thgebucb

desD

iebters,M

arch1840,

inN

achiass,ed.

byM

oritzH

eydrich(Leipzig:

C.

Cnobloch,

187

4);

Shakespearestudien,1

:30

3;

and“Z

umV

erstandnisder

elgenn3m

lichenM

ethodevon

0.

Ludw

igsSchaffen,”

1:1

34.

rIi

Ill

PO

ET

ICS

This

ism

yprocedure:

Am

oodleads

thew

ay,a

musical

mood

which

turnsinto

acolor.

Then

Isee

oneor

more

figuresin

acertain

posture,w

ithcertain

gestures,either

bythem

selvesor

inrelation

toone

another,as

ina

copperplateengraving

doneon

paperof

thatcolor,

or,m

oreprecisely

expressed,as

ina

marble

statueor

groupupon

which

thesun

fallsthrough

acurtain

ofthe

colorin

question.I

alsoexperience

sucha

colorw

henI

reada

work

ofliterature

thathas

moved

me.

When

Iget

intoa

mood

suchas

thosefurnished

byG

oethe’spoem

s,I

havea

saturatedgolden-yellow

merging

intogolden-brow

n.Schiller’s

furnisha

radiantcrim

son.In

Shakespeareevery

scenem

anifestsa

nuanceof

theparticular

colorof

theentire

work.

Surprisinglyenough,

thatim

ageor

groupis

usuallynot

theim

ageof

acatastrophe,

butsom

etimes

merely

acharacteristic

figurein

some

kindof

emotionally

chargedsituation.

Imm

ediately

relatedto

thelatter

isa

whole

seriesof

figuresand

groups.I

donot

firstdiscover

theplot

ornarrative

content,

butrather

some

visiblesituation

fromw

hichever

newsculp

turalshapes

andgroups

move

eitherbackw

ardstow

ardthe

183

beginningor

forwards

toward

theclim

axtill, finally,

Iconceivethe

whole

work

inall

itsscenes.

All

ofthis

happensw

ithgreat

speed,and

my

consciousnessis

quitepassive

asa

kindof

physical

anxietyovercom

esm

e.I

canthen

alsoreproduce

theco

n

tentof

allthe

successiveindividual

scenesat

will.

But

itis

impossible

form

eto

summ

arizeand

articulatethe

narrative

content.N

ext,language

isadded

togesture

andbehavior.

I

write

down

what

Ican,

butw

henthe

mood

leavesm

e,w

hat

I havew

rittenis

onlya

deadset

ofletters.

Now

Iapply

myself

tofilling

inthe

gapsin

thedialogue.

Iinspect

thetext

with

a

criticaleye.

Iseek

thecom

mon

denominator

ofall

thesein

dividualaspects,

or,if

Im

ayput

itthis

way,

Iseek

theidea

thatunconsciously

furnishedthe

creativeforce

andthe

coher

enceof

thephenom

ena.T

henI sim

ilarlysearch

outthe

pivotal

pointsof

theaction

inorder

toelucidate

thecausal

nexusfor

myself,

andI

seekthe

psychologicallaw

sunderlying

thein

dividualaspects

andthe

complete

contentof

thesituations.

I

arrangew

hateveris

confused,and

constructa

planin

which

mere

instinctis

nolonger

afactor;

everythingis

intentional

andcalculated,

bothas

aw

holeand

asregards

theindividual

words.

The

piecethen

looksapproxim

atelylike

aw

orkby

Hebbel.

Everything

isabstractly

expressed.Every

changeof

situation,every

pieceof

characterevolution,

is,as

itw

ere,a

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

113

psychologicalm

odel.T

hedialogue

isno

longera

realdialogue,

butrather

aseries

ofpsychological

andcharacteristic

traits,a

seriesof

pragmatic

andhigher

motives.

Icould

leaveit

justthis

way,

andin

thisform

itmight

appealto

theintellect

more

thansubsequently.

Nor

doesit

lackpopular

passagesthat

would

pleasethe

public.B

utI

cannotbring

myself

toconsider

sucha

piecea

poeticartw

ork.Even

Hebbel’s

piecesseem

tom

eto

beraw

material

foran

artwork,

notthe

work

itself.It

isnor

yeta

livinghum

anbeing,

butrather

askeleton

with

some

fleshon

it,yet

with

them

annerof

composition

stilld

iscernible.

Finally,w

ecan

roundoff

thetestim

onyof

genuinepoets

byconsidering

thatof

anentertaining

storyteller;this

iscom

parableto

thesatyr-play

thatfollow

sthe

seriousnessof

thetragic

trilogy.It

shows

howthe

formation

ofim

agesfrom

thedrives

anddesires,

which

flitbefore

usin

youthas

wishes

andhopes,

couldbecom

ethe

pointof

departurefo

ra

modest

kindof

literature.A

nthonyT

rollope’sA

utobiographyrecalls:

Iw

illm

entionhere

anotherhabit

which

hadgrow

nupon

me

fromstill

earlieryears,—

which

Im

yselfoften

regardedw

ithdism

ayw

henI

thoughtof

thehours

devotedto

it,but

which,

1suppose,m

usthave

tendedto

make

me

what

Ihavebeen.

As

aboy,

evenas

achild,

Iw

asthrow

nm

uchupon

myself.

Ihaveexplained,

when

speakingof

my

school-days,how

itcam

eto

passthat

otherboys

would

notplay

with

me.

Iw

astherefore

Palone,

andhad

toform

my

playsw

ithinm

yself.Play

ofsom

ekind

was

necessaryto

me

then,as

ithas

always

been.Study

was

notm

ybent,

andI

couldnot

pleasem

yselfby

beingall

idle.T

husit

came

topass

thatI

was

always

goingabout

with

some

castlein

theair

firmly

builtw

ithinm

ym

ind.N

orw

erethese

effortsin

architecturespasm

odic,or

subjectto

constantchange

fromday

today.

Forw

eeks,for

months,

ifI

remem

berrightly,

fromyear

toyear,

Iw

ouldcarry

onthe

same

tale,binding

myself

down

tocertain

laws,

tocertain

proportions,and

proprieties,and

unities.N

othingim

possiblew

asever

introduced,—

noreven

anythingw

hich,from

outward

circumstances,

would

seemto

beviolently

improbable.

Im

yselfw

asof

coursem

yow

nhero.

Suchis

anecessity

ofcastle-building.

But

Inever

became

aking,

ora

duke,—m

uchless

when

my

heightand

personalappearance

were

fixedcould

Ibe

anA

ntinous,

orsix

feethigh.

Inever

was

alearned

man,

noreven

r

184

11

4P

OE

TIC

S

aphilosopher.

But

Iw

asa

veryC

leverperson,

andbeautiful

youngw

omen

usedto

befond

ofm

e.A

ndI

stroveto

bekind

ofheart,

andopen

ofhand,

andnoble

inthought,

despisingm

eanthings;

andaltogether

Iw

asa

verym

uchbetter

fellowthan

Ihave

eversucceeded

inbeing

since.T

hishad

beenthe

occupationof

my

lifefor

sixor

sevenyears

beforeI

went

tothe

PostO

ffice,and

was

byno

means

abandonedw

henIco

mm

encedm

yw

ork.T

herecan,

Iim

agine,hardly

bea

more

dangerousm

entalpractice;

butI

haveoften

doubtedw

hether,had

itnotbeen

my

practice,I should

everhave

written

anovel.

I learnedin

thisw

ayto

maintain

aninterestin

afictitious

story,to

dwell

ona

work

createdby

my

own

imagination,

andto

liein

aw

orldaltogether

outsidethe

world

ofm

yow

nm

ateriallife.

Inafter

yearsI have

donethe

same,—

with

thisdifference,

thatI

havediscarded

thehero

ofm

yearly

dreams,

andhave

beenable

tolay

my

own

identityaside.”

“Fro

mA

nA

utobiographyby

Anthony

Trdllope,

vol.i

(London:

Wm

.B

lack-w

ood,1883),

pp.56-58.

One

lastim

portanttrait

must

beadded

tothis

elementary

psycho.logical

theoryof

poetry.Im

agesand

theirconnections

aretran

sform

edby

feeling.T

hisdoes

nothappen

ina

vacuum,

butam

idstthe

activityof

allthe

psychicprocesses

thatcontinually

operatein

oursphere

ofexperience—

indeed,am

idstthe

entireacquired

nexusof

psychiclife

which

influencesspontaneous

creativity.Im

agesand

theirconnections

doindeed

transcendthe

comm

onexperiences

oflife.

But

what

thusarises

stillrepresents

theseexperiences,

teachesus

tounderstand

themm

oredeeply,

andenables

usto

drawthem

closerto

ourhearts.

This

follows

directlyfrom

ourearlier

discussionsin

which

thesubstratutn

o[poetic

creativityw

assought

inthe

processesthat

developour

sphereof

experience.T

hepoet

sharesthis

substratumof

hiscreativity

with

thephilosopher

orthe

statesman.

Forall

ofthem

theexperience

ofw

hatis

human

isthe

foundation;general.

izationsand

inferencesare

appliedto

developthis

experiencefu

rther.

Anatural

relationshipbetw

eena

powerful

intellectand

life-experiences

must

alsohave

existedin

everygreat

poet.H

em

usthave

formed

hischaracters,

plot,form

,and

techniquefrom

representations

oflife.

This

cannotbe

emphasized

stronglyenough

inopposition

toall

modes

ofaestheticism

which

striveto

separatebeauty

fromthe

experienceoflife. Even

Schiller—although

hefound

himself

onthis

precipitouspath—

expressedthe

wish

thataesthetics

might

substitutethe

conceptof

truthfor

thatof

beauty.W

iththe

participationof

thew

ill,the

metam

orphosisof

representations

attainsits

artisticapplication

anda

literaryw

orkarises

frominw

ardlynurtured

images.

Only

when

thew

illincorporates

itselaboration

ofthe

experienceof

lifeinto

theseim

agescan

itgive

theliterary

work

am

eaning-contentthat

furnisheslasting

satisfaction.

Only

tothe

degreethat

thew

orksucceeds

inform

inglived

experienceso

thatit

containsm

anyexperiences

inthe

most

intensified

formcan

itattract

theattention

ofa

reflectiveperson

experienced

inthe

world

andsatisfy

him.

‘What

ispresented

isat

thesam

etim

esupposed

tom

ovethe

mind

ofthe

readeror

listener.

rT

HE

TY

PIC

AL

INP

OE

TR

Y

SE

CT

ION

TH

RE

Ex8y

PO

ET

ICS

This

cannotbe

accomplished

throughm

ereparticulars.

Otto

Lud

wig

fullyfelt

thedesire

forparticular

matters

offact

andreality;

186nevertheless,

hew

asforced

torealize

thatsingularity

assuch

isnot

what

moves

us.For,

assuch,

itis

stillm

ixedw

ithtraits

thatthe

readeror

listenercannot

re-createw

ithoutoffense

andw

hichare,

therefore,repulsive.

Ifrealism

isto

stirour

hearts,it

must

work

throughgeneralization,exclusion

ofwhatis

accidental,andthrough

emphasis

onw

hatis

essentialand

meaningful

forthe

feelingof

life.T

henthe

mind

andheart

ofthe

readerw

illaccept

theim

agespro

ducedby

realismbecause

hew

illfeel

hisow

nheartbeat

more

fully,because

thevery

stuffof

hisow

nbeing

isencom

passedby

theseim

ages,and

everythingis

excludedthat,

asparticular,

couldbe

strangeto

him.

Thus,

thew

orksof

thepoet

alsopossess

universalvalidity

andnecessity.

But

herethese

featuresdo

notsignify

what

theydo

inthe

propositionsof

science.“U

niversalvalidity”

signifiesthat

everyheart

with

feelingscan

re-createand

appreciatethe

work

inques

tion.T

hatw

hichis

selectedfrom

ourlife

andtaken

togetheras

beingnecessary

forthe

nexusof

lifeas

such,w

ecall

“essential.”“N

ecessity”signifies

thatthe

nexusexisting

ina

work

ofliterature

isas

compelling

forthe

spectatoras

forthe

creativeartist.

When

theserequirem

entsare

satisfied,thenthe

realmanifests

theessential.

We

designatethose

essentialaspects

ofreality

highlightedin

thisw

ayas

the“typical.”

Thinking

producesconcepts,

artisticcreativity

producestypes.

These

typesem

bodyfirst

ofall

anintensification

ofw

hatis

experienced,but

notin

thedirection

ofem

ptyideality.

Rather,

theyrepresent

multiplicity

inan

image

whose

powerful

andclear

structurem

akesintelligible

them

eaningof

ourordinary,

un

focusedexperiences

oflife.

Ina

poeticw

orkeverything

istypical.

The

charactersare

typical;w

hatis

essentialin

theirstructure—

thelaw

oftheir

development,

asit

were—

ishighlighted.

They

ared

isplayed

forcefully(even

where

weaknesses

areshow

n)and

with

abrilliance

which

extendsto

everyexpression,

asif no

onehad

reallyunderstood

thesepeople

before.T

hepassions

arealso

typical;the

innernexus

ofthe

phasesin

which

apassion

runsits

coursein

ahum

anbeing

andconsum

eshim

isrid

ofparticularity

inpoetry

andm

anifestsitself

asstem

ming

fromthe

innermost

lawof

thefeelings.

Consequently,

what

isessential

andm

ajesticis

feltin

passionas

anexpansion

ofthe

psycheand

canbe

completely

re-createdand

expedenced

bythe

viewer

orlistener.

The

nexusof

theaction,

bothin

itselfand

inits

relationto

fate,is

alsotypical.

Everything

that187

disturbsthe

transparencyof

thecausal

chainis

removed

fromthe

plot.T

henecessary

linksin

thechain

arereduced

totheir

smallest

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

11

7

number

andsim

plestform

.Just

asthe

worldly

wisdom

ofa

(ableor

aproverb

expressesa

ruleby

which

eventsunfold

andare

interconnected,

literatureexpresses

with

thegreatest

power

andsim

plicitythe

properrelationship

ofthe

parts,connected

inthe

plotaccording

totheir

inherentlaw

.N

owhere

inreality

dow

efind

suchintensity

andthe

absenceof

what

isaccidental.

Here,

bycontrast,

what

isirrelevant

topoetic

typesis

excluded,and

everypart

ofthe

plotis

laidout

inits

highestreality

andpow

er.Even

them

odeof

representationis

typical,for

thebreath

thatkeeps

thehero,

hispassions,

andhis

fatealive

must

alsoanim

atethe

entirew

ork,including

itsrhythm

sand

images.

The

work

thusbecom

esan

individual.

Inthe

storyof

Lear,the

brutaldim

ensionsof

theage

leavetheir

mark

uponevery

figureand

everysentence;

andeven

Cordelia

belongsto

thatstock:

shew

illnot

submit.

Furthermore,

allliterature

issym

bolicsince

them

aterialand

goalof

poeticrepresentation

isalw

aysform

edby

livedexperience,

i.e.,either

something

innerthat

manifests

itselfthrough

something

outeror

anexternal

image

thatis

enlivenedby

something

inner.Its

basicform

isthe

poeticim

agew

hichdisplays

aninner

processin

asit.

uation,the

symbol.

Inthis

sense,the

symbolic

isthe

basicproperty

ofpoetry,which

isproper

toitby

virtueofits

subjectmatter.

Goethe

oncetold

Eckerm

ann,“A

livelyfeeling

forone’s

circumstances

andthe

capacityto

expressthem

,that

isw

hatm

akesa

poet.”Itis

evidentthat

theproblem

ofallpoetic

techniqueis

toproduce

something

typical.In

scientificinduction,

runningthrough

casesis

onlya

means

forpresenting

thenecessity

ofthe

causalnexus,

which

was

alreadyim

plicitin

thefirst

casebut

couldnot

beextracted

inits

purity.T

heunconscious

processof

typificationthat

hasalready

runits

coursein

thepoet’s

life-experiencebefore

hecom

esacross

hisparticular

subjectm

atter,allow

shim

tore-create

itsdead

facticity

ina

necessarysequence

ofm

oments

with

thehighest

degreeof

livelinessand

simplicity.

Here,

too,the

necessityconsists

ina

compelling

connectionthat

convincinglydraw

sthe

listeneror

readeralong

with

it,and

universalvalidity

consistsin

thew

ayin

which

thisnecessity

existsfor

everyone.T

hecharacters

actw

ithnecessity

when

thereader

orview

erfeels

thathe,

too,w

ouldact

inthat

way.

Necessin’

thusdoes

notco

ntradict

theim

pressionof

freedom.

Shakespeareenhances

thisim

pressionin

agenuinely

Protestantm

annerin

thatevenhis

villainsrecognize

thedem

andsof

them

orallaw

asthey

voluntarilyand

knowingly

violateit.

This

necessityis

thusin

accordw

ithfreedom

.Every

trueand

greatw

orkof

literatureallow

sus

tofeel

bothSi

multaneously.

We

recaptureand

re-createin

ourselvesa

complex

rI1

88

uS

PO

ET

ICS

ofm

entaland

emotional

statesw

hichare

producedone

bythe

otherin

sequenceand

inw

hichthe

thrustof

aconsistentpassion

extendsthrough

thew

hole.B

utthis

mode

ofefficacy

istotally

differentfrom

thew

ayin

which

premises

compel

usto

drawa

conclusion.T

hereflexive

awareness

ofthis

otherw

ayof

connectingterm

sis

thefact

which

we

callfreedom

.E

xternallythis

ispresented

inthe

monologue

inw

hicha

decisionis

beingprepared.

No

onehas

more

persistentlystruggled

toexpress

thiscoexistence

ofnecessity

andfreedom

ina

tragedythan

thenoble

Schillerin

hisW

allenstein—here,

too,he

was

Kant’s

bestdisciple.

The

categoryof

theessential,

likethose

ofsubstance

andcause,

istransferred

frominner

toouter

experience,and

designatesfirst

ofall

thecom

plexof

traitsin

which

ourinner

lifeapprehends

them

eaningof

anobject.

On

thebasis

ofhis

feelings,the

poetthus

bringsforth

what

isessential

inthe

singularor

typical.H

owthe

poetcan

excludethe

frequentlyirregular

traitsof

realityis

preciselythe

major

problemthat

canonly

bedealt

with

bystarting

with

thenature

ofhum

anlife

andits

psychologicalanalysis.

We

canthen

beginto

answer

questionsabout

thetypes

ofhum

anbeings,

thenum

berof

poeticm

otifs,the

basicform

sthat

linkthe

components

ofa

plot,etc.,

which

techniquecould

previouslydeal

with

onlyexternally.

SE

CT

ION

FO

UR

PRO

SPEC

TS

FOR

AT

HE

OR

YO

FPO

ET

ICT

EC

HN

IQU

ET

OB

ED

ER

IVE

DFR

OM

TH

ESE

PSYC

HO

LO

GIC

AL

FO

UN

DA

TIO

NS

UN

IVE

RS

AL

VA

LID

ITY

AN

DH

IST

OR

ICA

LL

IMIT

AT

ION

So

rP

OE

TIC

TE

CH

NIQ

UE

We

haveanalyzed

thepoetic

processand

derivedthe

principlesthat

followfrom

thenature

ofthis

processw

ithuniversal

validity.Their

number

isindeterm

inate.T

heexpression

“principle”(w

hichw

echose,

following

Fechner)can

alsobe

replacedby

thedesignation

“norm,”

“rule,”or

“law,”

becausethe

occurrenceof

theaesthetic

impression

isbound

bythe

lawful

relationexpressed

ina

principle.Since

contemporary

psychology—to

theextent

thatit

canbe

legitim

ated—involves

empirical

gatheringof

data,description,

comparison,

andpartial

causalconnection,

onecannot

yethopefor

thederivation

ofa

limited

number

ofw

ell-definedaesthetic

tenets.T

hesituation

isthe

same

inthe

relatedfields

oflogical,

ethical,legal,

andpedagogical

norms,

althoughlogical

norms

arem

oreaccessible

tothe

intellect.Still

lessis

itpossible

toobtain

thesenorm

sor

principlescom

pletelythrough

Fechner’sm

ethodofabstracting

fromartw

orksand

theirim

pressions.Even

ifw

eadm

itthat

some

ofthe

difficultyin

discoveringthese

principlesis

afunction

ofthe

presentim

perfectstate

ofpsychology,

thefurther

questionarises

whether

acom

pletetechnical

theoryof

poetry,w

hichw

ouldidentify

theconstituentS

ofpoetry,

therules

ofcom

biningthem

,and

decidethe

answers

toquestions

ofinterest

toboth

poetsand

thepublic,

couldbe

establishedon

thebasis

ofthese

principles.T

oansw

erthis

question

affirmatively,

theprinciples

forsolving

theproblem

we

posedat

thebeginning

would

eitherneed

tobe

alreadyavailable

inthçir

totalityor

readyto

becom

piledby

some

futurepsychology.

Here

we

confrontthe

most

fundamental

questionfacing

allh

istorical

lifein

general.Pedagogy

andethics,

aestheticsand

logic,are

allsearching

forprinciples

ornorm

scapable

ofregulating

lifein

anadequate

way.

These

disciplinesstrive

toderive

themfrom

thefacts

pervadingthe

historyofhum

anity.Butthe

unfathomable

mu

ltiplicity

andsingularity

ofhistorical

phenomena

make

am

ockery

1r

189

11

0P

OE

TIC

S

ofevery

attempt

toderive

suchrules,

exceptin

theone

fieldof

logic.For

inthe

latter,thought

istransparent

toitself

andis

clearthrough

andthrough.

On

theother

hand,w

ehave

alreadyco

ncluded

thatthere

aregenerally

validnorm

sw

hichlie

at

thebasis

ofall

creativityand

allaesthetic

impressions.

Happily

we

canthus

dismiss

theapproach

ofthe

Historical

School,w

hichattem

ptedonly

tobe

descriptiveand

repudiatedintellectual

guidanceby

scientific

principles.For

lifecategorically

demands

thatthought

guideit.

If suchguidance

cannotbe

producedby

way

ofm

etaphysics,life

will

seekanother

fixedpoint.

Ifwe

cannotseek

it,as

theoutm

odedpoetic

techniquedid,

inthe

paradigms

ofa

classicalperiod,

thenthe

onlyalternative

isto

investigatethe

depthsof

human

natureitself

andthe

nexusof

historicallife.

Here,

infact,

suchuniversally

io

validnorm

shave

beendiscovered.

Sincethe

natureof

thepoetic

processis

transparent,w

eare

ableto

describethe

processof

creativity

andderive

itsnorm

shere

with

agreater

claritythan

hasbeen

possiblein

anyother

field(excluding

logic).T

heextraordinary

significanceof

poetics,and

ofaesthetics

ingeneral,

forthe

studyof

allhistorical

phenomena

isthus

confirmed.

This

significancederives

fromthe

factthat

theconditions

(ora

causalexplanation

arem

orefavorable

here,and

thattherefore

them

ajorquestions

ofprinciple

canfirst be

decidedhere.B

ut theabove

analysisperm

itsus

totake

afurther

step.T

herelation

ofthe

his

toricalm

ultiplicityof

poeticw

orksto

universalprinciples—

theproblem

ofhow

historicityand

universalvalidity

coexistin

poetictechnique—

canbe

clarifiedup

toa

certainpoint.

CH

AP

TE

RO

NE

.P

OE

TIC

CR

EA

TIV

ITY

AN

DA

ES

TH

ET

ICIM

PRE

SsION

Aesthetics,

andw

ithinit

poetics,can

beconstructed

froma

dualperspective.

The

beautifulcan

betaken

eitheras

aestheticpleasure

or

asartistic

production.T

hecapacity

forthis

pleasureis

called“taste”

andfor

thisproductivity

“imagination.”

Ifaesthetics

beginsw

iththe

studyof

aestheticim

pressions(as

inthe

schoolsof

Fechnerand

Herbart),

itseem

snecessarily

tobecom

esom

ethingdifferent

thanw

henit

beginsw

iththe

analysisof

creativity,as

inour

study.U

ntilnow

thefirst

approach,m

orefruitful

fortechnical

considerations,

hasconsistently

predominated.

When

we

posethe

questionof

atheory

oftechnique,

itis

firstof

allnecessary

todeterm

inethe

relationshipof

thesetw

oapproaches

within

sucha

theory.

fl-IFIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

Ill

This

dualperspective

existsin

allsystem

sof

culture9’For

itoriginates

fromthe

relationshipbetw

eencreation

andappropriation

which

occursin

historicallife.T

hus,thediscovery

andthe

evidentialcorroboration

oflogical

relationshipssupplem

enteach

other,as

dothe

moral

incentiveof

theagent

andthe

judgment

ofthe

observer,the

innerstriving

ofthe

personto

improve

himself

andthe

demands

thatsocietym

akeson

personaldevelopm

ent,productivity,and

con

sumption.

One

kindof

aestheticianproceeds

fromthe

outsideto

theinside.

He

examines

theaesthetic

impression

toinfer

theartist’s

intentionto

evokeit,

andfrom

this,in

turn,the

originof

atechnique

thatdeterm

inesthe

impression.

Inthis

heresem

blesthe

ethicaltheorist

who

derivesthe

originof

them

orallaw

fromthe

judgment

ofan

impartial

observer.T

heother

sortof

aestheticianproceeds

fromthe

insideto

theoutside.

He

locatesthe

sourceof

rulesin

man’s

creativecapacity.

To

beconsistent,

hem

ustregard

theaes

theticim

pressionas

afaint

copyof

thecreative

process.H

owdo

we

resolvethis

controversy?T

herelation

between

feelingand

image,

between

meaning

andappearance,

doesnot

originateeither

inthe

tasteof

thelistener

orin

theim

aginationof

theartist.

Rather,

item

ergesin

thelife

ofthe

human

mind,

which

expressesits

contentin

gesturesand

sound,transposes

thepow

erof

itsim

pulsesto

abeloved

formor

tonature,

andenjoys

theintensification

ofits

existencein

images

ofthe

con

ditionsthat

producedit.

Insuch

mom

entsbeauty

ispresent

inlife

itself,existence

becomes

acelebration,

andreality

becomes

poetry.B

othtaste

andim

aginationreceive

elementary

contentsand

relations

fromthis

realityof

beautyin

lifeitself.

Therelations

established

herebetw

eenfeeling

andim

age,m

eaningand

appearance,inner

andouter,

canbe

freelyem

ployedto

producem

usicin

thedom

ainof

auralrepresentations,

andarabesques,

ornamentation,

decoration,and

architecturein

thedom

ainof

visualrepresentations.

But

when

employed

accordingto

thelaw

ofim

itation,poetryarises

Inthe

firstdom

ainand

sculptureand

paintingin

thesecond.

One

andthe

same

human

naturegenerates

bothartistic

creationand

tastethat

re-experiencesfeelings—

botharise

fromthe

same

laws

andcorrespond

toone

another.T

obe

sure,this

processw

orksm

uchm

orepow

erfullyin

thecreator

thanin

thespectator;

more

over,in

thecreator

itis

alsoguided

bythe

will;

butits

constituentsare

predominantly

thesam

e.

‘For

Dilcheys

accountof

culturalsystem

s,see

i,,troductionto

theH

u,,ia,,S

ciences,

Book

Iin

SW,

vol.r.

r191

ILL

PO

ET

ICS

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

12.3

Itw

illsuffice

hereto

developand

groundthis

thesism

orefully

within

thedom

ainof

poetry.The

processin

which

Iappropriate

atragedy

oran

epicis

extended

andextraordinarily

composite.

Itis

anaggregate

ofall

theaesthetic

constituentsthat

we

surveyed.The

feelingsthat

arecom

binedin

itderive

fromall

thespheres

offeeling.

Thisaggregate

ofstates

involvesfeelings

ofdispleasure

asw

ellas

ofsatisfaction

andpleasure.

Thisis

anecessary

featureof

everyaesthetic

composition

ofgreater

scope,for

asequence

ofpurely

pleasurableim

pressionssoon

becomes

boring.Since

poetrydepicts

life,an

impoverished

191

anddiluted

versionof

itresults

ifone

excludespain,

them

ajordriving

forceof

lifeand

thew

ill.N

evertheless,pleasure

must

pre

dominate

within

theaggregate,

andthe

listeneror

readerm

ustfinally

beled

froma

painfulstim

ulusto

astate

ofequilibrium

orpleasure.

All

theenergies

ofa

fullhum

anbeing

must

besatisfied.

Our

sensesshould

befilled

with

theaffective

contentof

sensationsand

with

them

oodsw

hicharise

fromtheir

relations.O

urhigher

feelingsm

ustfind

themselves

powerfully

expandedthrough

thesig

nificanceof

theirobject and

beresolved

harmoniously.

Further, ourreflective

contemplation

oughtto

betotally

occupiedand

engagedby

theuniversal

validityand

necessityof

theobject,

itsrelations

tothe

overallacquired

nexusof

psychiclife,

andthe

consequentin

finityof

thehorizon

which

surroundsthe

significantobject.

Only

thenw

illw

efind

thew

orkadequate

andw

illall

ourneeds

besilenced.

Thegreat,

classicalartists

arethose

who

producea

lastingand

totalsatisfaction

inpeople

fromthe

most

diverseepochs

andnations.

Inother

cases,w

efind

something

missing—

beit

sensuouscharm

,the

power

offeeling,

ordepth

ofthought.

How

ever,the

impression

ofa

poeticw

ork,although

itis

highlycom

posite, doeshave

adeterm

inatestructure,

which

isconditioned

bythe

essenceand

means

ofliterature.

Literature

arisesas

alived

experienceand

isexpressed

inw

ords,i.e.,

ina

temporal

sequence.This

processis

accompanied

bym

uchagitation

andit

alsoevokes

sucha

responsein

thelistener. The

listener’sim

aginationre-creates

theother’s

livedexperience

fromhis

words

andis

similarly

stirred,although

lessintensely.

Thew

ordsproject

anintuitable

whole

inan

airyand

transparentm

edium,

asit

were.

Inthis

whole,

whose

constituentsw

orktogether

toproduce

anim

pression,the

pleasurable

predominates.

Evenw

hatis

painfulis

inthe

courseof

time

transformed

intoa

stateof

equilibriumor

satisfaction,just

asw

ew

ouldw

ishit

inlife

itself.The

proportionof

pleasurableand

displeasurable

constituentsis

afunction

ofthe

fundamental

structure

ofthe

creativeprocess.

Consequently,

apoetic

impression

isnot

askillfully

arrangedaggregate

ofpleasurableconstituents,

butrather

hasits

necessaryform

.Sim

ilarly,w

ecannot

derivethe

processin

eitherthe

poetor

thelistener

fromthe

taskof

unitingas

many

pleasurableor

satisfyingconstituents

aspossible.

Our

directexperience

doesindeed

encounter

onlyprocesses

andhow

oneprocess

producesanother;

butw

ecannot

denyfacts

ofpsychic

lifethat

arenot

asyet

explicableon

thebasis

ofdirect

experience.We

havea

needfor

strongstim

uliw

hichincrease

ourenergy.

Peopleappear

tobe

insatiablein

theirdesire

toexplore

theinner

lifeof

otherpeople

ornations,

toap

prehendcharacters

byre-experiencing,

toshare

sufferingand

joy,and

tolisten

tostories—

whether

theym

erelycould

havehappened

orw

hetherthey

areactual

historiesof

thepast

orpresent.

Thisinner

impulse

ischaracteristic

ofprim

itivepeoples

asw

ellas

con

temporary

Europeans.

Itprovidesthe

elementary

basisfor

thew

orkof

thepoets,

thehistorian

andbiographer

asw

ellas

forthe

enjoym

entof

theirlisteners

andreaders.

And

sinceany

greatnessin

ournature

alsohas

itsattendant

weakness,

thesam

eim

pulsealso

accounts

forthe

perniciouspopularity

ofpulp

novels.Just

asin

Hauff’s

parody,”the

admirer

ofC

laurentonreads

adescription

ofa

champagne

breakfastw

hilehim

selfbreakfasting

onplain

bread,so,

too,m

anypeople

addspice

tothe

thinrepast

oftheir

livesw

iththe

powerful

emotions

cheaplyobtainable

fromthe

lendingLibrary.

Evenw

hatishorrible

becomes

asource

ofpleasureto

crudepeople,

througha

loathsome

traitof

human

natureby

which

thesecurity

ofone’sow

nw

armhearth

isincreased

anddoubled

when

compared

with

thedanger

andpain

ofothers.

Thereis

something

irrationalin

allthis,

which

cannotbe

reasonedaw

ayfrom

ournature.

We

are,after

all,not

machines

thatseek

uniformly

toproduce

pleasureand

excludepain,

tow

eighthe

respectivevalues

ofour

pleasures,and

inthis

way

toprogram

ourvolitional

impulses

toattain

thegreatestpossible

quantityofpleasure.

Forsuch

aperson

lifew

ould,of

course,becom

erational,a

mere

problemin

calculation.B

utthatis

notw

hatlife

islike.

Indeed,the

irrationalityof

thehum

anchar

aaercan

beseen

inevery

heroichum

anbeing,

inevery

genuinetragedy,

andin

criminals

ofall

kinds.O

ureveryday

experienceshow

sus

thesam

ething.

We

donot

tryto

avoidpain,

butrather

broodinglyand

misanthropically

imm

erseourselves

init.

When

we

‘93

Wilhelm

Hauff,

1801-1

7.

The

piecein

questionis

Der

Mann

EmM

ond(r8

z),

Hcpnrjch

Clauren,

nomde

plume

ofauthor

Carl

Heur,

(177

i-i

854).

12

4P

OE

TIC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T12.5

riskour

happiness,health,

andlife

togratify

feelingsof

antipathy,irrespective

ofconsiderations

ofpleasure,

we

aredriven

bydark

impulses.

And

thisneed

ofhum

annature

forpow

erfulstim

uli,even

when

mixed

with

strongpains,

which

cannotbe

reducedto

some

mechanism

form

aximizing

pleasure,also

operatesin

thecom

position

ofa

powerful

poeticim

pression.In

thelatter,

theexpansion

ofthe

psycheevoked

bythe

greatnessof

thosew

hosuffer

must

compensate

forthe

painfulstim

ulusand

bringabout

asatisfying

finalstate.

Ina

tragedy,therefore,

painand

deathserve

onlyto

disclosethe

greatnessof

thehum

anpsyche.

All

ofthis

canonly

come

aboutw

henfrom

them

ostnim

ble,194

ethereal,and

transparentaural

materials,

andthe

representationsconnected

with

them, a

nexusofim

agesis

formed

inthe

imagination

ofthe

spectator.T

hegreat

ruleof

poetryis,

thus,to

activatethe

imagination

ina

certainintended

direction.T

henexus

ofim

agesthat

resultsm

ust,how

ever,also

beplausible

inits

sensorypresence.

Foronly

where

we

believein

thereality

ofthis

nexusof

images

dow

ehave

alived

experience.T

hiscom

positepoetic

impression

must

nowbe

compared

with

thecreative

work

asw

ehave

analyzedit.T

hefollow

ingrelationship

results.T

heprim

aryprocess

isthat

ofcreation.

Poetryarose

fromthe

urgeto

expresslived

experience,not

fromthe

needto

make

possiblea

poeticim

pression.W

hateveris

formed

fromfeeling

excites

feelingagain,

anddoes

soin

thesam

em

anner,though

with

diminished

force.T

hus,the

processin

thepoet

isakin

tothat

inhis

listeneror

reader.T

heconjunction

ofindividual

psychicp

roc

essesin

which

aw

orkof

poetryis

bornis

similar

inits

constituentsand

structureto

thatw

hichis

thenevoked

inthe

listeneror

reader.A

ccordingto

Voltaire,

whoever

wants

tojudge

apoem

must

havestrong

feelingsand

heborn

with

some

ofthe

sparksof

thefire

thatinspired

thepoet

whose

critiche

wants

tobe.

Inboth,

thesam

enexus

ofim

ageelem

entsevokes

thesam

enexus

offeelings.

The

relationbetw

eenvisual

imagery,

conceptualuniversals,

andstim

uluscontent

determines

thestructure

throughw

hichthe

constituents

areconnected

inboth

cases.Y

etthe

differencesbetw

eencrea

tivityand

receptivity’are

equallyunm

istakable.T

hepoetic

creativeprocess

ism

uchm

orecom

posite,its

constituentsm

orepow

erful,the

participationof

thew

illstronger,

andit

takesa

much

longertim

ethan

readingor

listeningto

thecom

pletedw

ork.O

neconsequence

ofthe

aboveis

thatpoetic

techniquehas

two

sidesto

it.Itincludes

theoperation

ofboth

aninvoluntary, incessant

formative

processand, sim

ultaneously,a

calculationofthe

aesthetic

impression

andof

them

eansto

produceit.

Both

canbe

unitedin

thepoet.

This

isbecause

anyrational

techniqueaim

edat

evokinga

certainpoetic

impression

muststrive

forthe

same

metam

orphosisof

images,

which

beginsw

ithinvoluntary

andnot

completely

con

sciousform

ativeprocesses.

Itcan

therebycalculate

andfocus

theeffects

more

clearlyand

precisely.A

ccordingly,in

thosepoets

who

were

athom

eon

thestage,

suchas

theG

reektragedians,

Shake

speare,or

Moliere,

acalculating

intellectis

inseparablybound

upw

ithinvoluntary

creativity.T

hefollow

ingtechnical

lawresults:

thein

tentio

nthat

calculatesthe

means

toattain

anim

pressionm

ustdisappear

behindthe

illusionof

completely

involuntaryform

ationand

freereality.

The

artisticintellectis

always

atwork

insuch

greatd

ramatists

asS

hak

espeare

and

Moliere,

butthey

hideit

asm

uchas

possib

le.T

heir

wo

nd

erful

theatrical

effectsrest

up

on

thistotal

interpenetrationofthe

theatricaland

thepoetic. In

contrast,Goethe

soughtan

appropriateform

forevery

newproblem

.W

hilehe

was

inItaly,

hecensured

himself

forthis

tendencytow

arddilettantism

.F

urth

ermore,

hew

asunable

todevelop

thenew

forms

which

hehad

createdto

fullycorrespond

tohis

astoundingpoetic

intention:this

istrue

forboth

Faustand

Wilhelm

Meister.

Yet

hispoetic

formative

imagination

emerged

allthe

more

purelyand

powerfully.

Schiflercorrectly

describedG

oethe’sm

ethod:

Your

own

way

ofalternating

between

reflectionand

production

isreally

enviableand

admirable.

These

operationsare

completely

separatein

you,and

thatis

thereason

thatthey

canboth

beexecuted

sopurely

asoperations.

As

longas

youproduce

orw

orkyou

arereally

inthe

dark;the

lightis

inyou

alone;w

henyou

beginto

reflect,the

innerlight

beginsto

emerge

fromyou

andillum

inatesthe

objects,yourself

andothersi0

Acco

rdin

gly

,the

theoryof

techniquem

ustproceed

fromthese

two

psychicprocesses

andtheir

interactionin

thepoet.

Apoetics

which

beginsw

iththe

impression

makes

literaturem

oreor

lessinto

thew

orkof

theintellect

which

calculateseffects.

That

isw

hathappened

with

thepoetics

dependenton

Aristotle.

On

theother

hand,if

un

con

sciou

screatio

nap

pears

asthe

sourceof

poeticform

,then

rules,acquiredinsights,and

rationalanalysis

arespurned.T

hatis

what

happenedduring

thesecond

phaseof

ourR

omantic

period,

‘95

Schillerto

Goethe,

aJanuary

1798,

inB

riefwechsel

Schiller-Coethe.

thatof

Arnim

andB

rentano.’Let

ushope

thatpoetics

will

openboth

portalsof

itsexperience

asw

idelyas

possibleso

thatno

kindof

factorapproach

isexcluded. W

henpoetics

investigatesaesthetic

impressions,

itenjoys

theadvantage

ofbeing

ableto

producein

tentionalchanges

inthese

impressions

bychanging

theobject

andbeing

abLeto

analyzethe

complex

ofprocesses

intoits

constituents.T

hisrenders

possibleexperim

entalaesthetics

asit

isnow

beingdeveloped

byFechner.

On

theother

hand,w

henpoetics

proceedsfrom

creation,the

rightm

aterialof

literaryhistory

canfinally

beutilized.

Countless

philologistsand

literaryhistorians

work

un

ceasinglyto

make

thew

orksof

poetsusable

andintelligible.

What

we

nowneed

isa

newpoetics

which

doesnot

want

tolegislate

toliterature

asB

oileaudid,

butw

hichinstead

strivesto

explainand

196

encompass—

throughcom

parativestudies—

allliterary

phenomena

beginningw

iththe

primary

seedsof

poetryin

theexpressions

ofprim

itivepeople.

Then

empirical

literaryhistory

andcom

parativestudy

will

beused

ina

healthyreciprocal

manner

toclarify

thenature

ofcreation,

toproject

itsunchanging

norms,

toshow

thehistoricity

oftechnique,

andthus

tocom

prehendthe

pastand

showthe

futurethe

way.

Apoetics

arisingfrom

suchcooperation

will

createthe

means

forliterary

historyto

providea

much

more

subtlecharacterization

ofpoets.

Perhapsthen

theoverabundance

ofp

ersonal

gossipin

which

literaryhistory

iscurrently

wallow

ingw

illdisappear.

The

resultof

thesepsychological

discussionscan

againbe

pre

sentedin

principlesor

rules.If

we

considerthe

laws

ofm

etamor

phosisin

isolation,then

thereis,

correspondingto

theprocess

ofintensification

ordim

inution,a

principleof

thediffering

emphasis

onconstituents

relativeto

theirim

portancefor

thew

holeand

tothe

highestenergy

ofthe

dominant

constituentsam

ongthem

.T

helaw

ofexclusion

hascorresponding

toit

aprinciple

ofthe

greatestpossible

approximation

topure

satisfactionthrough

theexclusion

ofw

hatevercontradicts

suchan

effect.T

helaw

ofcom

pletionhas

correspondingto

itthe

principleof

thearticulation

ofw

hatis

essential

andm

eaningfulaccording

tothe

relationbetw

eena

stateof

feelingand

anim

age.Further,

ifw

efocus

onthe

achievements

ofthese

principlesrelative

totheir

tasks,then

two

supplementary

prin

ciplesem

erge.Plausibility

andillusion

constitutethe

necessaryco

nditions

underw

hichthe

poetcan

carryout

histask.

They

thus

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

127

designatethe

limits

byw

hichhis

creativew

orkis

bound.A

estheticfreedom

,w

hichproduces

agratifying

realmof

forms

andactions

separatedfrom

thepurposive

actionsof

life,operates

within

theselim

itsand

accordingto

theselaw

s.T

hepoet

isindeed

determined

bythe

acquirednexus

ofpsychiclife

andby

thelaw

s,valuerelations,

andpurposes

ofreality

containedin

thisnexus.

He

isbound

bythem

ifhe

isto

satisfyhis

readeror

listener.B

uthe

isnot

requiredto

make

hisim

agescorrespond

toreality.

Schleiermacher

basedhis

aestheticsupon

thisprinciple

ofaesthetic

freedom.

“Itbelongs

tothe

natureof

spiritthat

we

takethose

activitiesw

hichare

deter

mined

fromw

ithoutand

which

accordinglyrepresent

something

externallygiven,

andliberate

theseactivities

fromthis

attachment

andelevate

themto

anindependent

presentation.T

hisis

what

artdoes.”Toj

When

overemphasized,

thisprinciple

groundsthe

glorification

ofthe

imagination

inthe

Rom

anticaesthetics

ofL

udwig

•Tieck’°4

andhis

contemporaries.W

henw

efinally

considerthe

orderof

theconstituents

thatare

involvedin

thecom

mon

structureof

poeticcreativity

andpoetic

receptivity,w

ecan

formulate

therules

forpoetic

works

ofa

largerscope—

especiallythose

developedfor

drama.

The

effectof

anindividual

constituentpart

must

bepro

portionateto

thescope

ofthew

holew

ork.Thus

theplotofa

tragedym

ustconvey

theim

pressionof

importance

andm

agnitude,and

acom

icalthem

em

ustbe

treateddifferently

ina

comedy

thanin

ahum

orm

agazineor

ina

jokeam

ongfriends.

Further,the

constituents

must

producea

self-containedand

strictunity.

One

appli

•cation

ofthis

isthe

famous

ruleof

theunity

ofdram

aticaction.

Finally,the

constituentparts

must

beso

orderedthat

theireffect

will

continueto

intensifyup

tothe

conclusionof

thew

ork.bos

CH

AP

TE

RT

wo.

THE

POET’S

TECH

NIQ

UE

Psychologyhas

dominated

ourprevious

discussions.N

owthat

we

haveobtained

afoundation

forpoetics,

ourm

ethodchanges

anda

literary-historicalem

piricalapproach

will

guideus.

Inaccord

with

•“;

Schleiermacher,

Varlesungen

itherdie

Asthetik.

editedby

Carl

Lom

matzsch,

inSäm

thcheW

erke,set.

,vol.7

(Berlin:

Reim

er,i841),

p.ii6

.fl)

104

‘773-1

853.

Tieck’s

novel,F

ranzSternbalds

Wandenm

ge,,,is

rhedefinitive

Germ

anK

iinsjkrro,nan.T

hesethree

principleshave

beendeveloped

byG

ustavFreytag

inhis

Technik

desD

rama

(Leipzig:S.

Hin

d,

1863),pp.

z4ff.,as

rulesof

drama

inconnection

with

theprinciple

ofprobability.

(fi)

ta6P

OE

TIC

S

I’r

‘97

Achim

vonA

rnim(1

783-1

831)

andC

lemens

Brentano

(1778-’841)

cooperatedto

editthe

folksongcollection,

Des

Knaben

Wunderhorn.

thespirit

ofm

odernscholarship,

itm

ustencom

passthe

entirefield

ofliterature

andseek

elementary

structures, especiallyin

theartistic

works

ofprim

itivepeoples.

This

empirical

literaryhistory

must

establishcausal

relationshipsam

ongthese

productionsand

forms,

andw

illfind

itnecessary

toutilize

adevelopm

ental-historicalap

proacheveryw

here.It

canthus

notrespect

thelim

itsof

previousliterary

history,but

ratherm

ustdraw

explanationsfrom

thew

idefield

ofhum

anculture

wherever

theycan

befound.

Literary

historym

ustsupplem

entthis

empirical

method

with

them

ethodof

“reciprocal

illumination,”

asS

cherer6called

it,and

thuselucidate

thetem

porallydistant

andobscure

throughthe

proximate

andthe

accessible.

This

empirical

literaryhistory

must

employ

comparison

toarrive

atgeneralizations

andto

deriveuniform

ities.In

thisit

isalw

ayssupported

byw

hathas

beenlearned

throughthe

studyof

thepsychological

foundationsand

can,at

nopoint,

dispensew

ithpsychological

explanation.For

apoetics

without

apsychological

groundingem

ployspopular

anduntenable

conceptsand

theses,instead

ofscientific

anddem

onstrableones.

How

ever,from

nowon

psychologyw

illonly

havethe

roleof

anaccom

panyingvoice.

Sincethis

treatiseis

alreadyfar

toolong,

we

shalllim

itourselves

[92to

some

especiallyim

portantapplications

ofour

psychologicalfoundation.

To

besure,

thefruitfulness

ofthe

psychologicalap

proachcan

onlybecom

ecom

pletelyapparent

afterevery

singleproblem

which

empirical

literaryhistory

posesfor

poeticshas

beenconsidered

fromthe

psychologicalperspective

andis

solved.If

we

laterhave

theopportunity

toattem

ptthis,

thenw

ew

illnot

haveto

bearthe

burdenalone.

The

poeticsof

Scherer,w

how

illlong

berem

embered

forhis

fertileand

energeticm

ind,is

nowto

bep

ub

lishedfrom

hislectures.

The

way

heconnected

gramm

arw

ithp

oetics,

andthe

uniquem

annerin

which

hew

asable

toencom

passthe

histon’of

Germ

anicliterature—

which

issuch

aninstructive

sourcefor

theprim

arystructures

andform

sof

poetry—w

illcer

tainlyprovide

usw

ithinvaluable

assistance.H

owm

uchbetter

it

would

havebeen

hadw

ebeen

ableto

work

togetherw

ithhim

while

hew

asalive!

‘.O

uropposition

toprevious

poeticshas

become

increasinglyclear.

We

rejectedevery

universallyvalid

conceptof

beauty,but

we

Wilhelm

Scherer(1

84!

-86).H

isG

escl,ichteder

deutschenL

iteratur([8

80

-83

)

was

indebtedto

thespirit

olpositivism

,and

made

famous

thephrase

“Ererbtes,

Erlebtes

undE

rlerntes.’’

TH

EIM

AG

tNA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

12

.9

founda

productiveform

ativeprocess

inhum

annature.

As

thisprocess

proceedsfrom

thenucleus

oflived

experienceto

them

edium

oflanguage,

allpeoples

developthe

rhythmical

expressionsof

feelings,w

hichthe

psycheneeds

justas

much

asthe

bodyneeds

tobreathe.

Italso

bringsabout

thefree

presentationand

transform

ationof

thecontent

oflived

experience,and

vitalpersonal

actionin

aplot

thatm

ovesor

stirsthe

soul.T

hispoetic

creativity,already

differentiatedinto

variouskinds

atits

veryroot,

initiallyhas

itsstandard

anddistinguishing

characteristicin

thefact

thatthe

nexusof

images

producedsatisfies

thecreator

himself.

At

thesam

etim

e,how

ever,the

satisfactionof

thereader

orlistener

becomes

thegoal

ofthe

poetand

thestandard

ofhis

achievement.

His

work

firstbecom

espurposive

throughthe

latterand

generatesits

techniqueas

doesevery

otherpurposive

activity.By

“poetictechnique”

we

understandthat

creativityof

thepoet

thatis

consciousand

sureof

itsgoal

asw

ellas

ofits

means.

The

poet’stechnique

isatransform

ationofthe

contentoflivedexperience

intoan

illusoryw

holeexisting

merely

inthe

reader’sor

listener’srepresentations.

The

sensuousenergy

ofthisstru

cture

ofim

ageshas

apow

erfulfeeling-content,is

significantforthought,

andproduces

alasting

satisfactionw

iththe

aidof

otherlesser

means.

Itis

constitutiveof

theartist’s

characterthat

hisw

orkdoes

notintrude

intothe

purposivesystem

ofreal

lifeand

isnot

limited

byit.

The

comm

onm

angoes

throughlife

engagedin

theone

major

occupationof

gratifyinghis

needsor

pursuinghappiness.

Forhim

,every

objector

personrelates

tothis

taskof

hislife.

The

geniusyields

himself

toobjects

without

referenceto

utility,and,

accordingly,

doesthis

ina

trulydisinterested

manner.

Apprehension

assuch

ishis

concern.T

heoreticalintelligence

subordinatesits

representations

toreality,

andpractical

intelligencesets

theminto

anappropriate

purposiverelation

toreality.

Disinterestedness,

together

with

thedeep

reflectionstem

ming

fromit,

forw

hichevery

thingbecom

eslived

experience,and

which

hoversover

itsobjects

with

acalm

andcontem

plativeeye,

forms

am

oreideal

realitythat

evokesbelief

andsim

ultaneouslysatisfies

boththe

heartand

thehead:

theseare

thecharacteristics

ofthe

poet.T

heprocess

which

takesplace

inthe

listeneror

readercorre

spondsto

theone

indicatedabove.

The

nexusof

images,

which

emerges

inthe

imagination,

includespersons

andactions

which

arenot

relatedto

thoseof

reallife

byeither

causeor

effect.The

listener

jaS

P0

ET

tCS

r 1II

‘99

I

£3

0P

OE

TIC

S

isthus

liftedout

ofthe

sphereof

hisdirect

interests.A

rtis

play.T

heentire

effect which

it would

liketo

produceconsists

ofa

presentand

lastingsatisfaction.

The

factthat

thisplay

may

haveother

effectsm

ustnot

beallow

edto

obtrudeitself

onthe

consciousnessof

thelistener.

Sucha

satisfaction, however, is

boundto

theillusion

which

makes

imitation

alived

experienceof

reality.T

hebasis

ofall

genuineart

isthe

agreement

ofthe

productof

theim

aginationw

iththe

laws

andvalue

determinations

ofreality

containedin

theacquired

nexusof psychic

life, theprobability

andplausibility

stemm

ingfrom

them,

andthe

sensoryim

pactof

thew

ork.M

oderntechnique,

which

consistentlyand

capablystrives

toestablish

thisfoundation,

iscom

pletelyjustified

inits

oppositionto

so-caLledpoetry

ofideas

or illustrationsof

thoughts. Withoutthis

foundation,how

would

we

bem

ovedto

experiencethe

destiniesof

othersas

ourow

nand

what

isinvented

asreal?

Today’s

poetsforget

alltoo

oftenthat

theirobject

must

reallym

ovethe

heartand

thatits

the

oreticalrelations

must

bem

eaningful.N

oteworthy

consequencesfollow

fromthis

basicproperty

ofpo

eticappreciation.

The

processesdisplayed

inliterature

neverevoke

externalvolitional

actionson

ourpart.

One

hearsof

petsonsw

hohave

interruptedthe

performance

ofa

playin

orderto

castigatethe

villainor

torescue

theinnocent

victim.

This

presupposesan

errorabout

theactual

relationshipof

thepersons

who

areacting

tothose

depictedby

them.

No

matter

howdeeply

aprocess

may

affectus

asreality,

we

nevercease

tobe

consciousof

theillusion.

Further,in

relivingw

hatis

presentedin

thisw

ayw

eare

ableto

make

thetransition

fromone

stateto

anotherm

uchm

orequickly

thanin

reallife.

Ina

fewhours

we

foLlowthe

astonishingcontrasts

inthe

fateof

anovel’s

heroine.A

bloodthirstyplayw

rightcan

compress

ahalf

dozendeaths

intoa

singleevening

atthe

theater.T

hiscan

beexplained

bythe

factthatthese

eventsneither

bindour

thoughtsand

emotions

asfirm

ly,nor

excitethe

realrelations

ofour

existenceas

powerfully

asdo

theoccurrences

ofnatural

life.Sym

pathyw

ithanother’s

toothacheis

verydifferent from

atoothache

of one’sow

n;if

consciousnessof

theillusion

isadded,

thenthe

spectator’spain

andpkasure

aboutthe

other’sfate

doesindeed

become

more

pure,but

alsow

eaker.In

additionto

thepoet

andthe

publicthere

isa

thirdperson,

thecritic.

His

reactionis

thesam

eas

thatofan

ideallistener

orreader.

At

leastthat

isthe

way

itshould

be!H

owthen

doesit

happenthat

acritic

noticesan

imperfection

ina

character?T

hecritic

findsthat

acertain

settingof

apoem

producesthe

hero’saffective

state,and

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

131

thisin

turna

volitionalprocess.A

she

triesto

reproduceit,how

ever,a

quiet,inexorable

resistancesets

in.This

resistancestem

sfrom

thedepths

ofhis

acquiredpsychic

nexusw

hichin

thisrespectsurpasses

thatof

thepoet.

Or

howdoes

herecognize

what

isdefective

ina

resolution?B

ecausethe

peacefulreconciliation

ofhis

excitedfeel

ingsfails

tooccur.

Once

again,hisacquired

psychicnexus

producesinsights

intothe

relationsam

ongvalues

asw

ellas

among

purposesw

ithouthis

beingexplicitly

consciousof

them,

andthey

surpassthe

poet’sinsights.

It isnot

subsequentreflection,

butrather

intenselived

experiencethat

makes

agood

criticas

well

asa

goodpoet.

The

capacityto

make

aprofound

judgment about

apoet,

therefore,is

akinto

creativeability.

Lessing’sgreatness

asa

poetcannot

beexplained

bythe

factthat

hew

asour

greatestcritic.

Rather,

theenergy

ofhis

creativeability

andthe

acumen

ofhis

analyticalun

derstandingcom

binedto

make

himthe

greatestcritic,

andas

apoet

I.essingthen

utilizedthe

artisticdevices

thathad

become

apparentto

himas

acritic.

He

thusintensified

hiscreative

abilitythrough

conscioustechnique.

The

factthatsucha

transfo

rmatio

nof

livedexperience

ispossible

isbased

onthe

fact thatreality

offersthe

material

(namely,changing

situationsand

characters)in

which

acreative

mind

findsthe

means

toproduce

sucheffects,

evenif

unusablem

aterialis

mixed

inw

ithit.

According

toG

oetheand

Schelling,even

them

ostperfecthuman

bodyis

onlybeautiful

fora

transitorym

oment,

butit

isjust

thisthat

thevisual

artsim

mortalize.

Similarly,w

hatis

poeticallym

eaningful

appearsonly

seldomand

fleetingly,but

thepoet

noticesand

preservesit.

What

isuniversally

validfor

feelingis

neverfree

fromthe

interferenceof

chance.T

hefullness

oflife

isconstrained

bythe

limits

oftim

e,space,

andcausality.

The

poetm

ustcom

plete,ideal

ize,and

purifyon

thebasis

ofhis

powerful

senseof

Life.T

wo

passagesfrom

Schillerand

Goethe

corroboratethis

conception

ofpoetry.

Schillerdefines

thepoet

asfollow

s:“I

call‘poet’

anyonew

hois

capableof

projectinghis

stateof

feelingin

anobject

with

theconsequence

thatthis

objectcom

pelsm

eto

goover

intothat

stateof

feeling,i.e.,

affectsm

evitally.”

Ifthis

definitionis

thoughtto

betoo

narrowbecause

itdoes

notinclude

thepoet

who

beginsfrom

hisow

nsubjectivity,

we

cancite

Goethe’s

comprehen

siveclaim

:“Lively

feelingsofsituations,and

power

toexpress

them,

make

thepoet.”°’

Eckerm

ann,G

espräche,ix

Junei8

i;C

E,

p.159.

r

£01

T3Z

PO

ET

ICS

z.A

lso,the

way

inw

hichtechnique

isestablished

asa

nodeof

knowledge

must

bechanged

inm

odernpoetics.

As

much

asco

ntem

porarypoetics

owes

tothe

two

olderm

ethodsand

asforcefully

asw

eem

phasizedthis

inthe

previouschapter,

poeticsm

uststill

takea

decisivestep

inorder

tobecom

ea

modern

science.Poetics

must

recognizethe

productivefactors,

studytheir

effectsunder

varyingconditions,

andsolve

itspractical

problems

bym

eansof

thiscausal

knowledge.

Know

ledgeof technique

isbased

ona

causal approach,w

hichnot

onlydescribes

thecom

positionof

poeticproducts

andform

s,but

reallyexplains

them.

Fromthis

itderives

anin

de

terminate

tiumber

ofuniversally

validprinciples

ofthe

poeticeffect

andrepresents

themas

rulesor

norms.

Itshow

show

inthe

causalnexus

of processesaccording

tothe

laws

of psychiclife

andin

accordancew

ithpoetic

norms,

apoetic

techniqueem

ergesunder

theconditions

ofa

particularage

andpeople;

and,accordingly,

itshow

show

ithas

onlya

relativeand

his

toricalvalidity.

Poeticsthus

groundsliterary

historyand

findsits

completion

init.

Bygiving

ourow

nsense

toa

termcoined

byH

umboldt,

we

forma

conceptw

hichconnects

thecausal

approachof

contemporary

poeticsw

iththe

formanalysis

ofearlier

poetics.T

husw

ecall

thedistribution

ofchanges

which

occurin

livedexperiences

accordingto

thelaw

sw

ehave

described,i.e., the

restructuringof

constituents,em

ergingrelations

ofem

phasis,pow

erand

expansion,as

well

astransform

edrelationships,

“innerpoetic

form.”

This

innerform

issom

ethingunique

inevery

case.If

onerelates

individualw

orksthat

arealike

intogroups,

thenan

innerpoetic

formem

erges,w

hichis

comm

onto

anum

berof

them,

andthe

problemarises

ofexplaining

itfrom

comm

onconditions.

On

theother

hand,com

parisonyields

severalelem

entaryuniform

itiesw

hichrem

ainconstant

within

asphere

offeeling,

andthis

leadsto

thetask

ofinquiring

intothe

regularantecedents

ofsuch

auniform

ityon

thebasis

ofthe

simplest

attainablefacts

andthe

taskof

observingregularly

coexistingphe

nomena

andinvestigating

theirconnections.

The

poet’screative

processestransform

images

inthe

directionof

lastingsatisfaction, and

theelem

entsof

theim

agesthus

producedare

thebearers

ofpoetic

effectsupon

others.T

heseconstant

causesfrom

which

poeticeffects

originatehave

beenform

ulatedby

usas

principles.T

heycan

alsobe

transformed

intorules

ornorm

s.T

heirnum

beris

indeterminate

becauseevery

constantcause

ofpoetic

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

Po

ET

13

3

effectscan

beform

ulatedin

terms

ofsuch

aprinciple.

Inour

for

mulations

we

tookcare

toindicate

theplace

ofthose

principlesalready

developedin

traditionalaesthetics, especially

thehistorically

significantones.

Ifthe

endsand

means

ofthe

genresof

literaturecould

bederived

fromthe

combination

ofthese

rules,then

auniversally

validpoetic

techniquew

ouldarise.

How

ever,even

thedistinctions

among

thethree

kindsof

literaturecan

onlybe

exhibitedem

piricallyin

theoriginal

distinctionsthat

we

havebeen

ableto

findin

primitive

peoples.T

heexpressions

oflife

inw

hichlyric,

epic,and

dramatic

poetryfirst

appearhere

are,psychologicallyconsidered,

socom

plexand

theirpsychological

significanceis

stillso

uncertainthat

thereis, atthe

present,nohope

of attaininga

psychological interpretationfor

thesedistinctions.

Itw

ouldbe

inappropriateto

derivethese

literarygenres

constructivelyfrom

theessence,

end,and

means

ofliterature

ingeneral.

Although

many

aestheticianshave

defineddram

aas

ahigher

unityof

lyricand

epicpoetry,

am

ereglance

atthe

availableaccounts

ofprim

itivepeoples

shows

howm

uchthey

err.N

eithercan

thetechnique

ofparticular

genresof

literaturebe

derivedfrom

theirend

andm

eans.A

nyonecan

testthis

forhim

selfby

tryingto

determine

therelation

of theprinciples

of poeticim

pression

toone

another,or

byusing

themto

conceivethe

most

effectivepossible

selectionof

orderedim

pressions,or

byseeking

them

ostfavorable

possibleselection

among

thepossibilities

containedin

theindividual

mom

entsof

innerform

,m

ood,plot,

action,character,

etc.T

heresult

will

beto

confirmthe

indeterminateness

ofthe

prin

ciplesand

theim

possibilityofdelim

itingtheir

number,ofm

easuringtheir

relativevalue,

andof

obtaininga

finalordering

oftheir

innerrelations.

Auniversally

validpoetic

techniqueis

thusim

possible.ao

iT

hisis

corroboratedby

consideringthe

feww

orkson

thetechnique

ofparticular

genresof

literaturethat

exist.O

ttoL

udwig

usedhis

poeticinsight

andhis

perhapstoo

delicateaesthetic

sensitivityto

attempt

toabstract

auniversally

validdram

atictechnique

fromhis

intimate

studyof

Shakespeare.H

ew

asable

topenetrate

Shake

speare’stechnical

secretsm

oredeeply

thanany

previousS

hakespeare

scholar.H

eshow

edhow

finely,securely,

andconsistently

thetechnique

ofthis

greatestof

alldram

atistsw

asdeveloped.

One

canregard

hisbook

asan

indirect,but

veryingenious,

proofthat

Shakespearecreated

theextraordinarily

perfectform

ofclassical

Englishdram

aw

iththe

aidof

hissense

oftechnique.

But

Ludw

igdid

notfind

theuniversally

validtechnique

which

hesought

forthe

dramatists

ofhis

day,especially

forhis

own

use.W

hathe

hasset

rII

forthas

sucha

techniqueis

onlya

vagueideal

image

ofthehistorical

techniqueof

Shakespeare.T

hus,his

loveof

Shakespearew

asalso

fatedto

beunproductive.

Inhis

bookon

thetechnique

ofdrama,

Gustav

Freytagreaffirm

edthe

validityof

theform

ofa

closedplot w

hichhad

beenlost through

dramatic

abuses.D

ueto

thepenetrating

consistencyof

itsbasic

idea,Freytag’s

bookis

atrue

handbookof

dramatic

literatureand

critique.H

edevelops

therules

ofdram

afrom

therequirem

entsfor

them

osteffective

formof

action.Into

thebody

ofthe

actionor

plothe

thenretroactively

insertsthe

tragicsoul.

He

thusw

asable

toderive

onlya

particular,lim

itedform

ofdrama,

inw

hicha

unifiedand

closedaction

isled

systematically

throughits

stages.W

ithinthese

limits,

Freytagw

asable

tom

akefelicitous

observationsabout

thefive

partsof

thedram

aand

thethree

dramatic

mom

entslocated

between

them.

But

them

oreintricate

forms

ofShakespeare’s

tragedies

cannotbe

derivedfrom

Freytag’sschem

eof

aclosed

plot.For,

ifone

tracesthe

linethat

leadsfrom

thesim

ple,austere

structureof

Macbeth

tothe

complicated

andseem

inglydisintegrative

structure

ofK

ingL

ear,a

remarkable

distinctionappears

inthe

tragicform

.K

ingL

earand

Ham

letdisplay

aw

ealthof

episodesand

sharplydelineated

contrastsw

hichstand

inopposition

tothe

basictragic

mood,

andW

hichcan

byno

means

beadequately

explainedby

theintent

toillum

inatethe

main

actionby

means

ofcontrast.

Indeed,they

containcom

pletelyelaborated

subplots,w

hichin

terrupt

thecontinuity

ofthe

playand

cannotbe

therem

erelyfor

thesake

ofa

contrastingeffect.

One

soonrealizes

thatthese

works

are204

psychicportraits

which

neitherrequire

norperm

itstrict

causalco

nnections.

One

noticesan

innerrelatedness

ofa

specialkind

between

thesecausally

unrelatedprocesses

forw

hichH

egel’s“Idea”

pro

videsa

mere

pointof

comparison,

andan

inadequateone

atthat.

Itprovides

noreal

understandingof

thisinner

relatedness.H

erderhas

alreadycalled

attentionto

thefact

thatevery

characterand

everyscene

inShakespeare

appearsw

ithsuch

aspecific

colorationthat

we

couldnot

conceiveof

itsbeing

transferredinto

anotherw

ork.T

hem

ysterioussoul

ofthe

drama

which

ism

anifestedin

suchfacts

doesnot

issuefrom

theindividuality

ofthe

poetand

enterinto

theclosed

formof

theaction;

insteadit

autonomously

determines

thestructure

ofa

formin

which

itis

ableto

come

toexpression.

Only

throughthe

historicallyappropriated

contentof

adram

ais

itpossible

tounderstand

itsproper

form.

Formis

notuniversally

valid,but

relativeand

historical.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

135

3.L

ivedexperience

isthe

basisof poetry;

thetnostprim

itivecivilizations

always

showpoetry

tobe

connectedw

ithelem

ental

andpow

erfulforms

oflived

experience.E

xamples

ofsuchform

sinclude

rituals,festivities,

dancegoing

overinto

pan

tomim

e,and

thecom

mem

orationof

tribalancestors.

Here

song,epic,

anddram

aalready

exhibitseparate

roots.

When

strongpsychic

agitationdoes

notlead

toacts

ofw

ill,it

findsexpression

insounds

andgestures,

ina

combination

ofsong

andpoetry;

thusw

efind

poetryconnected

with

ritualsand

festivals,•

with

danceand

games

inprim

itivepeoples.

Poetry’slink

tom

ythand

religiouscult,

tothe

splendorof

festivalsand

thejoy

ofgames,

andto

pleasantfellow

shipis

thereforepsychologically

grounded.T

hislink

isvisible

fromthe

firstbeginnings

ofcivilization,

andpervades

theentire

historyof

literature.In

primitive

civilizations,lyric

poetryis

inseparablefrom

song.Joy

andsadness

resoundin

theexpansive,

open,and

brightnature

ofthe

Africans

who

accompany

theirroutine

activitiesw

ithsong.

Literary

historiansw

illhopefully

someday

beable

toestablish

thevarious

stagesof

developmentof

rhythm,

rhyme,

andform

insong

bythe

comparative

method.

Am

ericanIndians

eastof

theR

ockyM

ountainshave

aform

ofsong

wherein

thatw

hichexcites

feelingis

expressedin

asingle

line;this

isthen

sungin

endlessrepetitions

byindividuals

andchoruses.

“When

Iface

theenem

y,the

earthtrem

blesbeneath

my

feet.”O

r,“M

yenem

y’shead

hasbeen

cutoff

andfalls

atm

yfeet.”

Afavorite

poeticfigure

intheir

songsis

antiphrasis,w

hichchildren

enjoyregularly.

The

Dakota

Indianspraise

abrave

man

with

thew

ords:“M

yfriend,

youhave

beendefeated

bythe

Ojibw

ay.”T

henatives

ofD

anakiland

Somali

unitea

definiterhythm

with

anincom

pletecadence

andrhym

ein

theirm

an

yso

ng

s.’°

Epic

songsof

primitive

peoplesextend

fromanim

alfables

tothe

epicsong

asan

element

ofthe

heroicepic.

InSenegal

thereis

aspecial

hereditaryclass

ofbards

calledG

riots.T

hattheir

epicsongs

havea

contentakin

tothat

ofthe

Greek

rhapsodistsis

shown

bya

reportof

therefusal

ofthe

princesof

Kaarta

toflee,

becauseif

theydid

thebards

would

bringpublic

shame

onthem

.A

tthecourts

ofthe

kingsof

Dahom

eyand

Suliman,

thesebards

haveat

thesam

e

‘°‘

Details

aboutthe

sourcesof

ourknow

ledgeare

tobe

foundprim

arilyin

Thea-

slurW

altz,A

ntbropologieder

Naturvoiker,

anded.

(Leipzig,1877),

vol.a,

pp.a36ff.,

524;

vol.,

pp.ijtIL

;vol.4,

P.476;

examples

invol.

a,pp

.a4off.;

vol.3,

p.232.

(D)

‘34

PO

ET

ICS

r

205

I

13

6P

OE

TIC

S

time

thefunction

ofpreserving

thehistory

ofthe

past.A

merican

Indianseast

ofthe

Rocky

Mountains

preservethe

mem

oryof

theirtribal

historyin

theirepic

legends,although

theyalso

createfreely

inventedepic

narrativescom

parableto

ourrom

ancesor

ballads.In

onesuch

narrative,the

soulof

adeparted

warrior

abandonsthe

fieldof

battleto

seehow

deeplyhe

ism

ourned;in

anothera

belovedw

ifereturns

toearth

frombeyond

thegrave

todeterm

inew

hetherher

premature

deathhas

causedsorrow

.’°’T

heincipient

forms

ofdram

aproduced

inless

advancedcivili.

zationscom

pletelyconfirm

ourinform

ationand

inferencesabout

theorigin

anddevelopm

entof

dramatic

artin

more

advancedn

ations.

Joyand

sorrow,

loveand

anger,extrem

epassions,

evenre

ligionand

itsgrave

solemnity

areexpressed

byprim

itivepeoples

not onlyin

soundand

song,but alsoin

gesture, rhythmic

movem

ent,and

dance.T

husthey

representencounters

oflove

andclashes

ofw

ar.D

ancegoes

overinto

pantomim

e.H

ere,especially,

indiantribes

intensifythe

effect byusing

masks. T

hereligious

andpolitical

transactionsof

theIndians

areaccom

paniedby

suchpantom

imes.

“if.

..any

intercoursebe

necessarybetw

eentw

oA

merican

tribes,the

ambassadors

ofthe

oneapproach

insolem

ndance,

andpresent

thecalum

etor

emblem

ofpeace;

thesachem

sof

theother

receiveit

with

thesam

ecerem

onyIf

theyare

celebratingthe

birthzo6

ofa

childor

mourning

thedeath

ofa

friend,this

isdone

inp

antom

ime

dancesthat

reflectthe

feelingof

them

oment.

Indeed,such

pantomim

esconstitute

am

ajorpart

ofthe

Indians’rituals.

They

areoften

performed

with

masks

andcostum

es,and

arerepeated

annually.T

heIroquois

stillhave

twenty-one

suchcerem

onialpan

tomim

edances

today.In

oneof

thema

bearem

ergesfrom

hiscave,

andhe

must

retreatback

intoit

threetim

esafter

beinghunted.

Anim

alm

asksw

iththeir

terrifying,but

alsocom

ical,effects

areespecially

popular.T

heyare

theprim

itiveexpression

ofthat

combination

ofw

hatis

frighteningor

ridiculousw

ithw

hatis

ugly,w

hichw

ew

illlater

recognizeas

oneof

them

osteffective

ofpoetic

formulas.

Ar

thisless

advancedstage

ofcivilization

thereis

noboundary

between

danceand

mim

eticrepresentation.

Iwould

sug

gestthat

thedance

graduallybecam

ethe

artform

fordram

aticpantom

ime

inthe

same

way

asm

eterand

rhyme

didfor

poetic

“D

etailsconcerning

sourcesin

ibid.,vol.

a,pp.

i371f.vol.

3,p.

2.34.(D

)

“J.L

ubbock(L

ordA

vebury),O

nthe

Original

Civilization

andthe

Primitive

Condition

of Man,

6thed.

(London:

Longm

an,G

reenand

Co.,

19

02

),p.549.

Citing

areport

fromR

obertson’sA

merica,

voi.,

p.133.

I

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

137

speech.T

henegroes

ofA

kraalready

usejesters

whose

pranksare

presentedin

mim

e.’’’

4.In

what

follows

we

will

onlydiscuss

thetechnique

ofm

ajorpoetic

works,

whether

epicor

dramatic.

Every

livingw

orkofm

ajorscope

takesits

subjectm

atterfrom

something

factualthat

hasbeen

experienced.In

thelast

anal

ysts,it

expressesonly

livedexperience,

trans/brinedand

gen

eralizedby

thefeelings.

Forthis

reason,no

ideam

aybe

soughtin

literature.

Goethe

remarks

thathis

Elective

Affinities

containsno

linethat

hasnot

beenexperienced—

butalso

nonethat

isjust

asit

was

experienced.There

aresim

ilarcom

ments

byhim

aboutotherw

orks.C

ontemporary

literaryhistory

hasbeen

ofservice

inalw

ayslooking

forthe

material

basisof

literatures.Som

etimes

itfinds

personalexperience,

sometim

esstories

fromthe

pastor

thepresent,

some

times—

especiallyin

thenovella—

previousliterary

works.

Insom

ecases,

we

finda

simple

underlyingsubject

matter,

inother

cases,a

combination

ofthem

.F

acticityhas

always

provedto

bethe

ultimate

freshand

firmnucleus

ofevery

poeticw

ork.T

herefore,a

poeticw

orkalw

ayscontains

more

thancan

beex

pressedin

ageneral

proposition,and

itsgripping

forcecom

espre

ciselyfrom

thissurplus.

Everyattem

ptto

locatethe

ideaof

apoetic

work

byG

oethecontradicts

Goethe’s

own

expressdeclarations:

“The

Germ

ans...

bytheir

deepthoughts

andideas,

which

theyseek

ineverything

andfix

uponeverything.

..m

akelife

much

more

burdensome

thanis

necessary.O

nlyhave

thecourage

togive

your

selfup

toyour

impressions,

allowyourself

tobe

delighted,m

oved,elevated,

nay,instructed

andinspired

forsom

ethinggreat;

butdo

notim

agineall

isvanity,

ifit

isnot

abstractthought

andid

ea.”a“If

imagination

didnot

originatethings

which

must

everbe

pro

blem

sto

theunderstanding,

therew

ouldbe

butlittle

forthe

imag

inationto

do.”

“[T]he

more

incomm

ensurable,and

them

oreincom

prehensibleto

theunderstanding,

apoetic

productionis,

som

uchthe

betterit

is.”’.H

erejoiced

overthe

incomprehensibility

Details

concerningsources

InE

dward

Tylor,

Anfange

derK

ultur,vol.

a,pp.

133,241;

den,.A

nthropologie,pp.

354ff.;and

inW

ait,,A

nthropologieder

Na

turvolker,vol.

i,p.

143;

vol.,

pp.137,

110;

vol.4pp.

11

3,

476.(D

)E

ckermann,

Gesprache,

6M

ay18a7

;C

E,pp.

aIR.

Eckerm

ann,G

esprdche,July

1827;C

E,p.

z66.E

ckermann,

Gesprache,

6M

ay1827;

CE,

p.2.59.

r 1

207

I

13

8P

OE

TIC

S

ofhis

greatestw

orksand

correctlynoted

howvarious

statesof

hislife

andchanging

ideasabout

themintersect

inhis

most

significantw

orksand

howthis

intensifiedtheir

incomprehensibility.

Already

forthis

reason,he

regardedW

ilhelmM

eisteras

“oneof

them

ostincalculable

productions;I

myself

canscarcely

besaid

tohave

thekey

toit.”

”’

He

explicitlycalled

Fausttotally

“incomm

ensurable””’

andfound

everyattem

pttobring

itnearertounderstanding

futile.H

eexpressed

hisview

aboutthe

sensein

which

livedexpe

rienceobtains

auniversally

validm

eaningin

literaturew

ithrefer

enceto

Wilhelm

Meister:

“Itsinception

sprangfrom

anintim

ationof

thegreat

truththat

man

frequentlyw

antsto

attempt

something

forw

hichhe

isdenied

thecapacity

bynature.

-.

.How

ever,it

isstill

possiblethat

allthe

falsesteps

neverthelesslead

toan

inestim

ablegood—

anintuition

thatis

graduallyunfolded,

clarified,and

corroboratedin

Wilhelm

Meisterand

isultim

atelyclearly

expressedin

thew

ords:Y

ourem

indm

eof

Saul,theson

ofK

ish,”7w

how

entout

toseek

hisfather’s

she-assesand

founda

kin

gdom

.”T

husthe

interpretationof

literaryw

orksas

presentlydom

inatedby

Hegelian

aestheticsm

ustbe

opposed.C

onsideran

example.T

heattem

ptto

formulate

theidea

ofH

amlet

hasbeen

made

againand

again.B

utall

we

cando

isto

givea

paltrydescription

ofthe

incomm

ensurablefacts

which

Shakespearehas

givena

universallyvalid

meaning

inhis

drama.

Sincehe

haddeveloped

inhim

selfa

keenand

strongm

oralsense

inthe

contextof

theProtestant

religious

feelingofhis

day,itoften

came

intoconflictw

iththe

dubiousm

oralclim

atein

which

headvanced

hiscareer.This

was

thesource

ofa

verydeep

feelingof

infirmity

andm

oraldegeneracy

which

was

setover

againstthe

capacityof

thisgreat

man

tofind

pleasurein

heroicpassions

andin

thefortune

andsplendor

ofthis

world.Prior

zoSto

Shakespeare,Englishdram

ahad

producedits

effectsthrough

thestrongest

contrastsand

theboldest

effects,through

bloodyadven

tureand

comic

situations,through

sensuousvitality

andtragic

death.The

forceof

Shakespeare’sm

oralsense

addedto

thatan

innernexus

ofcharacter,

passion,tragic

guilt,and

decline,as

well

asthe

coordinationofrelated

actions,therebycreating

thetechnique

ofthe

classicalEnglish

tragedy.This

verystrength

ofhis

moral

feelingsalready

producedthose

earlyexperiences

andjudgm

entsabout

thenature

ofthe

world

thatare

foundin

hissonnets.

When

“E

ckermann,

Gesprache,

i8January

i8iy

;C

E,p.

rio.E

ckermann,

Gesprache,

3January

i830;

CE,

p.4

12

..

ISam

uel9.

WA

,1,35:

8.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

139

hebecam

eacquainted

with

thelegend

ofH

amlet,

hesaw

init

them

ostterriblesym

bolforthe

moralinfirm

ityofthe

world.A

sensitivem

oralsoul

must

findhis

own

mother

guilty,indeed,

despiseher,

andavenge

hisfather

onher

husband,the

king.W

iththis

legendhe

conjoinedim

agesof

courtlycorruption

which

heknew

alltoo

well.

Theproblem

ofinsanity

which

hadalw

aysinterested

him,

hew

oveinto

theplotas

afurther

symbol

ofhuman

frailty.In

Ophelia,

heshow

sus

aterrible

kinshipbetw

eenthe

sensuousfaculties

ofa

purem

aidenand

theim

agesw

hichm

adnessim

posesupon

her.Theplot,

developedon

thebasis

ofplay

andcounterplay,

permits

var

iousinterpretations.

But

atleast

onething

isclear,

namely,

thatthe

livedexperience

ofthe

poetand

itsunnerving

symbols

constitutea

dramatic

corethat

cannotbe

expressedin

anyproposition.

When

thepsyche

ofthe

spectatoris

stirred,everything

comes

togetherinto

agraphic,

feltunity

ofthe

deepestlife-experiences,and

thatis

preciselythe

significanceof

poetry.The

limits

ofthe

poeticim

aginationm

anifestthem

selvesin

thew

aythe

poet’sform

ativepow

eris

rootedin

hism

aterial.The

de

pendenceof

epicpoetry

onm

ythand

legendduring

theheroic

agehas

beenestablished

indetail

byphilology.

Concerning

tragedy,thefollow

ingprinciple

cannow

beasserted:

Apow

erfultragedy

isproduced

when

poeticcreativity

con

frontsexternal

statesof

affairs,reports,

stories,etc.,

asinex

orablereality.

Thenthe

imagination

strivesto

giveunity,

inw

ardness,and

meaning

tothis

reality.To

theextent

thatthe

recalcitranceofthe

factical(Faktischen)

provesinvincible,

theplot

andthe

charactersm

anifestaspecialkind

ofillusion

andefficacy.

5. The

transformation

ofsubjectmatter

intoa

poeticw

orkalw

aysm

usttake

intoaccount

them

ediumin

which

thenexus

ofim

agesappears.

The

transformation

isalw

aysconditioned

bythis

medium

.B

uthere

itiscrucial

notto

regardthe

medium

assim

plya

linguisticexpression,

asa

sequenceof

words.

The

medium

inw

hichthe

nexusof

images

appearsis,

inits

firstmom

entoraspect,asequence

ofwords

intim

e.In

relationto

ourfeeling,

thepoetic

formation

ofthis

medium

existsin

thearrangem

entoftone

qualities,in

rhythm,

andin

phrasing.Since

intensityof

feelingconditions

metrical

relationships,com

parativem

etricsm

ustbeginnotw

ithrelations

oftemporal

duration,but

ratherw

iththe

relationsbetw

eenthe

intensity

r II

2.09

14

0P

OE

TIC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T141

ofthe

vocal processesexcited

byfeeling,

theresistances

which

ithasto

overcome,

risingand

fallingm

ovement,

etc.The

otherm

oment

ofthe

medium

inw

hicha

nexusof

images

isform

edand

existsas

aw

holeis

thenexus

ofprocesses

inthe

imagi

nationof

thehearer

orreader

made

possibleby

mem

ory.

We

discoveredprinciples

ofpoetic

effectin

singletones,

inre

lationsbetw

eentones,

inchanging

rhythm,

andin

therelations

ofthese

sensuousproperties

ofw

ordsequences

tothe

playof

psychicstates.

We

perceivehere

thefirst

mom

entof

them

ediumin

which

poeticim

agesthat

areinitially

aninner

possessionof

thepoet

alsobecom

evisible

toa

readeror

listener.T

hepsychological

interpretation

ofthis

mom

entis

dependenton

theem

pirical,com

parativestudy

ofsuch

poeticm

eansof

representation.A

ristotlew

asnot

yetable

tosee

thelink

between

theobject

ofpoetry

andits

metrical

form.

Forhim

thetw

oaitiaiphysikai”

[physicalcauses]

ofthe

artof

poetry,the

impulse

toim

itateand

ourequally

innatesense

ofm

easureand

harmony,

which

includesthe

senseof

metrical

form,

standjuxtaposed

without

mediation.

The

reasonfor

thisw

ashis

one-sidedprinciple

ofim

itation.O

urpsychological

foundationalstudies

haveshow

nthis

connection.T

heaffective

contentofaction

andcharacter

alsoem

ergesin

thelinguistic

means

ofrepresentation

asintensified

bythe

imagination.

There

existsan

originalrelation

shipbetw

eenthe

stirringsof

ourfeelings,

volitionaltensions,

thefaster

orslow

ersequence

ofrepresentations,

onthe

onehand,

andtone,

itsvolum

e,pitch,

rapidor

statelysequence,

riseor

fall,on

theother.

The

strengthand

characterof

ourfeelings,

theenergy

oflID

volitionaltension,

theeasy

andprecipitate

flowof

representationsw

henw

eare

inhigh

spirits,the

interruptionof

thisflow

when

we

arein

pain—all

ofthese

standin

fixed,physiologically

conditionedrelations

tothe

pitch,volum

e,and

velocityof

tones.T

heseare

experiencedin

theintonations

ofspeech.

We

may

assume

thatin

primitive

times,

speechw

hichbore

affectivecontent

ofgreater

strengthw

asalso

more

closelyrelated

tothe

recitative.M

usicb

or

rowed

itsschem

atafor

melodies

fromthis,

asis

clearlyshow

nby

nationaldifferences.

Here

alsolies

thesource

ofm

eter,w

hichw

asat

firststill

linkedw

ithrecitative,

song,and

dance.T

husw

eco

nclude

thatthe

relationsof

temporal

durationas

suchare

notto

beregarded

asthe

primary

metrical

facts,but

ratherthe

relationsof

intensity,resistance,

risingand

fallingm

ovement,

etc.B

utthe

at-

Vahlen,

Beitrige

zuA

ristotelesPoerik

(Vienna:

K.u.K

Ho1-

undS

raatsdruckerd9

1865)vol.

i,p.

Ii.

(13)

tempt

todiscover

principlesof

metrical

formis

futileas

longas

we

lacka

more

detailedknow

ledgeof

thelanguages

ofprim

itivepeo

plesand

oftheir

metrical

forms.

Itis

onlyw

ithdifficulty

thatw

edistinguish

them

etricaleffectof the

repetitionofw

ords,the

refrain,and

thesim

plecounting

ofsyllables,

etc.’1°T

heother

mom

entof

them

ediumin

which

anim

ageis

apprehended

asa

whole

isthe

nexusproduced

bym

emory.

The

actionand

thefullness

ofthe

characterpossess

theirreality

outsidethe

poet,not

inethereal

words,

fadingaw

ayand

supplantingone

an

other,but

ratherin

what

isform

edin

thelistener

bym

eansof

thew

ords.In

thism

ediumthe

courseof

psychiclife

isrepresented

inthe

most

adequatew

ay.A

ctionsand

psychicprocesses

arethe

properobjects

ofpoetry.H

owever,

thesim

ultaneityof

imagery

canonly

beproduced

bya

successionin

which

theindividual

constituents

ofthe

image

arepreserved,

remem

bered,related

toone

an

other,and

conjoined.N

owsince

itis

inthe

natureof

anaesthetic

impression

thatevery

mom

entought

tofurnish

satisfactionin

andof

itself,and

sinceextended

descriptionsw

ithincom

pleteconstit

uentsare

tiresome,

artisticskill

must

beem

ployedto

producean

imaginative

nexusby

means

ofactions

whose

partsalready

satisfyand

appealto

ourcapacity

tovisualize.

Thus

Lessing’sla

whhl

must

berefined

inits

formulation

andjustification.

Fromthe

factthat

words

succeedeach

otherin

time,

itdoes

notfollow

thatthe

imag

inativenexus

arisingin

them

indis

tobe

limited

toa

mere

successiveorder.

Theaction

ofa

drama

bestcorresponds

tothe

sequenceof

words,

sinceeach

individualpart

byitself

alreadyprovides

satisfaction,w

hileatthe

same

time

eachcontributes

something

tothe

formation

ofthe

whole

inthe

imagination.

Therefore.

theportrayal

ofw

hatis

simultaneous

isthe

objectof

poetryonly

tothe

extentthat

itiseither

anaturaleffectofthe

action(disclosure

ofcharacter)

orartificially

incorporatedinto

theform

of theaction

(descriptionsofexternal

objectsand

bodilybeauty).

Tylor,

Anthropologie,

pp.343fL

;W

altz,A

nthropologicder

Naturvölker,

vol.4,

f9.4

76

.(0

)D

iltheyhere

alludesto

thefollow

ingpassage

inLessing’s

Laocoön:

“.

..then

signsarranged

sideby

sidecan

representonlyobjects

existingside

byside,

orw

hoseparts

soexist,

while

consecutivesigns

canexpress

onlyobjects

which

succeedeach

other,or

whose

partssucceed

eachother

intim

e.”L

aocoön,trans.

byE

llenF

roth

ingham(B

oston:L

ittle,B

rown

&C

o.,1898),

p.91.

111

14

2P

OE

TIC

S

6.Let

usnow

discussthe

way

inw

hichpoetic

creativityproduces

works

inaccordance

with

theconditions

ofits

medium

,H

erew

eencounter

atw

ofolddirection,

which

isem

beddedin

thenature

oflived

experience.

Justas

inscience

theinductive

anddeductive

methods

areseparated

outand

neverthelesscooperate

inm

anyw

ays,there

arealso

two

kindsof

imaginative

processesrooted

inlived

experience:either

asubjective

stateis

made

visiblein

thesy

mbol

of anexternal

processor

anexternalfacticity

isenlivened.

Subjectiveand

objectivepoets

aredistinguished

onthis

basis.

firstdiscussedthis

distinctionw

ithinthe

imagination

inan

essay,“U

berdie

Einbildungskraft

derD

icker”(O

nthe

Imagination

ofthe

Poets),u11w

hereIundertook

tojustify

itbyan

analysisofliterary

history.Schiller

alreadyjuxtaposed

two

basicm

oodsof

theim

agination:

thenaive

andthe

sentimental.

This

distinctionw

asnot

usedto

designateepochs

ofliterature,

butrather

basicdispositions

ofpoets.

Sincethe

distinctionestablished

bySchiller

isa

verycom

plexand

historicallyconditioned

one,1 exam

inedliterary-historical

materials

inorder

tofind

them

ostelem

entarydivision

within

thefunctions

ofthe

imagination.

The

presentinvestigation

offersa

psychologicalconfirm

ationof

thisdivision

discoveredthrough

theliterary

method.

Everycom

positeinvestigation

conjoinsinductive

anddeductive

methods.

Similarly,

everym

ajorpoetic

work

must

unitethese

two

tendenciesof

theim

aginativeprocess.

How

ever,for

poetssuch

asShakespeare

andD

ickens,the

poeticenlivening

ofim

agesoffered

tothem

bythe

externalw

orldpredom

inates.Shakespeare

seems

tobe

ableto

viewthe

world

with

theeyes

ofevery

kindof

human

being.H

euses

hisM

ontaigneuain

analyzinghum

ancharacters

andpassions.

His

major

dramas

offerm

odels,as

itw

ere,of

everyim

portantem

otion.H

eseem

sto

havebecom

ecom

pletelyabsorbed

Zeftschrift

fürV

olkerpsychotogie,1

0(x

8n):

4aff.(T

histreatise

was

revisedas

theessay,

“Goethe

andthe

PoeticIm

agination.”)(See

thisvolum

e,pp.

z35-30z.1Let

me

addthat

ina

lectureof

:886on

poeticim

aginationand

insanity(C

S,V

I,9off.], I gave

am

orepopular

accountofsom

eof the

main

pointsof

thepsychological

foundationestablished

inthis

essay.In

my

literaryand

historicalessays

onLessing,

Novalis

(nowincluded

InE

D),

Dickens,

AH

ieri(W

es:ern,an,,sM

onaisi,e[te,41

(1876-77);j8

(i8)),

andelsew

here,I

havetried

toapply

them

ultiplicityof

psy

chologicalperspectives

made

possibleby

thefoundation

furnishedhere. T

hesestudies

alsosupplem

entw

hatis

expoundedhere.

(D)

Monraigne’s

Essays

appearedIn

English

translationin

1603.

Shakespearew

as

inDuenced

bythem

andm

akesdirect

andsigni&

antquotanons

inT

heT

empest.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

14

3

bythe

realityconfronting

him.

While

with

Shakespearew

ecan

merely

inferthis

fromhis

works,

we

candirectly

seeit

inthe

caseof

Dickens.

He

livedin

thesam

esociety

asC

arlyleand

JohnStuart

Mill.

He

lovedC

arlyle,but

sharednone

ofhis

inclinationfor

mel

ancholybrooding

aboutthe

ultimate

questionsof

life.D

ickensfound

thefulfillm

entof

hislife

inapprehending

thesociety

aroundhim

,w

ithlove

andhate,

inuntiring

observationof

human

naturew

iththat

penetratingglance

bornof

hisfaith

inhum

anity,and

indeveloping

everyconceivable

deviceof

them

odernnovel

throughw

hichhe

became

thetrue

creatorof

thisart

form.

Incontrast,

Goethe’s

Faustis

composed

ofmom

entsof the

poet’sow

nlife.T

hisis

generallyhis

procedure.A

neventor

storyofgeneral

interestis

foundfor

aninner

livedexperience.

Their

fusionoccurs

suddenlythrough

inspiration,and

thena

slowprocess

ofm

etam

orphosisand

completion

ofthe

discoveredsym

bolbegins.

Foryears

hew

ouldpress

hissufferings

andjoys,

theconflicts

ofhis

heart,and

hism

ind’sdeepest

agitationsinto

thevessel

ofsuch

aninvented

orreal

story.In

many

casesthis

processw

ouldlast

forhalf

hislifetim

e.The

characterizationprocess

inFaust

isno

exception.

It israther

“theapotheosis

of thisartform

.G

oethe’sw

onderful•

abilityto

givethe

most

sensitiveexpression

tostates

ofm

indand

theiractual

backgrounds,and

tovisualize

themin

tropes,is

ap

parentinhis

most

hastilyw

rittennotes

asw

ellas

inhis

lyricpoem

s.H

edisplays

what

moves

himthrough

thegreat

tropeof

anaction

which

dresseseven

them

ostintim

atelived

experiencein

beautiful•

garments.

He

describesall

thisw

iththe

transparencyand

purityof

natureherself;

neverhas

anyonebeen

more

truthful.A

she

shows

himselfthrough

this,G

oethebecom

esthe

embodied

idealof

anage,

andFaustis

thecom

prehensivesym

bolinw

hichhe

revealshis

whole

Iife.’uha4In

thesam

ew

ayas

IapproachedG

oethe’spoetic

techniquein

theserem

arksfrom

theabove-cited

essay,sothe

two

great“p

athological”

poets,R

ousseauand

Byron,

couldalso

beintuitively

explained

bym

eansof

thism

odeof

operationof

theim

agination.In

hisearly

period,Schiller,

too,created

theinner

lifeof

hisheroes

predominantly

fromhis

own

personalstates.

7.T

hetransform

ationof

thesubject

matter

takesplace

onthe

basisof

feelings;these,

however,

arevery

composite.

We

shalldes

7L

4D

iltheyis

quotingfrom

hisessay,

“Uber

dieE

inbildungskraftder

Dichter.’

Seethe

almost

verbatimpassage

in“G

oetheand

thePoetic

Imagination”

inthis

Volum

e,

p.3

01

.

I FI

14

4P

OE

TIC

S

113

ignateas

a“m

ood”an

aggregateof

feelingsw

hosecom

ponentsdo

notstand

outprom

inentlyand

strongly,but

possessan

extendedduration

anda

greatcapacity

toexpand. Such

complexes

offeelings

haveproperties

which

areconducive

topoetic

creativityand

poeticim

pressions.W

ethen

callthem

poeticm

oods.T

hem

oodoperative

inthe

productionof

aw

orkis

alsoevoked

bythe

apprehensionof

thew

ork.

Poeticm

oods,aggregates

offeelings,

which

donot

affectus

violently,but

endureand

areim

partedto

everyprocess,

pro

ducetrans form

ationsin

images

inaccordance

with

thelaw

sof im

aginativem

etamorphosis.

Thenum

berof such

aggregatesof

feelingsis

unlimited.

But

thehistorical

continuityof

poetictechnique

hasthe

consequencethat poetic

moods

aredeveloped

andtransm

ittedthrough

theliterature

ofatradition,

andthus

stabilizedaround

certainfavorable

pointsin

thism

ultiplicityw

hichare

especiallyconducive

topoetic

creativityand

enjoym

ent.T

hesem

oodsare

manifested

inthe

aestheticcategories

of theideally

beautiful,the

sublime,

andthe

tragicw

ithw

hichthe

uglycan

thenbe

combined

and,on

theother

hand,the

categoriesof

thesentim

ental,the

comical,

thecharm

ingor

thegracefzil.

Psychologyand

thehistory

ofliterature

will

bothhave

toinves

tigatethe

composition

ofthese

poeticm

oods,their

relationsto

oneanother,

andespecially

theireffect

uponthe

material

ofpoetry

onthe

basisof

thelaw

sof

theim

agination.In

undertakingthis

serioustask, they

will have

tocontend

with

thedialectics

of Hegel, Solger,”’

Weisse,I.1

6and

others,w

honaturally

foundabundant

material

inthese

flexiblephenom

ena.If

thecategory

ofthe

beautifulcharac

terizesthe

statein

which

theobject

iscom

pletelyadequate

tothe

psychiclife

ofthe

spectatorand

inw

hichthe

objectfulfills

andw

hollygratifies

them

indw

ithoutdisturbance

andfeelings

ofdis

pleasure,then

we

findon

theone

sideaggregates

offeeling

thatreflect

theoverw

helming

magnitude

oftheir

object,w

hileon

theother

sidethere

isa

psychicstate

inw

hichthe

subjectfeels

itselfsuperior

tothe

object.O

nboth

endsof

thespectrum

,w

hosem

iddleis

formed

bythe

ideallybeautiful,

therearises

anadm

ixtureof

Karl

Wilhelm

FerdinandSolger

(i8o-i8

191.U

keT

ieck,Solger

consideredirony

thehighest

principleof

aesthetics.H

egelcriticized

thiscohception

ofirony

asa

mode

ofdialectic

which

istoo

negative.I”

Christian

Herm

annW

eisse(1801-661.

Aphilosopher

wha

attackedH

egel;his

Antriusrede

of1347

calledfor

areorientation

toK

ant.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

14

5

displeasure,and

fromthe

dissolutionof

thelatter,

apeculiar

agreeableness.

Inthe

onecase,

thefeeling

ofsom

ethingim

measurably

great

inthe

meaning

ofthe

objectm

ustbe

overcome;

inthe

othercase,

thefeeling

ofsom

ethingtrifling.

The

mood

inw

hichan

objectappears

assublim

e(erhaben)

con

tains,as

Burke

hasshow

nbeyond

anydoubt,

something

offear,

terror,and

astonishment.

Therefore,

itis

always

combined

with

unpleasantstimuli.

But

becauseit expands

thepsyche

inproportion

tothe

magnitude

ofthe

object—w

hetherthis

magnitude

consistsin

what

isspatially

imm

easurable,physically

overwhelm

ing,or

spir

ituallyand

volitionallypow

erful—a

persistentand

strongstim

ulusdevelops,

namely,

astrangely

agreeablefeeling

ofexaltation

(Er

hebung).T

ragedyinvolves

aneven

greatercom

binationof

feelings,for

them

isfortuneof

thehero

notonly

evokesfear

throughhis

heroiccharacter,

butalso

pitythrough

hisrole

asthe

adversaryof

fate:“T

hegrand

andm

onstrousfate

thatexalts

man

bycrushing

him.”

Thus

thestim

uliinvolved

inthe

sublime

areintensified.

Tragedy

receivesa

privilegedstatus,

forit

combines

agripping

actionw

itha

decisiveoutcom

e.T

hetragic

expressesthe

characterof

reality—m

anyhave

soughtto

findin

thetragic

alaw

forthe

realw

orld—and

thussatisfies

theintellect.

Furthermore,

afeeling

ofdispleasure

canenter

intothe

tragic.Itis

characterizedby

theaesthetic

categoryof

ugliness.T

hequestion

whether

uglinesscan

bethe

subjectof

art

arisesonlyfrom

anunfortunate

andabstractm

annerof

expression.For

theproperty

ofugliness

isalw

aysa

subordinateconstituent

ofthe

aestheticobject

presentedby

poetry.It

canonly

haveaesthetic

effectsindirectly.

The

displeasurecontained

init

must

beout

weighed

bythe

overallaggregate

offeelings,

andin

thesequence

offeelings

itm

ustbe

displacedby

satisfaction.A

ccordingly,there

aredeterm

inateaesthetic

lociwhere

uglinessis

permitted

toem

erge.O

nesuch

locusis

characterizedby

thecom

binationof

thesublim

e,as

something

fearful,andthe

ugly.Sim

ilarly,thebody

paintingand

masks

ofprim

itivesused

uglinessto

intensifythe

impression

ofthe

fearful.T

hesam

eintensification

ofterror

isproduced

byD

ante’sdescription

ofC

erberusand

ofM

inos,the

Judgeof

Hell,”7

andof

thedeform

ityof

Richard

111.Victor

Hugo

andthe

FrenchR

omantics

havem

adeexcessive

useof

thesam

estrong

medicine;

andD

ickensm

adehis

most

villainouscharacters

ugly.T

hesublim

ityof

evilis

thedem

onical.In

thefinal

analysis,even

frightfulevil

issublim

e.

rI

154

“See

Dante’s

Inferno:C

erberus,V

I,lines

13-3

6;

Minos,

V,

linesi-i6

.

14

6P

OE

TIC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T1

47

Itis

sublime

when

Adah,

Cain’s

wife,

saysof

Lucifer:

“There

isa

power

inhis

gazew

hichfastens

my

unsteadyeye

tohis.”

The

man

whose

will

knows

nobounds

resembles

theviolence

ofnature

her

self.H

egenerates

terrorall

aroundhim

.H

eis

alonein

them

idstof

societylike

abeast

ofprey.

To

thism

ixtureof

thesublim

e,the

tragic,and

evil,ugliness

canbe

added.H

erew

ereach

thelim

itsof

theaesthetic

impression.

azyW

erepresented

thebeautiful

asthe

midpoint

ofa

spectrumof

poeticm

oods.T

hesecond

ofthe

two

sidesis

formed

bythe

moods

inw

hicha

feelingof

something

triflingin

theobject

must

beover

come.

The

sentimental

alreadylacks

some

ofthe

gloryof

beauty,and

soa

slightfeeling

ofdispleasure

ofthe

indicatedkind

entersinto

it.T

hecom

icalarises

from,

andis

enoyedin,

apoetic

mood

thatlies

onthe

same

sideof

thespectrum

.T

obe

sure,laughter

isevoked

byextraordinarily

differentrepresentations

orrelations

ofrepresentations.

Laughter

which

isstim

ulatedby

what

isincom

prehensible,persistently

vexing,or

contemptible,

andlaughter

evokedby

aw

ittycom

binationof

ideas,share

avery

mysterious

comm

onstructure

aspsychic

processes.W

hatleads

fromthis

psychicprocess

toa

subsequentsudden

explosionis

unknown.

Ineach

ofthese

cases,a

contrastevokes

apsychic

convulsion,w

hichis

dischargedin

therespiratory

regionw

hereother

psychicstates

suchas

sighing,sobbing,

andangry

fuming

arealso

expressed.B

utthe

poeticm

oodin

which

thecom

icalarises

andis

enjoyedas

situation,process,

orcharacter

isbased

ona

specialkind

oflaugh

ter-producingcontrast.

Here

what

istrifling,

humble,

orfoolish

somehow

assertsitself

overagainst

what

isideal,

proper,or

evenm

erelysuperficially

dignified.T

heprivileged

positionof

thispoetic

mood

derivesfrom

thefact

thatonly

byits

means

cana

seriousrealism

showthe

discrepancybetw

eenouter

appearanceand

innerreality,

between

pretenseand

truevalue,

between

anideal

andits

manifestation,

andindirectly

resolveit

intoan

aestheticpsychic

state.This

is where

anadm

ixtureof ugliness

canalso

beaesthetically

effective,and

where,

indeed,a

pinchof

indecencycan

beadded

tothe

recipe.Jean

Paul’sK

atzenberger”and

many

ofD

ickens’ch

aracters

exemplify

theform

er,w

hilesituations

inSterne

andSw

iftillustrate

thelatter.

We

move

furtherdow

nthe

lineof

thetrifling

when

we

considerthe

moods

inw

hichthe

gracefullycharm

ing,the

naive,and

thepetite

arepoetically

presentedor

enjoyed.Poetic

moods

arerelated

tothe

laws

ofthe

metam

orphosisof

subjectm

atterin

ways

thatare

fruitfulfor

causalconsiderations.

An

idealizingm

oodresults

inthings

beingexcluded;

thesublim

eproduces

intensifications;and

we

enjoythe

gracefuleven

asw

edisparage

it.A

nextensive

fieldfor

researchin

psychologicalaes

theticsopens

uphere.

8. We

distinguishthe

density,w

eight,and

temperature

ofaphys

icalobjectandthen

investigatethese

generalproperties

ofallobjects

inisolation;

similarly,

inthe

physiologyof

animals

we

distinguishthe

differentfunctions

ofm

etabolism,

sensation,and

voluntarym

ovement;

so,too,

ina

poeticw

orkw

edistinguish

subjectm

atter,poetic

mood,

motif,

plot,characterization,

action,and

means

ofrepresentation.

The

causalrelations

within

eachof

thesem

oments

ofa

work

ofliterature

will

haveto

bestudied.

Only

inthis

way

will

acausal

explanationof

thesecreations

ofthe

imagination

be

come

possible.Let

usnow

discussm

otif.

Thesignificance

ofa

life-relationshipis

apprehendedin

them

aterialof

realitythrough

thepoetic

process.This

producesa

motivating

forcew

hichthen

transforms

what

was

foundto

bepoetically

movin

g.

The

life-relationshipthus

apprehended,felt,

generalized,and

therebym

adeinto

aforce

which

isef

fectivein

thisw

ayis

calleda

“motif.”

Ina

major

work

ofliterature

anum

berof

motifs

operatetogether.

Am

ongthem

adom

inatingone

must

havethe

motivating

forceto

producethe

unityof

theentire

work

ofliterature.

The

number

ofpos

siblem

otifsis

limited,and

itisone

ofthetasks

ofcomparative

literaryhistory

totrace

theevolution

ofparticularm

otifs.

The

transformation

ofthe

subjectm

atterby

means

ofthe

poeticm

oodsthat

thesubject

matter

canarouse

inm

anifoldand

con

trastingw

aysis

alsofurther

dependenton

thefact

thatthe

life-relationships

containedin

thesubject

matter

arecom

prehendedin

accordancew

iththeirsignificance

ortheir

universalvalue

forhum

anfeelings.

Insofaras

alife-relationship

isapprehended

inits

significance,

andits

representationaccordingly

receivesthe

motivating

forceneeded

toproduce

apoetic

transformation,

we

callit

a“m

otif.”B

othG

oetheand

Schillerm

akeuse

ofthis

concept.In

hism

axims,

Goethe

definesitat

leastfor

thenarrow

erdomain

oftragic

literature.T

hisdefinition

isin

agreementw

iththe

onew

ehave

justoutlined.

“The

taskand

work

ofthe

tragicpoet

isnothing

buta

psycho-ethicalphenom

enon,identifiable

inthe

pastand

presentedD

r.K

aczenbergersB

adereise(1

80

9).

£48P

OE

TIC

S

ina

comprehensible

experiment.””

“What

we

call‘m

otifs’are

thusactually

phenomena

ofthe

human

spiritw

hichhave

beenre

peatedand

will

berepeated

againand

again,but

tothe

poetthey

displaythem

selvesas

merely

historical.”°O

nesuch

motif

isthe

fascinationexerted

byw

ater,especially

adark

bodyof

water

atnight:

itis

embodied

inthe

Undine

legend.’’R

ealityprovides

onlya

limited

number

ofm

otifs.G

ozzi’’has

117

pointedthis

out;he

claimed

thatthere

canonly

bethirty-six

(dominant)

motifs

ina

tragedy.This

was

oneof

Goethe’s

favoritetopics

inhis

conversations:he

discussedit

with

Eckerm

ann,Schiller,

andK

anzlerM

uller.The

organizationof

motifs

delimited

inthis

way

canbe

determined

furtheronly

byconnecting

thecom

parativem

ethodof

literaryhistory

with

psychologicalanalysis.

Suchan

approachw

ouldalso

needto

studythe

historyof

thedevelopm

entof

suchm

otifs.A

nym

ajorpoetic

work

connectsa

multiplicity

ofsuch

motifs,

butone

ofthem

must

predominate.

Through

highlightingand

theconscious

useof

motifs,

thedark

groundof

livedexperience

isillum

inated,or

itssignificance

isat

leastm

adepartly

transparent.I

shallillustrate

thisim

portantrelationship

byconsidering

Faust.G

oetheand

hiscontem

porariesshared

Rousseau’s

faithin

theau

tonomy

ofthe

personand

hisoverall

capacities.H

ethus

discoveredin

himself the

livedexperience

ofanindividual striving

forunlim

iteddevelopm

entthrough

knowledge,

enjoyment,

andactivity.

Thisstriving

was

supportedby

thecourageous

faiththat

Man

“inhis

darkim

pulsesis

neverthelessconscious

ofthe

rightw

ay.””

Sincethis

livedexperience

hadits

originin

thespiritual

conditionof

thetim

e,it

hadan

extraordinarilystrong

capacityto

arouseinterest.

Itpossessed

something

approximating

universalvalidity.

Then

Goethe

foundthe

symbol

forit

inthe

Faustlegend:

areceptacle

thatcould

absorball

ofthe

stormand

stress,all

ofthe

sufferingand

joyof

thatday.

Thiscontent—

darklybrilliant,

particular,and

universal—unfolded

onlyw

iththe

courseofG

oethe’slife

itself, sincelife

was

itsobject.

Thepoet

experiencedin

successionthe

turbulentstress

ofyouth

andits

frightfuldangers;

then,in

Wetm

ar,he

ex

“Spruche

inProsa,

ed.by

Gustav

vonL

oper(B

erlin:H

empel,

18

70

),p.

771.

(D)

Ibid.,jt

(D)

“W

aternym

phlegend.

Famous

fairytale

andopera

librettoby

theG

erman

Rom

anticpoet,

F.deJa

Mont

Fouque(a8az).

“See

Carlo

Goal,

Mem

oires,vols.

(17

97

).

Goethe,

FaustI,

lines3

18

-19.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

£4

9

periencedthe

purificationof

hisheart

throughintuition

andby

possessingthe

world

inintuition

alone—thatcognitia

intuitivaand

thatam

ordei

intellectualisof

Spinozagrounded

inresignation,

which

inthe

poetbecomes,atthe

same

time,artistic

contemplation.

On

thebasis

of hisaesthetic

education,hethen

developedthe

power

tolive

andw

orkw

ithinan

everm

oreencom

passingtotality.

Itis

hisand

Schiller’sideal

ofhum

andevelopm

ent,draw

nfrom

theirow

ndeepest

experiencesand

feelings,that

determined

thecourse

of theFaustpoem

.To

besure,

many

motifs

were

alreadycontained

inthe

Faustlegend

andothers

were

addedby

Goethe.

Thisis

thew

aythe

significanceof

livedexperience

isarticulated.

At

thispoint,

we

againsee

thatagreatpoem

isas

irrationaland

incomm

ensurableatits

nucleusas

thelife

thatitportrays.Indeed,G

oethehas

explicitlysaid

thisof

hisFaust.

9.W

henall

thegenetic

mom

entscooperate,

apoetic

structurearises

amidst

theconstant

metam

orphosis.This

structurestands

beforethe

poet’seyes,

asit

were,

beforehe

canbegin

thedetailed

execution.Aristotle’s

Poeticsdesignates

thisstructure

asm

ythos,’34and

inour

poeticsw

ecall

itplot

(Fabelas

derivedfrom

theL

atinfabula).

Characters

andactions

areinterw

ovenw

ithone

anotherin

theplot.For

theperson

andw

hathe

doesor

undergoes,the

heroand

hisactions

arem

erelytw

osides

ofone

andthe

same

stateof

affairs.W

ithoutthe

concretecharacter

ofthe

murderer,

theact

ofm

urderrem

ainsan

abstraction.The

imagination

livesin

concreteim

agesalone.

Theplot,

thedeveloped

basicstructure

ofany

major

work

ofliterature,

alreadyexists

forthe

epicor

dramatic

poetbefore

hebegins

theexecution

ofthe

work.

Itis

usuallysketched

inthe

formofnotes.L

iteraryhistory

possessessufficientm

aterialsto

confirmthis

stageofcreativity

insuch

plotsand

todeterm

inetheir

basicproperties

andm

ainform

sby

thecom

parativem

ethod.

Justas

innature,

so,too,

within

therealm

ofpoetic

creativityw

efind

thatonly

afew

ofthe

availableseeds

mature.

Literary

historyhas

preserveda

considerablenum

berof

dramatic

outlinesthat

were

neverexecuted.

Stillm

oreinstructive

isthe

comparison

r“•

Vahlens

Barrage

zuA

risroteles’Poerik,

vol.,,

pp.3

rfL,

Lrearsthe

dualuse

ofthe

expressionm

ythosin

theP

oeticsboth

(orthe

material

which

isavailable

CoF

theepic

ordram

aticpoet(the

pragmata

tobe

worked

on)as

well

asicr

thisdeveloped

basicstructure

(synthesistO

npragm

atOn).

(D)

rI

1

15

0P

OE

TIC

S

ofcom

pleteddram

asw

ithoutlines

ordrafts.

We

canthereby

lookinto

thew

orkshopof

Schiller,Lessing,G

oethe,K

leist,O

ttoL

udwig,

andoverhear

some

oftheir

studiosecrets.

Schillerprefaced

many

outlinesw

ithan

accountof

thehistorical

andsocial

situation.In

outliningtheir

plots,other

poetsim

mediately

rushto

them

ainscenes

which

containthe

nucleusof

thedram

aticeffect.

The

epicpoet

doesnot

needa

plotw

hichis

astightly

structuredas

thatof

thedram

aticpoet.

Therefore,

theplotof

theaction

which

hehas

inm

inddoes

notnecessarily

requirean

outline.That

Walter

Scottgenerally

wrote

down

hisplots

seems

tobe

indicatedby

thefollow

ingpassage

inthe

IntroductoryE

pistleto

The

Fortunesof

bligeL’35

cAP

TA

IN;

You

shouldtake

time

atleast

toarrange

yourstory.

AU

TH

OR

:T

hatis

asore

pointw

ithm

e,m

yson.

Believe

me,

Ih

av

en

ot

been

fool

enough

toneglect

ordinaryprecautions.

Ihave

repeatedlylaid

down

my

futurew

orkto

scale,divided

it119

intovolum

esand

chapters,and

endeavouredto

constructa

storyw

hichI

meant

shouldevolve

itselfgradually

andstrik

ingly,m

aintainsuspense,

andstim

ulatecuriosity;

andw

hich,finally,

shouldterm

inatein

astriking

catastrophe.B

utI

thinkthere

isa

demon

who

seatshim

selfon

thefeather

ofm

ypen

when

Iw

rite,and

leadsit

astra

yfro

mthe

purpose.C

haractersexpand

underm

yhand;

incidentsare

multiplied;

thestory

lingers,while

them

aterialsincrease;

my

regularm

ansionturns

outa

Gothic

anomaly,

andthe

work

isclosed

longbefore

Ihave

attainedthe

pointI

proposed.

Balzac

notonly

wrote

down

ascenario,

buthe

hadit

printedin

narrowcolum

nson

wide

sheets.His

novelwas

formed

byexpanding

thesescenarios

throughat

leasta

halfdozen

differentprintings.z36

Spielhagentells

thefollow

ingin

hisB

eiträgezur

Theorie

rindT

echnikdes

Rom

ans(C

ontributionsto

aT

heoryand

Technique

ofthe

Novel),’77

which

isrich

intechnical

insightsas

onlythe

disclq.sures

ofa

poetcould

be.Prior

tow

ritinghe

preparesa

listof

thecharacters,so

faras

healready

knows

them,including

theirpersonal

characteristics.H

ealso

sketchesan

outlineof

theplan.

Adetailed

outlineis

thensoon

interruptedby

theirresistible

impulse

toproceed

with

theactual

writing

itself.D

uringthis

writing,

theplot

ofan

‘3’

Works,

vu’.Ic

(Boston

andN

ewY

ork:H

oughtonM

iIflinC

o.,1913),

p. xxxi.“S

ee

Gam

ier,p.

3.(D

)Friedrich

Spielhagen(Leipzig:

L.Saackm

ann,i8

83

),p.

z6.(D

)

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

epicnarrative

undergoeschanges

more

frequentlythan

theplot

ofa

drama,

becauseits

elements

arenot

astightly

interconnected.Since

theplot

isfashioned

fromcharacters

andactions

orevents,

two

basicform

sof

itsstructure

arise.W

enow

advancethe

thesisthatthe

structureofthe

ploteitherhasthe

focalpointofitsaesthetic

effect,and

accordinglyof

itsform

,in

thedevelopm

entof

theprotagonist

orin

theplay

andcounterplay

ofthe

action.T

heL

atinnations

haveespecially

developedthe

secondform

bothhi

thedram

aand

thenovel.

The

firstform

ispredom

inantlyrepresented

inthe

Germ

anicpeoples.

The

Greeks

alreadyplaced

specialem

phasison

structuringthe

actioninto

playand

counterplay.T

hisw

asthen

developedinto

apeculiar

equilibriumbetw

eenstrophe

andantistrophe

inthe

semi-

music

al

form

of

their

dra

ma.

The

Spaniardsexpended

theirasto

nishing

acumen

inlinking

grippingand

po

werfu

lsitu

atio

ns

into

asuspenseful

andunexpected

actionby

means

ofever

newtheatrical

effectsof

playand

counterplay.O

neof

them

ostsplendid

examples

ofthis

isthe

Weaver

ofSegovia

byJuan

Ruiz

deA

larcon[1

58i-

16

39

j.C

lassic

al

Frenchtragedy

merely

simplifed

theSpanish

technique,

andFrench

comedy

sinceM

olierehas

giventhis

formits

highestperfection.

itis

them

ostpoetic

expressionof

theFrench

spiritas

such.Even

theFrench

novelis

usuallyconstructed

arounda

crisis.Sim

ilarly,G

oethe’sE

lectiveA

ffinitiescertainly

isnot

anovella,

buta

novelw

iththis

structuralform

.T

hedram

aand

novelin

Germ

anyand

England

developeda

formw

hichdid

indeedoften

employ

thedevice

ofplay

andcounterplay,

butin

which

thedevelopm

entofthe

heroconstitutes

thefocalpoint

ofthe

poeticeffect.

What

givesShakespeare’s

herohis

powerful

superiorityover

thecharacters

surroundinghim

ishis

abilityto

keepcounsel

with

himself

alone,to

wrestle

with

hisconscience,

tounderstand

hisresponsibility

andhis

own

nature,and

toexpress

itin

asoliloquy.

The

same

basicform

ofthe

plotis

developedin

them

odernnovel.

The

inexperiencedsoul

who

entersthe

world,

theoptim

iststill

unfamiliar

with

theabyss

ofhum

annature,

andthe

spiritw

hojoyously

rushesinto

thefuture

onlyto

findthe

world

opposedto

him—

who

needsm

oredetails?

The

epicof

ourindivid

ualisticepoch

isbuilt

uponthis

contrast.Itisour

Iliadand

Odyssey.

This

isw

hatalw

ayshappens

aneww

henevera

fresh,young

spiritenters

thew

orld,and

what

we

allrediscover

asour

lostyouth

inW

ilhelmM

eisteror

David

Copperfield.

Smolleti’s

Roderick

Ran- ‘5

’

FII

110

15

2P

OE

TIC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T1

53

domalready

shows

sucha

development

ofa

youthw

hom

ustm

akehis

own

way

throughlife.

Dickens

thengave

thenovel

them

ostperfect

formw

hichit

hasyet

attained.H

istechnically

bestw

orksintroduced

playand

counterplay,suspense

andcrisis

intothe

de

velopment

ofthe

hero.T

husthey

integratethe

resourcesof

bothapproaches.

ic.

All

furtherprocesses

inthe

poetare

permutations

ofexpe

riencefrom

thebase

we

havedeveloped

andin

accordancew

iththe

laws

of theim

agination.Theyevoke

images

which

aresaturated

with

thepow

erof

feelingand

haveuniversal

significance.A

sthey

strive

toim

press

these

imag

eso

nthe

imagination

ofthe

heareror

reader,

they

must

arouse

theim

agin

ation

into

vig

oro

us

activity

.F

or

that

reason

too,

itis

importan

tth

at

the

nex

us

of the

literaryw

ork—consisting

ofcharacters,

action,and

presentation—provides

ade

quatecontent

forthe

imagination

activatedby

feeling.Time, space,

andthe

causalnexus

must

betreated

insuch

aw

aythat

thefigures

candevelop

andm

ovein

theim

aginationw

ithease

andw

ithoutresistance.The

words

andsentences

of aw

orkof literature

resemble

thedabs

of colorina

lateR

embrandt.O

nlythrough

thecooperation

ofthe

imagination

ofthe

readeror

listenerdo

figurestake

shapefrom

it.The

meaning-content

ofliterature

developsas

theem

otionally

harrenconstituents

oflife

andtheir

mechanically

inflexiblerelations

ofspace, tim

e,andcausality

aretransform

edinto

apoetic

world.

Sucha

world

isthen

ideallycom

posedfrom

purelyfeeling-

producingconstituents.

Thetim

ethat

separatesand

unitesthese

constituentsis

notm

easuredby

theclock,

butrather

byw

hathap

pens.H

erew

efind

poetrym

akingits

own

freeuse

ofthe

naturald

etermin

ation

of

time

inacco

rdan

cew

iththe

sequenceof

innerstates.

Therefore,

theFrench

“unityof

time”

belongsto

am

echanical

world,

regulatedby

theclock,

butnot

tothe

world

ofthe

emotions:

itproduces

mathem

aticalprose.

An

imaginary

senseof

time

canbe

artificiallyupheld

byavoiding

theexplicit

andexternal

measurem

entof

time

asm

uchas

possible.Sim

ilarly,spatial

locations

arebrought

closerto

oneanother

byinvisible

butstrong

relationsbetw

eenpersons

andactions.

Here

agood

poetw

illavoid

geographicexactness

andw

ouldrather

return,as

Shakespearedid,

tothe

geographyof

thew

orldof

fairytales.

Thenexus

ofcause

andeffect

islim

itedto

afew

necessarycom

ponents.This

nexuscould

notfunction

thisw

ayin

reality,and

itis

onlyintended

toevoke

theillusion

ofreality.

Therefore,

clevercritics

havereadily

pointedto

gapsin

thecausal

nexusof

Wilhelm

Meister,

Faust, even

inthe

dramas

ofShakespeare;butin

doingso

theyhave

nottouchedeither

Goethe

orShakespeare;

theyonly

showed

thatthey

didnot

understandthe

differencebetw

eenpoetry

andprose.

We

needonly

believethat

thereis

aconsistency

inthe

nexus.It

ism

erelythe

illusio

no

freality

thatis

tobe

produced.A

ndthis

happensnot

bycarefully

accountingfor

everything,butrather

bya

leanstructuring

oftheaction

which

reducesitto

afew

components

andthen

expandsthese

intobroad

scenesthat

aretrue

tolife.

Sucha

fullydeveloped

sceneleads

froma

stateof

tranquilityto

thehighest

emotion.

How

ever,since

thisentire

poeticw

orld,including

itscharacters

andtheir

destinies,is

constitutedonly

inthe

imagination

ofthe

heareror

readerand

hasits

existencethere,

thisw

orldis

atthe

same

time

subordinatedto

thelaw

sof

thepsyche

which

itenters:

theacquired

psychicnexus

mustcooperate

inits

apprehension.Thisw

orldm

ustaccord

with

thelaw

sw

hichour

intellecthas

foundin

reality.It

must

accuratelyexpress

thefelt

valuesof

thingsas

de

termined

bya

mature

human

being.It

must

displaya

coherenceof

will

anda

connectednessof

purposeas

acquiredthrough

am

asculine

senseof

work.

“When

thesedem

andsare

met,

thenthe

poeticw

orldw

illproduce

what

isplausible,

probable,and

essentialinthe

illusionof

reality—that

which

charactersand

theirdestinies

needif

theyare

toarouse

pityand

fear.

The

principleof

theproduction

ofa

work

ofliterature

isto

raiserepresentations

oflifeto

poeticallysignificantim

agesand

relations.T

henexus

ofactionor

eventsm

ustthus

contain,as

faras

possible,only

feeling-producingconstituents.

Time

gndspace

arem

easuredonly

bythe

actionsthat

fillthem

andthe

relationsam

ongthese

actions.The

number

ofcom

ponentsof

theaction

isreduced

asm

uchas

possible,butthe

indispensablecom

ponentsare

thentinfolded

expansively.

ii.

Fromthis

principlea

primary

technicalrule

foraction

results:the

actionshould

notaimto

copyreality,

butshouldratherestablish

aneconom

icalnexus

byseparating

outthose

components

ofthe

Faction

thatdonotarouse

feelingfrom

thosethatdo,and

thuscreate

theillusion

ofthe

movem

entof

life.In

adram

a,processes

arestructured

bya

unifyingaction;

inan

epicpoem

,by

anevent.

But

thisdistinction

isof

noconsequence

here,for

boththe

actionand

theevent

areunreal

andproduce

anillusion.

While

inreal

lifeeverything

appearsto

becausally

connected,the

most

generallaw

ofthe

structureof

poeticaction

orevents

isthat

theym

usthave

a

all

15

4P

OE

TIC

S

beginningand

anend,

between

which

auniform

continuumm

ustexist,justas

we

would

wish

it inreallife. W

ithout painand

obstaclesthe

poeticim

ageof

lifew

ouldbe

insipidand

false.H

owever,

alldiscord

shouldbe

resolvedin

afinal,

powerful,

buttranquil

har

monious

chord.T

husthe

structureof

theaction

isdeterm

inedby

therequirem

entof

auniversally

validfeeling

encompassing

theoverall

scopeof

thew

ork.W

henthis

actionis

complete,

it proceedsfrom

astate

oftranquil

strivingthrough

innerand

outercounter-

forces,am

idstincreasing

tensionleading

upto

acrisis,

which

thenw

indsdow

nto

afinal

reconciliation.T

hisis

alsohow

them

etaphysical

andconceptual

poetryof

thedeclining

ancientw

orld,w

hichw

asdom

inatedby

religiousconsciousness,

conceivedaction

inthe

cosmos:

firstblissful

tranquility,then

emerging

forcesthat

actagainst

oneanother,

thenguilt

andpain,

andfinally

theres

torationof

allthings

tothe

originalstate

ofbliss.W

efind,how

ever,that

thew

ayin

which

thereconciliation

isbrought

aboutis

historically

conditioned.A

ccordingly,the

formof

theaction

orthe

eventis

notuniversally

valid,but

isdependent

onthe

historicalcontent.

Thetechnique

ofaction

inthe

drama

hasbeen

studiedin

greatdetail

sincethe

time

ofAristotle;

andrecently

it hasbeen

delineatedw

itha

finesense

ofform

byFreytag.

He

uncoveredtw

obasic

n;

configurationsof

dramatic

form,

andthereby

made

agenuine

aesthetic

discovery—a

rareaccom

plishment.

Everyaction

transpiresin

playand

counrerplay,for

thehero

of theaction

needsan

opposingforce.

This

counterforceought

notto

reduceour

interestin

thehero,

butm

erelyactivate

him.

The

actionthat

resultsfrom

thisleads

toa

climax

which

isthe

decisivem

iddlepoint

ofthe

drama.

The

actionascends

tothis

pointand

descendsfrom

it.Play

andcounterplay

canbe

distributedaround

thisdecisive

pointof

theconstruction

intw

ow

ays.If

theprotagonistic

forcepredom

inatesin

thefirst

part,then

thetension

ofthe

hero’spassions

isintensified

onthe

basisof

theinner

impulses

ofhis

character,to

thepoint

ofaction;

thena

reversalsets

in;w

hathe

didreacts

backupon

him;

and,as

heis

graduallyovercom

eby

thereaction

ofthe

outsidew

orldpressing

inupon

him,

theaction

isdom

inatedby

theantag

onisticforces.

Alternatively,

if theantagonistic

forcesare

dominant

inthe

firstpart,

thenthe

herois

drivenforw

ardto

theclim

axby

theintensifying

activityof

theforces

opposinghim

;and

onlyafter

thereversal, w

hichsets

inat this

point,does

thepassion

ofthe

herobegin

todom

inate.’3’

‘0For

am

oredetailed

discussionof dram

aticaction

(especiallythe

demonstration

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

15

5

Inthe

epic,processes

arelinked

byan

event.T

hisevent

must

representthe

entirenexus

ofthe

world.T

hem

ostgeneralproperties

ofthe

epic,w

hichfollow

fromthis,

havebeen

pçesentedw

ithpen

etratingforce

byH

umboldt,

althoughhe

didso

with

acertain

idealisticone-sidedness.

The

applicationof

hisprinciples

tothe

modern

novel,w

hichis

thelegitim

ateheir

ofthe

epicand

capableof

beinga

rigorousartistic

form,

was

firstattem

ptedby

Spielhagenin

hisB

eitrage.T

hisis

oneof

them

aintasks

forpoetics

inthe

future.12.

The

charactersfirst

receivean

independentlife

inthe

poet,based

onan

asyetobscure

propertyofpsychic

life,w

hichw

ecan

alsoobserve

indream

s.Then

theyreceive

asecond

existencein

theim

aginationofthe

spectator.The

imagination

forms

acharacter

froma

nexusof

processes,w

hichas

suchw

ouldnot

becapable

oflife,

byallow

ingessential

traitsto

pctystallize

aroundcertain

highlightedpoints

thatarouse

thestrongest

interestof

thefeelings,

andallow

ingthe

othersto

fadeinto

thetw

ilight.T

husthe

poeticillusion

ofa

complete

realityarises.

Thecom

parativehistory

ofliterature

oughtto

determine

thelim

itednum

berof

ways

inw

hichtypical

characters

canbe

articulated,the

development

ofindividualtypes,and

thedifferentoperations

oftheim

aginationin

forming

andportraying

characters.

Indream

sw

econfront

ourow

nego

with

otherpersons,

become

startledby

them,even

feelshame

beforetheir

superiorintellect.For

example,

aninsane

wom

anfound

herselfin

constantconflict

with

ajudge

whom

sheblam

edfor

theloss

ofa

lawsuit.

This

judgew

asstronger

thanshe,she

claimed.

He

usedargum

entsand

legalexpres

sionsthat

shew

asunable

torefute,

indeedunable

evento

understand.Such

dissociationof ourpsychic

lifeand

thepartial

projectionof

ourow

nspiritual

substanceinto

anim

aginedperson

presentsunresolved

difficulties,yet

itdoesprovide

thebasis

forpantom

ime,

drama,

as;vell

asthe

independentlife

ofthe

charactersin

epicnarratives.

Itcan

beobserved

inthe

theatricalactor,

who

projectshim

selfinto

otherpersons

insuch

aw

aythat

while

heis

acting,his

own

senseof

selfpartially

disappears.It is

surelynot

accidentalthat

two

actors,Shakespeare

andM

oliere,lent

theircharacters

them

ostindependent

life.

Fof

thediversity

ofits

structure,w

hichis

conditionedby

thehistorical

changeof

itscontent)

Ireferthe

readerto

my

reviewof

thew

orkby

Freytag,A

ilgenseineZ

eitung,z6

March,

zM

arch,A

pril,and

April

1863.(D

)R

eprintedin

Die

grofieP

hantasiediclnung,pp.

r159.

rI114

I6

PO

ET

ICS

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

15

7

Acharacter

israised

fromthe

givensubject

matter

tothe

levelof

producinga

universallyvalid

affectiveresponse

when

constituents

ofhum

annature

thatresonate

stronglyin

everyoneare

con

nectedin

essential relationsthrough

which

theyform

acausalnexus.

Everytruly

poeticcharacter

has,therefore,

something

unrealand

typical aboutit. T

husthe

most effective

of Shakespeare’scharacters

providem

odelsfor

thenorm

alcourse

ofa

passionin

aperson

susceptibleto

it.G

oethe’sm

aincharacters,

especiallyFaust,

man

ifestthe

fullreality

ofpersonal,

livedexperience

inthe

diversem

oments

oftheir

individuallives,

butthese

images

oftheir

statesare

merely

juxtaposed.Theepic

ordram

aticportrayalofa

characterm

erelyconsists

inthe

concretepresentatioti

ofindividual

scenes;the

fullnessof

aC

haracterexists

nowhere

inthe

work,

butfirst

inthe

poet’shead

andthen

inthe

imagination

ofthehearer

orlistener.

Although

thecharacter

isunreal,

hereceives

theillusion

ofreality

throughan

artisticdevice

which

rendersour

perceptionof

himsim

ilarto

thatof

realpersons.

Them

ostintense

andbright

lightof

ourinterest

focuseson

individualm

oments

oflife

thatarouse

ourfeelings.

Thesem

oments

arerelated

toone

anotherin

perceivable

ways, and

theyperm

it theunity

of thecharacter

tobe

surmised.

Justasin

reallife, thesem

oments

areanticipated

byless

pronouncedm

oments.

Thus

therearises,

soto

speak,a

rounding-offof

life.[A

counterexample

is]a

drama

likeEm

iliaG

alotti,’3w

hich,being

composed

ofpurely

emotional

mom

ents,lacks

theserene

andhealthy

qualitiesof

human

existence.W

hatis

essentialand

typicalin

thecharacter

must

beclearly

illuminated

with

everythingelse

appearingto

graduallyfade

intothe

background.T

husthe

poetw

orkslike

thepainter.

He,

too,exhibits

onlyw

hatfalls

within

thescope

ofinterest

andattention,

andthe

focusedperception

thatresults

therefrom.

Because

ofthis

hechallenges

ourobservation

ofreality

itself.A

painterw

hostrives

toshow

everythingproduces

noillusion.

Theim

pressionof

realityis

evenfurther

strengthenedif,

asin

lifeitself,

something

impenetrable

remains

inthe

nucleusof

thecharacter.

This

isalw

aysthe

casew

henthe

poet’sim

aginationis

simultaneously

bothso

powerful

andso

realisticthat

itdoes

notsm

oothout

thejagged

edgesor

remove

theirregularities

fromits

material.

Theirrationality

thatresults

hasan

extremely

lifelikeef

fect.A

sin

aR

embrandt painting

thefeatures

emerge

onlypartially,

enigmatically, and

notinperfect balance—

theyseem

toem

ergefrom

am

ysterioustw

ilight.

Theportrayal

ofw

hatis

typicaland

essentialin

acharacter

isonly

made

possibleby

theextrem

eliveliness

ofthe

poet’sinner

processes.G

iventhat

theconditions

ofthe

characterportrayed

aresim

plified,the

imagination

alonecan

activatethese

processes.O

neprocess

thenleads

toanother

with

suchconsistency

thattheillusion

producedcom

esto

resemble

nature.T

husw

ecan

explainthe

repeated

andsom

ewhat

curiousrem

arksof

Goethe

thathe

“couldanticipate

am

ultiplicityofhum

anstates.”

“ingeneral,I took

pleasure

inportraying

my

innerw

orldbefore

becoming

acquaintedw

iththe

outerone.

When

Isubsequentlyfound

inreality

thatthe

world

was

thew

ayI

hadconceived

itto

myself,

Ifound

itirksom

e,and

Ihad

nom

oredesire

toportray

it,indeed

Iw

ouldsay

thathad

Iw

aiteduntil

Iwas

acquaintedw

iththe

world

beforeportraying

it,m

yrepresentation

would

haveturned

intopersif]age.”4°

“My

ideaof

wom

enis

notabstracted

fromthe

phenomena

ofactual

life,but

hasbeen

bornw

ithm

e,or

arisenin

me,

God

knows

how.

The

female

characters.

..

areall

betterthan

theycould

befound

inreah

tv.”’

He

knewvery

well how

theapprehension

ofthestructure

ortypical

essenceof

acharacter

isgrounded

inthis

innernecessity

with

which

thischaracter’s

traitscondition

oneanother,

buthe

failedto

understandthe

basisof

ouracquaintance

with

it.“T

hereis

incharacters

acertain

necessity,a

certaincoherence,

bym

eansof

which

certainsecondary

traitsaccom

panythis

orthat

basictrait

ofa

character.Em

piricalobservation

teachesus

thissufficiently;

however,

theknow

ledgeof

thiscan

alsobe

innatein

some

mdi

viduals.”141

13.

The

means

ofpoeticrepresentation

aregenerated

when

thegoals

ofliterature—

sensuousintensity

which

createsillu

sion,the

arousaloffeelingw

hichproduces

lastingsatisfaction,

thegeneralization

andorientation

ofparticulars

relativeto

areflective

framew

orkw

hichgives

significanceto

livedexperi.

ence—en

liventhe

entirebody

ofthe

literaryw

ork,even

theindividual

words,

thefinger

tipsof this

body,as

itw

ere.T

hussensory

illustrationsor

images,

graphicexpressions,

figures,tropes,

meter,

andrhym

earise.

Poeticshas

toshow

howthe

natureof

poeticcreativity,

activein

thenucleus

ofthe

plot,fluzally

manifests

itselfinthese

means

ofrepresentation.

Thus,

thestrong

movem

entoffeeling

which

producedthe

actionis

Eckerm

ann,G

esprache,:6

February1814.

‘.‘

Eckerm

ann,G

esprache,11

October

iSiS

;C

E,p.

341.

Eckerm

ann,G

esprache,:6

February1

8:4

.w

Lessing

(iz).

158P

OE

TIC

S

alsofinally

expressedin

figuresof

speech.A

ccordingly,the

relationof

innerstates

toim

agescontained

inthe

nucleusof

livedexperience

andthrough

which

theplot becom

esa

symbol

isat

thesam

etim

eso

much

thespiritual form

of thecreativity

of greatpoets

thatm

anym

eansof

representationderive

fromthis

relation.

Inthe

rhetoricand

poeticsofthe

ancients,the

theoryof the

means

ofrepresentation

underwent

anexem

plarydevelopm

entfrom

thestandpoint

ofthe

analysisof

form.

Scaliger’sPoetics,”’

with

itsextraordinarily

subtletreatm

entof

theseform

s,w

asstill

relatedto

thetheory

ofthe

ancients,just

asthe

classicalFrench

theoryof

tragicaction

was

toA

ristotle.Still

tobe

developedis

adynam

icm

odeof

analyzingm

eansof

representationbased

onthe

causalknow

ledgeof

linguistics.T

heprinciples

forcarrying

outthis

taskw

eresketched

inour

psychological

foundation.T

heirapplication

isgoverned

bythe

following

principle:the

natureof

poeticcreativity

which

fashionsthe

motifs,

plot, characters, andactions

fromthe

subject matter

isstill operative

inthe

individualm

eansof

representation—even

inevery

singlesy

llable—

andthe

forms

enumerated

byclassical

rhetoricand

poeticsm

ustbe

interpretedon

thebasis

ofthis

creativity.Let

usfirst

illustratethe

abovew

ithtropes.

The

realnucleus

ofpoetry,

livedexperience,

containsa

relationof

theinner

andthe

outer.“Spirit

andgarm

ent,”anim

ationand

embodim

ent,the

significance

ofa

sequenceof

shapesor

sounds,and

thevisual

image

foran

ephemeral

psychicstate—

anartist

seesthese

relationsevery

where.

He

evendiscerns

andappreciates

atacit

creativelife

and1Z

7tranquil

energyin

stonesand

flowers.

The

supreme

principleof

understandingthe

world

doesindeed

liein

thepsychophysical

natureof

man,

which

hethen

transfersto

theentire

world.

There

existstable

lawful

relationsbetw

eeninner

statesand

outerim

agesw

hichm

anifestthem

selvesin

dreams

andinsanity

asw

ellas

inlanguage,

myth,

andm

etaphysicaland

con

ceptualpoetry.

Ifw

econceive

anatural

symbol

asan

image

thatstands

ina

stable, lawful

relationto

aninner

state, thencom

parativeconsiderations

showthat

ourpsychological

natureprovides

thebasis

fora

sphereof

naturalsym

bolsfound

indream

sand

insanity,as

well

asfor

thosefound

inlanguage,

myth,

andpoetry.

Forex

ample,

ifone

sideof

ourbody

hasbecom

enum

bby

lyingon

it,

‘4’Julius

Caesar

Scaliger(1

484-1

558).

Author

ofPoetkes

Libri

SeptumU

them

ostinfluential

poeticsof

theR

enaissance.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

159

thenw

eim

aginein

ourdream

thatsom

eoneis

lyingnext

tous;

orif

pressurehas

putour

handto

sleep,it

will

appearto

belongto

anotherbody

inour

dream.

Griesinger’

haspointed

outthat

certain

innerstates

orfeelings

ofan

insaneperson

manifestthem

selvesin

thebelief

thathis

ideasare

either“produced

by”or

“derivedfrom

”som

eoneelse;

andL

azarushas

calledattention

tothe

factthat

primitive

peopleshave

similar

beliefs.’45T

husthe

innerstates

ofthe

insaneare

expressedin

asphere

ofim

poverished,truncated

symbols.

These

relationsare

unfoldedin

aricher

andfreer

manner

inlanguage,

myth,

andpoetry,

butstill

inaccordance

with

Jaws.

Eventhe

basicm

ythsthat

illuminate

external,distant

andtran

scendentphenom

enaby

means

ofthe

livedexperience

ofour

own

innernature

arelim

itedin

number.

These

processesof

embodim

entand

enliveningoperate

with

thegreatestenergy

andfreedom

inthe

psycheof

thepoet.T

hat isshow

nin

eachof

Goethe’s

notesto

Frauvon

Stein:in

everycase

thereis

asituation,

afeeling

abouthis

state,and

atrope

inw

hichhe

expresses

himself.

We

learnfrom

thisthat

theim

age,the

comparison,

thetrope,

arenot

addedin

thepresentation

likea

garment

thrown

overa

body;rather

theyare

itsnatural

skin,so

tospeak.

The

formation

ofsym

bols,w

hichis

theheart

ofthe

poeticprocess,

extendsthroughout

thebody

ofthe

literaryw

ork—it

encompasses

personificationand

metaphor,

synecdocheand

metonym

y.W

hatoften

offendsour

senseof

tastein

theabundance

ofim

agesin

Shakespeareor

CalderO

n,146is

preciselythe

uninhibitedflow

andstream

ofthis

constantlysparkling

movem

entof

thepoetic

imag

ination.T

heanalyses

ofthe

forms

oftrope,

which

theancients

havebequeathed

tous,can

become

thestarting

pointfor

adeeper

knowl

edgeon

thebasis

ofour

causalapproach.

We

canillustrate

thisw

ithrhetorical-poetic

figuresof speech.

All

poeticcreativity

revealsthe

influenceof

feelingson

them

ovement

ofrepresentations.

The

feverishtem

poof

thecharacters

andthe

actionin

Shakespeare,and

thegrandeur

ofSchiller’s

dramatic

action,are

thenatural

expressionsofthe

affectiveand

volitionalstyles

ofthese

greatm

en.Even

theordering

ofthe

words

insentences

andthe

choicesof

figuresof

speechderive

fromthis

naturalm

ovement

‘44

fliltheyrevtew

edthe

4thed.

ofW

.G

riesinger’sPathologic

rindT

hnapfeder

psychrscher;K

rankheiten(B

raunschweig:

F.W

reden,1

87

6).

SeeG

S,X

VII,

71.

Moritz

Lazarus,

Das

Leben

dc,Seele,

inM

onographienüber

seineE

rscheiriungen

rindG

esetze,vol.

t(B

erlin:D

umm

ler,iR

$).

‘Pedro

Calderón

tieIa

Barca

(a6o

o-8

i).S

panishpoet

whose

works

(ii,

secularand

3religious

dramas)

representthe

highpoint

ofthe

Spanishtheater.

I r

Lit

r

ofthe

soul.H

yperboLeand

understatement are

thusm

erelythe

finaland

most

palpableexpressions

ofthe

laws

accordingto

which

images

areintensified

orreduced,

expandedor

condensed,under

theinfluence

offeeling.

Effortsto

intensifythe

strengthof

afeeling

bym

eansof

contrastproduce

thosetensions

inthe

actionsor

thecharacters

which

belongto

theinner

structureof

aw

ork,but

theyfinally

resonatein

arhetorical

antithesis.\V

edesignate

theinner

formof

aw

ork,from

theinitial

processof

extricatingthe

motifs

fromthe

subjectm

atterto

thew

orkingout

ofthe

tropes,figures,

meter,

andlanguage,

asthe

styleof

thew

ork.V

ariousattem

ptshave

beenm

adeto

discoverthe

basicdistinctions

of style.V

ischer’sdistinction

between

directand

indirectidealization

must

becalled

agenuine

aestheticdiscovery.’47

CH

AP

TE

RT

HR

EE

.

TH

EH

IST

0RIcIT

YO

FPO

ET

ICT

EC

HN

IQU

E

r.W

ehave

notedagain

andagain

thatthe

goalsand

methods

ofthe

variousliterary

genrescannot

bederived

throughcom

biningthe

principlesof

poeticreceptivity.

Thus,

theydo

notcontain

auniversally

validtechnique.

Ifw

etake

theprinciples

ofpoetic

receptivity,

seekto

arrangeim

pressionsaccording

tothem

inan

op

timally

perfectw

ay,select

fromam

ongthe

possibilitiesw

hichco

ntain

theindividual

mom

entsof

innerform

,m

ood,m

otif,plot,

etc.,those

that

arem

ostfavorable

andcorrespond

most

toone

another,even

thena

realdecision

asto

theirm

ostperfect

combination

ina

novelor

drama

will

neverresult

fromthese

formal

relations.T

heyresult

inm

ereshadow

sand

transientpossibilities

which

arenot

clearlydeterm

inedeither

inthem

selvesor

intheir

relations.If

we

dissectthe

impression

which

anartw

orkproduces,

we

findthat

theprinciples

ofreceptivity

arehighly

composite

andthat

them

oments

ofinner

formaccording

tow

hichit

iscom

posedare

verynum

erous.T

hepurity

andm

agnitudeof

theim

pressionare

conditionedby

allof

these.B

utthe

impression

isultim

atelydependent

onthe

innerconnection

which

existsbetw

eenthe

mean

ing-co

nten

t,w

hichhas

‘4’

FriedrichT

heodorV

ischer(1807-87),

authorof

thethree-volum

eA

esthetik,oder

Wissenscha[t

desScbbnen

(Reutlingen

undLeipzig:

Carl

Macken’s

Verlag,

r846-57).T

hecontrast

between

thesetw

om

odesof

idealizationis

formulated

byV

ischerin

Section657:

According

tothe

lawof

directidealization,

eachparticular

formm

ustbe

beautiful.T

hisis

supersededby

thelaw

ofindirect

idealizationw

hichproduces

beautyfrom

thecooperation

ofa

pluraLityof

forms

which

neednot

them

selvesbe

beautiful.See

vol.3,

pp.5331.,

11

901.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

i6i

developedhistorically,

andthe

form

belongingto

it. The

principlesof

receptivityand

theirrule-governed

connectionin

theinner

formz19

operatethroughout

thew

holew

ork;butw

hatgivesitthe

characterof

greatart

isthe

linkw

herebythis

formproves

tobelong

inseparably

toa

historicallydeveloped

andpow

erfulcontent.

Thus

we

obtainthe

firstprinciplew

hichexpounds

thehistoricity

oftechnique.

Itexpresses

ouropposition

toevery

formalistic

aesthetics,

butalso

toevery

aestheticsw

hich,like

Fechner’s,is

basedon

thesum

mation

ofeffective

elements.

Theprinciples

ofthe

poeticreceptivity

andthe

possibilitiesof

effectivelyconnecting

powerfulcom

ponentsinto

aninner

formestablish

atechnicalfram

ework

forthe

poeticw

orkonly

when

ahistorically

developedcontent attains

itsproperform

byusing

thesem

eans.

z.W

ew

ouldlike

topenetrate

thenature

ofthis

historicityof

poetictechnique

andcom

prehendm

oreexactly

therelation

between

thehistorically

developedcontent

andits

form.

Thism

eaning-contentis

presentedas

aunity.

Accordingly,

itm

ightseem

thatthe

historicalcontinuum

couldbe

developedin

terms

oflogical

relationsbetw

eenunivocal

positions.In

thisw

ay,the

Hegelians

haveruined

ourunderstanding

of modern

philosophyw

iththeir

fictionof

thelogical

unfoldingof

onestandpoint

fromanother.

Inreality,

ahistorical

situationcontains,

firstof

all,a

multiplicity

ofparticular

facts.They

standnext

toone

anotherindifferently

andcannotbe

tracedback

toone

another.They

reflectsuch

givensas

theoriginal

distributionofw

ater andland, m

ountainsand

plains,clim

ate,and

perhapseven

originalvariations

among

human

beings.In

theplay

andcounterplay

ofhistorical

forcesthat

takesplace

againstthis

backdrop,the

effectsbecom

econsolidated

intoim

penetrablefacts.

Their

coordinationw

ithina

givenperiod

firstconstitutes

thehistorical

situation.The

causalnexus

producesa

relationshipof

mutual

dependenceand

thusof

innerrelatedness

between

groupsof

thesefacts.

Thus

theconstitution

andeducation

ofa

peopleof

agiven

periodstand

insuch

arelationship

ofreciprocal

dependenceand

affinity.T

henan

intensivelyand

widely

operativefactor

inevitablyproduces

effects

ina

largenum

berof

thesecoordinated

factsw

hichim

parta

comm

onim

print,a

mark

ofkinship,

toall

ofthese.

Thus,

therational

andm

echanisticspirit

ofthe

seventeenthcentury

putits

stamp

onthe

poetry,the

politics,and

thew

arfareof

thatperiod.

z,o

i6o1

PO

ET

ICS

x6zP

OE

TIC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T163

Furthermore,

human

work

always

relatesfacts

intothe

unityof

apurposive

whole,

andw

heresuch

apurposive

whole

issuccessful,

italw

aysbecom

esthe

model

form

anyothers.

Inthe

coordinationof

factsthat

constitutea

historicalage,

thesecauses

anda

largenum

berof

othersgenerate

reciprocitiesand

affinities,w

iththe

con

sequencethat

thiscoordination

canbe

compared

toa

system.

All

ofthis

iscontained

inC

omte’s

conceptof

socialconsensus,

which,

ofcourse,

hasstill

broaderim

plications.B

utthe

unityof

aperiod

anda

peoplethat

we

charactecizeas

thehistorical

spiritof

anage

canonly

arisefrom

theseelem

entsthrough

thecreative

power

andself-assurance

ofa

genius.K

nowl

edgeor

artisticcreativity

canproduce

aunity

in,am

ong,and

be

tween

theseindifferent

facts—a

unityw

hichis

made

possibleby

thiscoordination

offacts

ina

givenage. T

hat happensthrough

thatm

ostcom

prehensiveand

creativem

ethodof

combination

ofw

hichhum

angenius

iscapable

inthe

areaof

sensing,contem

plating,and

thinking.T

hegenius

ofthe

ruleror

thestatesm

anforges

isolatedfacts

intoa

purposiveunity

which

theircoordination

makes

pos

sible.T

heaim

ofthis

kindof

geniusis

verydifferent

fromthat

ofthe

artistand

thephilosopher,

butthey

areakin

with

respectto

scopeand

greatness.

Inreligion

andphilosophy,

inart

andespecially

inpoetry,

thecoordination

of constituentsw

hichexists

ina

particulartim

e,and

alreadycontains

initself causal

relationsand

affinities,is

connectedthrough

ahistorically

creativeprocess

intoa

unityw

hichtranscends

what

isgiven.

Thus,it

isthe

achievement

ofgenius

tofirst produce

thatunity

which

we

characterizeas

thespiritofan

agefrom

api original manifold,

itsconstituents,

andtheir

individualrelations.

.T

hisis

thepoint

atw

hichw

ecan

bringtogether

historical andpsychological

considerations.W

ehave

alreadyexpounded

apsy

chologicalconcept

ofthe

acquirednexus

ofour

psychiclife

andrelated

itto

thecteative

work

ofthe

poet.In

agreat

man

thisacquired

nexusrepresents

theavailable

structureof

coordinatedfacts,

i.e.,principles,

valuedeterm

inations,and

purposesin

asen

sitiveand

accuratem

anner.It

theninfluences

theprocesses

which

occurin

consciousness.T

hepoetic

work

thusbecom

esthe

mIrror

131

ofthe

period.In

Ham

let,Shakespeare

hasform

ulatedthis

achievem

entof

poetryw

ithartistic

awareness,

atleast

fordram

a:“[T

ihepurpose

ofplaying,

whose

end,both

atthe

firstand

now,

was

andis,

tohold,

as‘tw

ere,the

mirror

upto

nature,to

showvirtue

her

own

feature,scorn

herow

nim

age,and

thevery

ageand

bodyof

thetim

ehis

formand

pressure.”8H

erew

ecan

solvethe

riddleof

howan

agecan

become

thematic

bothto

itselfand

tous

inthe

plots,actions,

andcharacters

ofits

poets.T

heacquired

nexusof

thepsychic

lifeof

agreat

man

iscausally

conditionedand

thusrepresents

thecoordination

ofthe

constituentsof

thelife,

thought,feeling,

andstriving

ofa

period.Since

theacquired

nexusis

formed

inthe

processesw

ehave

beenconsidering,

thoseaspects

ofreality

which

arerelated

toone

another,or

theircausal

structure,are

alreadyapprehended

inthis

nexus,and

thusit

alreadyaccentuates

what

isessential

inthe

phenomena

oflife.

This

overallnexus,

al

thoughnot

clearlyand

distinctlydifferentiated

accordingto

con

stituentsand

relations,w

orksas

aw

holeto

conditionthe

processesin

thepoet

throughw

hichrepresentations

oflife

areelevated

topoetic

images.

We

havedescribed

indetail

howthis

occurs.T

heplot,

action,and

charactersrepresent

thisnexus.

Literary

figures,filled

with

meaning,are

surroundedby

anauraof

significancew

hichderives

fromthe

framew

orkof

anunderstanding

ofthe

world,

forthis

framew

orkconditions

thew

aythe

essentialstructure

ofthe

charactersand

theirinterrelations

arebrought

intorelief.

Goethe

sensedthis

aboutthe

figuresof

hisgreat

poemFaust,

referringto

“them

agicbreath

thathovers

roundtheir

course.”

ftis

always

thespirit

ofan

age.

Psychologically,the

contributionofthe

poeticgenius

ism

adepossible

bythe

factthat

theacquired

nexusofhis

psychiclife

isconditioned

bythe

coordinationof

theconstituents

ofan

age.The

nexusthus

representsthis

coordination.In

turn,the

poeticprocesses

takingplace

inconsciousness

andtheir

results—

plot,action,

character,m

eansof

representation—are

conditionedby

thisacquired

nexusand

thusthem

selvesrep

resentthis

nexus.

.T

hehistoricity

ofpoetic

techniquew

asalready

implicit

inour

psychologicalfoundation.

Forits

most

significantresult

was

thatthe

principlesof

poeticcreativity

asw

ellas

ofpoetic

effectare

pervasiveproperties

ofvery

complex

processesthrough

which

thelasting

satisfactionof

thecreator

andthe

spectatorare

attained.These

principlesconstitute

anum

ericallyindeterm

inatem

anifoldw

ithinw

hichthought

cannotproduce

therelations

ofa

logical“‘

Ham

let,act

3,scene

a,lines

[9-13.‘4

’FromD

edicationof

Faust,

line8.

F,p.

y.

131

16

4P

OE

TIC

S

system.

This

thesisprovided

usw

iththe

principleof

anem

piricaland

thereforepsychological

aesthetics,as

opposedto

idealisticaes

thetics,w

hichis

fundamentally

metaphysical.

On

theother

hand,since

we

tookthe

poet’screative

processas

ourpoint

ofdeparture,

ratherthan

Herbart’s

simple

enumeration

ofunrelated

aestheticideas

orFechner’s

unrelatedprinciples

ofpleasurable

effect,w

earrived

atan

evenm

orefundam

entalunity

foraesthetics

throughthe

psychologicalanalysis

ofcreation

andunderstanding.

But

thenecessary

correlateof

ourthesis

isthe

following:

On

thebasis

ofthe

norms

ofpoetic

creativityas

well

asthe

principlesof

thepoetic

impression,

itis

theachievem

entof

thepoetic

geniusto

producea

formand

thusthe

techniqueof

aliterary

genrefrom

thefactual

multiplicity

of thegiven

lifeofa

period;this

formis

thushistorically

conditionedand

relative.A

ninsight

intoultim

atequestions

isopened

up.If

itwere

within

thepow

erofour

knowledge

andour

attitudeto

thew

orldto

obtain

auniversally

validunderstanding

ofthe

world,

thenthe

works

ofpoets

would

doso

thousandfoldas

inm

oreor

lessperfect

mirrors.

There

areindeed

universallyvalid

featuresin

ourexperience

which

pointbeyond

usto

aninner

nexusof

thew

orld.A

glanceat

theim

measurable

expanseof the

heavensshow

sus

theintelligibility

ofthe

cosmos.

And

turningback

intoourselves,

we

findthat w

henever

aperson’s

will

breaksthrough

thenexus

ofperception,

desire,im

pulse,and

enjoyment,

andis

nolonger

concernedm

erelyw

ithhim

self,an

experienceresults

which

Ihave

characterizedas

metaphys

icalconsciousness

incontrast

tothe

changingm

etaphysicalsystem

s.’5°It

isalso

aconsequence

ofthis

thatall

greatand

truepoetry

exhibitscom

mon

traits.It

requiresthe

consciousnesssof

thefreedom

andresponsibility

ofour

actionsas

well

asthe

consciousness

ofthe

nexusofour

actionsin

accordancew

ithcause

andeffect.

The

theorythat

ouractions

areexternally

andm

echanicallydeter

mined

will

neverevoke

alasting

convictionin

agreat

poet.B

utneither

philosophicalthought

norpoetic

creationcan

derivea

un

iversally

validunderstanding

ofthe

world

fromthese

obscure,d

isconnected

traits.T

heunderstanding

ofthe

world

which

theyare

capableof producing

isconditioned

by,andrelative

to,thehistorical

situationof

consciousness.T

his,then,

isw

hatpoetic

formis

de

pendenton.

133Poetic

formarises

onlythrough

atransform

ationof

representations

oflife

intoaesthetic

constituentsand

relations.It

isthus

al

“See

introductionto

theH

uman

Sciences,B

ookII,

inSW

,vol.

i.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

16

5

readyconditioned

bythe

coordinationof

therealities

oflife

andtheir

representations,w

hichconstitute

thecharacter

ofan

age.T

heselection

andexclusion

ofconstituents,

theirtransform

ation,ac

centuation,and

overallconnection

arehistorically

conditioned.The

way

inw

hicha

periodunderstands

thew

orlddeterm

inesboth

which

represen

tations

of

lifeare

elicitedby

feelingand

thedirection

inw

hichit

developsthem

intopoetic

constituentsand

relations.T

hisunderstanding

ofthe

world

bringsout

something

essentialin

thecharacters.

Itgives

significanceto

theaction.

Itopens

upbroad

persp

ectives

thro

ugh

affinity

and

con

trastb

etween

thecharacters.

Itcreates

aspecific

kindof

unityin

thedram

aticaction.

And

it

doesall

thisprecisely

onthe

basisof

theactual

affinities,contrasts,

structu

ralun

ities,and

reciprocaleffects

which

thelife

ofthe

ageplaces

atits

disp

osal.

The

important

conceptof

thehistorical

typesof

techniquein

aliterary

genrearises

fromsuch

considerations.Friedrich

Schlegelcharacterized

thesetypes

asschools—

acharacterization

which,

fol

lowing

Winckelm

ann,ISThe

borrowed

fromthe

visualarts.

Ishall

illustrate

thisconcept

usingdram

aas

anexam

ple.G

ustavFreytag

derivedthe

following

schema

ofdram

aticform

fromthe

simple

relationsof

thedisturbing

forcesw

ithina

unitaryaction,w

hichare

thenrelentlessly

driventow

arda

tragicconclusion

throughpassion.

The

drama

hasthe

structureof

apyram

id:it

ascendsfrom

theexposition

throughthe

increasingintensity

ofa

disturbingm

oment,

tothe

climax,

anddeclines

fromthis

pointto

thecatastrophe.

Thus,

two

furtherparts—

intensificationand

de

cline—are

addedto

thethree

originalparts—

ascendingexposition,

climax,

andcatastrophe.

These

fiveparts

arein

turnarticulated

intoscenes

andgroups

ofscenes,

althoughthe

climax

usuallycom

prisesone

main

scene.Three

importantpoints

separateand

connectthese

fiveparts:

theseare

thedisturbing

mom

entbetw

eenthe

exposition

andintensification;

thetragic

mom

entbetw

eenthe

climax

andthe

reversal;and,

finally,as

astructural

device,the

mom

entof

ultimate

suspensebetw

eenthe

reversaland

thecatastrophe.

Thus

eightphases

ofa

drama

areto

bedistinguished.

Furthermore,

everyone

ofthese

eightphaseshas

itsow

nspecific

delineationaccording

toits

positionin

thew

holeof

thedram

aticstructure.

With

theease

ofa

technicallyexperienced

playwright

andof

afine

criticalm

ind,G

ustavFreytag

developedin

thislaw

ofdram

aticform

thedynam

ic

JohannJoachim

Winckelm

ann(1717-68).

Germ

anart

historianand

archeologist.

FII

POETIC

S

relationsin

anaction

drivenforw

ardby

apassion,

which

then

z34

encountersa

reactionand

thushastens

toward

acatastrophe.

Ho

w

ever, thoseare

notthe

characteristicsof

greatdram

ain

general, but

ratherof

aspecific

typeof

drama.

The

techniqueof

theG

reekdram

ais

asm

uchdeterm

inedby

a

historicalcontent of

lifeas

thatof

theSpanish

orE

nglish.Stem

ming

fromthe

dithyrambs

of thefestival of D

ionysus,thegripping

content

ofA

ttictragedy

consistsin

the(act that

theinnerm

ost,holy

nucleusof

faithsuddenly

confrontedthe

contemporary

Athenian

with

sensory

realityand

emotional

power.

And

sincethe

myths

ofthe

clans

andthe

godsinvolved

thefate

ofseveral

generations,the

encompassing

formof

thetragic

trilogy—based

onthe

organizationof

thestage,

theparticipation

ofm

usicand

conventionsof

rhetoric—w

asdeveloped

inthe

creativem

indof

Aeschylus.

When

theun

derstandingof

thesepresuppositions

graduallyfaded

afterthe

de

dineof

theold

clanstructure

andthe

oldfaith,

theform

ofthe

tragictrilogy

alsodissolved.

Whereas

theA

ttictrilogy

was

unfoldedfrom

asim

pleseed

into

well-tem

pered,rhythm

icalproportions,

theSpanish

andE

nglishtheater

progressedfrom

thecolorful,

crude,and

disorderlyadven

turesof

thepopular

stageto

thecreation

ofan

integrateddram

atic

type.T

hisdevelopm

enttook

placein

thosetw

onations

through

many

originalexperim

ents, inconstant confrontation

with

theform

andtheory

inheritedfrom

theG

reeks.In

bothcases

it was

acreative

individualw

hosucceeded

infinding

thetype

ofa

newform

.H

owever,

thekinds

oftheater

forw

hichLope

deV

egaand

Shakespeareestablished

theirform

were

asdifferent

fromeach

otheras

thelife

ofthe

peoplein

Spainand

England

atthat

time.

Lope

deV

ega

wrote

inthe

New

Art

ofW

ritingPlays:

“Inthe

happyage,

when

theglorious

monarchs

Ferdinandand

Isabellaconquered

Granada,

when

Colum

busdiscovered

Am

erica,the

Inquisitionw

aslaunched

and,at

thesam

etim

e,our

comedy,

sothat

everyonew

ouldbe

encouragedto

performgood

andheroic

actionsby

beingshow

n

thedeeds

ofgreat

men.”

Itis

inthis

sensethar

Lopede

Vega

designatedquestions

ofhonor

andvirtuous

actionsas

thesubject

matter

most

suitedto

drama.

Dram

aof

thistype

isthus

notchar

acterizedby

atragic

ending,but

ratherbegins

with

aconflict

and

generallyproceeds

throughplay

andcounterplay

toa

crisisin

which

honoris

establishedor

virtuousaction

isrew

arded.Itis

notunusual

forthe

monarch

orhis

representativeto

make

adeus

exniachina

appearanceas

anabsolute

Catholic

presencein

orderto

establish

135

justiceor

torepair

whatever

damage

tohonor

thatm

ightrem

ain.

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

167

The

enrirescope

ofa

poet’stalent

isconcentrated

oncom

plicatingthe

actionby

means

ofever

newtheatrical

devices,on

conjoiningthe

most

colorfulcontrasts

oflife,

andon

maintaining

thesuspense

tothe

end.L

opede

Vega

notesexpressly

thatsince

theSpanish

want

tosee

much

ina

fewhours,

theunities

oftim

eand

placecannot

bepreserved;

onlythe

unityof

actionm

ustbe

observed.“It

isnot

possibleto

remove

anypan

ofthe

plotw

ithoutthereby

•dam

agingthe

whole.”

Many

attempts

were

made

totam

ethe

un

rulinessof

theE

nglishpopular

stagew

iththe

methods

ofSeneca’s

theaterand

with

therules

ofthe

ancients.T

hencam

eShakespeare,

who,in

agenuinely

Protestantway,finds

thenucleus

ofhisdram

aticform

inthe

character,passion,

andconscience

ofhis

hero.

The

formof a

work

ofliteratureand

thetechnique

ofaliterary

genreare

historicallyconditioned

onthe

basisof

itsm

eaning-content.

The

historyof

literaturem

ustelucidate

thehistorical

typesoftechnique

employed

inthe

specificgenres

ofliterature.

5.A

midst

thishistorical

variabilityof

poeticform

andtechnique

asw

ellas

thevariability

ofim

pressionand

taste,stable

lawful

relationshipsem

erge,w

hichthe

historyof

literaturewiLl

graduallyconfirm

throughthe

comparative

method.

Aparticular

typeof

literary

genredevelops

ata

determinate

historicalplace,

usuallyby

means

ofa

rapidform

ativeprocess,

andit

receivesits

character,coloring,scope,

andform

fromthis

soil.Since

thereexists

ageneral

processofconsolidating

whatcan

bepreserved

inrepresentations—

which

islim

itedonly

byInconsistencies

inthe

tradition—specific

mom

entsof

formdevelop

andunfold

inhisrory.

Poeticm

oodsare

expressedin

major

works

andare

passedon

throughthese

works,

notonly

tothe

public,but

alsoto

thepoets

who

follow.

Motifs

areextracted

fromthe

fullnessof

livedexperience,

andtheir

motive

forceand

applicabilitym

anifestsitself.

Character

typesare

developed,

theirstructure

becomes

transparent,and

theart

ofintuiting

characterspoetically

ishanded

down

topoets

bytheir

predecessors.From

thestructuring

ofthe

actionto

them

ostintricate

subtletiesof

meter,

we

findever

more

ways

inw

hichtechnique

istransm

itted.If w

enow

compare

thehistorical

typesw

ithina

genreof

literature,tw

okinds

ofseriescan

beform

edw

hichdisplay

constantrelations.

Within

thesam

enation

thereexists

alaw

likeprogression

froma

religious,sublim

estyle

toa

stateof

equilibriumand

fromthere

tothe

moving

andpassionate,

technicallyeffective

andcom

plexstyle,

asScaliger,

Winckelm

ann,and

FriedrichSchlegel

discovered.If

we

j66

rI

1I

136

s68

PO

ET

LC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

TI9

constructa

seriesof

thetypes

ofform

ofa

literarygenre, proceeding

throughthe

entirecontinuum

ofour

culture,but

omitting

those

partscharacterized

bythe

imperfect

assimilation

ofearlier

culture,

thenanother

veryim

portantlaw

likerelation

emerges.

As

lifebe

comes

more

complex,

asits

constituentsand

theirrelations

toone

anothergrow

more

manifold,

andespecially

asm

oreand

more

emotionally

impoverished

technologicalfactors

intrudebetw

een

thosem

oments

thatw

eexperience

with

feeling,it

requiresgreater

power

toraise

thecontent

oflife

topoetic

form.

Correspondingly,

theform

which

isto

solvethe

problemm

ustbecom

e,internally

at

least,m

orecom

plicated.Popular

modes

offiction, w

hichplay

with

thism

ultiplicityinform

ally, become

more

prevalent. Genuine

works

ofliterature,

which

attainan

integralform

throughartistic

simpli

fication,require

anever

greaterdegree

ofgenius.

Lawlike

relationsbetw

eenthese

typesof

poeticform

canbe

discoveredby

linkingpoetics

tothe

comparative

historyof

literature.W

ithina

nationthere

existsa

lawful

sequenceof

styleforns.

Tothe

extentthat

theconstituents

oflife

become

more

manifold

inhum

anhistory

andthe

number

of technical,em

otionallyim

poverishedm

oments

increases,a

greaterpow

eris

requiredto

elevatethe

contentof

lifeto

poeticform

.

6.The

futureof

poetrycannot

bepredicted

onthe

basisof

its

past.B

utpoetics

teachesus

toapprehend

andappreciate

with

his

toricalsensibility

theliving

forcesof

thepresent

andthe

coming-

into-existenceof

artform

sbased

onthem

.For

theterm

“classical”does

notdesignate

what corresponds

tocertain

rules;rather,

aw

orkis

classicalto

theextent

thatit

stillprovides

usa

complete

satisfaction

inthe

presentand

hasa

broadand

continuingim

pact.A

poeticsbased

uponpsychology

makes

possible,above

all,the

recognitionof

thesocial

functionof

literature;the

feelingof

the

dignityof

thepoetic

vocationrests

uponthis

recognition.In

antiq

uity,poetry

was

notyet

distinguishedfrom

speech,religion,

myth,

andm

etaphysicalthought.

None

ofm

an’shistorical

attitudescan

everbe

completely

expressedin

concepts. The

urgeto

comm

unicatethe

inexpressibleis

thesource

ofsym

bols.M

ythsgrasp

them

ostim

portantrelationships

ofreality

froma

religiouspoint

ofview

.

Sincethese

relationshipsare

allrelated

toone

anotherand

since

137

thehum

anheart

isalw

aysthe

same,

basicm

ythspervade

humanity.

They

involvesym

bolssuch

asthe

relationshipof

afather

tohis

children,the

relationof

thesexes,

battle,plunder

andvictory,

im

agesof

theland

ofthe

blessedand

ofparadise.

Insuch

symbols

the

external,distant,

andtranscendent

isalw

aysm

adevisible

onthe

basisof

thelived

experienceof

one’sow

ninner

life.R

elationshipsw

hichextend

fromreality

tothe

beyondare

interpretedon

thebasis

ofrelations

which

arefam

iliarto

ourem

otionallife.

Justas

thenum

berof basic

myths

islimited,so

toois

thenum

berofelem

entarysym

bolsw

hichrecur

inthe

religiousrituals

ofall peoples.E

xamples

ofsuch

ritualsym

bolsinclude

icons,sacrifices,

funeralrites,

ban

quets,and

bonfires.A

sif

byan

elemental

power,

livedexperiences

were

elevatedto

poeticsignificance

throughspeech,

religion,and

mythical

thought;sim

ilarly,naturew

asanim

ated, thespiritual w

asgiven

embodim

ent,and

realityw

asidealized.

Only

graduallydid

poetryfree

itselffrom

thism

ythicalcontext.

Ever

sincethen

poetryhas

become

increasingly

independent.T

heunity

ofthe

spiritualrealm

createdin

theM

iddleA

gesby

connectingtheology

andm

etaphysicshas

beengradually

dissolvedsince

thefifteenth

century.T

heextensive

attention

thatw

asthen

givento

metaphysical

constructionsis

nowgiven

toreligion

andart.

Shakespeare,C

ervantes,or

AriostotSa

foundunpretentious

andnaive

ways

ofexpressing

them

eaningof

lifew

ithoutventuringto

challengetheology

orphilosophy.

Richardson,

Sterne,and

Swift,

Rousseau

andD

iderot,G

oetheand

Schilleras

sertedthe

rightof

geniusto

expoundthe

meaning

oflife

inim

agesderived

fromtheir

feelings;but

theystill

soughta

relationshipto

metaphysical

thought.In

ourday

thepath

hasbeen

totallycleared

forpoetic

genius.Sincereligion

haslostthe

supportofm

etaphysicalargum

entsfor

theexistence

ofG

odand

thesoul,

fora

great number

ofpeople

todayonly

artand

literaturecan

stillprovide

anideal

conceptionof

them

eaningof

life.Poetry

ispervaded

bythe

feelingthat

ititselfm

ustfurnish

theauthentic

interpretationof

life.Indeed,

eventhe

extravagancesof

theFrench

novel,w

hichseem

sto

becom

petingw

iththe

socialsciences,

aregrounded

inthis

consciousness.

Forthe

time

beingthe

Frenchnovel

occupiesa

terrainsu

rrounded

bya

morass:

letus

hopethat

someday

genuineliterature

will

come

tobloom

there.T

heplace

assignedto

poetryby

modern

man

will

bedeterm

inedby

thefollow

ingconsiderations.

Contem

porarym

anw

antsto

make

oflife

whatever

canbe

made

ofit

bythe

artof

living.For

thefaith

ofreflective

experiencein

itsunlim

itedcapacity

seems

tobe

cor

roboratedanew

daily.B

utm

odernm

ancan

onlyfulfill

hiscapacity

Ludov,coA

riosto(1

47

4-1

53

3).

Italianpoet

ofthe

Renaissance,

andthe

fatheruf

Renaissance

Italiancom

edy.

138

17

0P

OE

TIC

S

tothe

extentthat

heknow

sthe

nexusof

causalityand

them

eaningof

life.T

hesciences

ofnature

andof

societyhave

thecausal

nexusof

allappearances

astheir

object.Y

et,the

meaning

oflife

andof

externalreality

cannever

begrasped

bythem

.T

hism

eaningcan

onlybe

graspedindividually

andsubjectively

throughlife-experi

ence.L

iteraturegives

anintensified

expressionto

theexperiences

oflife

andof

theheart.

Itpresents

thebeauty

oflife

amid

itsbitterness,

thedignity

ofthe

personam

idhis

limitations.

Here

we

reachthe

highestof

thesuccessive

levelsof

thefunctions

ofpoetry.

The

connectinglinks

thatlead

fromthe

previouslydiscussed

most

generaland

elementary

functionof

allliterature

tothis,

itshighest

accomplishm

ent,have

beenindicated

everywhere;

thereader

cansupplem

entw

hatw

ehave

said.M

odernpoetics

rendersa

furtherservice

tothe

poetryof

thepresent

byrecognizing

thehistorical

natureof

techniqueand

thusacquainting

ourcontem

porarypoets

with

therules

flowing

fromthe

natureof

man

andthe

artisticdevices

acquiredthrough

historical

experience.O

nthe

otherhand,

itfreespoetry

fromthe

shacklesof

inheritedform

sand

rules.T

hepoetics

ofour

greatpoets

stillstrove

tosubject

epicpoetry

tothe

basiclaw

sof

Hom

ericform

,and

thepoetics

ofFreytag

andO

ttoL

udwig

stillsubjected

ourdram

ato

theform

ofShakespeare.

The

poeticsw

hichw

ehave

outlinedoffers

thepoet

theprinciples

which

governthe

poeticim

pressionand

thenorm

sby

which

poeticcreativity

isbound.

But

it hasat the

same

time

demonstrated

thehistorical

relativityof even

them

ostperfect

form.

Itsaim

sare

toencourage

thecontem

porarypoet

toseek

anew

formand

techniquefor

thesubstance

ofhis

ageand

tosee

hishighest

lawin

alasting,

universallysatisfying

effect.Furtherm

ore,w

ecan

alreadysee

invague

outlinesthe

newform

sin

which

thepoetic

contentof

ourage

andour

peoplecan

findits

expression.T

heG

ermanic

peoplesw

illalw

aysplace

ahero,

ratherthan

adestiny

ora

crisis,at

thecenter

ofthe

work

ofliterature.

Nathan

theW

ise,Iphigenia,

andFaust

alreadycom

pletelytranscend

thenexus

ofpassion,

guilt,and

catastrophe.H

erew

esee

thebroad

andfree

presentationof

aheroic

soul,conditioned

inm

anyw

ays,both

guiltyand

guiltless,struggling

with

reality’and

finallyovercom

ing239

it.T

hisis

alsow

hatis

dramatically

grippingin

thetone-poem

sof

Richard

Wagner:

theyare

capableof

settingforth

heroicim

agesand

expressingthe

fascinationof

heroism.

Only

thepow

erful,real

isticallyportrayed

whole

person, theheroic

man

who

strugglesw

ithhim

selfand

with

realityand

remains

triumphant

however

badlyhe

TH

EIM

AG

INA

TIO

NO

FT

HE

PO

ET

171

hasbeen

bruised,can

havethe

kindof

elevatingand

redemptive

effecton

modern

man

thatthe

tragictrilogy

oncehad

onthe

con

temporaries

ofA

eschylus.A

ndw

hatis

thishero’s

world?

Modern

man,

sincethe

time

thatm

ostof

hisliterary

works

beganto

bepreserved,

hasproduced

two

greatsocial

systems

andhas

portrayedtheir

emotional

contentin

two

goldenages

ofliterature.

We

areliving

atthe

dawn

ofa

thirdage.

Feudalsociety

was

basedon

theinstitution

ofperm

anentw

arfare,

whether

ona

small

ora

largescale,

thestrength

ofits

soldiers,and

theresulting

distributionof

property.C

ouragein

warfare,

feudal

fidelity,chivalrous

loveand

honor,and

theC

atholicfaith

were

them

otivesthat

activatedm

enat

thattim

e.Epic

poetryw

asthe

creationand

them

irrorofthis

age. Then

monarchies

creatednation-

statesw

ithadm

inistrativestructures

thatsubordinated

thefeudal

lords.M

orelatitude

andfreedom

ofm

ovement

was

createdfor

comm

erce,industry,

andscientific

thoughtin

thesecentralized

states.T

hem

oderntheater

was

thecreation

andm

irrorof

thisage.

One

stillhearsthe

war

criesofthe

lastbattlesbetw

eenthe

monarchy

andthe

feudallords

onthe

stageof

Shakespeareand

Lope

deV

ega.T

heFrench

theaterrepresented

theepoch

ofthe

absolutem

onarchyin

itsstrongest

andm

ostrefined

feelings.D

uringthe

crisesof

hislife,

ason

thebattlefields

ofthe

SevenY

earsW

ar,Frederick

theG

reat,the

greatestking

ofm

odernE

urope,found

theexpression

forhis

heroicfeeling

oflife

inthe

versesof

Racine.

ForR

acine’scharacters

bothspoke

andacted

regally.Frederick

alsodelighted

inthe

sovereignw

ayin

which

understandingplays

with

lifeand

lovein

Voltaire’s

verses.T

heFrench

poetryof

theclassical

agehad,

accordingly,a

historicalvalue

which

thehistory

ofliterature

must

recognize.A

newepoch

dawned

with

theFrench

Revolution.

Anew

world

age,w

hosedark,

ominous

outlinesare

beginningto

emerge,

canbe

characterizedby

thefollow

ingbasic

traits:the

transform

ationof

lifethrough

science,a

world-industrial

systembased

onm

achines,w

ork,or

laboras

theexclusive

foundationof

thesocial

order,w

aragainst

socialparasites

forw

hoseidle

pleasureothers

paythe

cost,a

new,

proudfeeling

ofm

asteryby

man,

who,

havingsubordinated

nature,w

illnow

lesseneven

theblind

effectsof

pas

sionsin

society.Y

etover

againstsuch

arationalistic

regulationof

allthe

affairsof

what

isultim

atelyan

irrationaland

unreasonableplanet,

societyhas

alsodeveloped

ahistorical

consciousnessthat

preservesw

harhas

beenachieved

already.V

ariousnations

havedeveloped

afeeling

oftheir

own

identitythrough

thew

orkingsof

r

140

17

ZP

OE

TIC

ST

HE

IMA

GIN

AT

ION

OF

TH

EP

OE

T

theirparliam

entand

press.T

heheroism

ofour

centuryis

rooted

inthe

strugglesgenerated

there.Slow

ly,poetry

hasbegun

thedifficult

taskof

findingthe

forms

inw

hichsuch

acolossal

contentcan

beexpressed.

The

drama

of

Shakespearehas

beentransform

edby

Schillerand

Goethe.

Goethe

inventedthe

herow

hoconfidently

livesout

hislife

expressinghis

entirepow

erfulbeing.

Schiller’sartistic

geniuscaptured

thew

orld-

historicalconflicts

between

absolutem

onarchyand

freedom,

be

tween

theC

atholicC

hurchand

thespirit

ofProtestantism

:thus

he

developedthe

tragedyof

equallyjustified

historicalforces.

To

this

day,G

erman

tragedyfollow

sin

thefootsteps

ofShakespeare

and

Schiller.W

hocan

tellw

henand

howa

geniusw

illdiscover

anew

drama,

basedon

thefoundations

laidby

Goethe

andSchiller,

in

which

ahero

ofour

time

will

addressus

directlyfrom

thestage

to

bothrouse

usand

reconcileus?

The

emotionally

impoverished

technologicalfactors

inour

life

haveunderm

inedthe

metrical

formof

epicpoetry.

The

novelhas

assumed

thedom

inantrole.

Given

theconditions

ofour

age,the

novelalone

canfulfill

theold

taskof

epicliterature,

thatis,

furnish

afree,

contemplative

viewof

thenexus

ofthe

realw

orld.Sim

ple

circumstances

closeto

nature,as

selectedby

Goethe

inhis

Herm

ann

andD

orothea,can

beproduced

bya

purenexus

ofcom

pletely

poeticsituations,

whose

appropriatefotm

ism

etrical.H

owever,

todayw

eare

expectedto

understandthe

major

centersof

lifein

theiressence

andsignificance.

Thus,

theFrench

novelhas

attempted

tocapture

thesoul

ofParis,

andD

ickenshas

portrayedL

ondonas

asingle, colossal creature

despiteall

itscontrasts.

Sincew

eG

ermans

nowhave

acapital

city,a

newtask

existsfor

theG

erman

novel;

andw

hoeversolves

itw

illbe

them

ostw

idelyread

authorin

our

nation.H

eretoo,

thefocus

will

beon

strugglingw

iththe

realityof

contemporary

lifeas

itis.

Of

course,the

insightthat

therecan

be

anart

formfor

prosew

hichis

lustas

rigorousas

them

etricalform

will

haveto

beaccepted

first.It

was

thegreat

serviceof

Friedrich

Schlegelthat

hefirst

made

proseaesthetically

respectable,partic

14

,ularly

throughhis

studiesof

Boccaccio

andLessing.

The

theoryof

thenovel

isthe

most

imm

ediate,and

byfar

them

ostpressing

and

important

taskof

contemporary

poetics.T

henaturalistic

novelof

theschool

ofthe

Conzedie

hurnaine,Flaubert

andZ

ola,gives

us

poetryw

ithouta

victorioushero,

crisesw

ithoutactual

reconcilia

tion.O

nlyfrom

theheart

ofthe

masterful

Dickens—

who

could

sharethe

feelingsof

children,the

feeble-minded,

andthe

poor—

didthe

sociallyconscious

noveldevelop.

And

onlyfrom

thedepths

‘73

ofthe

Germ

anhistorical

consciousnessw

asthe

firstgenuine

his

toricalnovel

createdin

Arnim

’sK

ronenwach

tern(K

eepersof

theC

rown).

Conrad

FerdinandM

eyeris

creativein

findingw

aysto

allowhistorical

men

toem

ergeclearly

fromthe

obscurityof

time.

Everything

isin

movem

entleading

toward

theunknow

n,like

thatsociety

which

thenovel

ofthe

futurew

illw

antto

capture!T

hereis

acore

tothe

meaning

oflife,

asthe

poetw

ouldlike

toportray

it,w

hichis

thesam

efor

allages.

Thus,

thereis

something

eternalabout

agreat

poet.B

utm

anis

simultaneously

ahistorical

creature.W

hena

newsocial

orderhas

beeninstituted

andthe

meaning

oflife

haschanged,

thepoets

ofthe

precedingepoch

nolonger

move

usas

theyonce

moved

theircontem

poraries.T

hisis

oursituation

today.W

eare

awaiting

thepoet

who

canspeak

tous

aboutour

sufferings,our

joys,and

ourstruggles

with

life!