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title: Distance Education : An Annotated Bibliographyauthor: Mood, Terry Ann.

publisher: Libraries Unlimitedisbn10 | asin: 1563081601

print isbn13: 9781563081606ebook isbn13: 9780585250250

language: Englishsubject Distance education--Bibliography.

publication date: 1995lcc: Z5814.D54M66 1995eb

ddc: 016.3713/078subject: Distance education--Bibliography.

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Distance Education

An Annotated Bibliography

Terry Ann Mood

1995LIBRARIES UNLIMITED, INC.

Englewood, Colorado

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For my Father,because he alwaysfinished what he started.

Copyright © 1995 Libraries Unlimited, Inc.All Rights ReservedPrinted in the United States of America

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by anymeans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of thepublisher.

LIBRARIES UNLIMITED, INC.P.O. Box 6633Englewood, CO 80155-66331-800-237-6124

Project editor: Tama J. SerfossCopy Editor: Susan W. BrownProofreader: Eileen BartlettInterior design and layout: Alan Livingston

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mood, Terry Ann, 1945Distance education : an annotated bibliography / Terry Ann Mood.xi, 191 p. 17×25 cm.Includes indexes.ISBN 1-56308-160-11. Distance educationBibliography, I. TitleZ5814.D54M66 1995[LC5800]016.3713'078dc20 94-49086 CIP

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Contents

Introduction ix

1History of Distance Education 1

Introduction1

New Technology1

Expanding Educational Opportunities3

Obstacles4

Sources5

2Philosophy of Distance Education 19

Introduction19

Two-Way Communication20

Student Autonomy20

The Down Side21

Is Distance Education Really Open?21

Should Distance Education Be Open?22

Is Open Education a New Concept?22

Common Educational Experience23

A Coming Together23

Sources24

3Management and Administration of Distance Education 37

Introduction37

37

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Planning a Program

Setting up a Program38

Administering and Monitoring a Program41

Sources42

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4The Teacher in Distance Education 77

Introduction77

The Teacher's Role and Responsibilities78

Problems Encountered80

Satisfactions82

Sources83

5The Student in Distance Education 101

Introduction101

Why Students Become Distance Students101

Isolation of Distance Students102

Access to Library Sources102

Informal Support Systems103

Outside Factors103

Factors Within the Course104

Technical Factors104

What Can Be Done: Teachers105

What Can Be Done: Institutions106

What Can Be Done: Students106

Sources107

6Special Groups Served by Distance Education 127

Introduction127

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Geographic Isolation127

Industry Applications128

Women129

Physically Disabled129

Socioeconomic Factors130

Sources130

7The International Scene 141

Introduction141

Demand for Education141

Distance Education Structures142

Research143

Problems Facing Distance Education144

Growing Interest145

Sources145

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Appendix A: Journals in Distance Education 165

Appendix B: Distance Education Online 167

Author Index 169

Title Index 173

Subject Index 181

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Appendix A: Journals in Distance Education 165

Appendix B: Distance Education Online 167

Author Index 169

Title Index 173

Subject Index 181

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Mahdi
Rectangle
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Introduction

Who Should Use This Book?

Distance education, in which instruction and learning occur in different locations, is becoming more and morecommon. Newspaper ads offer students the chance to earn college degrees by studying at home. Sprint has atelevision advertisement that features schools using its technology. A television ad for GTE promotes thecompany's role in videoconferencing. A billboard suggests drivers turn their cars into a university by listening toaudiotapes while they commute. A law school in Virginia with a video-equipped courtroom is investigating theuse of its system to deliver continuing legal education off-site. Court TV rebroadcasts legal education programsfeaturing the late Irving Younger, a legal scholar and lecturer. A class can now take a field trip not only by bus butby video. And Mind Extension University is available on cable television almost any time, showing anything froma symphony performance to a discussion of physics.

Various factors drive this increasing interest. Many people switch careers in their middle years and need jobretraining. These people often cannot afford to attend school full-time or do not live close to an institution offeringa suitable program. Personal responsibilities of work and family make it impractical for them to move. Peopleliving in isolated areas want the same access to education as those who live in the city. Small schools considerdistance education as a way to offer a wider array of courses. If they offered certain courses on-site, they wouldhave very few students and, consequently, high costs; by using distance teaching, they can combine forces withother small schools, and one instructor can teach classes offered from several places. Schools at all levels, fromkindergartens to universities, struggle with shrinking budgets and burgeoning enrollments, making the cost-effectiveness of distance education appealing.

With all this interest, a book summarizing the literature of distance education is needed. This book should be ofhelp to:

Teachers who must adapt their teaching styles to the conditions of distance education;

Administrators grappling with the difficulties of managing a program whose students can be thousands of milesaway; and

Students having to study and learn away from the traditional classroom environment.

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What Is Included?

This is a book about teaching and learning, rather than technology. The technology used in distance educationchanges rapidly, so any book about that technology rapidly becomes out of date. Moreover, decisions about whattechnology to use are driven by many thingswhat equipment is already available, what expertise is available, andwhat budget is available.

Instead, this book emphasizes pedagogical concerns. The books annotated here focus on teachers, students, andadministrators. What changes do teachers need to make in their teaching style to be effective in distanceeducation? What structures do administrators need to develop and support to ensure a successful program? Whatresponsibilities do students have to ensure their own success? How is this educational experience different fromthe more traditional model that most of us have experienced?

Nor is this a book about open education, although many of the books annotated here discuss it. The terms openeducation and distance education are sometimes used interchangeably, but many, including Börje Holmberg, see amajor difference between the two. In Theory and Practice of Distance Education (1989), he describes distancelearning as a specific delivery mode for education, in which students and teachers are separated in space or time.He defines open learning or open education as a change in the structure or philosophy of education that allows thestudents more choice of programs, of how to study, and of how their progress is to be assessed.

Open learning can take place in either a classroom or a distance setting. Distance education can be either open orclosed. I have not included books that deal exclusively with open education and contain no discussion of thedistance learning delivery mode. However, I have annotated works that discuss the provision of open educationthrough the distance method and books about both distance and open education.

In addition to books, some government reports, theses, and technical papers are listed. Almost all the itemsannotated are readily available through libraries, although a few are a bit more difficult to locate. No periodicalarticles have been included because they are so numerous, but appendix A lists some periodicals that offer majorcoverage of the subject. All items are in English; some are in other languages as well.

Plan of the Book

The book is divided into seven chapters. The introduction to each chapter outlines the major points covered in thechapter's books and traces major trends in that area.

Chapter 1 deals with the history of distance education. General histories of both distance education and itsforerunner, correspondence education, are included, as well as some histories of specific institutions, such as theOpen University of the United Kingdom and Athabasca University in British Columbia, Canada. Histories ofcorrespondence education abound; I have included only the few that have become classics. I have also includedsome classic histories of television in the classroom, such as Learning from Television:

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What the Research Says by Chu and Schramm (1967). This topic, however, is large enough to deserve its ownbibliography.

Chapter 2 includes books that explore the theoretical underpinnings of distance education. Writers grapple withsuch basic issues as the definition of distance education: Is it limited to education in which students and teacher areseparated in both space and time? Or does a class qualify if its students are separated by space, but are connectedby audio or video and so participate in real time? Other questions that the books in this chapter explore are whetherdistance education differs markedly from traditional education and, if so, how; which learning theories areapplicable to and useful for distance education; whether students should assume more responsibility for theireducation than do traditional students, and, again, how that should be accomplished; and whether distanceeducation achieves its often-stated purpose of extending educational opportunities, and, if so, if this is an unalloyedadvantage.

The books in chapter 3 cover the nuts and bolts of the field. Administrative questions are dealt with herecosts,organizational structure, methods of communication with students, and evaluation procedures for both students andprograms.

Chapters 4 and 5 deal respectively with issues of interest to teachers and to students. Teachers will find booksabout preparing course materials, presenting lecture material effectively on television, and engaging off-sitestudents actively in a class. Students will find books that explain how to maximize their learning from distanceeducation and that will help them decide if distance education is a viable option for them.

Distance education takes place in settings other than in academia. Chapter 6 explores distance education in theseother settings, most often in the military or in industry. Chapter 7 takes a look at distance education worldwide, atefforts that many countries are making to provide education through this ever-changing method.

Many items in this bibliography fit in more than one chapter. For example, a book that covers issues of interest toteachers often covers student issues as well. A book dealing with distance education programs in a specific countryoften covers issues of interest to administrators. For this reason, many books are cross-referenced from one chapterto another.

Two appendices end the book. Appendix A lists periodicals that cover the field of distance education, andappendix B lists electronic sources (online journals or discussion groups) devoted to the field.

Indexes are by author, title, and subject.

I would like to thank the people I interviewed during the process of compiling this bibliography and who arequoted or referred to in the chapter introductions. They were generous with their time and knowledge. Theyconvinced me, even more than did the books I read, that distance educators are an enthusiastic lot, sure that theirwork is valuable and eager to talk about it. I appreciate also the work of the Interlibrary Loan Department at theAuraria Library, University of Colorado at Denver, that went to great lengths to obtain some of the books Iexamined. Thank you, too, to my husband, John, who read much of this manuscript in its early stages.

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1History of Distance Education

Introduction

There are a number of sources that detail the history of distance education. Two of the best are The Foundations ofAmerican Distance Education: A Century of Collegiate Correspondence Study (1991) by Barbara L. Watkins andStephen J. Wright, and The Changing World of Correspondence Study (1971) by Ossian MacKenzie and EdwardL. Christensen. Among the threads through that history are the enthusiastic and rapid embrace of new technologiesby distance educators and the almost unanimous desire of those educators to offer education to those previouslydenied it. Unfortunately, another thread is composed of the obstacles confronting distance education, obstacles thathave changed over the years in form, but not in substance or importance.

New Technology

Practitioners of distance education demonstrate an ongoing willingness to incorporate new technology intoteaching. A few historians of the field say that cave painting, St. Paul's letters to the Corinthians, or tribal talkingdrums are forms of distance education. Most however, trace the roots of distance education from correspondenceeducation. Correspondence education could not begin in earnest until the development of a reliable postal serviceto carry the lessons and the students' responses. However, when such a postal service was in place, correspondenceeducation took off.

An early recorded effort at using the new technology of regular mail service as an aid to education is seen in anadvertisement in the Boston Gazette on March 20, 1728, in which teacher Caleb Philips offered to send weeklyshorthand lessons to prospective students. Other early examples are from Great Britain: in 1840, Isaac Pitman alsooffered shorthand courses through the mails; in 1880, Skerry's College offered help in preparing for civil serviceexaminations; and shortly thereafter, in 1884, the Foulkes Lynch Correspondence Tuition Service offered coursesin accountancy.

The United States was not far behind. In 1891, Thomas J. Foster provided pamphlets by mail to teach mine safety.He also organized a tutoring staff who helped in grading assignments. Even earlier, Anna Eliot Ticknor organizeda correspondence school with less utilitarian purposes. She began the "Society to Encourage Studies at Home,"based in Boston, Massachusetts. This society offered instruction in 24 subjects organized within six departments:history, science, art, literature, French, and German. Many of her students were young women, kept at home by theconventions of their time. Ticknor's story is told in MacKenzie and Christensen's The Changing World ofCorrespondence Study: International Readings (1971).

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These early distance educators were entrepreneurs, working alone. However, it wasn't long before organizededucation entered the correspondence market. In Great Britain, the universities at both Oxford and Cambridgebegan to develop extension services during the mid-nineteenth century. These included not only lectures at varioussites but also a system of correspondence instruction. In A Backstairs to a Degree: Demands for an OpenUniversity in Late Victorian England (1981), Stuart Marriott traces the extension of formal higher education inGreat Britain.

The United States had its lyceum movement and its Chautauquas, both of which had local lecturesthe lecturertraveled to various sitesbut which also had a correspondence component. The Chautauqua movement, in additionto its well-known summer institutes, offered a four-year program of reading and correspondence instructionthrough which participants could earn certificates. Chautauqua, however, lacked the resources necessary to sustainthis movement. Ultimately, universities took over the correspondence-for-credit arrangement. An early history oflyceums and Chautauquas is Correspondence Schools, Lyceums, and Chautauquas (1926) by John S. Noffsinger.

William Rainey Harper is considered by many the father of modern correspondence education. Although otheruniversities, notably Illinois Wesleyan, promoted correspondence education, it was the University of Chicagounder Harper that solidified and developed it. Harper's role in university-level correspondence is especially welldocumented in Watkins and Wright (1991). When called on as the first president of the new University ofChicago, he organized that university to include a department of correspondence study. Other universities, theUniversity of Wisconsin in particular, aggressively pursued correspondence study.

Distance educators were quick to explore and adopt new technologies. By 1928, the British BroadcastingCorporation was using radio for adult education. They did not promote this for formal study, granting no credit ordegrees, but saw it as a means for individuals to improve their lives by increasing their knowledge. New Venturesin Broadcasting: A Study of Adult Education (1928) published by the British Broadcasting Corporation; Radio'sListening Groups (1941) by Frank Ernest Hill and W. E. Williams; The Listening Schools: EducationalBroadcasting by Sound and Television (1957) by Kenneth Vye Bailey; and Learning over the Air: 60 Years ofPartnership in Adult Learning (1981) by John Robinson, all give the history of this movement. Australia has longused its Radio School of the Air to reach school-age children living on remote stations. Schools at all levels in theUnited States also used radio, for both credit and self-enrichment courses.

Television was also used early in its history. Sunrise Semester began in 1957; The Open University of the UnitedKingdom was proposed (under the name University of the Air) in 1963, was granted a Royal Charter in 1969, andbegan teaching in 1971. Books by distance educators show this ongoing determination to use the newest methodsto advantage.

Otto Peters expounded the value of using industrial methods of mass production in education. He believed that theteacher in the classroom was close to an artisan, totally responsible for each class and creating each classindividually. Peters believed that the classroom teacher was responsible for what was taught and for evaluatinghow well it was taught. In the distance

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education method, by contrast, many people contributed as a team. Peters advocated a division of labor in the workof distance education and advised that the preparation, teaching, and evaluation of a class be assigned to differentpeople. In this way, distance education could accomplish increased efficiency and cost savings. In 1961, CharlesWedemeyer wrote New Perspectives in University Correspondence Study; in it he discusses the uses of radio,television, and educational films in education. Now distance education has expanded to include newer applicationsof technology, such as interactive video and personal computers.

Expanding Educational Opportunities

New and sometimes flashy technology, however, is not an end in itself for most distance educators. They are alsomotivated by the desire to provide education to those who were previously denied it. This motivation goes back tothe roots of distance education. Anna Eliot Ticknor expressed her own motivation for providing study materials towomen this way:

Instead of confining our offers of helpas the English society did at that timeto the wealthy class only, we atonce endeavored to interest all classes; for we thought all needed us, though for different reasons, as all areliable to the consciousness of deficiency, general or special, in their education, and all may feel the need ofencouragement to overcome some obstacles, it may be want of opportunity, or it may be in lack of energy touse existing opportunities.

(Quoted in The Changing World of Correspondence Study, Ossian MacKenzie and Edward L. Christensen,editors. University Park, Pa: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1971. p.29.)

This motivation is seen in other early efforts: in the lyceums and the Chautauquas; in the Workingman's Universityin Pennsylvania in the 1880s, in which Thomas J. Foster supplied pamphlets on both engineering topics and basiceducation to miners; and in the early university-based correspondence schools. It is still seen today. In developingcountries, governments recognize the need for greater availability of both basic and secondary education and striveto develop policies to provide it. Such organizations as the University of the South Pacific, described in booksannotated in chapter 7, demonstrate this motivation as teachers there attempt to provide course material to their far-flung population.

Both ends of the distance education spectrum demonstrate its vitality. At one end, the Open University of theUnited Kingdom distributes its courses through television to more than 90,000 students. At the other end, twoteachers at South East London Polytechnic responded to the requests of two offshore oil drillers for a speciallydesigned correspondence course by creating and providing one. The Open University's story is told in many books,among them Open University: History and Evaluation of a Dynamic Innovation in Higher Education (1977)written by Walter Perry, its first vice chancellor; John Ferguson's The Open University from Within (1965); andJeremy Tunstall's The Open University Opens (1974). The two South East

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London Polytechnic teachers' story is described in B. N. Koul's Distance Education: A Spectrum of Case Studies(1990).

Obstacles

The less heartening constant of distance education must be the obstacles. Early correspondence educators decriedthe difficulty inherent in depending on a sometimes unreliable postal system and the frustration of the time delaybetween the student's submission of an assignment and the professor's reply, a delay that could result in studentmisunderstanding or dropouts. They lamented too the constant lack of funding; the scrambling for monies; and theperception that correspondence was somehow second-best, less valid, less successful, and less respectable thantraditional, campus-based education.

Those same laments can be heard today. Distance educators struggle to find ways to speed up the process, to offerquicker feedback to students who have submitted assignments or who have questions about reading material. Somesee personal computers as a possible solution. Electronic mail can transmit quick questions and answers betweenstudents and teachers or even allow discussion among students. However, it does not completely answer thequestion of how to give timely feedback to students who are separated from their teacher and their classmates inspace and time.

Funding, of course, is always a problem. First-person accounts and case studies in many of the books annotatedrepeat the familiar plaint: funding is small, difficult to come by, and difficult to sustain. The three books about theBBC's efforts in educational broadcasting, by Frank Ernest Hill, Kenneth Vye Bailey, and the BBC itself, allmention funding difficulties. So do the books about Canada's Athabasca University, Athabasca University: TheEvolution of Distance Education (1989) by T. C. Byrne, and The First Athabasca University (1980) by L. J.Hughes.

A very contemporary funding theme is also an old one: the fear that some people will be unable to participate indistance education because of lack of personal funds. John A. Curtis and Joseph M. Biedenback, editors ofEducational Telecommunications Delivery Systems (1979), expressed a concern among many of today's theoristsand practitioners when they commented on the costliness of new technology, which they see as contributing to thecreation of a have and have-not class of distance education users.

Perhaps most frustrating to many practitioners is the perception among traditional teachers and much of the publicthat distance education is second-rate, not as rigorous as school or campus-based efforts, and that both the teachingand the results are inferior. The books written about the beginnings of the Open University of the United Kingdomdescribe the negative attitudes that institution had to overcome.

Some distance educators see hope for the future. They believe that distance methods will provide a solution to theincreasing demands for education, including the demands for retraining from people unable to attend full-timeresidential schools. They believe further that, as more people participate in and become familiar with distanceeducation, respect for it will rise. Some feel as well that traditional educational institutions will increasingly

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adopt some of distance education's methodology and philosophy and that the two types of education will becomemore similar.

Charles A. Wedemeyer and Gayle B. Childs, in New Perspectives in University Correspondence Study (1961),predict that distance education would become more widely used and respected. They write that increasing relianceon technology, increased demand for education, and an awareness by more people that education means improvedeconomic status, would lead to this respect. Others, however, have a gloomier view. A 1968 book edited by OssianMacKenzie et al., Correspondence Instruction in the United States: A Study of What It Is, How It Functions, andWhat Its Potential May Be, discusses the lack of respect that distance education received from those involved intraditional education. They saw little hope of amelioration, believing that distance education would neverovercome its second-class citizenship. Such people seem to feel doomed to soldier on with little recognition orrespect.

Soldier on they do. Despite the obstacles, which remain astoundingly similar today to what they were a hundredyears ago, distance educators remain in the trenches. They must agree with Anna Eliot Ticknor, one of whose lastannual reports is quoted in MacKenzie and Christensen (1971, p. 30): ''Scarcely more than five per cent ofabsolute failure, and sixty-five per cent of absolute success, is a result which repays us for a good deal of thoughtand labor, and inspires us with hope and zeal for continuing our work."

Sources

1.Bailey, Kenneth Vye. The Listening Schools: Educational Broadcasting by Sound and Television. London: TheBritish Broadcasting Corporation, 1957. 184p. Index. Bibliography. no price reported. OCLC 2018815.

After an introductory essay on the value of educational broadcasting, Bailey proceeds to present its history inBritain and to discuss the how-tos of educational broadcasting. He gives a brief look at changes in educationalpolicy between the 1920s and late 1950s. Perhaps the most significant change during that time was the raising ofthe age at which a child might leave school. He then describes the process by which a school broadcast isdeveloped and produced, a process that includes much interaction between the technical broadcast experts andteachers. He also includes a discussion on how broadcasts might be best and most usefully integrated into thecurriculum.

This book, along with the British Broadcasting Corporation's New Ventures in Broadcasting: A Study of AdultEducation (1928), entry #4; Learning over the Air: 60 Years of Partnership in Adult Learning (1982), entry #32;and Radio's Listening Groups (1941), entry #17, gives a good picture of the history of educational broadcasting.

Bell, Robert E., and Malcolm Tight. Open Universities: A British Tradition? 1993. See entry #44.

2.Bittner, Walton Simon, and Harvey F. Mallory. University Teaching by Mail: A Survey of CorrespondenceInstruction Conducted by American Universities. New York: Macmillan, 1933. 355p. Index. Bibliography. no pricereported. OCLC 491730.

Although old, this is a classic survey of university-sponsored correspondence education. Bittner and Mallory givea history of correspondence education, including a look at the Chautauqua movement. They then look at studentdemographics,

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courses offered, administrative structure, instructor competence, support services for students, fees, and studentsuccess rate.

Two chapters are of particular interest. One consists of comments from instructors on their methods andmotivations for teaching through the correspondence method. The other is made up of comments by students,concerning their own experiences and opinions. Both chapters show that the motivations for both teaching andstudying by this method have remained surprisingly constant, as have the problems encountered.

3.Blakely, Robert J. To Serve the Public Interest: Educational Broadcasting in the United States. Syracuse, N.Y.:Syracuse University Press, 1979. 274p. Index. Bibliographic notes. $7.95pa. LC 78-25751. ISBN 0815621981;0815601530pa. OCLC 4493282.

Blakely's book is a political history of educational television in the United States, a review of the lobbying and thelaws that helped create and sustain television channels dedicated to educational purposes.

He chronicles the work of both individuals and foundations, traces the history of various pieces of legislation thatmade educational television a reality, and describes the professional organizations that grew up around it.

Blakely pulls together the various threads that make up the fabric of United States educational television.

4.British Broadcasting Corporation. New Ventures in Broadcasting: A Study of Adult Education. Savoy Hill,London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1928. 115p. Index. Appendices. no price reported. OCLC 4535232.

Surprisingly modern concerns punctuate this 1928 book. Written just after the BBC got involved in educationalbroadcasting, it offers a look at the early days of this method of adult education. Some of the issues are still withus today:

Technical problems with equipment head the list of barriers to a student's success.

A case is made for the importance of ample and well-prepared written materials as a supplement to thetechnically provided information.

The lack of personal contact between student and teacher is seen as a problem, as is the lack of interactionbetween students.

Funding is an overriding concern.

This work makes clear that adult education through broadcasting was originally envisioned as a means ofoccasioning "... the widening of experience and the cultivation of new interests." Adult educators did not conceiveof entire courses or degree programs being offered through this method. Still, this work is of interest bothhistorically and as an indication of how universal some of the concerns about distance education are.

An appendix shows that even in the early days of technologically provided adult education, there was interest ininternational efforts. This appendix discusses educational broadcasting in other countries, although it is limited toefforts in Europe and America.

5.Byrne, T. C. Athabasca University: The Evolution of Distance Education. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: TheUniversity of Calgary Press, 1989. 137p. Index. Bibliography. no price reported. LC 90-214059. ISBN0919813518. OCLC 25964112.

Anyone looking for a straightforward history of Athabasca University, Alberta's fourth university and the one thatoperates exclusively as a distance education

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university, will find it here. T. C. Byrne, the university's founding president, describes the political story behindthe university's beginnings, its early design based on the cluster college concept pioneered by the Santa Cruzcampus of the University of California, its demise in that guise, and its resurrection as a university concentratingon the delivery of courses to part-time students at a distance. He includes much information on the creation anddelivery methods of courses and concludes with profiles of 10 students.

The chapters concerning the creation of the first courses are similar in their first-person treatment to the story toldby Walter Perry, the first vice chancellor of the Open University of the United Kingdom, in Open University:History and Evaluation of a Dynamic Innovation in Higher Education (1977), entry #31.

This work includes very little theoretical or general discussion of distance education as a method, but it doespresent an authoritative history of one of distance education's main purveyors. A history of the earlier stages inAthabasca University's development can be found in The First Athabasca University (1980), entry #23.

6.Carlisle, Robert D. Media and the Adult Student: One Man's Journal. Lincoln, Neb.: Great Plains NationalInstructional Television Library, 1976. 211p. no price reported. OCLC 2524362.

Each of the 11 essays in this collection tells the story of one institution, some big (The Pennsylvania StateUniversity), some small (Concordia Teachers College). Some of these institutions at the time of writing usedmedia mainly as an enhancement to classroom teaching: showing a film in class or having students go through aslide or tape package on their own. Some, however, were exploring the uses of packaged media to teach wholeclasses or to reach out to the off-campus community. The chapter on Penn State is interesting for its look at theearlier days of a major distance education provider, and the one on St. Joseph's Seminary in Yonkers, New York, isinteresting for its look at attempts to use television to respond in a timely way to community concerns.

7.Chu, Godwin C., and Wilbur Schramm. Learning from Television: What the Research Says. Washington, D.C.:National Association of Educational Broadcasters, 1967. 116p. Bibliography. MF $1.18. PC $29.70. LC 68-54530.ED 109-985. OCLC 335547.

Although old, this monograph is still frequently studied and cited. It is one of the earliest major studies ofeducational television. In it, Chu and Schramm synthesize and report on the research already done on instructionaluses of television. Many of the questions asked and the conclusions drawn are still valid today.

Chu and Schramm first discuss physical factors that affect learning from television, such as size of screen andplacement of monitors. They then discuss various pedagogical variations in its use and conclude that interactionwith a teacher both before and after a television show is helpful. The teacher can prepare the class and alsoreinforce the material shown. They report that student motivation is a key factor in how successful televisionteaching is and that quick feedback and two-way communication is desirable.

Chu and Schramm also report on studies that investigate student and teacher attitudes toward television. Theyinclude some information as well on the use of educational television in developing countries.

8.Curtis, John A., and Joseph M. Biedenback, eds. Educational Telecommunications Delivery Systems. Washington,D.C.: American Society for Engineering Education, 1979. 151p. Bibliographic references. $7.00. LC 79-53685.ISBN 0878231056. OCLC 5625635.

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The editors have collected papers about different technologies available to distance educators at the time ofwriting: public broadcasting (both radio and television), telephone, satellite, and CATV. Although the papersaddress specific applications and some are case studies, the reader can get a general sense of the state oftechnology at the time.

Appended to each essay is a page or two of commentary, all written by Bert Cowlan, at the time an independentconsultant to educational telecommunications groups and companies. His commentaries give a unity to thecollection and provide balance to the individual essays, each of which espouses a particular technology.

Many of the questions asked and the problems discussed in this book, now almost 15 years old, are still ofimportance. For example, the lack of a national policy concerning distance education is decried. Also, the rapidnature of change in technology is seen as resulting in quick obsolescence and waste. The costliness of many of thenew technologies is seen as contributing to uneven opportunity and to the creation of a have and a have-not classof distance education users. The have-not class, according to the author, will comprise the rural dweller, the inner-city population, and the disabled. Today's emerging technologies, including fax, interactive television, and theinformation superhighway, make the problem of opportunity of access of even greater concern to manypractitioners and theorists.

9.Duke, Christopher. The London External Degree and the English Part-Time Student. Leeds: Leeds UniversityPress, 1967. 21p. Bibliographic notes. (Leeds Studies in Adult Education No. 2). no price reported. pa. OCLC2890091.

Written just a few years after the Robbins Report, which recommended rapid expansion of postsecondaryeducation in Britain, Duke's paper concentrates on the lack of opportunities for part-time, nonresidential students.Now 25 years old, it is useful primarily for two historical notes: One is its brief history of London University'sunique degree by examination program. The other is an even briefer mention of what is now the respected OpenUniversity, but which at the time of this paper's writing was still in its preliminary planning and proposal stage andwas still referred to as The University of the Air.

10.Eurich, Nell, and Barry Schwenkmeyer. Great Britain's Open University: First Chance, Second Chance, or LastChance? New York: Academy for Educational Development, 1971. 31p. no price reported. pa. OCLC 581645.

Although one of many straightforward histories of Britain's pioneer Open University, this one is noteworthy forbeing written by an American team, with the purpose of examining O.U.'s applicability to the situation in theUnited States. The authors make the point that the decentralized nature of American higher education has made itdifficult to plan an integrated effort at distance education. They ask if the Open University could provide a modelfor the United States.

Some 20 years after the publication of this book, distance education in the United States is still decentralized andfragmented, but such a situation is more readily accepted. Diversity and local rather than national planning is nowseen more as a strength than as a weakness.

Several years after this book was published, Rodney T. Hartnett in The British Open University in the UnitedStates (1974), entry #15, studied three American universities that did use Open University techniques. Theseuniversities did not recreate the Open University, but imported and used some actual courses written by O.U.

11.Falk, Barbara, and John Anwyl. The Desirability and Feasibility of an Australian Open Type University.Melbourne: Centre for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne, 1973. 114p. Bibliography.$2.50pa. LC 76-355680. ISBN 0959919007. OCLC 2091920.

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This document is of interest to people now exploring the feasibility of setting up an open university or a distancecourse or program. Many of the questions discussed are still relevant and need to be answered by anyonecontemplating a new program. It also provides much information on programs that existed at the time.

The report was done at the behest of the Federation of Australian University Staff Associations, at about the timethe Open University of Great Britain was getting underway. The Federation wanted to examine whether a similarinstitution was both desirable and possible for Australia. The report brings together information from a number ofopen schemes in Canada, Great Britain, and the United States. It gives much historical information about specificopen efforts, such as Empire State College in New York. It also discusses various concepts of openness: opennessin the sense of the Open University of Great Britain, a monolithic institution theoretically open to all; openness inadmission requirements to already existing institutions of higher education; openness in students' choice ofprogram or course; and openness in grading. In this discussion it raises similar questions to those examined moreclosely in two of Börje Holmberg's works, Theory and Practice of Distance Education (1989) and particularlyStatus and Trends of Distance Education (1981). See chapter 2 entries #53 and #52, respectively.

The preparers of the report conclude that a single open university, like Britain's Open University, would not beeither desirable or feasible for Australia. They base that conclusion mainly on differences in population betweenthe two countries: Australia has a smaller population, spread out over a much larger area and a greater proportionof its population is already enrolled in traditional higher education. They opt instead for a two-pronged approach.They first recommend a greater openness in enrollment and choice of curriculum in existing universities. Second,they recommend the creation of a national organization (National Resources and Accrediting Institution, or NRAI)that would provide support for existing institutions wishing to offer more open courses. Such assistance wouldinclude help in creating courses and programs, student support, provision of regional tutoring centers, and collationof feedback from both students and teachers.

12.Ferguson, John. The Open University from Within. London: University of London Press, 1965. 165p. Index.$10.00. LC 75-15118. ISBN 0814725589; 0340179651. OCLC 2058744.

The author was the dean and director of Studies in Arts at the Open University when this book was written. Hetakes an admittedly personal look at the Open University, one of the early massive efforts at distance educationand one of the most successful. According to him, almost anyone could research and write a survey or history ofthe institution; he has chosen to give the view from within. He summarizes the beginning of his own involvementwith the university and the major reason for his and others' willingness to commit to it: the challenge of creating anew and different learning opportunity. He discusses the activities of the early days, which included developing thecurriculum, hiring faculty, and screening students. The history is full of practical details of the university'soperation, from how much paper it consumed to its early uses of computers for management.

This is a breezy first-person memoir of a major educational innovation. Although it will not be of much practicalvalue for those beginning to practice in distance education, it will be entertaining and encouraging.

Garrison, D. Randy, and Doug Shale, eds. Education at a Distance: From Issues to Practice, 1990. See entry #164.

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13.Glatter, Ron, and E. G. Wedell. Study by Correspondence: An Enquiry into Correspondence Study forExaminations for Degrees and Other Advanced Qualifications. London: Longman Group Limited, 1971. 361p.Bibliography. no price reported. LC 79-579783. ISBN 0582500265. OCLC 155303.

The authors study correspondence education in Great Britain and, for comparative purposes, in other Europeancountries. They intend to show its extent, to identify and examine the objectives of the students, and to learn whystudents succeed or fail. The authors consider correspondence study still to be a vital part of Britain's educationalsystem, despite increasing availability of mainstream education and increasing educational technology.

The survey itself includes:

a history of correspondence study in the United Kingdom

a history of the University of London external degree program, in which a student studies independently andthen sits for an examination under the auspices of the University

data on correspondence study leading to a professional qualification, such as chartered accountant

statistics on drop-out rates

demographic information on the students who participate in correspondence education

an explanation of the survey methods

The questionnaire is reproduced and the answers to each question are tabulated and analyzed.

Students were found to choose correspondence courses for two main reasons: for professional advancement andbecause correspondence study was more convenient for them than traditional study. Drop-out rates were found tobe greatest at the beginning stages of a program. These conclusions have yet to be disproved by later studies.

Correspondence education in the Netherlands, West Germany, East Germany, France, Sweden, Russia, and Polandare all examined and compared with Britain.

This thorough study with detailed statistics is of interest for its historical background and look at student profilesduring a particular time period.

14.Harris, W. J. A. Home Study Students. Manchester: Department of Adult Education, University of Manchester,1972. 178p. Bibliography. £2.75pa. LC 73-165961. ISBN 09371700X. OCLC 696702.

In 1971, Ron Glatter and E. G. Wedell published Study by Correspondence (see entry #13), a history ofcorrespondence study and a survey of correspondence students. Home Study Students is a follow-up of that work,designed to measure success rates.

Like the original study, this one gives detailed information on the methodology used. A random sample of the12,077 students who returned the earlier questionnaire was taken. The questions covered personal characteristics,such as age, occupation, and marital status; study habits, such as submission of written assignments; andcompletion or success rates. Tables indicate percentages of answers to all questions.

This work is of interest as a historical photograph of reaction to correspondence education at a particular time by aparticular group.

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Harry, Keith, Tony Kaye, and Kevin Wilson. The European Experience of the Use of Mass Media and DistanceMethods for Adult Basic Education, 1982. See entry #270.

15.Hartnett, Rodney T. The British Open University in the United States: Adaptation and Use at Three Universities.Princeton, N.J.: Educational Technology Service, 1974. 148p. $6.00pa. OCLC 1014072.

In 1972, just after Britain's Open University became a full-fledged operating university, American interest in thatproject intensified. American educators wanted to know both if the methods of the Open University would beusable for American higher education and if the actual study materials produced by the Open University could bepurchased outright and used. Three universities that had already considered using Open University's materialsagreed to participate in a formal study of their use: Rutgers University, the University of Houston, and theUniversity of Maryland. This book reports on that study.

The work examines and compares student and faculty demographics, student completion rates, degree of andreasons for satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the course, difficulties in using the materials, and economicconsiderations. Conclusions and recommendations round out the report.

In general, the report concludes that the use of Open University materials in American universities is indeed aviable option, particularly for adult nontraditional students. Some reservations remained, namely that the Englishaccent on audio and video tapes was a barrier to students' understanding and that purchasing and using OpenUniversity materials would not necessarily result in cost savings.

This book offers a different perspective on the early days of the Open University than such straightforwardhistories of the institution as Open University: History and Evaluation of a Dynamic Innovation in HigherEducation, entry #30, or The Open University Opens, entry #35.

16.Hawkridge, David G. Setting Up the Open University. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1976. 65p.Bibliography. no price reported. spiral bound. OCLC 27376503.

Hawkridge's first chapter, covering the years 19631969, describes the establishment of the Open University andoutlines the political setting that gave it birth. The following six chapters each cover the highlights of one year,1970 to 1975. Each chapter contains a time line, listing significant events for each month.

Such a brief book necessarily covers only the high points. For a more complete account of the Open University'sbeginnings, see entry #30, Open University: History and Evaluation of a Dynamic Innovation in Higher Education(1977) by Walter Perry, who was the Open University's first vice chancellor.

17.Hill, Frank Ernest, and W. E. Williams. Radio's Listening Groups. New York: Columbia University Press, 1941.270p. Index. No price reported. OCLC 1362107.

The two sections of this book, one by Hill and one by Williams, cover the activities of listening groups in theUnited States and Great Britain respectively. Some of these groups developed informally and listened merely forpleasure, with discussion following; others met more formally, with an educational purpose, and studiedsupplementary written works. Hill and Williams describe the various kinds of groups and their activities.

This work is of interest when read along with the British Broadcasting Corporation's New Ventures inBroadcasting: A Study of Adult Education (1928), entry #4; The Listening Schools: Educational Broadcasting bySound and Television (1957), entry #1; and Learning over the Air: 60 Years of Partnership in Adult Learning(1982), entry #32.

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18.Holmberg, Börje. Correspondence Education: A Survey of Applications, Methods, and Problems. Malmö, Sweden:Hermods, 1967. 78p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. LC 68-118886. OCLC 464369.

Although now old, this very short monograph, written by a man who is a recognized senior scholar in the field, isof interest on several levels. It packs a lot of still-valuable information in its 78 pages. It includes sections on thehistory of correspondence education, the various groups who most often make use of correspondence courses, theorganization of a course or unit, the need for such support services as advising and counseling, and the need forconstant self-checking by the student to evaluate understanding and progress. Much of this information is stillapplicable today to more high-tech methods of distance education.

Holmberg's later works evolved from this practical overview to a more theoretical discussion of the philosophy ofdistance education. See particularly entry #52, Status and Trends of Distance Education (1981), and entry #53,Theory and Practice of Distance Education (1989) for a complete look at Holmberg's developing philosophy ofdistance education.

Finally, this work gives a snapshotalthough one lacking much detailof correspondence education in the Westernworld in the late 1960s.

19.Holmberg, Börje. Growth and Structure of Distance Education. Beckenham, England: Croom Helm, 1986. 163p.Index. Bibliography. £17.95. LC gb86-23712. ISBN 0709947488. OCLC 14167365.

In this book, Holmberg provides a mixture of history, philosophy, and definition. The first several chapters includesome excerpts from early writings (c. 18901920) on the subject of correspondence education and a discussion ofvarious theories of distance education. These chapters are followed by a study of the state of distance education inthe 1980s.

The last two chapters are what the author calls "an attempt" at defining the theoretical basis for distance education.However, Holmberg presents and discusses this theoretical or philosophical underpinning for distance educationmuch more completely and convincingly in his 1981 work Status and Trends of Distance Education, entry #52. Byattempting in this book to provide everythinghistory, philosophy, present assessmentHolmberg dilutes hisargument.

20.Holmberg, Börje. On the Methods of Teaching by Correspondence. Lund, Sweden: University of Lund Press,1960. 44p. £1.55. LC 63-1314. OCLC 2720914.

This book focuses on how to teach an effective correspondence course. Holmberg explains the need for breakingdown course material into manageable modules that will not overwhelm the student; for simplicity of style inwriting lessons; for clear and well-labelled illustrations; for frequent study helps, self-tests, and checks onlearning; for providing students with exercises to do to break up the reading and keep them motivated; and forclear and frequent feedback.

Less prominent material includes a brief history of correspondence study and Holmberg's own working definitionof the method.

Although the material is not unique, and although correspondence study has been superseded in many countries byother methods of distance education, this book remains of interest as an early work of one of the leading theoristsof distance education.

21.Holmberg, Börje. Recent Research into Distance Education. 2 vol. Hagen, West Germany: FernUniversitätGesamthochschule, 1982. vol. 1 80p. vol. 2 22p. Bibliography. No price reported. OCLC 10051527.

Holmberg has written a bibliographic essay on research into distance education in the late 1970s. He breaks theresearch into 15 subject headings, mostly standard

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ones, including objectives, course planning, organization, and evaluation. He includes a section on distanceeducation in developing countries.

Volume 2 is a supplement to the first, updating the research. Both volumes include a complete bibliography of thesources discussed.

Some of the items listed have become classics in the field, including works by Keegan, Flinck, Perry, Singh, andHolmberg himself.

22.Hommadi, Ahmed Hasan. Open University: Retrospect and Prospect. Delhi, India: Indian Bibliographies Bureau,1989. 200p. Index. Bibliography. no price reported. ISBN 8185004145. OCLC 21550722.

Hommadi has written a rather sweeping apology for distance education. His original intent was to provide a reviewof the purpose and practice of the open university concept. To this he has added a brief history of its development,a discussion of its definition and philosophy, and a convincing argument for its usefulness and necessity.

In the section on definition and philosophy, Hommadi reviews the theories of such practitioners as Peters,Holmberg, and Keegan. His history includes a look at the development of Britain's Open University.

His plea for the spread of the open university concept is based on the standard ideas that developing countries needexpanded access to education at all levels and all countries need continuing education. In an unusual twist, he addshis own conviction that widespread use of the methods of distance and open education can serve to bind nationsand groups together, to break down national and ethnic boundaries, and to promote understanding and world peace.He attributes great power to education and to distance education in particular.

23.Hughes, L. J. The First Athabasca University. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Athabasca University, 1980. 155p. noprice reported. OCLC 15921212.

About half of this book is narrative. The latter half consists of documents relating to the inception and planningprocess of the first Athabasca University, which existed between 1970 and 1972. In this first incarnation,Athabasca University was not a distance education university.

The narrative discusses the political and social impetuses behind the formation of Athabasca University, in an areaof Alberta that already had a university. Hughes traces the steps the original governing body took to develop theconcept of a new university, to design a newand radicalcurriculum, and to build a physical campus. It alsodiscusses the changes in political climate that led to Athabasca University's dismantlement before it began.

T. C. Byrne, in Athabasca University: The Evolution of Distance Education (1989), entry #5, gave a briefer look atthis early history of the university, but also continued it into Athabasca's second stage, its development into adistance education institution.

Keegan, Desmond. Foundations of Distance Education, 2d ed., 1990. See entry #55.

Keegan, Desmond. Otto Peters on Distance Education: The Industrialization of Teaching and Learning, 1994. Seeentry #56A.

24.Kitchen, Ronald D. Men of Vision: A University Challenge to Distance Education. St. Lucia, Queensland,Australia: University of Queensland, 1985. 84p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. ISBN 0867761504. OCLC27600591.

The University of Queensland, Australia, got its official start in 1909 and matriculated its first students in 1911.From the beginning it had a Department of Correspondence Study to serve students at a distance, and from thebeginning it strove to

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provide the same quality of education to both residential and distant students. In this small book Kitchen providesbrief biographies of the first four directors of the Department of Correspondence Study: Thomas Edward Jones,Thomas Thatcher, Edward Colin D. Ringrose, and Frank Jackson Olsen.

Koul, B. N., and Janet Jenkins. Distance Education: A Spectrum of Case Studies, 1990. See entry #275.

Lewis, Raymond J. Meeting Learners' Needs through Telecommunication: A Directory and Guide to Programs,1983. See entry #106.

McIntosh, Naomi E., Judith A. Calder, and Betty Swift. A Degree of Difference: The Open University of theUnited Kingdom, 1977. See entry #215.

MacKenzie, Ossian, and Edward L. Christensen, eds. The Changing World of Correspondence Study: InternationalReadings, 1971. See entry #278.

25.MacKenzie, Ossian, Edward L. Christensen, and Paul H. Rigby. Correspondence Instruction in the United States:A Study of What It Is, How It Functions, and What Its Potential May Be. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968. 261p.Index. Bibliographic references. (Carnegie Series in American Education). no price reported. LC 68-8663.

The beginning of this book contains an excellent history of correspondence education in the United States, tracingits development within several arenas: privately operated correspondence schools; correspondence schools runeither by state departments of education for kindergarten through high school or by universities; andcorrespondence schools sponsored by businesses or the military.

After the historical overview, the editors discuss the problems faced by the provider of correspondence instruction,among them financing, staffing, identifying the student market, motivating students, and overcoming prejudice bytraditional educators. Thirty years after this book was written, these concerns are still current.

The chapter "Task of the Future" shows the greatest age. The authors, writing before the advent of personalcomputers and videocassette recorders, could not foresee the use of interactive video and the increasing prevalenceof VCRs and home computers. However, although these technological improvements help both student and teacherwith the motivational problems associated with learning at a distance, they have by no means solved them.MacKenzie's book remains useful today both for its history and for its insights into the effect of correspondenceeducation on student and instructor.

26.Marriott, Stuart. A Backstairs to a Degree: Demands for an Open University in Late Victorian England. Leeds,England: Department of Adult Education and Extramural Studies, University of Leeds, 1981. 107p. Bibliographicnotes. (Leeds Studies in Adult and Continuing Education). no price reported. pa. LC 82-238113. ISBN0907644007. OCLC 11090488.

Some 70 years before the founding of the Open University of the United Kingdom, educational reformersproposed a similar idea. Concerned with breaking the monopoly then held by Oxford and Cambridge Universitieson higher education, they wanted to extend university education to a broader segment of the population by doingaway with or mitigating strict admissions and residency requirements. These requirements had effectively blockedmany people with poor school backgrounds or heavy personal responsibilities at work or home from pursuingeducation. Marriott describes the educational and political battles that took place at this time. Oxford andCambridge provided some extension teaching in the provinces, but retained the right

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to grant degrees. At the same time, provincial universities were opening and pressing for their own degree-granting privileges, which they eventually attained. With that gain, the extension movementstill to a large degreecontrolled by Oxford and Cambridgewithered.

This book provides background to the mid-twentieth century development of the Open University itself. Itdemonstrates that the Open University is only the present-day example of a long-standing interest in greater accessto higher education.

27.Moir, Guthrie. Teaching and Television. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967. 170p. Index. Bibliography. $10.75. LC67-18149. OCLC 183630.

Written on the 10th anniversary of the use of educational television in Great Britain, this book is necessarilyoutdated. However, it provides an interesting history of the early days of television in education from a variety ofperspectives: the government-sponsored BBC's role; the role of independent school television; the development oflocal control in programming with the beginnings of the Local Education Authorities; and the use of television inadult education.

28.Noffsinger, John S. Correspondence Schools, Lyceums, Chautauquas. New York: Macmillan, 1926. 145p. no pricereported. OCLC 191036.

This early history was commissioned by the Carnegie Commission. In its two sections, it gives a history of the for-profit correspondence school, as distinguished from university programs, and of the lyceum and Chautauquamovement of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Noffsinger describes the different kinds ofcorrespondence schools, gives details on the makeup of the student body, and provides information on the costs toboth school and student. He quotes advertisements for these schools that read like those of today: ''Start a moneymaking candy business in your own home." "Big profits in home cooking." "Make money at home in your sparetime. We show you how."

29.Open Learning and Distance Education in Canada. Richmond, British Columbia: Open Learning Agency of BritishColumbia, 1989. 46p. Bibliography. (Canadian Studies Resource Guide). no price reported. pa. ISBN 0662572106.OCLC 29320822.

The introductory essays in this brief volume contain a general overview of distance education and a specific lookat its history in Canada. They include descriptions of the major distance education institutions in Canada, amongthem Athabasca University in British Columbia and Télé-Université in Quebec. The Resource Guide, the mainpart of this publication, lists books, journal articles, conference proceedings, and papers on the subject.Additionally, the volume provides a list of distance education associations in Canada and a glossary of terms usedin the field. The entire text is published in both English and French; the English version covers 46 pages.

30.Perry, Walter. Open University: History and Evaluation of a Dynamic Innovation in Higher Education. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977. 298p. Index. Bibliography. $24.95. LC 76-55917. ISBN 0875893058. OCLC16779824.

Perry provides a very personal account of the early days of the United Kingdom's Open University, a pioneer inlarge-scale distance education. Open University is now an accepted, almost traditional, part of higher education inGreat Britain, but its beginnings were not without controversy. Perry traces these beginnings and talks about theUniversity's early physical setup, the difficulty of deciding how to develop the program, and the problems withestimating costs in an uncharted educational endeavor. He clearly evokes the enthusiasm and sense of purpose ofthese early participants in the Open University, both staff and students.

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This book was first published by the Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England, in 1976. It was titled TheOpen University: A Personal Account by the First Vice-Chancellor.

31.Perry, Walter. The Open University: A Personal Account by the First Vice-Chancellor. Milton Keynes, England:Open University Press, 1976. 298p. Index. Bibliography. £7.50. LC 77-360370. ISBN 0335000428. OCLC16779824.

For an annotation of this book, see entry #30.

32.Robinson, John. Learning over the Air: 60 Years of Partnership in Adult Learning. London: British BroadcastingCorporation, 1982. 256p. Index. Bibliography. no price reported. ISBN 056320092. OCLC 9347191.

Robinson traces the history of educational broadcasting in Britain from its early radio days in the 1920s to theformation and success of the Open University and beyond. He describes how, from its beginning, radio was seenas a tool for adult education. Early broadcasts were accompanied by reading lists and notes, and librarians wereenlisted to make the books mentioned in the bibliographies available. Robinson continues with information on thethe use of radio by the Workers' Educational Association, the growing influence of television, the introduction ofcommercial television, and the success of the Open University.

His look at the future of distance education naturally does not take into account recent developments. He does,however, sound a familiar warning about an increase in the number of people who will not have access to thismode of distance education, as broadcasting becomes more sophisticated, more fragmented, and more paid for byindividuals than by society as a whole.

An interesting look at the early days of educational broadcasting, this work would be useful to read in tandem withthe BBC's New Ventures in Broadcasting (1928), entry #4.

33.Ruggles, Robin H., John Anderson, David E. Blackmore, Clay LaFleur, J. Peter Rothe, and Terry Taerum.Learning at a Distance and the New Technology. Vancouver: Educational Research Institute of British Columbia,1982. 102p. Bibliography. no price reported. ISBN 0919055044. OCLC 15322730.

After a general introductory chapter on the definition of distance education and a look at some major distanceteaching institutions, such as the Open University of the United Kingdom, this book moves into a discussion ofvarious media technologies. There are one- or two-page discussions of radio, television, audiocassettes, satellitetechnology, videodisc, videotext, and microcomputers. Each technology section contains a number of case studiesof programs that use the particular technology.

The information on specific technologies is now outdated, but the case studies are still interesting as a look at whatparticular institutions and programs were doing a number of years ago.

34.Rumble, Greville. The Open University of the United Kingdom: An Evaluation of an Innovative Experience in theDemocratization of Higher Education. Milton Keynes, England: Open University, Distance Education ResearchGroup, 1982. 119p. Bibliography. (DERG Papers Number 6). no price reported. pa. LC 82-204548. OCLC9217273.

Rumble divides his history into seven chapters, dealing with the following:

Origins

Objectives

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Academic programs and courses

Media

Students

Organization, structure, and decision making

Cost-effectiveness

His information is detailed, with many statistical tables on such things as occupations of students, number ofregistrations, number of degrees awarded.

One of many books that discuss this very successful innovation in higher education, Rumble's is more statisticaland less personaland perhaps less readablethan either Open University: History and Evaluation of a DynamicInnovation in Higher Education (1977), entry #30; The Open University Opens (1974), entry #35; or The OpenUniversity from Within (1965), entry #12.

35.Tunstall, Jeremy, ed. The Open University Opens. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1974. 191p. Index.Bibliography. $10.00; $4.00pa. LC 74-78983. ISBN 0870231677; 0870231685pa. OCLC 1209415.

This book, published only three years after the Open University began teaching in 1971, is a very early history. Itcontains some basic information about course development, evaluation, and administration, but its majorsignificance lies in 12 brief (two- to four-page) first-hand accounts from early students at the Open University. Thecross section of students profiled indicate the nontraditional nature of the university. Included are a retiree, amother of five, and an older student who just wants to learn, without the usual distant education student's goal of abetter job or professional advancement. The stories express well the reasons for the founding of the OpenUniversity and why distance education is touted by so many people as an avenue of education for people unable toenroll as full-time students at traditional institutions.

36.Watkins, Barbara L., and Stephen J. Wright. The Foundations of American Distance Education: A Century ofCollegiate Correspondence Study. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1991. 319p. Bibliographic references. $24.95pa.LC 92-155957. ISBN 0840371012. OCLC 25597410.

Various aspects of distance education are explored in this collection of essays: academic standards, supportservices, course development and instructional design, and use of media. The preface is by Charles A. Wedemeyer,the author of the classic 1961 book New Perspectives in University Correspondence Study, entry #39, which"assesses the incorporation of new technologies" into correspondence teaching.

37.Wedemeyer, Charles A., ed. The Brandenburg Memorial Essays on Correspondence Instruction. 2 vol. Madison:University of Wisconsin, vol. 1, 1963; vol. 2, 1966. Vol. 2, 156p. $2.00pa. OCLC v.1 3949970; v.2 3595461.

Only volume 2 was available for examination. Both the volumes of the Brandenburg Memorial Essays were majorlandmarks in the study of correspondence education. They were edited by Charles A. Wedemeyer, whose earlypublication on correspondence education, New Perspectives on University Correspondence Study (1961), entry#39, deals with still-modern concerns, and who is considered a pioneer in distance education.

This collection of essays shows the state of correspondence education in the early to mid-1960s. Topics includethe role of the teacher, the use of correspondence education in developing countries, recent research incorrespondence education, and the use of television. Also notable is the inclusion of an essay by Börje Holmberg,another well-known author in the field.

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38.Wedemeyer, Charles A. Learning at the Back Door. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1981. 260p. Index.Bibliography. $19.50. LC 80-52301. ISBN 0299085600. OCLC 7551272.

Only one chapter in this book is strictly about distance education. The otothers present a general discussion ofalternate education methods, those that use media, technology, correspondence courses, and continuing and adulteducation to reach people who are not eligible for or who do not respond to traditional methods. The chapter ondistance education uses the term distance education very broadly, to refer to every type of learning that can takeplace outside of the time and space constraints of the actual event. In Wedemeyer's definition, even cave paintingscan qualify as distance education. Despite this broad definition, this work is of interest as a history of distanceeducation written by one of the pioneers in correspondence and distance education.

39.Wedemeyer, Charles A., and Gayle B. Childs. New Perspectives in University Correspondence Study. Chicago:Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1961. 74p. no price reported. pa. LC 61-3353. OCLC18794594.

The authors' "new perspectives," although 30 years old, are surprisingly relevant today. Wedemeyer, a majorscholar of correspondence study, and Childs postulate a continuing and increased interest in correspondenceeducation because of factors that are still thought to contribute to that interest: rapid technological change thatrequires constant updating in education; geographic isolation; and increased awareness that improved educationcontributes to improved economic status. Further, they detail the characteristics that a correspondence studentneeds:

self-motivation

organization skills

concentration

and the characteristics necessary for a good program in correspondence study:

clear goals and objectives

manageably sized lessons

rapid feedback from a skilled teacher

The chapter on mixed media additions to distance education is of interest historically. The authors present materialon early educational television, on radio, and on educational films. When compared with today's emphasis oninteractive television and personal computers, this information seems rudimentary, yet it reveals the long-standinginterest of correspondence educators in new technology.

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2Philosophy of Distance Education

Introduction

As distance educators have pushed ahead with the practice of their profession, distance education theorists haveworked toward defining the field. The practitioners have progressed from basic correspondence courses tointeractive video, from supplying shorthand lessons through the mail to offering complete college degree programsthrough television. The theorists have adapted their definition to accommodate developing media and technology.Some have tightened their definition to include only highly structured and administered programs. Others havebroadened the scope of what they accept as distance education to include students working individually, who settheir own reading lists and examination questions.

Most theorists of distance education now agree on a basic definition of the field, but still hold differing views on anumber of its aspects. This generally accepted definition includes four characteristics:

Teacher and learner must be separated for most of the learning process.

The course or program must be influenced or controlled by an organized educational institution.

Some form of media must be used, both to overcome the physical separation of teacher and learner and to carrycourse content.

Two-way communication in some form must be provided between teacher and learner.

The first characteristic eliminates courses that mostly occur in a classroom, with an occasional television orcorrespondence lesson or module. Classroom teachers who occasionally use an educational film or require theirclasses to watch a television show at home cannot be said to be teaching at a distance. The second criterioneliminates most self-study programs, such as individuals reading in a subject without formal guidance. The third isinterpreted broadly, sometimes defining as distance education a correspondence course whose written materialmakes heavy use of illustrations. The fourth is also broadly interpreted: Two-way communication can meaneverything from high-tech interactive video or online computer communication to the cumbersome but still-effective written communication between student and teacher, in which the student submits an assignment and theteacher returns it with comments and suggestions.

These four points are a refinement of Desmond Keegan's five-point definition in his The Foundations of DistanceEducation (1986), and have been debated, redefined, and rewritten by many people. Most now agree in principlethat these four factors must be present for something to be considered

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distance education, even if they take issue with some of Keegan's exact words. In particular, the issue of two-waycommunication, Keegan's fourth point, is one of almost unanimous agreement among distance education theorists.

Two-Way Communication

Without such two-way communication, a student is simply an individual reading or studying alone and pursuing acourse of self-improvement. With such communication, that student is part of organized education, with theguidance necessary to master a particular body of knowledge as others have done, and with the possibility ofgaining a grade, a degree, or a recognized qualification. Many books annotated in chapters 3, 4, and 5 speak aboutsuch two-way communication and describe various methods of achieving it. All of these are descriptions ofspecific projects or trials.

The books in this chapter discuss two-way communication from a less practical and more theoretical viewpoint.Börje Holmberg is one of the most articulate spokesmen for two-way communication. Although he feels that theonly successful learning is that which is self-motivated and self-directed, he believes equally strongly that studentsmust be supported in that motivation and direction. Active two-way communication between student and teacher,in which the two form an attachment, is the most effective way of encouraging this motivation.

So strong is Holmberg's commitment to the theory of two-way communication that two other theorists, Gerhard E.Ortner and Kurt Graff, edited a collection of writings in his honor with this theme: Distance Education as Two-Way Communication: Essays in Honour of Börje Holmberg (1993). They extend the concept beyond that ofcommunication between student and teacher to include communication between cooperating educationalinstitutions, between countries that want coordinated educational policies, and communication among students ofthe same course.

Student Autonomy

A fifth area of agreement among most theorists, although not included in Keegan's points, is that distanceeducation is a form of open education. Student autonomy is one aspect of open education, the autonomy to choosecourses, put together a particular course of study, set the time frame for completion, even set assessment standards.Correspondence Education in the Light of a Number of Contemporary Teaching Models (1979) by John A. Bååth,examines several teaching models in relation to their efficacy for the distance teaching method. He concludes thatthe most autonomous model necessarily leads to greater communication between teacher and student. BörjeHolmberg is perhaps the most adamant in support of student autonomy; his books Status and Trends of DistanceEducation (1981) and Theory and Practice of Distance Education (1989) insist that the best kind of education isstudent driven. Students learn what they want to learn, what they have use for, and as a result they learn more. Inaddition, many of the handbooks on course writing and production annotated in chapter 4 sound the same theme.

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The Down Side

The emphasis on student autonomy and the necessity of two-way communication are seen as strengths of distanceeducation. Other points in Keegan's definition are also seen as strengths. Distance education is flexible andconvenient, and it offers educational opportunity to a wide circle of people. However, some theorists suggest thesesame strengths have a down side. Outside the few points of almost total agreement, theorists struggle to definewhat distance education actually is, to define it in concrete terms that will be of help to practitioners, and to shapeit to mitigate its negative aspects.

Is Distance Education Really Open?

Many see distance education as a way to extend educational opportunities to more people. The techniques ofdistance education allow for economies of scale. A conventional course, needing a teacher and a classroom, incursstart-up costs each time it is taught. Conventional classes are limited in size by the size of their classrooms and bythe number of people a single teacher can teach. A distance course, once developed and produced, can bedistributed at minimal cost to hundreds or thousands of students.

In addition, conventional classes are limited to those who can conveniently attend. Those who are working orcaring for family members at the time the course is given, those who do not have transportation to the class, andthose who do not have someone to take over their other duties while they attend will find regular attendance atresidential classes difficult, if not impossible. Distance students, of course, can read or watch their lessons at theirown convenience and are not hampered by their distance from the teaching site. Most distance educators believethat this increased opportunity for education is an advantage. One very common goal of distance educators is toextend education to more people, and each new wave of media has been seen as a way to bring more people intoit.

Computers are the latest method through which distance educators are reaching out to a new clientele. Peter Smithand Mavis Kelly in Distance Education and the Mainstream: Convergence in Education (1987), state that withcomputers, education can now move out of the classroom and into the workplace or the home, anywhere thatpeople want to receive it and participate in it. Moreover, computer technology makes education available when aperson wants it rather than on a preset schedule.

Other forward-looking thinkers echo the theme. Caroline Arms, in Campus Strategies for Libraries and ElectronicInformation (1990) and Campus Networking Strategies (1988), and Parker Rossman in The Emerging WorldwideElectronic University: Information Age Global Higher Education (1992) both authors speak to the greateraccessibility people will have to formal education through computer technology.

Others see a downside to an increasing reliance on computers, that of limited access. Nigel Paine in OpenLearning in Transition: An Agenda for Action (1988) is concerned that two classes of students may develop, thosewith the money to own computers and those without. He wonders if those without sufficient funds will be cut offfrom an increasingly common form of education and if society will pay a price as a result. Ann Jones, and hercoauthors

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of Personal Computers for Distance Education: The Study of an Educational Innovation (1993) wonder aboutaccess issues as well. These authors also explore the role the educational institution should play in providing equalaccess.

Should Distance Education Be Open?

Although most distance educators see increased learning opportunities as an important goal, not all people agreethat such increased access is an unalloyed good thing. Some admit the possibility of disadvantages. One of theessayists in Beyond the Text: Contemporary Writing on Distance Education (1991) edited by Terry Evans andBruce King, expresses concern that greater availability of education, which the open and distance methods allow,will take young, potentially productive people out of the workplace and keep them in school. Robert F. Arnove, inEducational Television: A Policy Critique and Guide for Developing Countries (1976), raises the concern that toomuch education, too easily available, can have unwanted consequences. He fears that such easily obtainededucation sometimes prepares people for jobs that do not exist. People may be educated beyond the level that thelocal economy can support; thus their education has no practical value and can even become a disadvantage if itmakes them discontented or removes them from a job at which they were useful.

David Harris, in Openness and Closure in Distance Education (1987), believes that increasing openness ineducation can mask a corresponding closure in the work force. As more people gain academic credentials, thosecredentials begin to be required rather than just preferred, thus pushing other peopleperhaps just as able butwithout the credentialsout of a particular job category. He uses the example of the Open University of the UnitedKingdom's early emphasis on teacher training. With more people holding academic credentials for teaching, peoplealready working in education became underqualified for their positions.

Others question whether there really are increased educational opportunities, or whether greater openness in accessto education is a myth. K. Patricia Cross, in Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and FacilitatingLearning (1981), agrees that adult education has many advantages. However, she also believes that many distanceand open learning opportunities, which require a great deal of independence and motivation from the student, areused mostly by those who already have a high degree of education. Those people in disadvantaged circumstances,for whom the programs are often developed, are just as often unable to take advantage of them.

Is Open Education a New Concept?

Some people, although they agree that greater openness in education is good, do not agree that that goal is a newphenomenon. In their view, traditional educators have always tried to extend opportunities to more people. Thusthey see distance education as a continuation of traditional education, not a separate development.

Robert E. Bell and Malcolm Tight, in Open Universities: A British Tradition? (1993), answer their title's questionin the affirmative. They see the

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history of education as a movement toward greater openness, with distance education as a logical development, nota separate tradition. In their opinion, the relatively closed educational system of recent times is a development ofthe nineteenth century.

Common Educational Experience

With individuals encouraged through distance education to choose their own academic programs, and with theability to pursue those programs privately at home, is there a cost in the lack of a common education? Will oursociety become more fragmented if people no longer share the same educational experience? Nigel Paineexpressed this concern in Open Learning in Transition: An Agenda for Action (1988), already mentioned above.

Many if not most distance education students use the distance education method of study because it meets theirneeds. Many of the books annotated in chapter 5 discuss the demographics of distance education students andshow that many are unable to study any other way. K. Patricia Cross in Adults as Learners (1981) and Vivien E.Hodgson et al. in Beyond Distance TeachingTowards Open Learning (1987), both annotated in this chapter, speakof the self-directedness of most distance learners. They note that many of them are studying to fulfill a particularpurpose. Although this response leaves open Paine's question as to whether the decreasing commonality ofschooling and education is a good or a bad thing, it suggests that the trend is likely to continue.

A Coming Together

Ortner and Graff's book, Distance Education as Two-Way Communication: Essays in Honour of Börje Holmberg(1993), emphasizes another developing theory in distance education, that the lines between distance education andtraditional education are blurring, as each type of education learns from the other and becomes more like it.Related to Robert Bell's theory in Open Universities: A British Tradition? (1993), that increasingly open educationis normal, this theory is gaining support. Holmberg in Status and Trends of Distance Education writes that alleducation, not just that in the distance mode, depends on the motivation of the learner, not just the skill of theteacher. Distance education, which requires a high degree of self-directedness on the part of the isolated learner,has developed ways of encouraging and developing this motivation that traditional education can adopt.

Ortner and Graff contend that, with educational opportunities expanding, traditional universities are becomingmore impersonal and students left more on their own, without the close guidance of a faculty advisor. In otherwords, student and teacher are becoming more separated at traditional universities. Distance education has had toovercome the inevitable separation of teacher and student and has worked on technologically assisted ways to doso. If traditional education adapts some of these techniques for its own use, it can mitigate its own increasingimpersonalization. Smith and Kelly maintain that students on traditional campuses are using distance educationmethods by tapping into information databases, viewing videos of their

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courses, or using e-mail to facilitate discussion between themselves and other students or their teachers.

Distance educators have long strived to make their methods more akin to traditional education, through the use ofvarious technologies that draw students closer both to other students and to teachers. Now it seems that bothdistance and traditional educational methods are facing the same problems and perhaps can learn from each otherhow to solve them.

Sources

40.Altrichter, Herbert, Terry Evans, and Alistair Morgan. Windows: Research and Evaluation on a DistanceEducation Course. Geelong, Victoria, Australia: Deakin University, 1991. 177p. Bibliography. No price reported.(Research in Distance Education). ISBN 0730013472. OCLC 27545522.

The authors present a detailed case study of a course titled "Classroom Practices" that is offered at DeakinUniversity. The case study includes a look at how the course was produced, an evaluation of the course throughinterviews with both students and teachers, and interviews with students who dropped the course withoutcompleting it.

The authors consider this book to be "action research," or research that concentrates on a specific current practicewith the aim of applying the research results to the object of the research and thus improving it. In this way, all theparticipants in the practice being studied (in this case, a specific course) not only play their own part of student orteacher, but become part of the research team. All are affected by their participation. First, by being asked toevaluate the course and confront their own expectations of it, students move beyond assimilating and learning abody of information and toward constructing their own view and evaluation of that information. Second, theircomments allow the instructor to change and improve the class.

In addition to presenting a view of a research method, Windows provides valuable insights from students on whatthey like and do not like about a particular distance education course. Theoreticians will appreciate the philosophybehind this book, and practitioners may discover some ways to improve their own teaching methods.

41.Arms, Caroline, ed. Campus Networking Strategies. Bedford, Mass.: Digital Press, 1988. 321p. Index.Bibliography. Glossary. (EDUCOM Strategies Series on Information Technology). $23.00. LC 88-3863. ISBN1555580092. OCLC 29512383.

Although not strictly about distance education, this work is worth including here. It examines how variousuniversities and colleges get all the pieces of the campus connected electronically to each other and to othercampuses. Ten different university and college systems are described, each by someone from that institution.Among those represented are Carnegie Mellon, Dartmouth, and Wesleyan. These 10 chapters are full of detailedtechnical information about the particular systems. The glossary gives definitions of technical terms.

Of most interest to students of distance education is the chapter on Pennsylvania State University, which operatesan extensive distance education program. Penn State has 22 campuses in Pennsylvania, all connected through theirnetwork. This chapter includes some specific information about distance education classes that use video andaudio.

Although much of the book is specific enough to be of use to practitioners, its sum is a thoughtful look at thefuture of distance education and the influence of electronic technology on education.

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42.Arms, Caroline, ed. Campus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Information. Bedford, Mass.: Digital Press,1990.404p. Index. Bibliography. (EDUCOM Strategies Series on Information Technology). $34.95. LC 89-16879.ISBN 155558036X. OCLC 20013683.

Like Arms' Campus Networking Strategies (see entry #41), Campus Strategies for Libraries and ElectronicInformation is not itself about distance education. It does however tangentially address one of the recurring themesin the study of distance education: the provision of class and research materials to students at a distance. Distanceeducation providers have developed varying approaches to the problem, from the Open University's packets ofclass materials and local study centers, to cooperation between the class's university library and local publiclibraries geographically close to the distant student. In its 10 chapters that give detailed descriptions of libraryservices at ten different libraries and its two chapters on library networks (OCLC, or Online Computer LibraryCatalog, and RLG, or Research Libraries Group), Campus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Informationgives the reader a glimpse of the rich library resources that distant students equipped with a computer can tap intoon their own. Armed with a computer, a modem, and probably an account on the school computer system, studentscan identify sources on any topic from a worldwide array of libraries and databases.

The two Arms books, along with Parker Rossman's The Emerging Worldwide Electronic University (entry #61),give a picture of the electronic future of which distance education will be a part.

Arnove, Robert F., ed. Educational Television: A Policy Critique and Guide for Developing Countries, 1976. Seeentry #252.

43.Bååth, John A. Correspondence Education in the Light of a Number of Contemporary Teaching Models. Malmö,Sweden: LiberHermods, 1979.128p. Bibliography. No price reported. ISBN 9123921447. OCLC 8923848.

The author, who has published extensively in the field of distance education, believed that the field ofcorrespondence education was developing without a theoretical base. He attempts to supply such a base here. Hisaim is to explain various teaching models, apply them to correspondence education, then discuss how a particularmodel could be used to develop the field. He uses seven teaching models:

1. Skinner's behavior control model

2. Rothkopf's model for written instruction

3. Ausubel's advance organizer model

4. Egan's structural communication model

5. Bruner's discovery learning model

6. Rogers' model for ''facilitation of learning"

7. Gagne's general teaching model

Bååth uses a very organized approach. Each teaching model is treated in two separate chapters, with the discussionof each model following the same structure. First Bååth discusses the teaching model itself, reviews the researchrelated to it, and examines the model's approach both to teaching and to learning. In the second chapter devoted toa particular model, he examines the ways in which the model might be applied specifically to correspondenceteaching. For example, the Rogers model allows the most autonomy and self-directedness on the part of thestudent. Use of this model logically demands that more use be made of two-way communication in correspondenceeducation. Such adjustments in correspondence education as giving the student more choice among possibleassignments, increasing telephone contact,

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emphasizing self-assessment, and using more computer based instruction increases the amount of autonomy thestudent has.

A summary chapter reviews all the models in the light of correspondence education and details the factors thatshould be considered when developing a model for a correspondence education program.

44.Bell, Robert E., and Malcolm Tight. Open Universities: A British Tradition? Bristol, Pa.: Society for Research intoHigher Education and the Open University Press, 1993. 180p. Index. Bibliography. $95.00. LC 93-36208. ISBN0335191266. OCLC 27034285.

The answer to the title's question is, quite simply, yes. Far from being an innovative development that arose as aresponse to a new set of social circumstances (greater demand for education, greater need for retraining as peoplechange careers), the authors maintain that the Open University was simply the latest in a line of open universitiesin the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It is rather the recent "closed" approach to higher education, withstringent entry requirements, set courses of study, and rigid graduation standards, that is new.

The authors present histories of various open universities. The Royal University of Ireland, established in 1879,enrolled both Catholic and Protestant students and allowed students to study at home or at another institution, butto receive their degree from the Royal University by examination. Beginning in 1877, a time when women werenot welcomed in traditional universities, St. Andrew's in Scotland offered a degree by distance to women. Inaddition, the role of the University of London in overseeing degrees by examination is examined in detail.

Juxtaposed against the stories of these universities is some history of Cambridge, Oxford, and other traditionaluniversities. The authors discuss how these universities changed from an open environment that allowed studentsto set their own course of study and that had little formal assessment of students' achievement, into universitieswith formidable requirements for entry and accomplishment. The authors turn much of the conventional wisdomabout Oxford University and open education in general on its head and do so in a readable and lively way.

45.Cross, K. Patricia. Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1981. 300p. Index. Bibliography. $19.00pa. LC 80-26985; 80-26985pa. ISBN 0875894917; 1555424457pa.OCLC 28990179.

Cross explores adult education in general, not just its distance education component. She examines the wholespectrum of formal and informal education: adults who return to college full- or part-time; those who participate inprofessional continuing education; and those who attend community-sponsored lectures or workshops.Nevertheless, the aspects of adult education that she examines certainly have relevance for distance education.Various chapters concentrate on the demographics and characteristics of adult education, ways that educators canadapt courses and programs to suit the needs of adults, and the reasons adults have for participating. Such reasonsinclude work goals, personal fulfillment, and sometimes social goals of meeting like-minded people, getting awayfrom home or job responsibilities, or even finding a husband or wife.

Cross also examines the question of whether or not adult education is necessarily a good thinga question that isseldom asked in a time when lifelong education is commonly accepted as a positive. Cross asks some interestingquestions: whether colleges and other organizations interested in attracting adult learners do so to benefit thepotential learner or for their own goals of financial improvement; whether requirements for continuing professionaleducation and accreditation impinge on adults' rights to decide their own needs; and whether the usual adulteducation offerings really do provide an avenue to education for those previously denied it, or

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whether it is the already well educated who take most advantage of adult education programs and opportunities.

Cross both asks and answers many questions. Her answers include some recommendations for how adult educatorscan make education more learner centered and more responsive to the needs of adults.

46.Evans, Terry D., and Bruce King. Beyond the Text: Contemporary Writing on Distance Education. Geelong,Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press, 1991. 264p. Index. Bibliography. $76.00. LC 91-218773. ISBN0949823198. OCLC 25410065.

Terry Evans is emerging as a leading figure in the development of distance education philosophy. Often with DarylNation as coauthor or co-editor, he has written a number of books that examine distance education as a disciplineand locate it within a broad framework. (See Evans and Nation, Critical Reflections on Distance Education, entry#47, and Evans and Nation, Reforming Open and Distance Education, entry #48.) In this work, co-edited withBruce King, he continues the process. His major premise in this book is that the philosophy of distance educationis often a result of the "critical reflection process," a process by which professionals reflect on their own work andpractice, draw conclusions from it, and develop new understanding and theories. For such critical reflection to beeffective, individuals must look at their activity not only in relation to the specific discipline (in this case, distanceeducation), but in relation to broader social settings or critical theories.

Evans and King have asked a number of practitioners and theorists in distance education to present their owncritical reflexive process and conclusions in this book of essays. Essays are divided into four sections: "Access andEquity in Distance Education," "Dialogue and Independence in Distance Education," "Distance Education inDeveloping Nations,'' and "Technology in Distance Education." In each of these sections, various practitionerspresent their views, often questioning widely held assumptions about the nature of society, education, and distanceeducation. For example, in "Disability and Distance Education in Australia," an essay in the section on "Accessand Equity" (pp. 255), Christopher Newell and Judi Walker discuss the long-held assumption that one positiveaspect of distance education is the degree of autonomy and independence it offers the students. They point out thatfor the disabled student, the autonomy offered by distance education is often not enough. A disabled student needsgreater flexibility in scheduling, often a longer time to complete a course, sometimes even a longer time to take aparticular examination, to compensate for difficulties in writingor even in breathing, as in the case of a studentwith asthma. Kwasi Ansu-Kyeremeh, in his "Distance Education in a Developing Context: Ghana" (pp. 13751),questions not the value of formal education but its place in a larger context. He decries the replacement of in-school education for older, home-centered methods of socialization and comments on the fact that in-schooleducation removes young and potentially productive people from the workforce.

These essays present a fresh look at distance education, and at education in general, and would help educatorsrethink and perhaps change many of their assumptions. The sections on access and equity and on developingnations add to the still-small body of literature on distance education for special groups and nations outside theUnited States and Western Europe.

47.Evans, Terry, and Daryl Nation. Critical Reflections on Distance Education. London: The Falmer Press, 1989.272p. Index. Bibliography. $58.00; $25.00pa. LC 88-27331. ISBN 1850004625; 1850004633pa. OCLC 18779113.

Both editors are practitioners of distance education at Australian universities. Their collection of essays bydifferent authors is divided into three parts: Part 1 attempts to give historical perspective to the subject and todescribe the philosophical base of distance education. Part 2 is a collection of essays by practitioners in the field,

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describing their experiences, and part 3 is a critical discussion of the scholarship of both distance education and oflearning.

Part 2 is the heart of the book, a collection of essays by people as diverse as a woman teaching women's studies inChina, a student with ideas of how to involve and empower distance education students, and a teacher of aspiringdistance education teachers. All describe, critique, and evaluate their experiences with the techniques of distanceeducation.

48.Evans, Terry, and Daryl Nation. Reforming Open and Distance Education: Critical Reflections from Practice. NewYork: St. Martin's Press, 1993. 240p. Index. Bibliography. $45.00. LC 92-43316. ISBN 0312094841. OCLC27145357.

The editors used the same approach in their compilation of this book as they did in their 1989 collection of essaysCritical Reflections on Distance Education, entry #47. They encouraged people to collaborate on a single essay,required that these coauthors read, critique, and revise the work, and further required that at least one member ofeach author group attend a seminar especially set up for this purpose. Seminars were organized to precede twoconferences on distance education, one in Cambridge, England, and the other in Melbourne, Australia, both in1991. The editors themselves mention in their introduction the irony of distance educators relying on forced face-to-face meetings as the best means of collaboration. They assure us that they plan to increase their use of computerconferencing as a substitute.

The result is a collection of essays that examine the philosophical underpinnings of the practice of distanceeducation, but with a twist. Topics discussed include the use of residential summer schools, the writing of aparticular course, and the dissemination of distance education programs to ethnic minorities. The twist comes fromthe somewhat contrived collaborative process. Essays are meant to reveal not only the final result of the thinking,discussing, and revising process that went into the writing of the article, but the process itself. It is apparent frommany of the essays that the collaborative process did cause the authors to revise their theories; perhaps reading theessays will accomplish the same.

49.Garrison, D. R. Understanding Distance Education: A Framework for the Future. London: Routledge Kegan Paul,1989. 139p. Index. Bibliography. $62.00. LC 88-30334. ISBN 0415020905. OCLC 18715007.

In this book, Garrison attempts to show similarities between distance education and traditional education. Hecontends that as we better understand the teaching dynamic, we will see that distance education is simplyeducation. One section offers a history of distance education, with reference to correspondence courses and to theUnited Kingdom's Open University.

50.Harris, David. Openness and Closure in Distance Education. Philadelphia: The Falmer Press, 1987. (EducationPolicy Perspectives, vol. 5). $29.00. LC 87-6861. ISBN 1850001928; 1850001936pa. OCLC 15428442.

Harris examines four aspects of distance education, using the United Kingdom's Open University as his example:admissions, course production, assessment, and actual tasks performed by both teacher and student in a distancesetting. He contends that Open University and distance education in general have never been subjected to objectivescrutiny. Rather, certain assumptions have been made and subsequent discussion, description, and conclusionshave been influenced by the initial assumptions. The result, in Harris's estimation, is a flawed and usually overlyoptimistic view of distance education and of the Open University in particular. His book is a way of reexaminingthe success of the Open University.

The book's title comes from Harris's contention that for every move towards openness accomplished by distanceeducation comes a corresponding closure. Openness

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in admissions often means a consequent closure in admittance to a profession. For example, after the OpenUniversity created more opportunity for potential teachers to obtain a degree in education, this degree became arequirement of the profession. This closed off the teaching profession from people without that degree, whopreviously would have gained entry. Open distribution of course materials through correspondence broadcastingasopposed to the closed system of a resident campus whose offerings are available only to those physicallypresentmeant that the input of teachers became subordinated to the demands of publishing deadlines and broadcastschedules. Harris examines similar contradictions for the issues of assessment and grading and task performance.

This work offers a fresh look at distance education, challenging long-held assumptions. It is difficult reading andwill inspire much disagreement and controversy.

51.Hodgson, Vivien E., et al., eds. Beyond Distance TeachingTowards Open Learning. Milton Keynes, England:Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press, 1987. 182p. Bibliography. $65.00. LC 87-5781. ISBN 0335156037. OCLC 15628084.

The collection of papers in this book grew out of a conference at the University of Lancaster, United Kingdom,although they are not the proceedings of that conference. The series of essays on learning styles, new technology,and community and institutional support speak to the authors' three premises: First, the world is changing rapidlyand people must be prepared for lifelong learning. Second, the use of media in education is increasing andnecessitates a change in teaching techniques. Finally, the increase in adult learners also makes a change in teachingtechniques necessary, because adults are more self-directed than children and want more control over their ownlearning.

The editors provide a commentary before each of the three major sections of this book (Issues in Theory andResearch, The Application of New Technology, and Issues in Practice) and a concluding essay in which they urgeeducators to move away from the provision of a body of knowledge towards a method of teaching that empowerspeople as learners.

Holmberg, Börje. Growth and Structure of Distance Education, 1986. See entry #19.

52.Holmberg, Börje. Status and Trends of Distance Education. New York: Nichols Publishing, 1981. 200p. Index.Bibliography. $28.00. LC 81-4617. ISBN 0893971030. OCLC 7307098.

Holmberg is a pioneer and well-known author and researcher in distance education. Throughout his career indistance education, he has been moving towards a more philosophical approach to the field. In this book, hepresents his philosophy whole. He is concerned with the philosophical underpinnings of distance education: why acourse should be developed and presented in a certain way in a distance education setting; why students needmaximum autonomy; why numbers of students should be as large as possible; why even face-to-face componentsof a course need to allow students maximum control. His major premise is that all education, not just that in adistance setting, requires the independent effort of the learner to be successful, and that distance education cancapitalize on this necessity. Because distance education students cannot lean on their teachers for day-to-day,lesson-by-lesson support, they must depend on their own efforts. If distance education is set up properly, it canencourage this independence and contribute to a successful learning experience, in other words, an experience inwhich learners choose what they desire or need to learn and then succeed in learning it. Holmberg believesstudents should have a choice in what material to learn, what time frame is necessary, and what standards shouldbe

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applied to assess individual accomplishments. He is in opposition to the traditional teaching model in which theinstructor decides the course content, the institution decides the time frame, and a combination of the two evaluatessuccess. Chapters on course development, evaluation, costs, communication between teacher and student, and theorganization of distance education institutions all reflect this underlying philosophy.

Although Holmberg wrote this book before his 1986 Growth and Structure of Distance Education (see entry #19),Status and Trends of Distance Education is a stronger philosophical statement.

53.Holmberg, Börje. Theory and Practice of Distance Education. New York: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1989. 252p.Index. Bibliography. $65.00. LC 88-30274. ISBN 0415009960. OCLC 18629054.

Holmberg has been writing on distance education since the 1960s. In this 1989 book, he finally reaches his owngoal of not only reporting on distance education but of promulgating a theoretical basis for it. He surveys thehistory of writings about the field, at least back to the mid-twentieth century, and quotes extensively from otherpractitioners and theorists: Wedemeyer, Daniel, Sewart, Moore, and a host of German authorities.

The first section of the book is a history of the field and various theories relating to it. He examines the differencebetween open learning and distance learning, two concepts often used interchangeably. According to his theory,distance learning is not the same as open learning, but can be either open or closed. Open learning should refer to astructure that gives the student optimum autonomy, whereas distance learning should simply mean a physicalseparation between student and teacher. He examines the difference between a large institution of distanceeducation and smaller versions. Large institutions, such as the United Kingdom's Open University or Germany'sFernUniversität, might teach thousands or tens of thousands in a single course. They tend to use industrial methodsof job differentiation in their course preparation and delivery. Different people are responsible for preparation of acourse, delivery of a course, and evaluation of student performance. A smaller provider of distance educationusually combines the offices of course preparer, tutor, and grader into one person. Holmberg also examines brieflymethods for teaching distance education courses.

He then moves into a lengthy section on practice, demonstrating how the theoretical material he has just presentedcan be applied practically by examining several theories of education and their applicability to distance education.This is a section of specifics, in which he points out examples of successful distance education and identifies thecomponents that make them successful. Among the components of a successful distance education course are theuse of the active voice and specific words in course materials, small teaching modules that encourage the studentwith a sense of accomplishment, connection between succeeding modules, use of a conversational style in coursematerials to build an emotional connection between student and teacher, and frequent activities as well as readingto maintain the student's motivation.

The next section formulates a theoretical model for distance education. This theory presents distance education notas a poor substitute for face-to-face learning, chosen only as a last resort by people without access to the moreacceptable method of teachinga model many earlier theories of distance education either stated or implied. Instead,Holmberg's model sees distance education as a separate mode of learning with a separate clientele, one thatchooses such a model positively. Holmberg has been working toward this theory throughout his career in distanceeducation, as he himself describes in this book. (See Holmberg's Growth and Structure of Distance Education(1986), entry #19; Status and Trends of Distance Education (1981), entry #52; and Distance Education: A Surveyand Bibliography (1977), entry #93.)

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His theory grounds distance education as an educational model allowing educational autonomy, which in turndrives a corollary to his theory: that distance education is suitable for highly motivated, adult learners. In histheory, students are given almost total autonomy over when, what, where, and how they will study. Theirresponsibility is to be self-motivated, for without this self-motivation, distance education carries the risk of a highdrop-out rate. Thus his theory of distance education is indeed based on open learning concepts. Holmberg adds tohis theory the requirements of informality, constant interaction between student and teacher as well as amongstudents, and the encouragement of a personal relationship between student and teacher, even at a distance.Another requirement is the presence of a supporting institution, which will also be run on the principle of studentinvolvement and autonomy. Thus the success of distance education depends not only on the development ofcourses suited to this delivery method, but on the selection of self-directed students.

54.International Council for Distance Education. Flexible Designs for Learning: Report of the 13th World Conferenceof the ICDE. Melbourne, Australia: International Council for Distance Education, 1985. 92p. MF $1.18. PC$13.20. ED 280-459. ISBN 0958941017.

Rather than containing the complete proceedings, this publication contains only the keynote addresses and asummary of the papers presented. Papers concentrate on the debate between traditional educational practice, inwhich a teacher passes on a body of information to learners, and the more open approach of most distancelearning, in which learners take responsibility for what they learn and how and when they learn.

Jones, Ann, Gill Kirkup, and Adrian Kirkwood. Personal Computers for Distance Education: The Study of anEducational Innovation, 1993. See entry #210.

55.Keegan, Desmond. Foundations of Distance Education. 2d ed. Bekenham, England: Croom Helm, 1990. 277p.Index. Bibliography. $26.00 (1986 ed.). LC 89-10318. ISBN 0415010527. OCLC 19887145.

Keegan has three purposes in this book: to provide a guide to the literature of distance education, to provide aguide to current practices in the field, and to begin building and propounding a theoretical base. His premise is thatdistance education is now accepted as a part of education; in a sense it has come of age. Although distanceeducation has a hundred-year history, dating back to correspondence courses, it will not survive as an academicdiscipline without a sound philosophy. As a beginning to such a philosophy, Keegan includes a presentation ofvarious theoretical approaches.

56.Keegan, Desmond. On the Nature of Distance Education. Hagen, West Germany: FernUniversität. 1980. 48p.Bibliography. (Ziff Paper, 33). MF $1.18. PC $6.60. ED 311-890.

In this paper, Keegan describes and analyzes the definitions of distance education as promulgated by threetheorists, Börje Holmberg, Otto Peters, and Michael G. Moore, and as written in French law. He critiques all andpresents his own definition. In addition, he asserts that there are major differences between conventional ortraditional education and distance education. Although brief, this paper presents a major theory on the nature ofdistance education and is the work of someone influential in the field.

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56A.Keegan, Desmond. Otto Peters on Distance Education: The Industrialization of Teaching and Learning. New York:Routledge, 1994. 260p. Author index. Subject index. Bibliographical references. Appendix. (Routledge Studies inDistance Education). $65.00. LC 93-28823. ISBN 0415103843. OCLC 28549139.

Until the publication of this book, much of Otto Peters' work was available only in German. Peters and Keeganworked together on the selection of material for the book, but the translations are Peters' own.

Selections trace 30 years of Peters' writing on distance education. They show his conviction that it represents thecontinuation of a historical trend in education of increasing industrialization and democratization. Peters believesthat distance education, with its emphasis on individual and isolated study, can contribute to a breakdown in thesocial contract (see p.16 of the introduction written by Peter's). However, he also believes that the flexibility ofdistance education and the increasing demand for education will cause distance education methods to thrive.

This book, making available for the first time many of Peters' works, is of great value to those wanting tounderstand the philosophy of this major figure. One chapter gives a history of the FernUniversität. An appendixlists Peters' major writings on distance education, in German, while the conclusion, written by Keegan, containssome biographical material on Peters.

57.Keegan, Desmond, ed. Theoretical Principles of Distance Education. New York: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1993.272p. Index. Bibliographic references. (Routledge Studies in Distance Education). $54.95. ISBN 0415089425.OCLC 29522208.

Desmond Keegan is a recognized writer and theoretician of distance education. He has here solicited and collectedessays from a number of fellow distance education writers on the theoretical framework that underpins distanceeducation. Essays are grouped within five themes: didactic, academic, analytic, philosophical, and technological.Although sometimes these categories seem a bit artificial, with the essays listed under one heading seeming tooverlap into other areas, the division does provide a workable way to look at distance education from differentperspectives.

Essays in the didactic group concentrate on such educational concepts as two-way communication between studentand teacher as well as among students, definitions of both teaching and learning, and ways of interaction. Thewriters in the academic section derive their theory more from practical experience within the academic setting.Their examples are drawn from actual experience within the distance education method. In the analytical section,authors break down distance education into smaller components and analyze one or more of these components.Authors in the philosophical section are concerned with modern philosophy in general and educational philosophyin particular. They attempt to place distance education theory within these broader contexts. The final section,technological underpinnings, is perhaps the most straightforward; the chapters examine and compare varioustechnologies available to distance education. Its final chapter is on distance training as opposed to distanceeducation, that is training in specific tasks offered by industry to its employees, rather than education supplied inan academic setting and having more general applications. The author of this chapter sees a future in whichtraining as such is phased out, as computer systems become more self-explanatory and learners eventually teachthemselves.

58.McLardy, Ailsa. "Understanding Distance Education." Master's thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,Canada, 1991. OCLC 28007530.

McLardy bases her thesis on the assumption that students and teachers in distance education have differentconceptions of what distance education is. She explores and describes the various definitions, perceptions, andconceptions of distance education as printed in the literature and interviewed students about their

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perceptions. Although her interview subjects were few (she interviewed only 15 people studying at university levelthrough the distance education method), her conclusions bear further study.

Her main discovery is that theorists and practitioners concentrate on the institution providing distance education,the methods of that provision, and on difficulties encountered by both student and institution during the process.Students, on the other hand, have conceptions of distance education based mainly on themselves as learners. Theirconcepts concentrate on their goals for learninglearning for its own sake or for such practical reasons as promotionor self-improvementand also on the flexibility and freedom that distance education represents. Students believe thatthe distance education method allows them to choose the time of study, the means of study, and often even what tostudy. McLardy concludes that practitioners and theorists of distance education need to concentrate more on thelearners and their goals and needs when forming theories of distance education.

Although this thesis is 515 pages long, most of it consists of transcripts of the interviews that McLardy conducted.The actual argument and discussion comprise the first 107 pages.

Moore, Michael G., Peter Cookson, Joe Donaldson, and B. Allan Quigley, eds. Contemporary Issues in AmericanDistance Education, 1990. See entry #121.

Moran, Louise, and Ian Mugridge. Collaboration in Distance Education: International Case Studies, 1993. Seeentry #123.

59.Ortner, Gerhard E., and Kurt Graff, eds. Distance Education as Two-Way Communication: Essays in Honour ofBörje Holmberg. New York: P. Lang, 1993. 272p. Bibliographic references. No price reported. LC 92-35263.ISBN 3631453590. OCLC 26853047.

These essays in honor of a leading theoretician of distance education are by respected scholars in the field: Sewart,Jevons, Daniel, Harry, Keegan, Ljoså, Singh, Moore, and Rumble. It includes a short biography of Holmberg.

The essays concentrate on the importanceeven the necessityof two-way communication in distance education andindeed in all education. The premise of many of the essays is that distance education and traditional education arecoming closer together and that traditional education can learn from the practice of distance education. In this, theessays show a similarity to the premise of Distance Education and the Mainstream: Convergence in Education(1987) by Peter Smith and Mavis Kelly, entry #63. Both that book and these essays contend that as universitiesbecome larger and less personal, they offer less communication between student and teacher. Furthermore, distanceeducation has always emphasized the importance of two-way communication and has searched for ways toimplement it despite the obvious difficulties in physical separation between teacher and student. Traditionaleducation can adapt some of distance education's methods of communication to overcome its own increasingimpersonalization. Another book that echoes this theme is Rossman's The Emerging Worldwide ElectronicUniversity (1992), entry #61.

The emphasis on the importance of two-way communication has been a persistent theme of Holmberg's writings,most notably in his 1989 Theory and Practice of Distance Education, entry #53. It is therefore fitting that thisshould be the theme of this book in his honor. Communication in many guises is covered in these essays: politicalcommunication among countries that are attempting to coordinate distance education policies, communicationamong members of distance education consortia, communication between teacher and student and among students.There is also a section on how developments in technologycomputers, e-mail, two-way interactive video,

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teleconferencinghave facilitated distance education's road toward effective two-way communication.

60.Paine, Nigel, ed. Open Learning in Transition: An Agenda for Action. Cambridge: National Extension College,1988. 383p. Index. Bibliographic references. £20.00. LC gb88-55665. ISBN 1850917566. OCLC 18629229.

The lines between open and distance learning are extremely blurred in this book, as they often are. The book ismostly concerned with changes in education that have increased education's openness, such as greater studentautonomy in choosing courses, greater flexibility in choosing what time of life to go to school, and greateremphasis on individual studying. However, all these themes of open education often are accomplished through themethods of distance education, and thus this book is of interest to distance educators. The book discusseseducational systems that rely on media and in which the student and teacher are separated in space and time.

The papers in section 1 discuss the social and political forces in the world that are increasing the open aspects ofeducation. The greater value placed on education in developing countries, the increasing need for ongoing lifelongeducation, and the need for education linked to jobs are all discussed. Section 2 discusses the problems that resultfrom this greater openness, including the problem of funding. One question asked is whether the increasingly morespecialized learning modules that often make up open learning create a danger for the continuation of a commoneducation. Section 3 continues and broadens the discussion. How much should the need of industry for trainedworkers drive the development of open education? Should there be some overarching infrastructure directing it andlooking out for societywide implications?

Section 4 is most directly related to distance education. Papers in this section examine delivery sources for distanceeducation, resource sharing between industry and educational institutions, industry-based support services forstudents who are also workers, and the availability of various learning delivery systems. One paper discusseswhether or not a gap is developing between those with access to high technology delivery systems and thosewithout.

These papers form a thoughtful look at the possible future of education, both education that takes place in actualeducational institutions and education that takes place in industry and is geared to industrial purposes. Otherfuture-looking books, although concentrating more on the future of the university than on industry-basededucation, include two by Caroline Arms, Campus Networking Strategies (1988), entry #41, and CampusStrategies for Libraries and Electronic Information (1990), entry #42, and The Emerging Worldwide ElectronicUniversity (1992) by Parker Rossman, entry #61. Morton Flate Paulsen, in his discussion of the electronicuniversity in From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Universities (1992), entry #133, provides a somewhat differentview.

Parmaji, S. Distance Education, 1984. See entry #131.

Paulsen, Morton Flate. From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Universities: Distance Education, Computer-MediatedCommunication, and Online Education, 1992. See entry #133.

61.Rossman, Parker. The Emerging Worldwide Electronic University: Information Age Global Higher Education.Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992.169p. Index. Bibliography. (Contributions to the Study of Education, no.57). $42.95. LC 92-3660. ISBN 0313279276. ISSN 0196-707X. OCLC 25246712.

A very exciting book, it explores what the future of education might look like. It resents a clear and convincingpicture of what the electronic university might be, both for the student and for the researcher. Chapters on thedeveloping links among research universities and libraries, on electronic textbooks and materials, on the

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possibilities for courses and programs presented electronically, and on the shape and skeleton of what is happeningtoday make this compelling reading.

To anyone who is unfamiliar with what is already happeningthose people who have not heard of the Internet, usede-mail or an OPAC, or been involved with computer conferencingthis vision could come as a revelation. For thosealready involved, those who are helping to shape education's electronic future, this work opens up the possibilitiesand makes one aware of the exciting possibilities for the electronic university.

For a look at the future, not just a recap of the past or a directory of the present, read this book along with the twobooks edited by Caroline Arms, Campus Networking Strategies (1988), entry #41, and Campus Strategies forLibraries and Electronic Information (1990), entry #42, and Ann Jones et al's The Computer Revolution inEducation (1987), entry #98.

Rowntree, Derek. Exploring Open and Distance Learning, 1992. See entry #181.

62.Sewart, David, Desmond Keegan, and Börje Holmberg, eds. Distance Education: International Perspectives. NewYork: St. Martin's Press, 1983. 445p. Index. Bibliographic references. $32.50. LC 83-4973. ISBN 0312213190.OCLC 9622454.

There is something for everyone in this collection of articles by notables in the field. (Keegan, Perraton, Sewart,Moore, Holmberg, Wedemeyer, Bates, Bååth, Daniel, and Rumble are among the contributors.) The practical canread a chapter on choice of media or hints on writing courses. The more philosophical also have much to read here,and it is in the more philosophical chapters that the value of the book lies. These examine distance education in thelight of various educational or teaching models, present definitions and theories of distance education, and attemptto provide a rationale for the existence of this type of education, even to the extent of demonstrating the ways inwhich traditional education can benefit from the theory and practice of distance education. The theoretical articlesare presented with a practical aim, for the underlying belief of this book is that by understanding the theory ofdistance education, practitioners can make decisions that will ensure the success and efficacy of their programs.

There is some information on various distance education programs in a variety of countries, Britain, Norway, andAustralia among them.

63.Smith, Peter, and Mavis Kelly, eds. Distance Education and the Mainstream: Convergence in Education. NewYork: Croom Helm: 1987. 207p. Index. Bibliographic references. $60.00. LC 87-21717. ISBN 0709944993. OCLC16581962.

Like Parker Rossman, the author of The Emerging Worldwide Electronic University (1992), entry #61, the editorsand authors of these papers believe that the shape of the university is changing, influenced by developingtechnology and by changes in social mores. The computer in particular is changing education, making informationaccessible to people outside the traditional classroom. No longer is the university the only lace where knowledgeand learning can be obtained; the television and the computer ring it into the home or workplace. At the sametime, social changes are influencing education. Rising tides of egalitarianism and the belief that education is aright, the conviction that education is a gateway to a better life, and the increasing frequency of career changes andconsequent need for retraining make education sought after by more people. One author in this collection evencomments that the greater degree of privacy in the modern world (as evidenced by such diverse indicators as thereplacement of the village well with taps in the home and the private ownership of telephones and fax machinesthat make personal visits unnecessary) leads to education being sought as a private rather than a communalcommodity.

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According to the authors, all these themes combine to force a coming together of residential and distanceeducation. Each method of education is adapting techniques and methods of the other: distance education can nowprovidethrough computer linkupdiscussion among classmates or between student and teacher, as well as quickfeedback on lessons and assignments. Residential students are receiving information from databases that they tapinto from home, not just from class lectures. As this trend continues, the authors see a further blurring of themargins between distance and residential instruction and a resultant increase in the "parity of esteem" (fromchapter 1, "Parity of Esteem" by Fred Jevons) between the two.

64.Verduin, John R., and Thomas A. Clark. Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991. 279p. Index. Bibliography. $31.95. LC 90-46107. ISBN 155542306X. OCLC22309136.

The authors believe that the proper niche for distance education is in the field of adult education. Because adultsare more motivated to study independently and because adults most often study for a specific qualification or tolearn a specific skill, distance education techniques can be applied particularly well. Specific skills andqualifications can be identified and provided for through distance education.

There are several interesting points in this work, which is a blend of the theoretical and the practical. One is theauthors' update of the definition of distance education. They lean heavily on Keegan's 1986 five-point definition ofdistance education (Keegan, The Foundations of Distance Education, 1990, entry #55), refining some of his pointsand entirely dropping his fifth pointthat distance education also includes occasional face-to-face interactionbetween teacher and student.

Another valuable section is the authors' discussion of six types of distance education. First are institutions thatteach students they have not previously taught in a face-to-face method; the second is made up of institutions thatteach at a distance those students whom they have previously taught in conventional face-to-face situations. Athird type consists of institutions that offer distance education through extension, continuing education, orindependent study units, and a fourth is consortia of institutions that offer distance education jointly. A fifth type isa small category, consisting of those institutions that offer only distance education; and the sixth is a loosecategory encompassing individual use of distance education media without the support or direction of aninstitution. This last includes, for example, those individuals who regularly watch a telecourse and perhaps do thereading connected with it, without registering through a teaching institution. The author's description of these sixtypes, complete with numerous examples, is illuminating.

Later chapters, also of interest to the practitioner, describe different types of media used in distance education.Most useful is the final portion of the book, which offers a theoretical model for distance education. This theory isbased largely on Michael Moore's theories (see Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education, 1990, entry#121) and on Keegan's, but broadens their concept of distance education (education that takes place under theauspices of a recognized educational institution). These later chapters speak of distance learning, which accordingto Verduin and Clark consists of "any use of media for self-study" (p. 124). This final part of the book adds greatlyto the developing theoretical and philosophical base of distance education.

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3Management and Administration of Distance Education

Introduction

It seems that the trick to managing a distance education program is to ask lots of questions and keep looking foranswers. Questions proliferate at all stages of running a program: the preliminary planning, the specificorganization, and the ongoing management. Books on the subject of administration abound, and many assist in thisasking and answering of questions. Many of the general books on the subject of administration contain informationon the same topics: organizational structure, course development and production, delivery systems, hiring andtraining personnel, allocating space, and monitoring and assessing the programs. Finding one that is helpful islargely a matter of individual preference.

Many of the books listed in this bibliography's index under ''Handbooks" offer general advice about organizing andadministering a distance education program. Among the best are the eight short books in the Open Learning GuideSeries, under the general editorship of Roger Lewis, which were published in the mid-1980s; the Office ofTechnology Assessment publication Linking for Learning (1989); and The Planning and Management of DistanceEducation (1986) by Greville Rumble. Two shorter ones, concise and helpful, are Managing Distance Education(1990) by Elizabeth Houdek, and What Every Principal, Teacher and School Board Member Should Know aboutDistance Education (1989) by Virginia A. Ostendorf.

Planning a Program

Generally, books about administering distance education programs cover three major areas: planning for aprogram, setting one up, and administering it. The first questions to ask in the planning stage concern the market.Potential distance education administrators need to know if there is a true need and a true market for distanceeducation. They need to ask if educational needs are already being met, for if they are, a new distance educationprogram is unlikely to attract students.

If there are potential students who are not already being served, then specific questions about those students mustbe asked and answered. Just who will the students be? Where are they located? What kind of education do theyalready have? How much time do they have to study? What kind of technical aids, such as television, VCRs, orcomputers, do students have access to? What specific subject areas are they interested in? Is there a need forpeople trained in particular academic areas or technical skills?

Two books that deal with the question of identifying a target market are Going the Distance: A Handbook forDeveloping Degree Programs Using Television Courses and Telecommunications (1992) and a somewhat old butstill relevant book by Börje Holmberg, Distance Education: A Survey and Bibliography (1977).

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Sergio Elliott in Distance Education Systems (1990) cautions organizations that plan to address a training needwith distance education that they may instead have a communication problem, which distance education will nothelp solve.

An extremely important question to ask during the planning stage concerns political support. Funding sources needto be examined; if monetary support is to be requested from government sources, then it is essential that politicalsupport at appropriate levels of government exist. Any program that is aimed at a particular community needs thesupport of that community. Delayne R. Hudspeth and Ronald G. Brey in Instructional Telecommunications:Principles and Applications (1986), advocate continual communication with the community after a program is upand running to see if needs have changed and if the program is meeting those needs.

Another early planning question deals with the general structure of the program. Some distance educationprograms are set up as independent institutions, with full responsibility for the program. Others are organized as anarm of an already existing institution or as a department of distance education within a college or university. Somedistance education courses and programs are the responsibility of particular academic departments.

The organizational structure might influence who is hired to teach. Some programs use teachers who areresponsible only to the distance education department or program; others have teachers who teach both inclassroom situations and in a distance education program. Still others, of course, teach the same class bothtraditionally and at a distanceconducting a class with students in the classroom, but broadcasting at the same timeto remote sites. David Giltrow's book, Distance Education (1989), describes the various organizational structuresof distance education programs, as do Keith Harry et al's collection of essays Distance Education: NewPerspectives (1993), and Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education (1990) by Michael G. Moore et al.

Of course, funding is another topic to consider early on. Without adequate and ongoing funding, any program willhave difficulty and may fail. This is a recurrent theme in almost all books on distance education, from the earliestto the most recent. Most of the books listed under "Handbooks" or "Management" in the index, as well as thoselisted under ''Costs," deal with funding.

Setting up a Program

Setting up a program, after some of the planning questions are answered, brings its own questions. One of the firstand most important concerns personnel. Will this be a program in which the course preparer is also the coursepresenter and the course assessor? In most cases, this method works when the course is part of a larger departmentthat also teaches in the traditional manner. In such a case, a teacher or professor who teaches in the classroom mayalso teach a distance education course. In other circumstances, a whole team is involved in producing andpresenting a course. This is the method used by the United Kingdom's Open University. Writers, editors,instructional designers, media experts, and layout experts all get involved.

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Many books cover the art of course production, particularly for courses that use more printed materials than media.Most lead the instructor from the initial stage of objective setting right through page layout and typeface selection.

Objective setting is a major point of most of the books annotated in this chapter. Clear objectives, stated at thebeginning of each module or chapter, allow students to know what material they are expected to master and tohave an idea of the desired outcome. Course preparers should state objectives in active terms, describing whatstudents should be able to do once the lesson is completed.

Most handbooks also emphasize the necessity of engaging the student actively in the course by incorporatingactivities within the reading modules, so students must complete exercises as well as read, and by including manyopportunities for self-assessment, so students will know how well they are learning the material. One example isAdministration of Distance-Teaching Institutions: A Manual (1983) by Tony Dodds, which covers the productionof course materials, including the selection of media and its integration into the course.

If television is to be used, other questions arise, particularly for the teacher with no experience in the medium.Students both in the classroom and at remote sites have to be treated equally, and there must be clear rules that arefollowed by both groups. Necessary materials must arrive at remote sites in a timely fashion, not after the lesson atwhich they are to be used. This requires a well-designed delivery system, either by mail or courier.

In remote areas, with problems of severe weather or unimproved roads, this necessity can be a problem. A group ata remote site needs to have the same handouts or exercises as do the people in the classroom. Teachers need toorganize and use a fail-safe method of delivery. This same delivery system needs to be in place for assignmentssent in from remote sites and returned, so that students receive quick feedback on lessons. Bruce O. Barker writesof the necessity of such an organized delivery system in his Distance Learning Case Studies (1989). The RN-BSNOutreach Program at the College of Nursing, University of New Mexico, which has students at a number ofremote sites, assigns on-site monitors who are responsible for proctoring exams and sending in examinationpapers. The administrative assistant of the program is responsible for returning exams to students after professorshave marked them.

Both teachers and administrators need to grapple with the issue of how much face-to-face support a distancecourse needs and how to provide such support. Various methods are used. Britain's Open University, a pioneer indistance education and a model for many other programs, organized regional study centers. These study centersprovide not only a place to work for students whose living quarters do not offer them a quiet place for study, butother services as well. The study centers serve as resource centers for both course and supplementary materials;tutors are available for consultation and special help. Two books that discuss the use of study centers are DistanceEducation in Canada (1981) by Ian Mugridge and David Kaufman and Open Learning for Adults (1987) by MaryThorpe and David Grugeon.

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Of course, many students are too isolated to get to a study center. Others prefer to study on their own. The OpenUniversity also requires a summer study program on a college campus for most of its courses. Most summerprograms are two or three weeks long, which is seen as a hardship by some students. Others welcome the chancefor at least a brief experience with a residential, full-time program and enjoy the interaction of a classroom as wellas the possibility of informal discussions out of class.

Other programs provide tutoring services by phone, have on-site monitors at remote sites, or work out elaboratecorrespondence systems for students to communicate with teachers. Almost all books on distance educationemphasize the importance of two-way communication between teacher and student, and most indicate that this isdifficult and time consuming. Obviously, students cannot drop in to see a professor in office hours or stay a fewextra minutes after class. Programs have compensated in a variety of ways. Some require their teachers to set uptelephone office hours, during which the professor is literally on call; some set up an 800 number to encouragestudents to call. An early effort to make two-way communication less labor intensive is described by John A.Bååth and Nils-Ove Mansson in CADEA System for Computer-Assisted Distance Education (1977). They describea system of marking lessons and examinations in which computer-generated comments are attached to right andwrong answers. In the case of a wrong answer, the computer comments not only indicate the right answer, but alsopoint out material in the course that the student should study further. Correct answers generate a compliment,along the lines of "Well done" or "Good point." The authors concede that the technology is crude and that it worksonly with short-answer, multiple-choice questions; however, it opens the way to more sophisticated methods.

Those more sophisticated methods often involve computers. With the growing use of e-mail and computercommunication in general, it is somewhat easier for students and teachers to be in touch and for students to be intouch with each other. Ann Jones et al., in The Computer Revolution in Education: New Technologies for DistanceTeaching (1987), deal extensively with the use of computers in distance education, including a discussion of howcomputers can be used to enhance two-way communication in distance education.

For those faced with setting up a complete program, not just transferring an existing course into distance educationmethods, questions of space, equipment, and personnel arise. What office space is needed? How many teachers?What clerical support staff? What jobs are assigned to what people? What equipment is neededa copy machine, afax, personal computers? Even such mundane matters as how many filing cabinets are needed to hold materialsmust be faced. Some of these questions, of course, can be answered based on personal experience with otherprograms or will be answered as needed, as the program develops. A few books, however, actually take onethrough the process and offer advice on setting up an office area from scratch. One is A Handbook on DistanceEducation (1977) by W. J. A. Harris and John D. S. Williams, which even provides a floor plan showing the mostefficient grouping of various personnel. Another very practical book for those with low-tech equipment isHandbook in Record Keeping for Records Officers in Distance Education (1992) by J. W. Kamau. For those juststarting a program, particularly

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in remote areas with little equipment, this book provides a down-to-earth description of the use of such items asrotary files and file drawers.

Administering and Monitoring a Program

Once a program is up and running, it needs monitoring to keep it successful. Assessment of both programs andstudent success should be fairly constant, with programs and courses changed accordingly. If a high number ofstudents drop out or fail to finish in a timely manner, if certain courses do not attract a high enrollment, or if thereis constant inquiry for courses not offered, the program needs attention. Perhaps students need more counselingbefore enrolling, because sometimes students not qualified are accepted in the urge to extend educationalopportunities. A liberal acceptance policy may seem to open up education to larger groups; however, if lack ofeducational background dooms many students to failure, that policy has backfired. In addition, a large drop-outrate raises the unit costs of the course. Students often need counseling during the program as well, to overcome theeffect of isolation and the lack of interaction with classmates. Informal, student-to-student encouragement happensnaturally in a classroom situation; it needs to be administered formally in a distance setting.

The concept of two-way communication is important for the monitoring of a program as well as for its setup. Asalready noted, many authors emphasize the necessity of providing rapid feedback to students, of markingassignments and exams quickly before the student reaches the next assignment, if students are to remain motivated.Students who hit the ground running, who begin work at once and submit early assignments soon after beginning acourse, have a higher completion rate than do those who procrastinate. It is thus helpful if tutors, teachers, andcounselors encourage students to begin at once.

Other student-related items that need monitoring include whether or not students are using all the materials.Perhaps they are ignoring the textbook, not bothering to view all the video tapes, or skipping the self-assessmentexercises. If so, the teacher needs to know why. If the textbook is outdated or hard to follow, if the videos simplyrepeat what is already in the textbook without adding to it, then students will probably feel it is a waste of time.Fabio J. Chacon-Duque, in Building Academic Quality in Distance Higher Education (1985), writes of thenecessity of insuring that course materials are up-to-date and reliable. It is also useful to make sure that all theassignments and components of a course are indeed necessary.

For those courses taken at a distance but in real time, the time a course is offered needs attention. If a course isbroadcast or if a course is offered by a teacher whose students are both in the classroom and at remote sites, thetime issue becomes crucial. This is particularly true if a program is broadcast to multiple schools that havedifferent yearly calendars or different starting times for classes, or to schools in more than one time zone.

James K. Straub, assistant director and distance learning coordinator for the Auraria Media Center at the AurariaHigher Education Center in Denver, Colorado, says that course scheduling is one of his most difficult problems. Itis hard to arrange showing times that suit many schools, all with different

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calendars. It is perhaps even harder to convince those schools of the necessity of a common calendar, occasionallya problem even for different campuses of the same university. In the case of the Auraria Higher Education Center,a course might originate at one campus but be broadcast in real time to other campuses in the system. Not allcampuses are on a common calendar, and students at the remote sites must be wary of this.

Some programs find that collaborating with other schools in consortia is helpful. Some countries, particularly inthe Far East and Asia, form international consortia. In the United States, consortia are often formed among schoolsthemselves or among school districts, sometimes even crossing state lines. A book that discusses and givesexamples of successful consortia and the reasons for their success is Louise Moran and Ian Mugridge'sCollaboration in Distance Education: International Case Studies (1993).

Setting up and running a successful distance education program is obviously difficult, necessitating a firm idea ofthe program's objectives, adequate political and financial support, committed teachers and support staff, and ameticulous attention to detail. As with most major undertakings, much is learned on the job, through trial anderror. However, a careful reading of some of the books annotated here can help avoid some mistakes at the outsetand can make administrators aware of potential pitfalls.

Sources

American Symposium on Research in Distance Education. Distance Education Symposium: Selected Papers, Part1, 1992. See entry #190.

65.American Symposium on Research in Distance Education. Distance Education: Selected Papers, Part 2. UniversityPark: American Center for the Study of Distance Education, The Pennsylvania State University, 1993. 66p.Bibliographic references. (ACSDE Research Monograph, 8). $20.00pa. ISBN 1877780103.

Seven papers from the Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education are published here. Papertopics cover a broad range, from curriculum design to uses of various media. Symposium papers were published inthree volumes; see entry #190 for part 1 and entry #66 for part 3.

66.American Symposium on Research in Distance Education. Distance Education: Selected Papers, Part 3. UniversityPark: American Center for the Study of Distance Education, The Pennsylvania State University, 1993. 70p.Bibliographic references. (ACSDE Research Monograph, 9). $20.00pa. ISBN 1877780111.

Papers in this volume cover both theoretical and practical issues. See entry #190 for part 1 of this series and entry#65 for part 2.

67.Ansari, M. M. Economics of Distance Higher Education. New Delhi, India: Concept Publishing, 1992. 144p.Index. Bibliography. No price reported. ISBN 817022246X. OCLC 26549492.

Ansari believes that a study of the economics of distance education in India is long overdue. The pressure forincreased access to higher education in India is intense, as more people see education as a means of self-improvement. At the same time, many see conventional higher education as elitist and inaccessible. The fact thatcomparatively

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few financial resources are available to education compounds the problem and makes it imperative that suchresources be used efficiently.

After giving a brief history of the development of distance education in India, Ansari presents demographicinformation on the students in distance education programs. He then discusses the factors that need to beconsidered when estimating the costs of distance education vis-a-vis conventional education. Next he examines thecurrent methods of financing distance education institutions. Ansari analyzes his data to arrive at a conclusion onthe cost-effectiveness of distance education and ends with a series of recommendations for future policy.

Arms, Caroline, ed. Campus Networking Strategies, 1988. See entry #41.

Arms, Caroline, ed. Campus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Information, 1990. See entry #42.

68.Armstrong, J. D., and R. E. Store. Evaluation in Distance Teaching. Aitkenvale, Australia: Townsville College ofAdvanced Education, 1980. 185p. Bibliographic references. $8.00 Austr. ISBN 0959454306. OCLC 27586775.

The title page states that these are the "Proceedings of a workshop held at Townsville College of AdvancedEducation in Co-Operation with the Australian and South Pacific External Studies Association, 1114 May 1980."Speakers and participants in the workshop discussed two kinds of assessment: assessment of an individualstudent's performance in a course and assessment of a whole course or program. Papers reprinted here includekeynote addresses, dinner speeches, the concluding speech, and workshop papers. The papers are a mix of theoryand practical case studies.

As an overview of the necessity of assessment or as a guide to methods, this is not the most useful book. Somerecent handbooks, such as Managing Open Learning (1985) by Derek Birch and Administration of Distance-Teaching Institutions (1983) by Tony Dodds, both annotated in this chapter, or some items annotated in chapter 4,such as Teleclass Teaching (1990) by Thomas E. Cyrs, How to Design Effective Text-Based Open Learning (1991)by Nigel Harrison, or Teaching Through Self Instruction (1986) by Derek Rowntree, give more help to peopleneeding to set up assessment programs. This book is useful as a look at one slice of distance education in Australiain the late 1970s.

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Distance Learning Systems andStructures: Training Manual, 1987. See entry #255.

69.Bååth, John A., and Nils-Ove Mansson. CADEA System for Computer-Assisted Distance Education. Malmö,Sweden: Hermods Skola, 1977. 46p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. OCLC 6987947.

Bååth and Mansson describe a system of computer-generated scores and comments for student exams andassignments in correspondence education. Computers score multiple-choice exams and print out a letter to eachstudent not only with the answers marked but with comments on particular right or wrong answers. A comment ona wrong answer will often refer the student to a portion of the course material or to other right answers the studenthas made. All comments are stored in a databank and are generated automatically.

Although the description and explanation of the equipment used is obviously outdated, the conceptual discussionremains sound and of use. Bååth and Mansson found that a main concern of students was fast and specificfeedback on their assignments and tests. They also found that the workload of tutors and teachers often made suchrapid feedback difficult or impossible. The computer-generated comments

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offer an alternative. Certainly fast feedback is still a priority of students, and certainly teaching workloads have notdeclined.

Barker, Bruce O. The Distance Education Handbook: An Administrator's Guide for Rural and Remote Schools. 2ded., 1992. See entry #231.

70.Barker, Bruce O. Distance Learning Case Studies. Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment, 1989.384p. SuDocs. Y3 T22/2:2 L47. OCLC 23946119.

The Office of Technology Assessment commissioned this study of distance education projects. Seven projectsinvolving K-12 education were studied and are profiled here, projects in Texas, Oklahoma, Washington, NorthCarolina, New York, Pennsylvania, and Utah. Most projects involved rural schools, although some concentrated oninner-city schools. The projects used different media and technology, including different applications of both audioand video. All the projects involved cooperation among a number of schools, sometimes crossing state boundaries.Administrators, students, and teachers involved in the projects were surveyed, as well as teachers not involved inthe project but who were teaching in the school. The survey examined the community served by the project, itsfunding, cooperative efforts between private and public participants, the project's organization, and the role of theteachers.

Barker concludes that distance education still falls short of the ideal of a small class taught on-site by aknowledgeable and enthusiastic teacher. However, given funding difficulties and the difficulty that small, isolatedschools have in providing a variety of courses, Barker believes that distance education does have a role to play. Hefurther states that no one technology is the best in all situations. Each school or area must decide on the bestmethod based on its own situation.

Barker has several recommendations for making distance education programs more successful:

Schools must arrange for efficient transfer between sites of written materials such as quizzes and assignments.

Discipline procedures must be consistent among sites.

There should be at least some face-to-face contact between the teacher and the students at remote sites.

Preferred systems are those that allow students at different sites to interact with each other as well as with theteacher.

Teachers should be knowledgeable not only in their subject matter but in the use of media as well.

Teachers should call on students at remote sites by name, should ask them specific questions, and otherwisework to make them feel involved in the course.

Differences among the calendars of the participating schools need to be resolved.

Classes with large enrollments need a student support system so students do not feel abandoned.

71.Bates, A. W. The Planning and Management of Audio-Visual Media in Distance Learning Institutions. Paris:UNESCO, 1981. 141p. Bibliography. MF $1.18. ED 213-119.

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As a preliminary to a 1980 conference of the International Institute for Educational Planning, Bates wascommissioned to prepare a working paper on the role of audiovisual materials in distance education. For thispaper, Bates surveyed 12 distance education institutions. This final report is based on his research and on thediscussions at the conference itself. His aim and that of the conference was to discover areas of difficulty inintegrating audiovisual materials into distance education and to identify methods of ameliorating these problems.

One of the most surprising discoveries was that audiovisual materials, particularly broadcasting, still played aminor role in most distance education in the 12 institutions. Correspondence instruction was still the most popularmethod. Bates identifies the following as areas that need further work and study:

Those responsible for the use of broadcasting and other media in distance education need better training.

Better understanding is needed concerning the potential for audiovisual materials in distance education. Inparticular, those teachers and administrators who were themselves taught through print and face-to-faceinstruction need to increase and improve their understanding.

Audiovisual materials must be used differently in distance education than in traditional education. Practitionersneed to better understand these differences.

72.Batey, Anne, and Richard N. Cowell. Distance Education: An Overview. Portland, Oreg.: Northwest RegionalEducational Laboratory, 1986. 33p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. OCLC 20447478.

This 33-page pamphlet tries to do what is only possible in a larger book: give an overview of the whole field ofdistance education. It asks some of the hard questions that often arise with distance education programs, such aswhether a noncertified teacher should be allowed to teach in a public school distance education course, whocontrols the quality of such programs and courses, and who controls the granting of credits for such courses.However, its format and brevity do not allow for answers. Several applications of distance education are presented,also briefly: a high school science course, a creative writing course, and an astronomy course.

Other books by better-known people in the field (Keegan, Evans, Miller) are more useful to the person planning adistance education course or program.

73.Birch, Derek, and Jack Latham. Managing Open Learning. rev. ed. Coombe Lodge, Bristol, England: FurtherEducation Staff College, 1985. 87p. Bibliography. (Management in Colleges Series). £8.95. £5.50pa. LC gb85-29453. ISBN 090765939X; 0907659306pa. OCLC 13683009.

This is a brief but useful digest of information needed by teachers and managers of distance education courses andprograms. Topics include:

how to prepare course materials,

how to decide whether an individual is suited to teach with this method (and how potential teachers can decidethat issue for themselves),

how to maintain and encourage contact with students at a distance,

how to acquire and organize funding, and

how to evaluate a program once it is running.

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Those just beginning to grapple with distance education will find this work a useful introduction.

74.Bosworth, David P. Open Learning. London: Cassell Educational, 1991. 167p. Name index. Subject index.Bibliography. (Issues in Education). $60.00. $17.95pa. LC 92-141184. ISBN 0304323896; 0304323888pa. OCLC27034461.

Bosworth uses the term open learning to mean something broader than distance learning. His discussion in thisbook agrees with later writings of Börje Holmberg, who believes that ideal education is truly open, with studentshaving the autonomy to choose courses, methods of study, and methods of evaluation. Both believe that openlearning can be implemented through distance education. For a look at Holmberg's similar views, see his Theoryand Practice of Distance Education (1989), entry #53.

The first part of Bosworth's book looks at extant open learning institutions and programs in the United Kingdom,the United States, and other countries. Several chapters look at various modes of deliverytelevision, supportthrough tutors, programmed learning, and interactive media. Two chapters specifically examine open learning inindustry.

Bosworth obviously supports the concept of open learning, but this book also examines its shortcomings and theproblems that can limit its effectiveness. He also offers advice on how to maximize its potentialwith lots of studentsupport and two-way communication between student and staff.

75.Campbell-Thrane, Lucille, ed. Correspondence Education Moves to the Year 2000. Columbus, Ohio: NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education, 1984. 187p. Bibliographic references. Appendices. (Proceedings ofthe First Invitational National Forum on Correspondence Education). $16.50pa. ISBN 0318177838. OCLC12328605.

The title is descriptive: this book concentrates more on traditional correspondence study than on high-tech, media-intensive distance education methods. Although many of the presenters of these papers, all professionals incorrespondence education programs, speak of using more media in the future (audiocassettes, video-cassettes,computer applications), they see such use as supplemental to printed materials. Nevertheless, many of the concernsexpressed here are also those of distance education programs that make more intense use of media. The papers areconcerned with such themes as how to attract, motivate, and retain students; how to assure high-quality education;the importance of maintaining contact with students and the difficulty of doing so in a correspondence setting; andthe ever-present issue of funding. The papers focus on practical, vocational courses rather than academic coursesor programs.

As might be expected in a published proceedings, the quality of the papers is uneven. One particularly interestingsection is a roundtable discussion on correspondence education, which includes participation by students of suchcourses. Two appendices are included, the program of the conference and a list of participants.

76.Chacon-Duque, Fabio J. Building Academic Quality in Distance Higher Education. University Park: ThePennsylvania State University Press, 1985. 63p. Bibliography. OCLC 13352942.

Like Chacon-Duque's Ph.D. dissertation, A Multivariate Model for Evaluating Distance Higher Education (1987),entry #196, this monograph is concerned with improving the quality of distance education. His dissertationconcluded that the two most important factors influencing the success of a distance education program are theamount of work required and the persistence of the student. Moreover, these factors are interrelated and need to bebalanced one against the other: too great a work load will decrease a student's persistence. Here Chacon-Duquelooks at three types

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of factors: student variables, such as motivation and academic background; instructional material variables, such asclear objectives, writing style, and use of media; and support variables, such as the availability of tutors, studycenters, library services, labs, and computers.

Chacon-Duque uses various mathematical models to manipulate these variables. He concludes that studentmotivation is the most important student variable, outweighing age, gender, and educational attainment, and thatthe quality of the teaching materials and the level of support given to the student are also important variables.

This study is very brief and now old. Chacon-Duque's Ph.D. dissertation gives a more complete look at his studyon improving distance education methods and would probably be of more use. In addition, several of thehandbooks and overviews of distance education annotated in this chapter give a more up-to-date look atassessment methods.

Chacon-Duque, Fabio J. A Multivariate Model for Evaluating Distance Higher Education, 1987. See entry #196.

77.Chander, N. Jose. Management of Distance Education. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private, 1991. 116p. Index.Bibliographic references. $18.95. LC 92-117638. ISBN 8120713303. OCLC 25432107.

Chander is the director of the Institute of Correspondence Courses at the University of Kerala, India. Hisdiscussion of distance education draws most of its examples from the Indian experience and concentrates on theuses of distance education for India. Not a collection of disparate essays, this work is a connected overview of thesubject.

Chander begins with a history and philosophy of distance education, explaining the importance of distanceeducation, particularly to certain groups. Subsequent chapters discuss:

setting up courses

teaching style

involving the student and overcoming the isolation of distance students

the use of various types of supplementary media (broadcasting, cassettes, telephones, teleconferencing,computers)

the organizational structure of distance education institutions

program evaluation

Chander devotes a lengthy chapter to student motivation, examining why students enter a distance educationprogram rather than a more traditional one, and why some students fail to finish.

Chander emphasizes the need for an adapted teaching style to accommodate the special needs of distanceeducation students. He underscores the necessity of stating objectives early and clearly, so that the isolated studentwill not feel overwhelmed or bewildered. He speaks, too, of the need for some kind of personal contact betweenteachers and students and among students, whether through short meetings throughout the course or throughspending a lengthy time on campus.

Chang, T. M., H. F. Crombag, KDJM van der Drift, and J. M. Moonen. Distance Learning: On the Design of anOpen University, 1983. See entry #159.

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Curtis, John A., and Joseph M. Biedenback, eds. Educational Telecommunications Delivery Systems, 1979. Seeentry #8.

Cyrs, Thomas E., and Frank A. Smith. Teleclass Teaching: A Resource Guide, 1990. See entry #162.

78.Dillon, Connie, Dana Blanchard, and Mike Price. Improving Teaching at a Distance: A Guide to Resources.Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1990. 44p. Glossary. no price reported. pa. OCLC 21414943.

This resource guide contains five sections:

1. A list of satellite, cable, and computer networks.

2. A short bibliography of books and periodicals on distance education.

3. A list of conferences that deal with the topic.

4. A list of vendors of distance education equipment.

5. A glossary of technical terms.

A supplement containing cost information on distance education equipment will be outdated soon but is useful inthe short term.

79.Dodds, Tony. Administration of Distance-Teaching Institutions: A Manual. Cambridge, England: InternationalExtension College, 1983. 156p. no price reported. pa. ISBN 090363225X. OCLC 14026350.

To go along with this manual, Dodds has prepared Administration of Distance-Teaching Institutions: Case Studiesand Administration of Distance-Teaching Institutions: On Course, A Game Devised for Use with the Manual. Allthree items are meant to be used together and are designed to be used by people either working in distanceeducation or about to be. All three are meant to help them understand distance education and to run a program.

Dodds has taken a very interactive approach to the subject. As one reads the manual, one is referred to variouscase studies that illustrate points being made. The manual itself is studded with exercises for the reader tocomplete and questions to answer, all designed to nudge the readers toward their own understanding and definitionof distance education, based on their personal experience and situation. The manual provides chapters on choosingvarious media, on designing courses, on integrating various forms of media into a course, and on administration ofdistance education programs. Case studies describe actual situations at various distance teaching institutions.

The game is a board game, meant to be played by up to six people. The object is to be the first player to get acourse module written and produced. While moving on the board toward this goal, the player encounters varioussetbacks and difficulties: a writer resigns, copyright permission is denied, production costs exceed budget. Theplayer must suggest strategies for dealing with each crisis; the other participants evaluate and discuss thesuggestions and decide how far the player should progress on the board.

The manual is a straightforward presentation of worthwhile information; the exercises, questions, and the game areimaginative and probably of great use to those who take the time to complete them.

80.Duning, Becky S., Marvin J. Van Kekerix, and Leon M. Zaborowski. Reaching Learners throughTelecommunications. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993. 299p. Index. Bibliography. (The Jossey-Bass Higher andAdult Education Series). $34.95. LC 92-30051. ISBN 1555425011. OCLC 26302528.

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Strategic planning is the focus of this book. The authors write for an audience drawn from many fieldseducation,health, military, governmentwhose members are beginning to integrate telecommunications into their programs.The book is arranged to allow a person with such a responsibility to work through the necessary steps, fromplanning the transition, to examining the groups affected, defining purposes, adapting management styles,budgeting, marketing, assessing quality, and planning for future developments.

The authors emphasize that their book is not about technology or technical developments, and that a firmknowledge of technology is not the most important quality for a manager to have, especially given the rapidlychanging nature of technology. Rather, the authors see managers' understanding of the goals and the needs of theirinstitutions as most important. When managers have that understanding, they can examine various technologies tosee how they would help accomplish the already-defined goals.

Managers can either read straight through this volume, following the strategic planning model completely, or readonly those chapters concerned with their current problem, such as ''Assessing choices in system design," "Ensuringfiscal stability," or "Developing a market strategy."

One chapter discusses further sources of information, including professional organizations, networking, and otherbooks. Books recommended by the authors include Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education, (1989),produced by the Office of Technology Assessment, entry #129; Dillon's Improving Teaching at a Distance: AGuide to Resources, (1990), entry #78; and Niemi's Technologies for Learning outside the Classroom, (1987),entry #128. This book, too, should be on the must-read list for all administrators of distance education.

81.Elliot, Sergio. Distance Education Systems. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,1990.73p. (FAO Economic and Social Development Paper 67). no price reported. pa. ISBN 9251024480. OCLC22287211.

The text of this book is quite dense and packed with flow charts and graphs that show the various processes ofdistance education: the identifying of a training or educational need that distance education can fill; the preparationof course materials and their distribution; the study process itself; and the monitoring and evaluating of studentprogress. Some of it is quite hard to follow and might discourage all but the most determined educational theorists.

However, Elliot does make some important points. He emphasizes the importance of identifying a true educationalor training need before developing a distance education course to meet it. Too often, he asserts, distance educationcourses or programs are developed and distributed to meet a perceived training need that in fact is a problem ofcommunication or organizational structure instead. He also writes at length of the necessity of identifying thetarget audience and planning a program appropriate to it. He goes on to discuss the choice of media, theimportance of adequate investment in both money and human resources, instructional design, pretesting of theprogram, and the necessity of close monitoring of student progress.

Although it is difficult reading, Elliot has packed much valuable information into this short book.

Enckevort, Ger van, Keith Harry, Pierre Morin, and Hans G. Schutze, eds. Distance Higher Education and theAdult Learner, 1986. See entry #264.

Falk, Barbara, and John Anwyl. The Desirability and Feasibility of an Australian Open Type University, 1973. Seeentry #11.

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82.Feasley, Charles E. Servicing Learners at a Distance. Washington, D.C.: ASHE-ERIC, 1983. 69p. Bibliography.(ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Research Report, No. 5). $6.50pa. LC 84-160901. ISBN 0913317047. ISSN 0737-1292. OCLC 1311377.

In the Foreword, Jonathan D. Fife, director and series editor for the ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education,calls this book a "primer for those institutions and academic programs that are beginning to look at distanceeducation as an important priority." It is indeed a very short and readable guide, which hits the salient points ofdistance education. In its various sections, it profiles the students who participate in distance education, describesthe duties of the teacher in a distance education program, gives detailed information on various media, and givesexamples of various forms of organization used in programs. No more than an afternoon's read, it is valuable forthe beginner. A very useful (although now somewhat dated) bibliography will lead to other sources.

Flinck, Rune. Correspondence Education Combined with Systematic Telephone Tutoring, 1978. See entry #203.

George, Alan. Resource Based Learning for School Governors, 1985. See entry #205.

83.Gilcher, Kay W., and Sally M. Johnstone. A Critical Review of the Use of Audiographic Conferencing Systems,by Educational Institutions for Instructional Delivery. College Park: University of Maryland, University College,1988. 178p. MF $1.18. PC $10.00. ED 313-003.

In audioconferencing, students at a distance do not see the instructor; they can hear the instructor and cancommunicate with the instructor and with other students. They can also see various instructional materials. Withthis method, other students may or may not be present in the same room with the instructor.

Gilcher and Johnstone visited nine sites using this technology and interviewed students and teachers. Their reportdescribes the sites, reports on the organization and management of each project, and discusses the impact of thetechnology on the teacher's methods, the level of interactivity between student and teacher, and the students'achievement level. Many of the interviews bring up mistakes the participants made and offer their suggestions foravoiding them. People thinking of introducing this technology would find this review of others' experienceshelpful.

Microfiche of this title is available through the ERIC clearinghouse; a paper copy is available from theInternational University Consortium, University of Maryland.

84.Giltrow, David. Distance Education. Washington, D.C.: Association for Educational Communication andTechnology, 1989. 83p. Bibliography. (President's Library, vol. 1, no. 1). no price reported. pa. ISBN 9991484795.OCLC 20749676.

Giltrow presents brief chapters on the definition of distance education and its history, organizational structure,personnel, and costs. His includes a chapter on different types of organizational structures for distance education,with examples of stand-alone institutions, a distance education department or college within different departmentsof an institution, a coordinating office for distance education within an institution, and a consortium. Althoughmost of the information in Distance Education is basic and can be readily found in other sources, Giltrow doesgive one- or two-paragraph descriptions of a number of current distance education programs worldwide.

85.Going the Distance: A Handbook for Developing Distance Degree Programs Using Television Courses andTelecommunications Technologies. Washington,

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D.C.: The Annenberg/CPB Project and the PBS Adult Learning Service, 1992. 178p. Bibliography. no pricereported. OCLC 27391875.

The preparers of the handbook, Toby Levine Communications, Inc., emphasize planning. Before designingcourses, the authors recommend that the planning group look at whether a program is needed and, if so, what kindof program is needed. They also urge developing political support and give suggestions on doing so. Othermaterial covered includes student support issues (access to library materials, orientation programs, counseling),faculty recruitment and training, and costs. This handbook also includes a glossary of technical terms, a list ofcourses already developed for distance education that are available for purchase, and profiles of a number ofongoing distance education programs.

86.Granholm, Gunnar, ed. The System of Distance Education, Volume II. Malmö, Sweden: Liber, 1976. 121p.Bibliographic references. MF $1.18. ED 170-550.

This book includes 14 conference papers from the 10th annual conference of the International Council onCorrespondence Education. They were submitted too late to be included in volume 1 of the conferenceproceedings, edited by Erling Ljoså, entry #116. Conference papers address the same themes as did those involume 1.

87.Hakes, Barbara T., Steven G. Sachs, Cecelia Box, and John Cochenour, eds. Compressed Video: Operations andApplications. Washington, D.C.: Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 1993. 445p.Index. Bibliographic references. Appendices. $37.95pa. ISBN 1892400706. OCLC 28477720.

Compressed video can be a cost-saving alternative for those distance education programs that want to providevideo instruction but have limited funds. It provides high-quality interactive video, although motion on the screenappears somewhat jerky.

The first section of this book consists of 15 chapters, which deal with a number of administrative and teachingissues surrounding compressed video: the necessary facilities, funding, vendor selection, course design, andevaluation. Section 2 contains 20 case studies of U.S. institutions from school systems, colleges and universities,and the private sector that use the technology.

88.Harrington, Fred Harvey. The Future of Adult Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977. 238p. Index.Bibliography. $25.95. LC 76-19499. ISBN 0875893015. OCLC 15062536.

Although this book is principally about adult education opportunities in general rather than about distanceeducation, one chapter, "New Opportunities: Off-Campus Credit," specifically considers distance education as partof the total package of adult education. In this thoughtful and realistic chapter, Harrington concludes that distanceeducation will not be the complete answer to adult education needs, any more than radio or television broadcastsproved to be, but that distance education can be a powerful component of adult education programs. He points outtwo qualities of the adult learner that make distance education a viable option for them: many adults are unable tocommit to a full-time residential program of study, due to work and family responsibilities; and many adults arehighly motivated to learn and get credit for a particular skill, course, or credential. These two factors make adultsprime candidates for participation in distance education.

Writing before the widespread availability of either VCRs or personal computers, both of which change andexpand the students' opportunities to use off-campus instruction, Harrington considers written correspondence tobe at the heart of distance education programs, supplemented by radio and television. However, the reader willfind it easy to drop new technological developments into the logic and argument Harrington makes.

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Most valuable for the potential distance education provider is the implied advice throughout the chapter, includingthe following:

Do use all formats (correspondence, television, radioand now computers) in combination.

Do remember that personal contact is essential, so think about setting up regional learning centers or having anon-campus summer session.

Do invest in quality staff to handle the initial student contacts and admission procedurestudents can fall by thewayside or be set up to fail if this initial contact is not handled well.

Do not expect that students can do it all on their own; expect to provide support services.

Do not expect mammoth savings in real dollars.

Do not expect that off-campus education can provide a total program.

This is still a valuable look at distance education, despite having been written 15 years ago.

Harris, David. Openness and Closure in Distance Education, 1987. See entry #50.

89.Harris, W. J. A., and John D. S. Williams. A Handbook on Distance Education. Manchester, England: TheUniversity of Manchester, 1977. 77p. Bibliography. (Manchester Monographs, 7). £1.80pa. LC 77-372451. OCLC3397464.

On its title page, the authors provide a brief description of this book, which sums up its intent, focus, andusefulness: "A handbook to brief and to help administrators, educationalists, politicians and all others engaged indistance education in countries seeking to introduce, extend or improve correspondence education for adults." Thisbook aims itself not at those working in an established distance education program with an equally establishedadministration and support system, but at those starting at the beginning or working to improve a skeletal system.

After three chapters devoted to the definition, philosophy, and history of distance education, the authors proceed tomore practical matters. They provide a detailed analysis of how radio can be used in those distance systems thatare heavily dependent on correspondence. (This book was written before the increased availability of televisionand computers, and, more importantly, was aimed at programs without the wealth for such technologies.) Amongthe suggestions are the broadcasting of (1) question and answer sessions between teacher and selected students, orthe answering of written and previously submitted questions; (2) information about the course; (3) the telling ofpersonal experiences; and (4) case study dramatizations.

The next chapter describes how to operate a distance education institution. The authors become extremely specific,listing and describing necessary personnel and detailing their job duties, detailing the amount of space and thenumber of staff needed for a certain number of students, describing the various tasks that need to be performed andsuggesting a work flow, suggesting management models, listing costs, giving suggestions on how to arrive at aprice for courses, even diagramming an office floor plan with descriptions of the tasks that will be performed ineach area. For the distance educator in a remote area, struggling to institute or improve a wide-ranging distanceprogram, this book, although old and brief, will answer many questions.

90.Harry, Keith, Magnus John, and Desmond Keegan, eds. Distance Education: New Perspectives. New York:Routledge Kegan Paul, 1993. 348p. Index. Bibliographic

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references. (Routledge Studies in Distance Education). $59.95. LC 93-10555. ISBN 0415089417. OCLC27896662.

The editors intend this work to be used as a reader or textbook in courses studying distance education. As such,they believe it is a supplement or companion volume to the 1983 publication Distance Education: InternationalPerspectives edited by David Sewart, Börje Holmberg, and Desmond Keegan, entry #62. That volume, accordingto the present editors, "brought together the best writing on distance education of the period" (p. xv), and they hopethis volume will follow suit with updated resources.

Six sections make up this book, concentrating on the following subjects:

1. Theory

2. Organization

3. Administration

4. Media

5. International perspectives

6. Research

Articles within each section are by major authors and theorists in the field (among them Otto Peters, Michael G.Moore, Erling Ljoså, John S. Daniel, Desmond Keegan, Greville Rumble, Ross Paul, Anthony Bates, G. RamReddy, Becky Duning, and Börje Holmberg) and are reprinted from journals and books. For those wanting asampling of current issues and thinking in the field, on a variety of subjects, this book is ideal.

91.Hezel Associates. Planning for Educational Telecommunications: A State by State Analysis. Syracuse, N.Y.: HezelAssociates, 1992. 98p. Bibliography. OCLC 26703252.

Arranged by state, the entries in this book give a brief view of the current status of educational telecommunicationsin each state. Each entry begins with a paragraph or two about the statewide planning being done, then describesthe current situation in both K-12 and higher education. A list of contact people for each state is appended.

92.Hodgson, Barbara. Key Terms and Issues in Open and Distance Learning. Philadelphia: Kogan Page, 1993. 133p.Bibliography. (Open and Distance Learning Series). £12.95. ISBN 0749407107. OCLC 28688906.

The introduction to this book is as valuable as the body of it, providing a brief but cogent discussion of thedifferences and similarities between open and distance learning and how the two concepts intertwine. The body ofthe work is in dictionary form, giving definitions of words, phrases, and concepts in the fields. Words used in onedefinition that are themselves defined in the dictionary are printed in bold type, leading the reader to other entriesof interest.

93.Holmberg, Börje. Distance Education: A Survey and Bibliography. London: Kogan Page, 1977. 167p. Index.Bibliography. $15.00. LC 77-00077. ISBN 0850380626. OCLC 2799021.

Holmberg presents here a much more practical book than his later (1981) and more philosophical Status andTrends of Distance Education (see entry #52). About two-thirds of Distance Education: A Survey andBibliography discusses in detail the following aspects of distance education:

how to describe and identify appropriate student groups

how to target them for marketing purposes

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how to develop suitable courses that will work in a distance education framework

the advantages and disadvantages of different media

the evaluation of courses

the importance of two-way communication at all stages of a course, including during the preliminaryregistration of students

The final one-third is a bibliography on distance education, including books, articles, and papers, in manylanguages.

This book would be valuable for teachers and administrators of distance education programs to read, both at thebeginning of a distance education venture, to point out pitfalls and help in orientation, and also at various pointsduring the venture, to check progress. Of particular value is the amount of information it gives about the student,including what type of person is most likely to succeed in this type of educational endeavor and how to attract,motivate, and monitor students, with the aim of increasing retention. The book, written by one of distanceeducation's most prolific researchers and authors, brings together much of what is now conventional wisdom aboutthe field.

Holmberg, Börje. Status and Trends of Distance Education, 1981. See entry #52.

Holmberg, Börje. Theory and Practice of Distance Education, 1989. See entry #53.

Hommadi, Ahmed Hasan. Open University: Retrospect and Prospect, 1989. See entry #22.

94.Houdek, Elizabeth. Managing Distance Education Courses. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1990. 50p. (The GuideSeries in Continuing Education). $8.95pa. LC 91-218355. ISBN 1877847089. OCLC 25130728.

Although brief, this book is useful. It gives clear and explicit advice to administrators of distance educationprograms about managing their teaching staff: how to recruit, how to orient, how to provide support for coursewriters, how to provide other kinds of support, and how to evaluate. Throughout, Houdek provides descriptions ofwhat characteristics distance educators should possess. Houdek includes samples of documents used by variousinstitutions in their work with distance education instructors.

Not only administrators will benefit from this book. Instructors too, especially those new to distance education,will benefit from the insights provided into what attributes distance education teacher should possess.

95.Hudspeth, DeLayne R., and Ronald G. Brey. Instructional Telecommunications: Principles and Applications. NewYork: Praeger Publishers, 1986. 240p. Index. Bibliographic references. $39.95. $16.95pa. LC 85-19198. ISBN0030711630; 0030711649pa. OCLC 12554238.

The authors of this book present numerous ways learning through telecommunications can be arranged. Among thetopics it discusses are the set up of production facilities, possible evaluation procedures, and financial planning. Inaddition, it details various support systems that might be implemented, such as testing centers, libraries of bothcourse materials and support materials, telephone hot lines, special services for disabled students, and methods toensure easy communication between student and instructor. Although this book would be most useful toadministrators of distance education programs, faculty, both those who are already teaching through

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this method and those who might be, will find the chapters on developing telecourse materials and on the role ofthe instructor interesting.

One chapter of particular note concerns ways to involve the local community. It discusses the necessity ofinvestigating community needs; of coordinating the program with other colleges, schools, and businesses; and ofperiodically reassessing the plan.

96.International Council for Distance Education. Developing Distance Education: A Report from the 14th WorldConference. Oslo, Norway, 1988. Oslo, Norway: International Council for Distance Education, 1988. 49p. MF$1.18. PC $6.60. ED 320-535.

This short book is a summary report of the conference; complete conference proceedings were published asDeveloping Distance Education: Papers Submitted to the 14th World Conference in Oslo, entry #288. Thesummary report contains the speeches given by the outgoing and the incoming presidents of the council, thekeynote address, summaries of the business meetings, and a brief summary of 10 major addresses.

97.Johansen, Robert, Maureen McNulty, and Barbara McNeal. Electronic Education: Using Teleconferencing in Post-Secondary Organizations. Menlo Park, Calif.: Institute for the Future, 1978. 166p. Bibliography. (Report R-2). noprice reported. OCLC 5339486.

Written in 1978, this work is by now outdated. It discusses the uses, costs, abilities, and applications of mediatededucation, providing education through telecommunications. Its main thrust is an examination of uses of mediatededucation both outside traditional educational institutions and outside traditional credit-producing courses.Applications outside educational institutions include meetings, student counseling, recruiting, and organizationalcorrespondence. Outside the traditional credit producing courses, options include certification for a profession ortrade, seminars, and professional workshops. The book also briefly describes contemporary programs usingteleconferencing. Although interesting from a historical perspective, it is otherwise of little value today.

98.Jones, Ann, Eileen Scanlon, and Tim O'shea, eds. The Computer Revolution in Education: New Technologies forDistance Teaching. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. 282p. Index. Bibliographic references. $25.00. LC 87-9781. ISBN 0312011652. OCLC 15632395.

Both general and specific information is found in this book. The first three sections of this five-section book, orover half the total, give technical descriptions of particular computer software programs used in educationalsettings. For those with substantial computer expertise and with a need to make some decisions on computerinstallations, these chapters will be valuable. The final two sections of the book discuss how computer applicationswork in actual settings and how they affect teaching and learning. These chapters call into question some widelyheld assumptions about computers vis-a-vis education, for example, that computers per se are helpful and that theycan take over many teaching functions. They also point out the situations in which computers can beeffectivewhen students have sufficient background in a subject and when teachers are available at appropriatetimes to answer questions. The authors of these chapters also emphasize the importance of knowing what aspecific program is capable of and what you want it to do.

Authors of various chapters are confident of several things: that computer applications will continue to improve,becoming more sophisticated and useful; that students will continue to become more at ease and sophisticated intheir use of computers; and that the growing ownership of home computers will make the use of

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software in distance education more convenient and thus more common. They rightly point out that having to go toa library or a regional tutoring center to use software negates the convenience of distance education for an isolatedstudent.

Taken along with the two books edited by Caroline Arms, Campus Networking Strategies (1988), entry #41, andCampus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Information (1990), entry #42, and with Parker Rossman's TheEmerging Worldwide Electronic University (1992), entry #61, this book provides a glimpse at the changescomputers will bring to education.

99.Kamau, J. W., ed. Handbook in Record Keeping for Records Officers in Distance Education. Vancouver, BritishColumbia, Canada: The Commonwealth of Learning, 1992. 80p. no price reported. ISBN 189536924X. OCLC29308959.

This extremely practical book would be useful for those without much record-keeping experience who are facedwith setting up a distance learning program. After a discussion of the characteristics of adult distance learners andthe methods of instruction best calculated for success with them, Kamau goes on to discuss records management indetail. It covers why record keeping is important and the types of records necessary:

institutional, such as historical records of the institution or a list and description of courses taught

student recordsname, address, courses taken

course recordssyllabi, supplies needed for a course

tutor information

Each of the types of records is described. For example, detailed information is given about what types of recordsneed to be kept of the course production process. The book also discusses different filing and storage systems.There are many illustrations and samples of records from various African distance teaching institutions.

This book is written at a basic level but is filled with specific information. It should prove helpful to manypractitioners who find themselves awash in paper or for those whose lack of system makes it impossible to retrieveneeded information on students or on previously taught courses.

100.Kaye, Anthony, and Greville Rumble, eds. Distance Teaching for Higher and Adult Education. London: CroomHelm and The Open University Press, 1981. 342p. Index. Bibliography. $39.50. LC 80-145355. ISBN0709904681. OCLC 7324389.

The two editors of this book are well known in the field of distance education. Many of the essays in the book arewritten by the editors, with additional contributions by other respected scholars in the field, including Keith Harryand John Dodd. The book is well organized, with distinct sections on what a practitioner needs to know about thepotential student of distance education, about tracking, supporting, and retaining students, and about how to keepcourses current and useful. In other words, the first information offered concerns what practitioners need to knowbefore beginning to teach, with the following information about what they need to know and do to maintain thesuccess of a distance education scheme.

The book's focus is on autonomous distance teaching universities, such as The Open University of the UnitedKingdom and Athabasca University in Canada, but a concluding chapter relates the material on these institutions toother types of distance education. Distance education for younger groups, for public education, and for traditionaluniversities with a distance education department or division or that teach a limited number of courses through thedistance education method are all covered.

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A second focus of the book is on administration of distance education programs: how to decide if distanceeducation is the right choice in a particular situation, how to keep a program successful, and how to project costs.

Part 5, "Institutional Profiles," presents brief profiles of 10 distance education institutions, including OpenUniversity, Athabasca, Pakistan's Allama Iqbal, the Fern Universität in what was the Federal Republic ofGermany, and institutions in Spain, Sri Lanka, and Venezuela. Each profile summarizes the institution's history;presents student profiles; lists the courses offered; describes the method of writing, producing, and distributingcourses; tackles methods of student support, tracking, and assessment; and gives some idea of the institution'seconomics and funding.

Supplementary material includes an extensive and useful bibliography, categorized into the same sections as is thebook itself: characteristics of distance education systems; information on courses; information on students; andinformation on administration and finance.

One of the book's few flaws is the lack of indexing of its tables and charts. Included throughout the text, they layout clearly and concisely many specifics a practitioner would find useful when needing to answer a particularquestion, such as what type of media to use in what situation, or what calendar works best for distance educationprograms. However, without an index, much of the information is lost unless the reader makes a determined effortto unearth it, or unless the reader is lucky enough to stumble onto it at an appropriate time.

Despite this problem, Distance Teaching for Higher and Adult Education is a fine and useful contribution.

101.Khan, Inayat. Distance Teaching. Delhi, India: Amar Prakasha, 1993. 105p. Bibliography. no price reported. ISBN8185420416. OCLC 28709724.

This book begins with a general overview of distance education, its definition and philosophy, and its history. Itcontinues with brief chapters on the characteristics of study material appropriate to distance education, theimportance of two-way communication in distance education, the need for special training for distance educationteachers, the use of media, and the need for such student support services as tutors and study centers. The generalinformation here is neither new nor noteworthy and has been covered in other books, but the specific informationon distance education in India is of interest.

102.Kitchen, Karen. Planning for Telecommunication: A School Leader's Primer. Portland, Oreg.: U.S. WestCommunications and the National School Board Association, 1989. 16p. Bibliography. $12.00pa. ISBN 20306522.OCLC 20511370.

The author's key concept in this brief guide for educators is stated on page 2: "The place to start is with education,not with technology" (author's emphasis). This philosophy leads Kitchen to devote the first half of this pamphlet toa review of the questions that education policymakers should ask themselves about the direction and needs of theirprogram. Questions include:

What is special about our particular school or community?

What requirements does the state set?

What needs do our particular students have?

Kitchen also reviews questions of finance, resource sharing, and cooperation with other community groups. Onlyafter a thorough examination of the school or district's set up and needsits cultureis done should that school ordistrict explore the use of technology. The second half of the pamphlet compares various available technologies,such as coaxial cable and fiber optics.

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School administrators just beginning to think about the relevant applications of distance education might find thissmall pamphlet thought-provoking. Other useful and brief guides include Managing Open Learning (1985) byDerek Birch, entry #73; Managing Distance Education Courses (1990) by Elizabeth Houdek, entry #94; andDistance Education: A Practical Guide (1993) by Barry Willis, entry #188.

102A.Knott, Tara. Planning and Evaluating Distance Education: A Guide to Collaboration. Memphis: DiapheraPublications, 1994. 302p. Subject index. Author index. Bibliography. Glossary. $16.95pa. LC 93-33245. ISBN0963807005. OCLC 28854482.

Although only the final chapter of this book is labelled as being about evaluation, in fact all chapters are. Knottbelieves that each step of the planning process affects the final evaluation. Using three case studies as examples,she takes the reader through a detailed planning process: identifying the target audience; identifying financialresources; identifying supportive organizations; detailing the needs of the program; and writing a plan. Her planincludes defining the needs for faculty, space, technology, classroom design, course content, and student supportnetworks. Her chapter specifically on evaluation emphasizes the need for constant evaluation, as distanceeducation programs must change over time in response to changing needs and changing technology.

Knott's chapter titled "Describing Available Resources and Strengths" gives short descriptions of both personnelinvolved in distance education (Instruction developer, Media specialist), and technical needs (fiber optics,satellite). A glossary defines words and terms used.

103.Koul, B. N., Bakhshish Singh, and M. M. Ansari. Studies in Distance Education. New Delhi: Association of IndianUniversities, 1988. 176p. Bibliographic references. no price reported. OCLC 1875864.

Of 45 papers presented at the "National Conference on Distance Education" at Ahmedabad, 15 are published here.The plan of the book is to go from the general to the specific. Thus the first part of the book, consisting of twopapers, concerns the concept of distance education, what it is and why it can be a viable approach for education inIndia. Section 2, seven papers, is on methodology, on specific ways in which distance education can be presentedor developed. The third section, which contains two papers, examines the social relevance of distance education,how it can be used to improve society, either by offering education to previously neglected segments of society orby improving the lives of individuals. Section 4, with four papers, examines the finances of distance education.These papers attempt to arrive at a determination as to whether distance education can be cost-effective,considering both its costs and its often hard-to-measure benefits.

The methodology portion, with its extremely focused and specific papers, is the most help to the teacher. Topicsinclude improving the quality of written comments provided by teachers or tutors on students' assignments; theimportance of student support services peripheral to the course, such as libraries and study centers; and the needfor an integrated approach to the use of media in distance education.

Although not much is new in this volume, much of what is here is useful and bears repeating. It is interesting aswell for its glimpse at how distance education works in the vast and diverse country of India.

104.Krebs, Arlene. USDLA Funding Sourcebook for Distance Learning and Education Technology: A Guide toFoundation, Corporate and Government Support for Telecommunications and the New Media. New York:USDLA, 1993. 262p. Index. Bibliography. $39.50. OCLC 28838113.

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Published by the United States Distance Learning Association, this is a directory of funding sources. It is dividedinto sections covering funding by foundations, corporate programs, the regional Bell operating companies orRBOCs, cable television, the federal government, and state programs. Each entry contains address, phone number,name of contact person, a description of the program's funding guidelines, and information about its applicationprocess. Information about recent grant recipients is also given.

The last two sections are resource guides. One lists print sources concerned with educational technology,telecommunications, and fund raising. The other lists online sources, video sources, software, and educational CDROMs. This section includes a great variety of sources, from encyclopedias on CD ROM to listings for Prodigyand Compuserv.

Managers, administrators, and teachers in distance education who are seeking funding will find this book anexcellent starting point.

Latham, Sheila, Alexander Slade, and Carol Budnick. Library Services for Off Campus and Distance Education:An Annotated Bibliography, 1991. See entry #212.

105.Lewis, Raymond J. Instructional Applications of Information Technologies: A Survey of Higher Education in theWest. Boulder, Colo.: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, 1985. 130p. no price reported. OCLC13173089.

In 1984, the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE) sent out two surveys on the use ofeducational technology by higher education institutions, one to the institutions themselves, in 13 western states,and the other to the staffs of the State Higher Education Officer agencies in 12 western states. (Wyoming lackssuch an agency; therefore people at the University of Wyoming completed the survey for Wyoming.)

Results of the surveys indicate a number of things. First, by 1984, there was widespread interest in the increaseduse of educational media. Most institutions reported some use of media, whether audio, video, or computer, andmuch interest in increasing and improving that use. Second, respondents perceived many barriers to thatimprovement, including faculty discomfort with and resistance to the use of new technology, lack of cooperationamong institutions, and the expense of implementing new technology. Third, students, both on site and distant,increasingly desired the integration of media into courses.

Survey results are published in detail in this book, but the authors also give summary information. Distanceeducators might find this information of interest for two reasons: It demonstrates the widespread interest incommon distance education technologiesbroadcasting, videotapes, communication by computers. It also indicatesthe clear need for cooperation within institutions and among them, to make economic and efficient use of thistechnology.

106.Lewis, Raymond J. Meeting Learners' Needs through Telecommunication: A Directory and Guide to Programs.Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education, 1983. 264p. Index. Bibliography. $45.00. OCLC25437107.

About two-thirds of this book consists of the directory of programs, mostly located at colleges and universities;however, much of this information is out-of-date. The preliminary material, about one-third of the book, is still ofsome interest. In it, Lewis discusses in some detail the information gained from the questionnaire sent toinstitutions listed in the directory. Chapters discuss the setup of the institutions themselves, their missions, thetechnologies and delivery systems they use, their curriculum, the role of the faculty in teleteaching, and enrollmentinformation. Some of this, such as the information on technology and delivery systems, is of interest historically,while some, such as the chapter on faculty participation, is still pertinent.

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Other more recent directories, including The Electronic University: A Guide to Distance Learning Programs(1993), entry #202, are obviously of more use about current programs.

107.Lewis, Roger. How to Communicate with the Learner. London: Council for Educational Technology, 1985. 96p.(Open Learning Guide 6). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841506. OCLC 12516195.

See annotation for entry #113.

108.Lewis, Roger. How to Develop and Manage an Open-Learning Scheme. London: Council for EducationalTechnology, 1985. 96p. (Open Learning Guide 5). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841484. OCLC 12512099.

See annotation for entry #113.

109.Lewis, Roger. How to Find and Adapt Materials and Choose Media. London: Council for Educational Technology,1986. 133p. (Open Learning Guide 8). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841549. OCLC 12941771.

See annotation for entry #113.

110.Lewis, Roger. How to Help Learners Assess Their Progress. London: Council for Educational Technology, 1984.109p. (Open Learning Guide 2). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841247. OCLC 12523849.

See annotation for entry #113.

111.Lewis, Roger. How to Manage the Production Process. London: Council for Educational Technology, 1986. 157p.(Open Learning Guide 7). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841530. OCLC 12910376.

See annotation for entry #113.

112.Lewis, Roger. How to Tutor and Support Learners. London: Council for Educational Technology, 1984. 91p.(Open Learning Guide 3). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841255. OCLC 11993955.

See annotation for entry #113.

113.Lewis, Roger. Open Learning Guide Series. London: Council for Educational Technology. £7.00 each.

Each of the eight guides in this series describes and gives advice on a separate aspect of open learning. Much ofwhat each guide discusses will be helpful to distance educators because distance education often uses openlearning techniques.

The eight guides are

1. Open Learning in Action. Case Studies, 1984.

2. How to Help Learners Assess Their Progress, 1984.

3. How to Tutor and Support Learners, 1984.

4. What Is Open Learning: An Introduction to the Series, 1986.

5. How to Develop and Manage an Open-Learning Scheme, 1985.

6. How to Communicate with the Learner, 1985.

7. How to Manage the Production Process, 1986.

8. How to Find and Adapt Materials and Choose Media, 1986.

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The first in the series, Open Learning in Action, is a set of case studies from programs in the United Kingdom. Allare open learning programs, although only some concern distance learning.

The other guides are all organized the way you would an actual open learning module, treating the reader as aparticipant. Objectives, goals, questions, and activities are included. Teachers and managers can use this series toguide them through the entire process of developing and running an open learning program.

114.Lewis, Roger, ed. Open Learning in Action. Case Studies. London: Council for Educational Technology, 1984.244p. Bibliographic references. (Open Learning Guide 1). £12.00pa. ISBN 0861841239. OCLC 12514042.

See annotation for entry #113.

115.Lewis, Roger. What Is Open Learning: An Introduction to the Series. London: Council for EducationalTechnology, 1986.131p. Bibliography. (Open Learning Guide 4). £7.00pa. ISBN 0861841263. OCLC 13272091.

See annotation for entry #113.

116.Ljoså, Erling. The System of Distance Education, Volume I. Malmö, Sweden: Hermods, 1975. 248p. Bibliographicreferences. MF $1.18. ED 170-549. OCLC 3615256.

Papers here were presented at the 10th annual conference of the International Conference on CorrespondenceEducation, held in Brighton, England. Like most collections of conference papers, this book contains papers on avariety of topics. Papers are grouped into four sections:

The system of distance education

Modes of teaching

Distance education and the open learning trend

Student support

The section on the system of distance education includes papers on institutions, finance, evaluation, and trainingteachers to teach through the distance method. Modes of teaching explores different media available, including thecorrespondence method. Writers on the open learning trend discuss ways to give students more autonomy inchoosing courses, defining time limits, and evaluating their own progress. Student support concentrates mostly onways to strengthen two-way communication between student and teacher in order to lessen the student's sense ofaloneness while studying.

See entry #86 for an annotation of volume 2 of these conference papers.

Lochte, Robert H. Interactive Television and Instruction: A Guide to Technology, Technique, Facilities Design,and Classroom Management, 1993. See entry #169.

MacKenzie, Norman, Richmond Postgate, and John Scupham. Open Learning: Systems and Problems in Post-Secondary Education, 1975. See entry #277.

117.Maddux, Cleborne D. Distance Education: A Selected Bibliography. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: EducationalTechnology Publications, 1992. 71p. (Education Technology Selected Bibliography Series; v.7). $14.95pa. LC 92-24055. ISBN 0877782490. OCLC 2625655.

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According to its preface, this bibliography of articles and ERIC documents from the late 1980s through the early1990s was compiled for use by educators. It is divided into six categories: General Articles; Problems andCautions; Research; Project DescriptionsUnited States; Project DescriptionsInternational; and Issues and Trends.Some articles are listed in more than one category.

The lack of annotations and the absence of an index any more specific than the division into six categories, makethis somewhat less useful than it might be. A user must scan all listings within a particular category to locaterelevant ones. However, it still might be useful to those in the field who would otherwise have to make their ownsearch through periodical indexes.

118.Markowitz, Harold J. Distance Education: Staff Handbook. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, 1990. 59p.Bibliography. (The Guide Series in Continuing Education). $12.95pa. ISBN 18777847062. OCLC 22954698.

Markowitz has prepared a brief but useful guide to distance education. Its five sections address the definition anddescription of distance education, the mission of distance education, course development and delivery,management questions, and the necessity of and methods for continuing professional development. Along withLinking for Learning (1989), entry #129, Servicing Learners at a Distance (1983), entry #82, and the books in theOpen Learning Guide series, entry #113, this book would be useful reading for someone just beginning to explorethe field.

119.Medsker, Leland, Stewart Edelstein, Hannah Kreplin, Janet Ruyle, and John Shea. Extending Opportunities for aCollege Degree. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1975. 398p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa.

120.Medsker, Leland L., and Stewart L. Edelstein. Policymaking Guidelines for Extended Degree Programs: ARevision. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1977. 125p. $4.50pa. LC 77-73650. ISBN0826813895. OCLC 2837535.

The two books noted above work as a unit. The most valuable portion of Extending Opportunities for a CollegeDegree is the Policymaking Guidelines published at the end of the book, and revised and republished separately asPolicymaking Guidelines for Extended Degree Programs in 1977. These ask a number of important questionsrelevant to distance education and give a variety of answers. Questions range from pragmatic ones of fund raising,recruitment, and advertising, to more theoretical ones of course design, counseling, and granting credit for priorcourses or life experience. These questions are still valid, and anyone entering the field of distance education couldgain valuable insights by reading both the questions posed here and the answers presented.

The original book, Extending Opportunities for a College Degree, is primarily a thorough look at 16 degreegranting programs that do not fit the traditional higher education model. These 16 fall into four categories, none ofwhich can be strictly defined as distance education:

programs that offer alternative scheduling, such as evening or weekend courses, but are still largely conductedon-site;

liberal arts or adult degree programs aimed specifically at adult students returning to school, which allow someindependent study but also require large amounts of on-campus time;

a contract approach through which a student devises an independent program, and which can make use ofseveral alternative study methods, such as

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tutoring, self-paced learning, and use of such community resources as libraries and museums; and finally,

degree-by-examination programs.

Such programs all have applications for distance education, but it is still the questions posed in PolicymakingGuidelines that offer the most useful information.

121.Moore, Michael G., Peter Cookson, Joe Donaldson, and B. Allan Quigley, eds. Contemporary Issues in AmericanDistance Education. New York: Pergamon Press, 1990. 419p. Author index. Subject index. Bibliographicreferences. $60.00. LC 90-31196. ISBN 008040233X. OCLC 21080611.

Papers in this book are revised versions of papers presented at the First American Symposium on Research inDistance Education at Pennsylvania State University in 1988. Authors include leaders in the field, such as MichaelG. Moore, Charles E. Feasley, and Desmond Keegan. Many aspects of distance education are explored: Part 1deals with the organization and planning of a distance education program; part 2 with how distance education'sspecial features affect the learner, and with what type of learner is most able to learn through this method; part 3with course design or the ways in which teachers must change their teaching methods to suit distance education;and part 4 with various theoretical frameworks or philosophies of distance education. As a whole, however, thebroad scope of this book makes it valuable to those planning and overseeing distance education programs orinstitutions.

122.Moore, Michael G., and G. Christopher Clark, eds. Readings in Distance Learning and Instruction. UniversityPark: American Center for the Study of Distance Education, The Pennsylvania State University, 1989. 144p.Bibliographic references. (Readings in Distance Education, 2). $12.50pa. LC 89-84505. ISBN 1877780022. OCLC23177899.

The readings in this volume are from The American Journal of Distance Education, 1987 and 1988, and aregrouped in six sections:

Learners

Course design

Instruction

Print

Television

Computers

Moore, Michael G., and G. Christopher Clark, eds. Readings in Principles of Distance Education, 1989. See entry#171.

123.Moran, Louise, and Ian Mugridge. Collaboration in Distance Education: International Case Studies. New York:Routledge Kegan Paul, 1993. 178p. Index. Bibliography. (Routledge Studies in Distance Education). $59.95. LC93-14950. ISBN 0415100984. OCLC 27770197.

The editors' premise is that although cooperation among institutions or countries in the development andadministration of distance education programs is difficult, it is worth the trouble. This premise is shared by thecontributors to this book. Difficulties include overcoming the traditional autonomy of universities, reconcilingdifferences in mission, acquiring adequate and ongoing funding, finding a balance between

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too much bureaucracy and too little organization, and garnering community support. Benefits, however, for themembers of a successful consortium are seen as outweighing the difficulties: Institutions can supply a greater arrayof services and courses, more teaching materials are available, and scholars experience a wider exchange of ideas.In the case of cooperation between countries or institutions with dramatically differing resources, the richerinstitution benefits as well by being able to test its new courses or methods on an actual population.

Case studies in this volume are from Canada, Australia, and the United States. One case study concerns theUniversity of Mid-America, a consortium that had a high degree of support but which ultimately failed.

124.Moss, Robin. Video: The Educational Challenge. London: Croom Helm, 1983. 163p. Index. Bibliography. $25.25.LC 83-226227. ISBN 0709917473; 0709935188pa. OCLC 10877588; 15556172pa.

This book is not about distance education, but rather about video in education in general: in the classroom, athome for informal education, or in the workplace for worker training. However, the final three chapters, ''Video inDistance Learning," "Video in Open Learning," and "Continuing Education," are of particular interest to thedistance education practitioner.

Moss stresses some practical aspects of distance education, among them the difficulty of overcoming isolation, thepositive aspect of the distance learner's being able to control the speed of a course, and the need for a multimediaapproach. However, his major theme is a philosophical one; he presents a case for education being perceived aspart of a seamless life. Education should not be labelled as something apart from "real life," but should be anintegrated aspect of life. Education for retraining, education for academic credentials, and education for the sake ofpersonal interest, all should be a part of a person's life. Education in such a sense becomes lifelong and continual.

Moss sees video as a means of making education a part of the fabric of life. Video can be used in conjunction withother media, including print. It can also be a bridge between the theoretical knowledge gained in reading andpreparing examination questions and the application of this knowledge to actual situations. Examples would bevideo presentations of case studies, an interview between a probation officer and client, a classroom interaction ina teacher-training video. In addition, video can be used to expose people to ideas and actualities outside their ownexperience for their own pleasure, for example, showing a video presentation of a play or presenting thecollections of a distant museum.

Moss advocates exploiting the power of video through the combined efforts of television libraries, educationalinstitutions, museums, and other community groups to encourage people toward lifelong learning. For instance,after a television presentation, a voiceover could indicate that the local library has books on the same subject, orthat the station will provide a study guide, or a local community college offers a course on the subject. Theseinstitutions could make available programs, courses, and reading lists based on the program. In this way, aconcerted effort is made toward encouraging lifelong learning.

In Moss's view, it is still up to the individual to take advantage of what's available, which is in line with anothercommonly held assumption of distance educators, that the motivation of the learner is crucial to the learner'ssuccess. For the distance educator, the challenge of Moss's views and suggestions is to make the use of videoprograms enticing.

125.Mugridge, Ian, and David Kaufman, eds. Distance Education in Canada. Dover, N.H.: Croom Helm, 1986. 317p.Index. Bibliographic references. $34.50. LC 86-8828. ISBN 0709946198. OCLC 13426332.

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For someone wanting a survey of Canadian distance education efforts, this book is ideal. In two sections, DistanceEducation in Canada presents information both on institutions that teach only through the distance educationmethod (Athabasca University, the Télé-Université du Québec, The Open Learning Institute) and on distanceeducation programs located within such diverse institutions as public schools, universities, and privatecorrespondence courses.

Diversity is a key word when discussing distance education in Canada. The editors emphasize that because Canadais prevented constitutionally from having a national education policy, it has developed a diverse distance educationcommunity. Provincial governments, local school authorities, and private concerns have all developed programs orcourses in response to a perceived need. These essays show this diversity and cover all aspects of distanceeducation: registration methods, packaging and providing materials, development of local learning centers,advising, tutoring, and technology.

The editors make some predictions about the future of distance education in Canada. They believe that cooperationamong providers will increase, that more and different technology will be incorporated into distance education,and that private and public efforts will become more integrated. They also predict that one thing will not change:that student motivation and persistence will continue to be the most important factor influencing an individual'ssuccess in a distance education program

Bibliographies for each chapter are in some cases extensive and will provide a good starting point for furtherresearch.

126.National Home Study Council. The Green Chair Group. Predicting Distant Education in the Year 2001.Washington, D.C.: National Home Study Council, 1982. 120p. Bibliographic references. no price reported. pa.OCLC 9444093.

Some 25 educators, from both educational institutions and private businesses, prepared predictions of the state ofdistance education in the year 2001. The paperssome of the participants submitted more than oneare collectedhere. Most participants saw the adult population as the largest consumer of education through the distance method.Most also saw job training as the largest reason for using the method, although some believed that America's agingpopulation will use it for developing leisure time pursuits as well. Technology, of course, has changedconsiderably since 1982, and contributors did not know how widespread both videotape and personal computerswould be. Most, however, saw a future in which new technology of whatever type would continue to be integratedinto distance education programs.

127.Neil, Michael W. Education of Adults at a Distance: A Report of the Open University's Tenth AnniversaryInternational Conference. London: Kogan Page, 1981. 270p. $24.50pa. LC 82-125914. ISBN 085038415X. OCLC9282511.

Of the 80 papers that were submitted to the conference ahead of time, six were chosen for inclusion in this volume.These six, however, make up only a small part of the total book; the rest consists of discussions that took place atthe conference. During the conference, nine working discussion groups were formed, with about 19 to 26participants in each. Each group discussed the same 10 topics, but their discussion and conclusions were asdivergent as the participants.

Topics of discussion include the demographics of the student population of distance education universities, thecontent of courses, the creation of courses, and organizational questions.

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128.Niemi, John A., and Dennis D. Gooler, eds. Technologies for Learning outside the Classroom. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1987. 115p. Index. Bibliographic references. (New Directions for Continuing Education, 34). $11.95.LC 85-644750. ISBN 1555429610. OCLC 16046823.

The papers collected in this book share three beliefs: that demographic and social changes have increased thedesire and the need for lifelong education; that this rise in demand is a good thing; and that technology can be usedto improve this education and to increase its availability. Most of the papers concentrate on one type of educationaldelivery: television, audio, interactive video, print, or personal computers. Three papers describe ways to integratemedia into courses, as well as ways to apply it: presenting content, providing feedback, and evaluating progress.The concluding essay by the editors discusses some of the philosophical issues that arise from this technology: theimplications of a division between those with access to sophisticated technology and those without; the effect onsociety of the isolation of individual learning versus the socialization of the classroom; funding issues; and qualityof content.

129.Office of Technology Assessment. Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1989. 183p. Appendices. $11.25pa. LC 89-600723. OCLC 1990105.

This book could be further subtitled "A look at distance education in the United States today." It summarizes thestate of distance education in this country, with a look at the students, the providers, the costs, the varioustechnologies available, the changes necessary in the teaching profession, and a chapter on socio-political factorsthat influence the adoption of distance education. Appendices include a state-by-state summary of distanceeducation programs, a discussion of costs of various technologies, and a glossary.

This work should be on everyone's beginning reading list about the subject.

130.Ostendorf, Virginia A. What Every Principal, Teacher, and School Board Member Should Know about DistanceEducation. Littleton, Colo.: Virginia A. Ostendorf, 1989. 85p. Bibliography. $30.00pa. OCLC 20801198.

Ostendorf has written this book for those who are faced with making decisions on whether and how to implementdistance education in schools. Through a series of both open-ended and factual questions, she leads people throughthe decision-making process. Is there a need for such a program? Does your school lack the expert personnel itwould need to offer certain desired or requested courses? What political climate exists? Will there be support fornew expenditures? Who will fund the project? Will teachers be allowed enough time and resources to prepare forthe program?

After these preliminaries, Ostendorf presents a brief description of various forms of audio and video systems, withsome approximation of comparative costs. Next she describes a half-dozen currently operating programs, discussesstaffing needs, and finally lists sources that produce and sell programming.

This work is another useful source for those just beginning to investigate the field. Others to look at includeReaching Learners through Telecommunications (1993), entry #80, the brief but helpful Managing DistanceEducation Courses (1990), entry #94, and The Planning and Management of Distance Education (1986), entry#141.

131.Parmaji, S. Distance Education. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private, 1984. 160p. Index. Bibliographicreferences. $18.95. ISBN 0865902100. OCLC 11322640.

This collection of essays focuses mostly on India, although the two final essays are respectively on Africa andAustralia. The essays on India concentrate primarily on distance education in various subject fields, such as law,teacher training, and

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engineering. Rather than theory, they discuss current practicewhat is happening at the time of writing and thehistorical forces that led up to the present situation.

Two of the essays are a bit more theoretical in nature. "The Open UniversityA Conceptual Analysis" by Dr. S.Parmaji, editor of this volume, discusses the pros and cons of an open university setting, the barriers it can breakdown and those that it creates itself. Among the barriers an open university can assault are limitations on educationfor certain groups of people, the lack of flexibility in requirements shown by traditional education, and timeconstraints on completing courses. Open education sometimes has its own barriers as well: linguistic minorities arestill cut out of broadcasts aimed at the majority, rapport between teacher and student is often limited, and lack ofmoney often limits production or access.

The other more theoretical chapter is by B. N. Koul (see entry #103 for an annotation of his Studies in DistanceEducation), titled "Need for Professional Training in Distance Education." In it he demonstrates the fallacy inassuming that a conventional teacher (Koul's term) is automatically qualified as a distance teacher. He details theskills that a distance education teacher needs that are not needed by a conventional teacher, skills such as writingand editing lessons that are to be read by the student. He also points out that the same difficulties a distance studentis recognized as having, such as the lack of motivation and a sense of isolation, are shared by the distance teacher.He maintains that the distance education profession has not addressed those problems in the context of the teacher.

132.Paul, Ross H. Open Learning and Management: Leadership and Integrity in Distance Education. New York:Nichols Publishing, 1990. 201p. Index. Bibliography. $39.50. LC 90-7605. ISBN 0893973742. OCLC 21760074.

The author concentrates on the organization of educational institutions, both distance education institutions andmore traditional ones. He discusses the tension between the professionals in an institution, who want and needboth autonomy and self-direction to perform their tasks, and the perceived need for an institution to behierarchical. Distance education institutions have an exaggerated form of this problem, because although theinstitution needs a centralized administration, its far-spread nature lends itself to decentralization.

Paul provides chapter summaries to each chapter.

133.Paulsen, Morton Flate. From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Universities: Distance Education, Computer-MediatedCommunication, and Online Education. University Park: American Center for the Study of Distance Education,Pennsylvania State University, 1992. 76p. Bibliographic references. (Research Monographs 7). MF $1.18. PC$20.00. ED 354-897. ISBN 187778009X.

Distance education increasingly uses computer conferencing for teaching. With this method, a group of people signon simultaneously to computers for discussion on a topic. Lessons to be done individually are often a part of theprocess. Sometimes lessons and papers are also submitted electronically, via e-mail, but "class participation" takesplace online, with students making their comments and contributions on their computers. From Bulletin Boards toElectronic Universities is a collection of papers by Paulsen concerning this trend; most are accounts of projects inwhich he has participated.

The afterword, by Robin Mason, makes the point that electronic universities already exist in preliminary form andthat we would do well to study them so that they may be as useful as possible. Mason is the coauthor, along withAnthony Kaye, of Mindweave: Communication, Computers, and Distance Education (1989), entry #217.Mindweave would make useful reading in conjunction with this brief monograph.

Microfiche of this title is available through the ERIC clearinghouse; a paper copy is available from ThePennsylvania State University.

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134.Percival, Fred, and Henry Ellington, eds. Aspects of Educational Technology. Volume XV: Distance Learning andEvaluation. New York: Nichols Publishing, 1981. 334p. Bibliographic references. £15.50. LC 82-115209. ISBN0893971162. OCLC 8736110.

The 15th annual Conference of the Association for Educational and Training Technology, held in 1981, had twomajor themes: the use of broadcasting in distance education and the evaluation of educational technology. Thepapers in this volume relate to one of these two themes. Papers deal with the organizational structure of distanceeducation programs, with the allocation of scarce resources to distance education, and with provision of libraryservices to distance education students. A few papers are case studies of particular distance education programs.

135.Perraton, Hilary. The Cost of Distance Education. Cambridge: International Extension College, 1982. 65p.Bibliography. (IEC Broadsheets on Distance Learning No. 17). £4.60pa. ISBN 0903632284. OCLC 10353362.

Although the cost figures included here are obviously now out-of-date, the questions asked and the methodsexplored of assessing costs are still germane. Perraton first explains the difficulties in estimating costs for distanceeducation. Some programs are run interdependently among several institutions, making it difficult to assessindividual costs. Some receive "in kind" contributions from outside sources, such as broadcast time either free or ata reduced rate, or expert help in teaching or course preparation. Costs not incurred sometimes have to be factoredin as a comparison. Such negative costs include the savings inherent in not having to build and equip classrooms.

He then compares costs of various methods of distance education and offers suggestions on how an institution oran individual can estimate the cost of a particular course or program. The three major areas to examine are

the level of education offered (university level education usually costs more to provide than does primary level),

the sophistication of the technology used (television is more costly than radio, and color printing is more costlythan black and white), and

the size of the program (unit costs go down as the number of students increases).

136.Perraton, Hilary, ed. Distance Education for Teacher Training. New York: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1993. 411p.Index. Bibliography. $65.00. LC: 93-541. ISBN 0415094658. OCLC 27677773.

Twelve case studies of distance education programs for teacher training form the major portion of this book. The12 programs were examined using the same criteria and were reported on using the same general format, so thatreaders can make comparisons between programs. Some comparative information is presented within the book intable form.

Hilary Perraton, as editor, provides guidelines for the reader on how to make these comparisons in severalintroductory and concluding essays that bracket the case studies. His introductory essay presents five points thatneed to be considered when examining and evaluating a distance education program:

its audience,

its content and purpose,

its methods,

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its organization and management model, and

its costs and funding method.

Variations in all five of these points exist within the case study programs. Some of the programs train schoolleavers to be primary school teachers; some provide additional education in either subject matter or teachingmethods for practicing teachers; some concentrate on continuing education for teachers with long experience. Thepurpose of a program can vary between providing subject knowledge only or providing instruction in actualteaching methods only, with some falling in between. Methods can include the use of correspondence courses, ofvarious media, and of some face-to-face instruction, whether through classroom instruction, the use of tutors, orthrough a mentorship program. Organization styles are numerous, from self-contained and independent universitiesor programs to a program that is part of a larger entity. Funding can come through government auspices, studentfees, or private donations.

Perraton's concluding essays on costs and effects present a balanced view of the efficacy of both these particularprograms and of distance education in general. He obviously supports the concept of distance education and its usein teacher training. However, he stops short of pronouncing it a panacea for teacher shortages, particularly acute indeveloping countries where demand for education at all levels is growing. He also demonstrates the need forstrong political support, agreement on goals, adequate funding, and enough qualified teachers for a program towork.

The case studies and supporting chapters present some strong data on particular programs. Rather than opinion, orsimply reports on methods, these case studies present facts. Readers can use these facts to judge for themselvesboth the efficacy of these programs and the usefulness of the programs' experiences as a guide for their ownprograms.

137.Perry, Walter, and Greville Rumble. A Short Guide to Distance Education. Cambridge: International ExtensionCollege, 1987. 31p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. ISBN 0903632403. OCLC 17839390.

One of many short how-to books on distance education, this one is worthwhile, partly because its authors arerecognized experts in the field: Perry was the first vice chancellor of the Open University of the United Kingdom,and Rumble is also associated with the Open University and has written extensively on the subject of distanceeducation. The book is also attractively laid out and easy to read.

Although a book of 31 pages obviously cannot discuss the subject in detail, this one covers the basics: designing,producing, and distributing courses, communicating with students, support services for students, organizationalmodels, personnel, costs, and assessment. The bibliography gives ideas for further and more complete reading.

138.Portway, Patrick S., and Carla Lane. Technical Guide to Teleconferencing and Distance Learning. San Ramon,Calif.: Applied Business teleCommunications, 1992. 383p. Glossary. Bibliographic references. $50.00. ISBN9993387983. OCLC 27764119.

This collection of essays is divided into three sections. The first is a series of essays on the technical aspects oftelecommunication, including audioconferencing, two-way interactive video, telephone, and desktop video. Thesecond series of essays discusses the application of these technologies in both business and academic settings. Thefinal section of essays is devoted to training the practitioners who will use this technology, again in both businessand academic settings.

A lengthy glossary defines the words associated with telecommunications.

For those who want an overview of what technology is capable of now and how it is currently being applied, thisbook would be a good choice.

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139.Purdy, Leslie N., ed. Reaching New Students through New Technologies. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/HuntPublishing, 1983. 433p. Bibliographic references. $30.95pa. LC 82-84682. ISBN 0840329547. OCLC 9574747.

In this anthology, the editor has assembled a collection of articles that explore all aspects of teaching throughtelevision. Its first section contains articles on the history of educational television and telecourses. Next comesections on course design and production, administrative concerns, student reaction to teleteaching and studentaccomplishment, and assessment. The final section comprises articles on methods of distribution beyond anindividual institution's producing and distributing its own course: cable television, public television, consortia, andcooperative efforts between higher education institutions and television stations. A number of articles in this bookare case studies of successful programs. This work would be a fine reader for use in education courses dealing withtelecommunications.

Race, Philip. 53 Interesting Ways to Write Open Learning Materials, 1992. See entry #177.

Rathmore, H. C. S. Management of Distance Education in India, 1993. See entry #284.

Reddy, G. Ram. Open Universities: The Ivory Towers Thrown Open, 1988. See entry #285.

Rossman, Parker. The Emerging Worldwide Electronic University: Information Age Global Higher Education,1992. See entry #61.

140.Rumble, Greville. The Management of Distance Learning Systems. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute forEducational Planning, 1992. 108p. Bibliography. (Fundamentals of Educational Planning43). no price reported.ISBN 928031145X. OCLC 28178069.

Rumble is a well-respected member of the distance education community and is currently regional director, EastAnglian Region, at the Open University of the United Kingdom. He has here prepared a booklet aimed atmanagers of distance education institutions or departments.

Rumble's major contention is that the distance education practitioner needs management skills as much as or evenmore than teaching skills, but that the practitioner must apply those skills in an educational rather than a businessenvironment. He sets out to show how this might be done, taking readers through the steps of identifying themarket and advertising the product, planning and implementing programs, delivering the product, and measuringoutcomes. Throughout the book he makes use of such management concepts as strategic planning and applies themto the educational setting.

Rumble never loses sight of the fact that he is talking about an academic environment rather than a business one.He warns against applying business principles too completely. For example, it might make economic sense todivide the production aspect of a course into components and to assign each to a specialist. However, in aneducational setting, communication between all specialists is necessary if the course developed is to be anintegrated one and is to fit into a larger program. He believes that educational excellence should never besacrificed for business efficiency.

141.Rumble, Greville. The Planning and Management of Distance Education. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.259p. Index. Bibliography. $25.00. LC 86-13847. ISBN 0312614039. OCLC 13760252.

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The title accurately describes the book. Rumble raises practical questions that the would-be developer of a distanceeducation program should ask, such as how to decide how much staff is necessary, how to assign authority forvarious tasks, and how to come up with a realistic estimate of costs. He also discusses the economic and politicalrealities of beginning such a program, and explores the difficulty of balancing two opposing types of management:academic management and operations management. This book would be valuable for those interested in beginninga distance education program.

142.Rumble, Greville, and Keith Harry, ed. The Distance Teaching Universities. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982.256p. Index. Bibliographic references. $25.00. LC 82-42559. ISBN 0312213239. OCLC 8627618.

The core of this book is in its nine central chapters, each of which describes a different distance teachinguniversity. These chapters are bracketed by introductory and concluding chapters, all by Rumble and DesmondKeegan, that give a history and overview of distance teaching and define terms such as open learning and distanceteaching. The historical chapters emphasize heavily the influence of the University of London's external degreeprogram and, later, the Open University of the United Kingdom. They contrast these with the more decentralizedapproach of Australia, which has five universities providing distance programs. A minor portion of the historicalsection deals with developments in the United States, the former Soviet Union, and the former East Germany.

All the nine distance teaching programs described in the central chapters are discussed in detail. All are at theuniversity level. In addition, all fall into one of three categories:

totally autonomous institutions that teach only through the distance method, such as the Open University;

universities that have a separate, autonomous division of distance studies; or

distance systems, such as the now-defunct University of Mid-America, that create and control courses butprovide these courses to several other universities, rather than distributing them directly to the student.

These profiles are not about schools or organizations that provide distance teaching to younger students, or thosethat teach life skills or basic literacy to an isolated population.

The concluding chapters examine the common characteristics of distance teaching universities and evaluate them.Rumble and Keegan see many similarities among distance teaching universities. Most are alike in their targetgroups, the programs they provide, their multimedia approach, and their efforts to attain academic parity withmore traditional universities. Most target the second-chance student, the full-time employed, and thegeographically isolated; most offer basic liberal arts, professional programs, or programs aimed at lifelonglearning. Those planning a distance education program will find this book useful. It is helpful to see the commoncharacteristics of successful distance education programs, to see how others have operated, and to measure thelikelihood of success for one's own program.

143.Schramm, Wilbur. Big Media, Little Media: Tools and Technologies for Instruction. London: Sage Publications,1977. 315p. Subject index. Name index. Bibliography. $17.50. LC 76-30522. ISBN 0803907400. OCLC 2645268.

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Not strictly about distance education, this book discusses the use of various media in educational settings,including both classroom and distance settings. Schramm gives many examples of large-scale distance programs,however, and people planning distance education programs can draw conclusions from the information here.

The big media of the title refers to the expensive, glamorous, large-scale type of media, such as television, soundfilms, and computer-assisted instruction; little media refers to the smaller, less expensive types, such as filmstrips,transparencies, and audiotapes. In a series of chapters focusing on pedagogical, economic, and empirical evidence,such as reports of various experiments and ongoing programs, Schramm examines the use of various media indifferent situations and presents criteria to use in choosing appropriate media for a particular situation.

Schramm's major conclusions will surprise no one with knowledge of distance education and educational use ofmedia: that no particular medium has been proved superior; that there is no exact formula to use that will lead tothe perfect choice of media; that no particular medium will always work in a particular situation. Too manyvariables are involved, including costs, local conditions, degree of local control necessary, and type of student.This book does present the questions people must ask when choosing media, whether a planner of a entire system,who might be committing millions of dollars and hundreds of hours of time to a complete network; or anindividual making a single decision between a film and an audiotape.

The chapter entitled "Extending the School" deals specifically with distance education. It gives an overview ofsome of the major programs worldwide at the time of writing, such as the Open University in the United Kingdom,Paris University III, and various programs in Australia for school-age children in remote areas. It discusses studentachievement, retention rate, and costs. A detailed discussion of the use of various media, and the use ofmultimedia, makes the point that programs can be successful even with the use of "little media."

Sewart, David, and John S. Daniel, eds. Developing Distance Education: Papers Submitted to the WorldConference of the International Council for Distance Education, 14th, Oslo, Norway, 1988, 1988. See entry #288.

144.Sweet, Robert, ed. Post-Secondary Distance Education in Canada: Policies, Practices, and Priorities. Athabasca,Alberta, Canada: Athabasca University and Canadian Society for Studies in Education, 1989. 213p. Bibliographicreferences. ISBN 0919737013. OCLC 22887629.

The essays in this bookseveral of which are in Frenchare grouped into three sections:

accessibility,

technology, and

case studies.

The grouping is loose, with many papers addressing more than one of the three categories. Accessibility issuesconcern the problem of using distance methods to extend education to groups not usually served by traditionalclassroom-based organizations. One major issue within this theme is that of student support services, developingservices that will increase the nontraditional student's chance of success. Essays in the second section, technology,discuss and examine everything from chalkboards to computers in an attempt to explore the impact oftechnological

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advances on education. Finally, in section 3, various authors present case studies of particular institutions inCanada providing distance education.

Many of the essays, not just those in section 3, are case studies that present information on particular programs orinstitutions. The authors, however, want others in the field to apply the information in the case studies to their ownsituations, and avoid similar mistakes. The authors and editors see this book as a building block for futureeducators.

145.Telecommunications for Learning. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1991. 197p.Index. Bibliographic references. (The Educational Technology Anthology Series, vol. 3). $27.95. LC 90-41902.ISBN 0877782253. OCLC 22004530.

Although this book examines many uses of technology in education other than its use in distance education, theinformation contained on distance education is of value. Articles specifically on distance education include casestudies of specific applications, including the use of e-mail to connect students with the teacher and with eachother, the use of distance education to train teachers, and the use of distance education with high-risk students.Several articles deal with the always-vexing problem of increasing the completion rate among distance educationstudents.

146.Thorpe, Mary. Evaluating Open and Distance Learning. Harlow, England: Longman Group UK, 1988. 210p.Index. Bibliography. $21.95pa. LC gb88-194188. ISBN 0582901197. OCLC 17767470.

Rather than examining all aspects of distance education, this book limits itself to the evaluation process, acomponent sometimes neglected in survey works. Part 1 defines evaluation, explains its importance, and explainsthe necessity of having practitioners involved. The premise is that evaluation by outside groups, such as fundingbodies or overseeing bodies, can have a different purpose than evaluation by the participants, who are interested inimproving performance. Part 2 explores the areas or components of distance education or open learning that can beevaluated: teaching, counseling, materials, and self-evaluation by the student. Part 3 discusses the process ofevaluation and offers practical techniques both for data collection and data evaluation. Numerous case studies,mostly from evaluations done by the Open University of the United Kingdom, are included.

147.Thorpe, Mary, and David Grugeon. Open Learning for Adults. Burnt Mill, Harlow, England: Longman Group UK,1987. 313p. Index. Bibliographic references. (Longman Open Learning). £9.95pa. ISBN 0582901189. OCLC15664310.

Although the first essay of this collection, by one of the editors, Mary Thorpe, states directly that distance learningis not the same as open learning but rather is a subset of it, this book still contains much of interest and use todistance educators. The distance educator will want to read selectively, concentrating on chapters of particularinterest.

Much of the book addresses problems that students may encounter and ways in which the staff can help in meetingthese problems, including counseling services, ways a student can be helped back into academics after a timeaway, and use of newer technologies, such as electronic mail, as a way to provide support services for students.Other essays concentrate on practical information for the teacher: the importance of rapid feedback on assignmentsor lessons; the necessity of developing a personal relationship with students; the use of study centers and tutorialgroups and how to make them most effective. Much of what is included has been stated elsewhere, but it is worthrepeating. For the most part, the essays are well written and a pleasure to read. As a result, they will be read.

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Tomlinson, Derrick, Frank Coulter, and Jane Peacock. Teaching and Learning at Home: Distance Education andthe Isolated Child, 1985. See entry #250.

Verduin, John R., and Thomas A. Clark. Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice, 1991. Seeentry #64.

148.Whiting, John, and David A. Bell, eds. Tutoring and Monitoring Facilities for European Open Learning. NewYork: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1987. 294p. Bibliographic references. $84.00. LC 87-15552. ISBN0444702717. OCLC 16092712.

Participants in the DELTA project prepared these papers. DELTA (Development of European Learning throughTechnology Advance) is a project of the European Economic Community, designed to provide support for openlearning schemes throughout the community. In 1986, 16 contracts were awarded by the European Commission tovarious consortia in Europe, either industrial or university based, to develop plans for various aspects of support.Contract 8 was awarded to the University of Ulster for Tutoring and Monitoring Facilities.

Part of the contract required the consortium to hold open fora to collect information and opinions from varioussources prior to completing the plan. The University of Ulster conducted its forum in 1986, near London. Theuniversity asked some of the forum participants to write their own reports after the forum. This book is not theproceedings of the forum but the results of it; papers were written after the interaction and discussion at the forum.Authors of the papers came from throughout the European Economic Community.

Chapters are technical in content; they explore ways in which telecommunications can be used to assist inpreparing course materials, in supporting and counseling students, and in evaluating course work and ways thatcomputers might be used to assist students who are actually studying through telecommunications courses. Thisbook is of use to people setting up a distance education program.

For a later look at what the DELTA project is accomplishing, see Flexible and Distance Learning: Special Report(1993) by Lieve Van Den Brande, entry #259.

149.Willis, Barry, ed. Distance Education: Strategies and Tools. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational TechnologyPublications, 1994. 334p. Author index. Subject index. Bibliographic references. Glossary. $ 39.95. LC 93-23229.ISBN 0877782687. OCLC 28674256.

Barry Willis has authored a number of handbooks on distance education, among them Effective DistanceEducation: A Primer for Faculty and Administrators (1993), entry #150, and Distance Education: A PracticalGuide (1993), entry #188. Here he has edited a more ambitious look at current trends and concerns in the field. In13 chapters, various authors address many aspects of distance education. Chapters 1 and 2 are an overview ofdistance education around the world and a review of current research respectively. Next comes a chapter onstrategic planning and one on assessment issues, including needs assessment and assessment of programs. A seriesof chapters follow on various media used in distance education, including print, audio, video, computers, andinteractive media.

The book then moves into three areas not very often covered in the literature of distance education: copyrightissues, regulatory issues, and resource sharing or cooperation. Willis wrote the final chapter, on faculty trainingand development. Each chapter includes a bibliography of further sources.

This book offers an up-to-date look at issues facing distance education today, useful for those wanting a solidoverview of the field. It would also make a good reader for a course in distance education, as would DistanceEducation: New Perspectives (1993), entry #90, which was edited by Keith Harry, Magnus John, and DesmondKeegan.

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150.Willis, Barry. Effective Distance Education: A Primer for Faculty and Administrators. Fairbanks: University ofAlaska Statewide, 1993. 121p. Index. Bibliography. (Monograph Series in Distance Education, no. 2). MF $1.18.PC $16-50. ED 352-447. ISBN 1877962236. OCLC 29424411.

This is one of many books designed to give the teacher or administrator in a distance education program anoverview of the field and helpful hints for coping with it. Willis begins with a history of distance education and areview of the research. He describes the duties and functions of various personnel involved in distance education,including teachers, administrators, and support staff. He discusses course development, including the choice of andintegration of various types of media and gives ideas for making teaching more effective, such as integratingactivities into reading assignments and assuring rapid and useful feedback to students. He also makes a case forthe necessity of faculty development and an adequate reward system for teachers in distance education. Willis endswith a section on the future of distance education and a list of areas in which further research is needed if distanceeducation is to remain a viable educational method.

151.Winders, Ray. Information Technology in the Delivery of Distance Education and Training. Soham Ely,Cambridge, England: Peter Francis Publishers, 1988. 192p. Index. Bibliography. (Education and HumanCommunication Series). £16.95. LC gb8754121. ISBN 1870167031. OCLC 17261788.

Great for the novice at business or educational uses of media or technology, this book packs a lot of informationinto its almost 200 pages. It is simply organized, with chapters on various media: audioconferencing,videoconferencing, computer linkups. Each chapter presents basic material on how these systems work and forwhat applications each is most useful. The organization makes it easy for the reader to read only the chapters ofinterest. The book abounds in simple graphics, many of which appear to be taken from overheads. Simpledrawings, with large bold arrows and lines and minimum text, get points across.

Each type of conferencing network is illustrated with chapters or parts of chapters on specific organizations usingthe technique. For example, the Learn Alaska Network and the Plymouth Audioconferencing Network aredescribed to illustrate audioconferencing; computer networking is illustrated with examples of local area networks(LANs); and U.S. business applications by automobile companies and hotel chains are described to illustratevideoconferencing.

A section on future developments takes into account rapid technological change and is written with the provisothat its predictions may be tempered by unseen changes. Although some of the technological descriptions may beoutdated soon and some of the predictions may prove faulty, the book is still useful for its helpful hints about howto manage these technologies. How many people are optimum for an audioconference, how to keep people whocannot see each other interested in a conference, and the importance of distributing information ahead of time arejust some of the simple but often overlooked bits of information provided.

152.Yenbamrung, Patamaporn. ''The Emerging Electronic University: A Study of Student Cost-Effectiveness (DistanceEducation)" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1992). Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 53(1992):973A.

Yenbamrung, who conducted interviews and surveys for this dissertation, studies traditional education, off-campuseducation, and electronically based off-campus education. His study shows that electronically based education canbe cost-effective. He believes institutions considering instituting or extending this form of education can use hisstudy as a basis for decisions.

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153.Zigerell, James. Distance Education: An Information Age Approach to Adult Education. Columbus, Ohio: ERICClearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1984. 69p. Bibliography. MF $1.18. PC $13.20. LC86-114320. ED 246-311. OCLC 13823784.

Most of the information in this short book can be found in other places, but here it is presented compactly.Although somewhat outdated in its technical content, it remains a useful overview of the field. In its 69 pages, itdiscusses the reasons for the continuing interest in distance education, identifies and describes the types of peoplemost likely to participate in the method and why, outlines the history of the broadcast media's interaction witheducation, details the use of media other than broadcasting, sketches the development and influence of the OpenUniversity of the United Kingdom, and presents major foci of research in the field.

The book's most useful feature for today's reader is its discussion of the world trends that make distance educationof continuing interest, such as rapidly changing technology, an increased need for job retraining, an increase inleisure time, and a growing belief worldwide that greater education is a door to greater economic growth. Some ofthese same trends were outlined in Smith and Kelly's book Distance Education and the Mainstream (1987), entry#63. Just as they were in 1984 or 1987, these trends are valid today.

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4The Teacher in Distance Education

Introduction

Perhaps distance education does not need teachers at all.

Greater student autonomy is a key characteristic of both distance education and open education. Although the twoare different, much of the literature concerning distance education discusses the concept of open education as well.

Some distance education scholars are approaching a theory of complete student autonomy. They believe studentsshould have autonomy not only in when and how to studyan autonomy almost every student hasbut in what tostudy, what time frame is realistic for completion, and what assessment standards to set. Börje Holmberg, thepreeminent European practitioner and theorist of distance education, has moved toward this philosophy in some ofhis later works. Carried to its ultimate realization, student autonomy would mean the end of teaching in distanceeducation, for students with complete responsibility for their courses would have no need for a teacher beyond thetasks of preparing packets of study material. Even that might devolve to the student, with students preparing theirown list of books to read or videos to watch, based on what they want to learn. In that case, the only role for ateacher would be to read an examination paper or watch an examination videoan examination that the student haddevised. Distance education would not be distance teaching, but true distance learning, and teachers would beobsolete.

Some people, however, still see a need for teachers within the distance framework. Morris Sammons discusses thisconcept in his essay "An Epistemological Justification for the Role of Teaching in Distance Education," printed inContemporary Issues in American Distance Education (ed. by Michael G. Moore 1990, pp. 15162). He succeeds inbalancing the greater autonomy of the student in distance education with a firm and central role for a teacher.Basing his opinion on H. G. Petrie's 1981 The Dilemma of Inquiry and Learning Sammons contends that learningis much more than just the transmittal of bodies of knowledge from one group or individual to another. Before aperson can say he has "learned," the learner must assimilate the information or knowledge into his own frame ofreference. Although learners can read about a subject on their own, they may need help in making it truly theirs.The teacher's job is to note what is causing an individual student difficulty and to present new information, newmaterial, to help overcome that difficulty. Sammons says it this way:

As examples and models are presented, or problems for that matter, the teacher is constantly on the lookoutfor indications of how learners are perceiving, interpreting, and reacting to the material presented. Theteacher looks for clues for what the learners are

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doing conceptually. The teacher does this by seeing whether or not the learners are operating toward or awayfrom the established goal, equilibrium. Are they showing that conceptual change is occurring and that thischange is moving in the appropriate direction? Are they indicating an understanding of the rules involved byshowing that they know how to follow them in various situations under a variety of conditions? The teachercontinually checks how the learners are understanding, not just whether or not they are understanding. Theteacher monitors how the learner is adapting. Notice that the teacher does not check merely for outcomes.The teacher looks for more than simply whether the learners can produce certain specified results oroutcomes of learning. The teacher concentrates on the process of learning. (p. 159)

This theory clearly carves out a major role for teachers in education, even in distance education where the studentis necessarily more autonomous. Most peopleHolmberg includedfall short of predicting the complete absence ofthe teacher in distance education. However, the teacher's role in distance education is quite different from that of ateacher in a traditional setting, and that difference is worth exploring. How are teachers used in a distance setting?What special problems or difficulties might they encounter? What satisfactions do they gain?

The Teacher's Role and Responsibilities

Distance education teachers need a variety of talents and abilities. Some teachers are the same as any teacher,some quite different, depending on the setting in which they work. Some may be course planners, instructionaldesigners, technical experts, writers, or editors. Although not part of teaching in the traditional sense of the word,all these skills are necessary in distance education and the degree of expertise with which each is accomplishedwill have a direct effect on students.

Many books, among them Derek Rowntree's Teaching Through Self-Instruction (1990) and Exploring Open andDistance Learning (1992) discuss the teacher's role in course planning and preparation. Those who teach adistance education course without the support of a large institution might find them-selves performing all thesetasks. They would have to be the writers and editors of the course, the technical experts who get the course on theair or through the mails in a timely manner.

Added to that is the role of troubleshooter if electronic transmission fails or the mails are slow. Teachers in ruralschools, acting as classroom tutors for a course received from a distant site, are particularly likely to take on thisrole. Teachers in such isolated locations will also find themselves more responsible for administration than aretraditional teachers. They will not only teach in a distance education program, but also manage it, recruit students,monitor student retention, research updated equipment, fight for budget, and prepare reports on outcomes. Truly aformidable combination of tasks.

Necessary electronic skills sometimes include more than learning how to run equipment. Teachers in a distanceeducation course or program might

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need to learn the skills of broadcasting or television presentation, including both technical and show businessskills. What colors show up best on television? What style of clothing? Does a fussy hairstyle or too much jewelryget in the way of subject content? What about voice quality, on either television or radio? How does it comeacross? In Telecourse Teaching: A Resource Guide, Thomas E. Cyrs and Frank A. Smith offer some useful hintsabout teaching via television. Another book, The Two-Way Video Classroom (1991) by Virginia A. Ostendorf, alsooffers advice to the teleteacher.

Some teachers also need to take on the traditional role of librarians, helping students locate and obtain sources inaddition to the textbook. Librarians themselves are often aware of the problem, and some of the efforts they havemade to help distance students are covered in books annotated in chapter 5.

Teachers also get involved. Cheryl Demerath Learn, who is interim director of the RN-BSN Outreach Program atthe College of Nursing, University of New Mexico, says that many of the professors in the program, includingherself, append lengthy reading lists to syllabi. They also make an effort to select a textbook that is broader incoverage than the course itself, so that students will have some ready reference material available. New Mexico'sRN-BSN program goes even further. Learn says that faculty on campus are solicited for donations of textbooks,perhaps those they have received for review. Such textbooks are donated to community college or public librariesin the communities in which the program's students reside. Retiring faculty are also solicited for donations ofbooks and journal runs. The RN-BSN program also contacts librarians of local community colleges and gives theminformation about research topics assigned to the program's students. These librarians are asked what localresources are available. Teaching assistants in the program make photocopies of needed journal articles from thecampus library and send them to off-site students.

Much more than most classroom teachers, the teacher in distance education must be a motivator and a cheerleader.Students working in isolation, without the support of classmates, can be easily discouraged and feel they are failingor that the course content is beyond them. Problems with allocating time for lessons can cause them to fall behindin the course.

Distance teachers must counteract these problems. They must present course material in active ways, must getstudents engaged in learning actively rather than simply reading texts, must monitor progress, and must offerfrequent self-checks for students. A variety of books make the point that frequent communication between studentand teacher is necessary not only for monitoring students' level of understanding, but also for keeping studentsmotivated. Such monitoring lets them know someone is interested. Among these books are Teaching for the OpenUniversity (1977) by S. Clennel et al., Activities in Self Instructional Texts (1992) by Fred Lockwood, andExploring Open and Distance Learning (1992) by Derek Rowntree. Lockwood's book in particular makes a casefor the necessity of the distance teacher motivating students and cheering them on.

This motivational aspect of a distance teacher's role often starts during or even before the first class. More thanstudents in traditional settings, distance students need assistance in the process of the course. In a traditional

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setting, students have counselors nearby; they can consult fellow students, and they can read bulletin boards or thestudent newspaper. Most of these avenues are closed to distance students, who might need help in the methods ofacquiring texts, learning how to submit assignments, contacting faculty members, or asking for help. Distanceteachers are counselors and mentors as well as teachers of subject content. One teacher in the RN-BSN OutreachProgram of the College of Nursing at the University of New Mexico regularly appends biographical informationabout herselfincluding a pictureon her syllabus, as a way to make her distance students feel more part of a class.

Part of the motivation process is assuring timely and helpful feedback on students' progress. Quick feedback isessential, both to encourage students and to ensure that they are on the right track with assignments. A number ofbooks emphasize the necessity of two-way communication. Among them are The Techniques of WritingCorrespondence Courses (1973) by Hilary Perraton; Postal Two-Way Communication in CorrespondenceEducation (1980) by John A. Bååth; and a number of Börje Holmberg's books. In fact, Holmberg is so well knownfor his espousal of the necessity of this two-way interaction that a number of other distance education theoristspublished a collection of essays in his honor, most of which sound the same theme: Distance Education as Two-Way Communication: Essays in Honour of Börje Holmberg (1993) edited by Gerhard E. Ortner and Kurt Graff.

Problems Encountered

Distance teachers often encounter difficulties with this method of education. Interestingly, some of the problemsand frustrations voiced by distance teachers have the same roots as those faced by distance students. Of these,isolation is paramount. Unless they teach either in a large distance education university, such as the OpenUniversity of the United Kingdom, or in a large department of distance education located at a traditionaluniversity, many distance teachers feel isolated. They are the ultimate part-timers, working outside a traditionaldepartment and teaching perhaps one or two courses. Many of them are women with small children who want toremain in touch with their field; others work to supplement their income. They work at home, preparing lessonsand lectures, grading papers, writing comments to students. They work without the support of colleagues, withoutconvivial coffee breaks or lunches out, without a student center or a faculty club to visit.

This isolation affects more than attitude or motivation; it can affect a teacher's professional expertise as well.Those coffee breaks and lunches often provide an opportunity for professional conversation; the part-time distanceteacher is often cut off from such exchanges of ideas. No faculty meetings, no informal exchanges in the hall oroffice, no opportunity to discuss colleagues' research or their own. Faculty interaction can be of great relevance inteaching. Colleagues might have the same students and be able to offer insights into behavior or accomplishments.Interaction with colleagues can solve some teaching and learning problems before they occur.

Distance teaching, without the support of a university or department, can be a lonely job indeed. In The DistanceTutor: Education by Correspondence (1975), W. J. A. Harris examines the various motivations of tutors and writes

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of what can be done to alleviate their isolation. Many of the authors of the essays in the book edited by MichaelParer, Developing Open Learning Courses (1992), write about the problems of developing courses in isolation,without the give and take between faculty that resident faculty take for granted. The very fact that so manyhandbooks have been written to assist the distance education teacher in the preparation of courses indicates thatteachers seek such help.

In such a setting, both distance teachers and students must be self-motivators. All teachers must be self-motivatedto some degree, because they seldom have a close supervisor to monitor daily activity. However, the teacher in atraditional setting has outside prompts. College and university professors usually prepare three lectures a week andmeet classes that expect to have test papers returned quickly. Teachers of younger pupils have to meet the sameclass daily.

By contrast, distance teachers might have only a single deadline by which an entire course must be prepared andready for the printer or for videotaping. They have to set their own internal deadlines for parts of the course. Theymight be acting as part of a team whose other members depend on their work being completed by a certaindeadline. The teacher's students are by definition not on site and are most likely scattered geographically. There isno class pressure to return assignments quickly or to write extensive and helpful comments. The distance teacher'sstudents will not line up at the teacher's office to complain if study packets are not sent out on time or ifassignments languish after being turned in.

All this means that teachers must accept responsibility for completing lessons, for grading assignments and tests,and for contacting students if they are late in submitting assignments or if an assignment shows a serious lack ofunderstanding. Some authors make the point that better training of distance education faculty might help teachersachieve these aims. The Distance Tutor: Education by Correspondence, noted above, makes a case for ongoingtraining of distance tutors, as does Stephen Michael Walsh's Ph.D. dissertation, "Attitudes and Perceptions ofUniversity Faculty toward Technology Based Distance Education" (1993). The faculty members studied in Walsh'ssample believed that specific training in distance education techniques is both desirable and necessary.

Teachers must contend with students' procrastination as well as with their own. Students in a self-paced coursemight wait until the end of the allotted study time and submit a raft of assignments at once. Such students needprodding from the instructor to complete assignments in a more timely fashion, so that the teacher can examineand comment on them. Otherwise the student who fails to understand lesson one will repeat the same mistakethroughout the course.

Another serious difficulty for many distance teachers is the absence of immediate feedback. This drawback, likethat of isolation, is one shared by students who are frustrated by the lag time between completing an assignmentand getting comments on it. In the case of distance teachers, this lack of feedback is a function of not teaching in aclassroom. Classroom teachers can measure their success from facial expressions, from questions asked, fromspeed of notetaking, or from the look of bored or frustrated students. Such

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teachers can take corrective action immediately, by altering the lesson plan, interjecting an activity into the lecture,repeating information, or even imposing the dreaded pop quiz.

A distance teacher has no such feedback. If a student asks a question, it is usually long after the teacher hasprepared the assignment, and a still longer time passes before that question can be answered. Modern technologywill alleviate some of that time lag. Personal computers allow real-time interaction between student and teacherand among students in the same class; video transmission allows students at a distant site to participate in class.Such modern methods, however, are still the exception. Most distance teaching is still done with a separationbetween student and teacher in time as well as space. As such, immediate feedback is denied to most distanceteachers.

Lack of respect from the traditional teaching establishment is also seen as a difficulty. Many traditional educators,many employers, indeed many potential students of distance education still see distance education as second-class,not quite as good as "real" education. Many students state that they choose distance education because it is theonly avenue open to them, not because it appeals to them more than the traditional route. They would prefer a full-time residential program, but geography, physical limitations, or other time commitments make it impractical.Birgitta Willen makes this point in Strategies for Strengthening Student-Teacher Contact in Distance Education(1984). Whether or not this attitude is changing is open to debate. A growing number of people now say theyprefer the independence of distance learning over a more controlled situation. However, the fact remains thatdistance education retains some of the stigma of old-time correspondence schools, whose main aim was notfurthering students' education but gaining their money.

Distance education teachers are affected by this attitude and many struggle to maintain their self-esteem and beliefin their profession in the face of it. Evelyn Joyce Black studied faculty attitudes toward distance education in herPh.D. dissertation, "Support for Distance Education in a Conventional University" (1992). She concluded thatfaculty who believe that education should be widely available and that it should be used to promote social justiceare supportive of distance education. Those faculty who view education as the privilege of the elite are less so.

Satisfactions

So why do distance teachers continue to teach in distance courses or programs, despite the problems? If theseteachers must be self-motivated to get their work done, it seems they must also be self-motivated in gainingsatisfaction from it. Such teachers feel proud of their own and their students' accomplishments. Those who teachwith radio, television, or personal computers have a sense of pride at their technical expertise and an ease withequipment that many people find intimidating. They see themselves on the leading edge of the next developmentin education, when traditional education moves closer to distance methods through the increased use of electronicmethods.

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Others see the possibility of distance education becoming more respected as more people turn to it, drawn becauseof its flexibility. Theorists such as Parker Rossman or Peter Smith and Mavis Kelly postulate an increasingdemand for distance education by people who require frequent retraining and reeducation for jobs but who lack thetime or freedomor desireto turn to full-time study and by those who see constant education as the key to a betterlife.

Even teachers grounded in the here and now, however, often have satisfaction in their jobs. These include theteachers of the radio schools in Australia, who reach children living in the bush; the teachers of the home-boundphysically disabled student; the teachers of university students whose job or family responsibilities do not allowthem to attend a full-time residential college; and the teachers of people living in remote communities in Alaska orAfrica or the Soloman Islands. These teachers, whether teaching university subjects or basic literacy, takesatisfaction in knowing that they are reaching those otherwise ignored by traditional educational methods.

Sources

Altrichter, Herbert, Terry Evans, and Alistair Morgan. Windows: Research and Evaluation on a DistanceEducation Course, 1991. See entry #40.

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Distance Education: Exemplar TrainingMaterials, 1984. See entry #254.

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Sharing Innovative Strategies for Self-Learning Materials, 1988. See entry #257.

Bååth, John A., and Nils-Ove Mnsson. CADEA System for Computer-Assisted Distance Education, 1977. Seeentry #69.

154.Bååth, John A. Postal Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education: An Empirical Investigation.Malmö, Sweden: LiberHermods, 1980. 187p. Index. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. ISBN 9123923059.OCLC 29521600.

The word empirical in the title is crucial to an understanding of the rationale of this book. Bååth's previouslypublished work, written with Rune Flinck, Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education (1973), entry#155, was subtitled "An Introduction to the Research Project." Now, for this later work, Båå has done extensiveempirical studies on the effect of changes in the method of correspondence study on students' performance. Hetested several variations in the way mail communication was handled:

Varying the density of assignments, or how many assignments were to be submitted within a particular timeframe.

Replacing some assignments with self-checking exercises.

Replacing some of the written correspondence with computer-generated correspondence. (See Bååth, John, andNils-Ove Mansson, CADEA System for Computer-Assisted Distance Education, entry #69, for a fullerdiscussion of the computer correspondence system.)

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His studies of these three possible variations are exhaustive, and the statistical tables that report the results may putoff all but the most determined student of both distance education and educational theory. He studies severaldifferent classes in different subject areas, concentrating on how the variations he proposes affect students'perseverance, attitudes toward the course, attitudes toward the assignments, feelings of isolation, and amount oftime spent studying. He reports his results in numerous statistical tables.

It is in the final chapter, in which Bååth sums up his results, and in his book, CADE, mentioned above, that thestudent of distance education can find useful information. Bååth reaches three conclusions:

He concludes that some amount of computer-generated correspondence increases both start and completionrates of students; in other words, more students began sending in assignments and more students completed thecourse.

The more frequent and timely communication between student and teacher made possible by such computer-generated correspondence leads to an improved student attitude; and

The number of students completing courses in a short time increases.

155.Bååth, John A., and Rune Flinck. Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education: An Introduction to theResearch Project. Lund, Sweden: University of Sweden, 1973. 19p. Bibliography. no price reported. typescript.

This is a preliminary report for Bååth's Postal Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education (1980),entry #154.

156.Bates, A. W., ed. The Role of Technology in Distance Education. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984. 231p.Bibliographic references. $25.00. LC 84-40035. ISBN 031268942X. OCLC 9831895.

Each chapter of this book was written by a different author, and each discusses the pros and cons of one type ofmedia, from audiocassettes to radio broadcasts to home computersat least in their rudimentary stage. Oneimmediate realization on reading the discussions is how quickly technology changes. The discussion of wordprocessors is amusing in its earnestnessis there any doubt now that word processors are useful and superior totypewriting for the production of lengthy documents? Apparently, at the time of writing, the word processors'value over the typewriter was greatly debated.

Despite this quibble, the book retains its value. It is true that much of the discussion is outdated technically; forexample, there is barely any mention of fax machines, and home computers and their uses have obviously changeddramatically since 1984. However, many of the chapters remain useful. A teacher wondering whether to includemedia in a particular course, and if so, which types, might benefit from the comparisons.

157.Black, Evelyn Joyce. "Faculty Support for Distance Education in a Conventional University." D. Ed. diss.,University of British Columbia, 1992. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993): 490A.

Black's beginning hypothesis was that the development of distance education in higher education has not been asrapid as it might be, partly because of faculty resistance. She interviewed 50 faculty members about their attitudestoward distance education. She concludes that faculty who have a belief that education should be widely availableand should be used to promote social justice are generally supportive

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of distance education. Those who look at higher education as an elitist activity tend not to support it.

Brockman, John R., and Jane E. Klobas. Libraries and Books in Distance Education, 1981. See entry #193.

158.Burke, Michael A. Distance Education and the Changing Role of the Library Media Specialist. Syracuse: ERICClearinghouse on Information Resources, 1989. 96p. Bibliography. MF $1.18. PC $6.00. ED 321-775. ISBN0937597279. OCLC 26134818.

Burke makes a case for the necessity of the library media specialist becoming a leader in the implementation ofdistance education, particularly those media specialists in rural schools. He maintains that changes both indemographics and technology dictate this need. Demographic influences include (1) an aging teacher workforce,resulting in more retirements; (2) competition from other work sectors, resulting in fewer people going intoteaching; (3) increasing opportunities for women, taking many of them away from teaching; and (4) increasingnumbers of students. Technological developments include (1) the increasing availability of information inelectronic format and (2) increasing variety in those formats.

Burke believes that library media specialists will be called upon to centralize this electronic information, to instructin its use, and to act as advisors to both teachers and students. Burke's vision of the future role of librarians issweeping. It could be either exciting or intimidating, depending on the reader's attitude.

Microfiche copy of this document is available through the ERIC clearinghouse; a paper copy is available fromSyracuse University.

Chacon-Duque, Fabio J. A Multivariate Model for Evaluating Distance Higher Education, 1987. See entry #196.

159.Chang, T. M., H. F. Crombag, KDJM van der Drift, and J. M. Moonen. Distance Learning: On the Design of anOpen University. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing, 1983. 187p. Index. Bibliographic references. no pricereported. LC 81-20870. ISBN 0898380960. OCLC 8052923.

Although the authors realize that there are many possible models for an open university, in this book they presenttheir own for examination. Their model is based on an extensive examination of learning theory and concentrateson what type of teaching works best in a distance education setting: the use of written material, audiovisualpresentations, computer-assisted instruction, and even face-to-face, although face-to-face instruction is bydefinition not distance education.

The authors start with an examination of learning theory, dividing learning into two activities: learning knowledgeand learning skills. A student may have knowledge but not the skills necessary to apply that knowledge. They thenexamine the various teaching methods mentioned above and apply each to distance education, measuring itseffectiveness. Not surprisingly, different methods work best for different purposes. For example, computer-assistedinstruction (CAI) works best when instruction in a particular skill or group of skills is necessary because CAIoffers instant feedback and correction of mistakes.

Also not surprisingly, a combination of methods is often the best approach. Audiovisual aids work best at thebeginning stages of instruction, whereas written assignments are best when extensive feedback from an instructoris necessary. Perhaps discouragingly for distance education supporters, some form or amount of face-to-faceinstruction is still seen as necessary in almost all cases, although the form this instruction may take varies. Theauthors present some possibilities: the summer school requirement of the Open University of the United Kingdom,in which students are required to spend one or two weeks in the summer on a campus in an intensive

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program; groups organized geographically so that students living near each other and participating in the sameprogram can do some assignments and projects together; or tutoring or study centers strategically located to allowmany students access to themanother Open University method. Unfortunately, none of these face-to-face methodswould work for the student truly isolated either by geography or handicap or for a distance teaching institutionwhose students are scattered over a huge geographic area. Also unfortunately, such face-to-face instructionincreases the costs and can make distance education less cost-effective. Of course, if too much face-to-faceinstruction occurs, the process ceases to be distant education at allthe students are no longer at a distance from theinstructor.

The authors conclude that many traditional teaching institutions will choose to run distance education courses andprograms on a limited basis, for selected courses, but that few programs will be developed that teach solely by thismethod. However, the discussion of learning theory and its application to distance education will help theseschools provide more effective and valuable distance education.

160.Clark, Thomas Allen. ''Faculty Attitudes toward Distance Education in United States Public Higher Education."Ph.D. diss., Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1992. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54(1993): 3293A.

Clark surveyed faculty at public research universities, public comprehensive universities, and public two-yearinstitutions in the United States about their attitudes toward distance education. He reports "cautious optimism"about the future of distance education, based on his survey. Most faculty held slightly positive attitudes towarddistance education, although their belief in its use in their own programs was somewhat less positive. In general,those at two-year institutions and at public comprehensive universities reported more positive attitudes towarddistance education than did those at research universities.

161.Clennell, S., J. Peters, and D. Sewart. Teaching for the Open University. Milton Keynes, England: OpenUniversity of the United Kingdom, 1977. 46p. no price reported. pa. OCLC 19603756.

This brief book discusses the techniques of teaching by correspondence, emphasizing the problems ofcommunicating information about a student's written assignments. It also gives some information about the dutiesof an on-site tutor at one of Open University's study centers. The constraints most distant students are under, suchas time, other responsibilities and commitments, and lack of self-confidence, are minimally covered, as is the typeof relationship a tutor needs to develop with the students.

The very specific recommendations concerning written comments on assignments and on keeping in touch withand encouraging distant students remain valuable, despite the age of this book. What is lacking is any discussion ofmethods other than written communications. There is no mention of video, of use of two-way video or audio, or ofinstructing a class whose students are in various places but are together in time. It concentrates instead on thetraditional teaching done by the Open University: correspondence, one-way video or broadcast, and local tutors.

162.Cyrs, Thomas E., and Frank A. Smith. Teleclass Teaching: A Resource Guide. 2d ed. Las Cruces: Center forEducational Development, College of Human and Community Services, New Mexico State University, 1990.374p. Bibliographic references. $41.00. pa. ISBN 0962847704. OCLC 22417187.

This guide for the distance education teacher has a slightly different focus than some others. Such guides asTeaching Through Self-Instruction (1990) written by Derek Rowntree, and How to Design Effective Text-BasedOpen Learning (1991) by Nigel Harrison, entries #183 and 168 respectively, discuss distance education somewhat

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generically and can be used by people overseeing different types of distance educationa correspondence course, anaudiocourse, or a pretaped video lecture series. Such guides are useful for the person who prepares the course andwho presents the material, but they focus mainly on the preparation of handouts and the integration of variousmedia into the course. This guide, by contrast, deals solely with teaching via television to a class separated indistance but together in real time; in other words, all members of the class see and hear the instructor at the timethe presentation is made. Cyrs and Smith's definition of a telecourse is "a course given on a main college oruniversity campus and delivered to you at a distance.... It consists of one-way television, instructor to you, andtwo-way audio where you are in communication with the instructor via television.... [Y]ou could have available toyou a facsimile machine for the exchange of notes, a microcomputer for data interaction, and/or an electronicblackboard" (p. 24).

With such a narrow focus, Cyrs and Smith are able to present a great amount of detail. Opening chaptersconcentrate on the preliminary steps of setting goals (both for the specific course and for the institution thatsponsors it), designing the course, assessing and becoming familiar with the media and technology available, andanalyzing the audience or class. All these steps must be taken before preparing lectures or classes. Middle chapterswould be reassuring to the novice teleteacher; they include a chapter on projecting a positive image on television(everything from hints on what to wear to suggestions on how to remain within camera range), one on techniquesto encourage participation from students the teacher cannot see, one on graphic design, and one on thedevelopment and use of an interactive study guide, a handout designed specifically to keep students participatingand involved. These middle chapters are specific in content and should greatly help the person unsure of how totransfer classroom teaching skills to television. The final eight chapters concentrate on administrative andevaluative necessitiesthe role of a site manager, assessment of both the content of the course and the teaching style,copyright issues, running a video conference.

This practical guide will be helpful in demystifying the world of television teaching.

163.Distance Learning Systems and Structures: Training Manual, Report of a Sub-Regional Training Workshop.Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, 1987.97p. Glossary.$18.75pa. LC 87-916154. ISBN 9997364724. OCLC 16567609.

Both the workshop held in Colombo, Sri Lanka, on July 518, 1984, and the resultant book have the same aim: toteach professionals who are already working and teaching in the field of distance education, specifically those whoare in turn teaching the present and future workers in that field. The premise of both workshop and book is thatpeople teaching through this method need to upgrade their skills constantly.

The first 35 pages of the book set out its principles: why such training is needed, who should provide it, and howlong it should take. The rest of the book is the real meat. It consists of a series of training modules for the teachingof specific jobs in distance education, such as radio scriptwriter or editor/materials designer. Under each jobcategory is an outline of a course aimed at teaching the skills needed for the job. In addition to this course content,the modules provide help for the teacher. Each module details the aims of the particular course; the tasks theperson in the job usually performs; the resources, human and other, needed to produce a useful course; theobjectives; and the evaluation. Thus the specific content of the course is only one part of the workshop module,with much of the rest addressed specifically to the teacher. The module format can be adapted for local needs,once a job category that needs such

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training is identified. A glossary is included of distance education terms, including definitions of the various jobcategories covered.

The workshop format is a useful starting point for those interested in training people for the field, because itprovides the questions that need to be asked and answered when writing a course.

164.Garrison, D. Randy, and Doug Shale, eds. Education at a Distance: From Issues to Practice. Malabar, Fla.: RobertE. Kreiger Publishing, 1990. 144p. Bibliographic references. $12.50. LC 89-49284. ISBN 0894644513. OCLC20796656.

The editors' main point is that distance education practitioners should emphasize education rather than distance.They feel students "just happen" (p. x) to be at a distance from the teacher, but such distance does not or shouldnot preclude interactive communication between student and teacher. Thus they eliminate from their book anydiscussion of education that is independent of a teacher, in which students study on their own without ongoingcommunication with a teacher. They also eliminate any discussion of correspondence education sponsored by abusiness and of elementary and secondary distance education in general. Their focus is on higher education.

The collection of essays focuses on different components of distance education: instructional design; choice anduse of media; and course creation using print materials, audio, and video. All chapters share the thread of theemphasis on education rather than distance. Thus the chapter on evaluating and choosing media emphasizes not thetechnical difficulties of each type of media but the medium's effectiveness in a given situation.

Two chapters at the beginning of the book offer a brief and readable history of distance education in the UnitedStates.

165.Gerber, Ron, and Michael Williams, eds. Distance Education and Geography Teaching. Swansea, Wales:Department of Education, University College of Swansea, 1992. 127p. Bibliographic references. no price reported.pa. LC gb93-4642. ISBN 0900944293. OCLC 27382122.

Seven case studies concerning the application of distance teaching to the study of geography form the bulk of thisbook. Case studies discuss programs in Canada, Britain, Australia, and Sweden. There is also a chapter that givesthe history of the British Broadcasting Corporation's educational radio broadcasts on geography, from 1924 to1991. The book is aimed at distance education teachers of geography. These teachers might benefit from theexperiences chronicled here.

166.Gunawardena, Charlotte Nirmalani. "New Communications Technologies and Distance Education: A Paradigm forthe Integration of Video-Based Instruction." Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 1988. OCLC 19120700.

Gunawardena's hypothesis is that if the television component in a distance education course is to be truly effective,it must be more fully and carefully integrated into the entire course and that students should be given help inunderstanding its significance. To reach her conclusions and recommendations, Gunawardena first did a literaturesearch, then sent out a survey to about 70 higher education institutions that use television in distance teaching.

Gunawardena presents a paradigm for using television. She suggests activities and methods to be used before thetelevision component is used, during its showing, and after its use. All these activities are meant to help studentssee the relevance of the television program and how it relates to the entire course. Activities to use before thetelevision component include communicating objectives (what the television program is meant to teach and whatskills or knowledge the student is meant to learn); targeting specific points of importance within the program;identifying and defining

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technical words or terms used. During the program, the presenter could stop frequently to summarize, couldpresent visuals, such as outlines or lists of important material, and could make references to relevant parts of thetextbook or supplementary readings. If the television program is on videocassette, meant for individual viewing,students could be asked questions at appropriate points, or be provided with exercises to complete. Assignments tobe completed after program viewing should focus on the program or should require related reading.

There is much practical information here for teachers wishing to increase the usefulness of the televisioncomponent in their teaching.

Hakes, Barbara T., Steven G. Sachs, Cecelia Box, and John Cochenour, eds. Compressed Video: Operations andApplications, 1993. See entry #87.

167.Harris, W. J. A. The Distance Tutor: Education by Correspondence. Manchester, England: Department of AdultEducation, University of Manchester, 1975. 64p. Bibliography. (Manchester Monographs, 3). £1.50pa. LC 76-381576. gb76-22485. ISBN 0903717085. CCLC 2647597.

Harris surveyed tutors in correspondence education in Great Britain, asking questions about demographics (age,sex, experience), motivation, teaching style, job satisfaction. The main points discovered by the survey are thattutors have a variety of backgrounds, that they teach by widely diverse methods, and that they get a variety ofsatisfactions from the job. Potential tutors may derive some comfort and support from reading others' comments.Institutions that employ tutors might find interesting the comments on lack of training and the difficulties that arisefrom that lack.

168.Harrison, Nigel. How to Design Effective Text-Based Open Learning: A Modular Course. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991. 253p. Bibliography. (The McGraw-Hill Training Series). $46.95. LC 90-36520. ISBN 007707355X.OCLC 23736844.

Like several other similar handbooks, Harrison's uses the techniques of open course design to teach the process(see Philip Race, Open Learning Handbook (1994), entry #178, and Derek Rowntree, Teaching Through Self-Instruction (1986), entry #183). The reader picks a project and works through the steps of course design: analysis,design, development, testing and editing, implementation, and evaluation. The book leads the reader through thevarious steps, from defining and writing objectives, through preparing printed material, to evaluating the finishedproduct. Even such details as choosing typefaces for printed materials are explored. Each step is given on aworksheet, with room for the reader to fill out answers to questions. This book is meant not just to be read, but tobe used as a workbook.

Hodgson, Vivien E., et al., eds. Beyond Distance TeachingTowards Open Learning, 1987. See entry #51.

Holmberg, Börje. Theory and Practice of Distance Education, 1989. See entry #53.

Houdek, Elizabeth. Managing Distance Education Courses, 1990. See entry #94.

Hudspeth, DeLayne R., and Ronald G. Brey. Instructional Telecommunications: Principles and Applications, 1986.See entry #95.

International Symposium on Media of Distance Education. Second International Symposium on Media of DistanceEducation: Prospects and Effectiveness, 1984. See entry #271.

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168A.Kember, David. Writing Study Guides: A Study Guide to Teaching Through Self-Instruction by Derek Rowntree.Bristol, England: Technical and Educational Services, 1991. 164p. No price reported. ISBN 0947885757pa. OCLC28201235.

Kember has written this as a study guide to a book that is itself a study guide: Derek Rowntree's Teaching ThroughSelf-Instruction (see entry #183). Kember states in his introduction that the reader should read Rowntree's book inconjunction with his own, and that either the original 1986 version or the revised 1990 version can be used.

Kember includes additional examples to illustrate Rowntree's points and offers a plan for how to read Rowntree'sbook and use it to its best advantage. However, Rowntree's book, which is written as a study guide and offers hintsto the reader on how to use it effectively, does stand alone quite competently. So it is difficult to see Kember'sbook as essential.

Knowles, Malcolm. Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers, 1975. See entry #211.

Koul, B. N., Bakhshish Singh, and M. M. Ansari. Studies in Distance Education, 1988. See entry #103.

Lessin, Barton M., ed. Off-Campus Library Services: Selected Readings from Central Michigan's Off-CampusLibrary Services Conferences, 1991. See entry #214.

Lewis, Raymond J. Meeting Learners' Needs through Telecommunication: A Directory and Guide to Programs,1983. See entry #106.

169.Lochte, Robert H. Interactive Television and Instruction: A Guide to Technology, Technique, Facilities Design,and Classroom Management. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1993.137p. Index.Bibliography. Glossary. No price reproted. LC 92-31350. ISBN 0877782520. OCLC 26503430.

As do Cyrs and Smith in Teleclass Teaching (1990), entry #162, Lochte writes for the classroom teacher. His pointis that teaching through interactive television is not and cannot be the same as teaching in a face-to-face situationand that interactive television teaching demands adaptation in teaching style. He emphasizes the crucial importanceof practice and testing; he advises teachers to practice many times with all the equipment before teaching, so thatthey are completely familiar and comfortable with it, and to test all the equipment just before each class. His goalis to have the equipment become so unobtrusive that learning can remain the prime focus. A corollary to hisemphasis on familiarity with equipment is his recommendation that teachers be involved in the choice ofequipment to use. Although he realizes that the basic setup of the system will be the responsibility of techniciansand administrators (the decision, for example, to use two-way interactive television or to use one-way televisionwith two-way audio) and will often be driven by cost considerations, he believes that the classroom teachersshould participate in the purchase decisions of specific accessories, such as microphones, fax machines, and VCRs.

Lochte gives specific information on creating the interactive television classroom: where to place microphones,monitors, and speakers; how to seat students at the remote site with those with the softest voices nearest themicrophones; how the teacher should dressand even use makeupto present the most arresting visual effect. He alsooffers guidelines on ways of presenting material in a visual medium and methods to employ in evaluating theinteractive television classroom. He emphasizes as wellan emphasis by no means common in books on distanceteachingthe necessity of having contingency plans ready for those times when equipment fails. Many of hissuggestions, particularly those having to do with classroom equipment purchase and placement, help to demystifythe process.

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This is a useful guide for distance education teachers, both those with no experience in the method and those whohave taught using the method and want to assess and improve their effectiveness.

170.Lockwood, Fred. Activities in Self-Instructional Texts. New York: Kogan Page, 1992. 142p. Bibliography. (Openand Distance Learning Series). $29.95pa. LC 92-42271. ISBN 0893973793. OCLC 27144411.

Fred Lockwood, editor of the Open and Distance Learning Series, has here written a book that is half informationaland half evangelical. The evangelical half is an attempt to convince the readerpresumably a teacher in distance oropen educationof the necessity of actively engaging the learner rather than simply having the learner passivelyread or listen. He looks at the history of the active teaching style, including a description of the programmed textsand teaching machines popular in the 1950s and 1960s. He also presents a precis of Derek Rowntree's concept ofthe "tutorial in print," which so influenced the teaching style of the Open University, and a host of examples of thelearning-by-doing concept, which encourages a range of possible and correct answers. He even includes a linefrom Confucius: "What I hear I forget, what I see I remember, what I do I understand."

As further convincing evidence, Lockwood examines research about active learning; he quotes from writers whouse the technique and includes comments from students.

Most teachers reading this book will be convinced of the efficacy of the active approach, if they are not already.Lockwood marshals his arguments well and presents them effectively; however, conviction is not Lockwood's onlyaim. He also intends to help the teacher by presenting ideas and examples of such activities. These compose theinformational, non-evangelical half of the book. In this section he relies heavily on the writings of others, includingin his slim volume numerous samples of active teaching packages from both the world of academic education andthat of job training. He also adds his own activities and worksheets for the reader to complete.

This title, like all the titles in the Open and Distance Learning Series has much to offer the distance educationpractitioner.

MacKenzie, Ossian, Edward L. Christensen, and Paul H. Rigby. Correspondence Instruction in the United States:A Study of What It Is, How It Functions, and What Its Potential May Be, 1968. See entry #25.

Mason, Robin, and Anthony Kaye. Mindweave: Communication, Computers, and Distance Education, 1989. Seeentry #217.

Moore, Michael G., Peter Cookson, Joe Donaldson, and B. Allan Quigley, eds. Contemporary Issues in AmericanDistance Education, 1990. See entry #121.

171.Moore, Michael G., and G. Christopher Clark, eds. Readings in Principles of Distance Education. University Park:The Pennsylvania State University, 1989.105p. Bibliographic references. (Readings in Distance Education, 1). noprice reported. pa. LC 89-84504. ISBN 1877780014. OCLC 23177888.

Like Readings in Distance Learning and Instruction, entry #122, also edited by Moore and Clark, this is a book ofselections from The American Journal of Distance Education. These selections were published in the journal in1987 and 1988. Readings are in five major areas: definitions and concepts of distance education, print media,television, telecommunications, and research methods. Most of the readings would be of particular interest toteachers.

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172.Morgan, Alistair. Improving Your Students' Learning: Reflections on the Experience of Study. Philadelphia:Kogan Page, 1993. 144p. Index. Bibliography. (Open and Distance Learning Series). $32.50. LC 93-15406. ISBN0749407123. OCLC 27895574.

Part of the series Open and Distance Learning, this book is aimed at teachers using those methods. However, itwould be useful for any teacher, whether in a distance setting or a traditional one. It focuses on how and whystudents study. It explores the various motivations students havejob enhancement, social interaction, self-satisfaction at accomplishment, or interest in the subject. It investigates the ways in which students study anddifferentiates between what the authors call surface learning, which consists largely of memorizing material, anddeep learning, which the author describes as linking and synthesizing material. In this he agrees with MorrisSammons' essay in Michael G. Moore's book, Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education (1990), entry#121. Morgan gives hints and suggestions on how to encourage deep learning by students.

All teachers could benefit by this examination of students' motivations and processes.

Ortner, Gerhard E., and Kurt Graff, eds. Distance Education as Two-Way Communication: Essays in Honour ofBörje Holmberg, 1993. See entry #59.

173.Ostendorf, Virginia A. The Two-Way Video Classroom. Littleton, Colo.: Virginia A. Ostendorf, 1991. 65p.Bibliography. $75.00pa. OCLC 25517160.

This book is part of a workshop designed for teachers of telecourses. Ostendorf begins with the premise that bothstudents and teachers are often ill at ease with this medium of instruction. Moreover, students are used toexperiencing television as a passive medium, one that requires no effort on their part and that can be ignored.

Ostendorf seeks to help the teacher overcome these difficulties. She gives practical and helpful hints on everythingfrom the necessity of thorough preparation of material, through the physical setup of the classroom, to how ateacher should dress to be most effective on camera. Her suggestions include many about keeping studentsinvolved and television sessions interactive.

Along with Teleclass Teaching (1990), by Thomas E. Cyrs and Frank A. Smith, entry #162, this book would makeproductive reading for a beginning teleteacher.

174.Parer, Michael, ed. Developing Open Learning Courses. Churchill, Victoria, Australia: Centre for DistanceLearning, Monash University, Gippsland Campus, 1992. 344p. Bibliographic references. $20.00pa. ISBN0909170509. OCLC 26459031.

Despite the title, this is not a how-to book on developing open or distance learning courses. For that, see Teachingthrough Self-Instruction (1986), written by Derek Rowntree, or Activities in Self-Instructional Texts (1992) by FredLockwood, entries #183 and 170 respectively, or several of the books annotated in chapter 3. Instead, this is acollection of essays by people who have already developed such courses. Reflecting on their own learning process,the authors write about the trial and error process of writing a course; about the obstacles they faced from theirinstitutions; about their own lack of experience; about the differences among their students and the difficulties theteachers encountered in trying to reach all students with a single distance course; about what they learned fromtheir first students' experiences and how they adapted their materials as a result; and about the changes they saw intheir own teaching styles and philosophies.

The book itself underwent some changes. The editor shared all chapters with the various contributors who wereable to change their own chapter after an initial reading. It was also planned as preconference reading and a basisfor discussion for the participants at the 16th World Conference of the International Council for Distance

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Education. These discussions will also doubtless have an effect on the authors' future publications.

175.Parer, Michael S., ed. Development, Design, and Distance Education. Churchill, Victoria, Australia: Centre forDistance Learning, Gippsland Institute, 1989. 271p. Bibliographic references. $20.00 Aust., plus $10.00 s & h. pa.ISBN 0909170355. OCLC 26459031.

Many authors from many countries contributed to this work. Its central aim is to provide a forum for those wishingto explore the roles of the educational developer and the instructional designer, to investigate their relationship, andto discuss whether the two have the same or very different roles. Parer and the others saw this volume as a way toshare information and insights and so to improve their own teaching.

Essays are personal explorations of each author's concept of a course developer or instructional designer.

Parer issued an unusual invitation in the acknowledgments of this book. He solicited manuscripts from others inthe field who felt they had something to contribute to the discussion. This invitation eventually led to thepublication of Developing Open Learning Courses (1992), edited by Parer, entry #174.

Parmaji, S. Distance Education, 1984. See entry #131.

176.Perraton, Hilary. The Techniques of Writing Correspondence Courses. Cambridge: National Extension College,1973. 50p. Bibliography. (IEC Broadsheets on Distance Learning, No. 2). £1.25pa. LC gb73-18544. ISBN0903632020. OCLC 11379339.

Perraton has written a brief guide to writing correspondence courses, with advice on setting goals and objectives,choosing the media, writing lessons that include a variety of activities and provide for a variety of learning styles,and assuring two-way feedback and communication. Other more recent handbooks for the distance educationteacher will of course be more useful, just because of their currency. Two useful ones are Teaching through Self-Instruction (1990) by Derek Rowntree, and How to Design Effective Text-Based Open Learning (1991), written byNigel Harrison, entries #183 and 168 respectively.

Portway, Patrick S., and Carla Lane. Technical Guide to Teleconferencing and Distance Learning, 1992. See entry#138.

177.Race, Philip. 53 Interesting Ways Learning Materials. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services, 1992. 192p. Noprice reported.

This is a shorter and breezier version of Race's Open Learning Handbook (2d ed., 1994), entry #178. In it hecondenses his methods for producing open learning materials into 53 hints. Race covers the whole process ofpreparing materials, from objective setting, through writing, layout, and assessment. Each of his 53 hints isexplained in one or two pages. Writing short sentences, using different color papers to attract attention, leavingroom in a lesson for a learner to write answers to questions, are examples of his practical hints. Either this book orhis Open Learning Handbook would be helpful for a distance education teacher.

178.Race, Phil. Open Learning Handbook. Promoting Quality in Designing and Delivering Flexible Learning. 2d ed.East Brunswick, N.J.: Nichols Publishing, 1994. 202p. Index. Bibliography. $39.00pa. LC 93-34975. ISBN0893973920. OCLC 29027714.

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Race's efforts to make this a practical handbook have succeeded. In it he discusses clearly, concisely, and withnumerous examples the steps and methods to take in producing open learning self-study materials. He tackles suchopen learning components as defining and writing aims and objectives, using Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)liberally within the text to keep the reader interested, and marking assignments. His text is loaded with practical,detailed hints, including the following:

Refer to objectives within the body of the text when appropriate, as in "This question lets you check on howyou're progressing with Objectives."

Use informal language.

Use short comments on an answer sheet, such as "Good," "I agree," or "Good point," rather than just a corrector incorrect mark.

Race even mentions such details as not to use a red pen or pencil to correct answer sheets or essays. He feels thatthe red pen looks judgmental and can work against building rapport with students.

Race follows his own advice in this book, beginning each chapter with an aim and a list of objectives, keeping hiswriting short and informal, and providing numerous checklists set off from the main text. His book is easy to readand full of practical information, of real use to the person venturing into distance education.

He defines open learning as much more comprehensive than distance education, saying that open learning canindeed take place at a distance, but that it can occur anywhere, even in a classroom, when students are studyingand learning on their own. Almost everything in this handbook on open learning can indeed be applied to distanceteaching.

Two similar helpful guides to the practice of distance teaching are Teaching Through Self-Instruction (1990) byDerek Rowntree, and Distance Education: A Practical Guide (1993) by Barry Willis, entries #183 and 188respectively.

Reid-Smith, Edward R., ed. External Studies in Library and Information Science, 1980. See entry #222.

179.Roberts, Nancy, George Blakeslee, Maureen Brown, and Cecilia Lenk. Integrating Telecommunications intoEducation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1990. 230p. Index. Glossary. Bibliographic references. No pricereproted. LC 89-28756. ISBN 0134685474. OCLC 20594294.

This book is not about using media to teach entire courses, units, or classes; rather, it concentrates on usinginteractive computer technology in short bursts to augment classroom teaching. The first half is devoted to a"telecommunications primer," a discussion of such basics as what a modem is, how it works, and what it canaccomplish. The authors walk the reader through such computer techniques as uploading and downloading files,accessing a database, and signing on to a bulletin board. They detail some of the things that can go wrong and tellthe reader simple ways to solve problems. For example, if garbled messages come over the modem, perhaps thesoftware package is not compatible with the host system. This first half may demystify computers for theuninitiated.

The second half provides detailed summaries of the use of the computer for language arts, social sciences, andsciences. Examples are given for programs in bilingual education, for the learning disabled, and for reluctantwriters. Science programs can be augmented by tapping into such databases as the National Weather Service.Experts in various fields can be involved in teaching and can interact with students without being physicallypresent in the classroom.

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Supplementary material includes a glossary of computer terms and a "Resource Section" that lists associations andorganizations, computer bulletin boards, hardware, software, and teaching materials.

Although much of this material will date quickly, particularly the "Resource Section," the tone of the book isreassuring, aimed at making the nontechnical teacher more comfortable with computers.

180.Rowntree, Derek. Developing Courses for Students. London: Harper and Row, repr., London, Paul ChapmanPublishing, 1985. 308p. Index. Bibliography. $11.00. LC 81-8175. ISBN 1853961205. OCLC 22437429.

Rowntree first emphasizes the necessity of teachers knowing their students, including their academic backgrounds,their abilities, and their goals for the particular course. He then goes on to discuss such basics of distanceeducation as objective setting, organizing course material into a logical sequence, incorporating activities into thereading to keep students' attention and interest, integrating media, and assessing both students and the course itself.The material about course design and production has been extensively covered in a myriad of other books, anumber of them by Rowntree himself. A number of handbooks annotated in this chapter and in chapter 3 provideas much or more information on this aspect of distance education. However, the chapters on assessment arecomplete and very helpful.

181.Rowntree, Derek. Exploring Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Page, 1992. 299p. Index. Bibliography.(Open and Distance Learning Series). $39.95. LC 92-044230. ISBN 0749408138. OCLC 27129979.

In his introduction, Rowntree states that the aim of his book is not to teach distance learning practitioners how todo their jobs, but rather to help them explore what it is they need to do and why. In his words, he wants the readerto answer the question "What might be worth doing?" (p.2). In this way, this book differs from some of his otherwritings, which emphasize the practical. (See annotations for his Teaching through Self Instruction, entry #183,and Developing Courses for Students, entry #180.) His arrangement and format contribute to the fulfillment of thataim. Each of his nine chapters begins with objectives, follows with an overview of the subject, and presentssuggestions for follow-up work, both for further reading and for field work, such as interviews or informalconversations with colleagues. Each ends with a "reflection checklist," a series of questions that ask readers tothink about the preceding unit and how it should be applied to their own situations.

Rowntree covers a lot of material basic to open and distance learning. Chapters cover the differences andsimilarities between the two concepts; the importance of identifying and describing the learners; ways to supportthe isolated and independent learner through tutorials, telephone contact, newsletters, counseling, and othermethods; writing and producing a total package for a unit of learning; costs; and evaluation. His final two chaptersoffer a discussion of the pros and cons of open learning and some suggestions for starting up an open learningprogram.

Although much of Rowntree's material is covered in other sources, his method of presentation is fresh. It engagesthe reader, encouraging the reader to be a more active participantas distance learners themselves need to be. His"portfolio prompts" are especially appealing. Sprinkled throughout the book, they suggest that at this particularpoint in the book, readers might want to spend some time adding notes to a file that Rowntree suggests they keepwhile reading. Readers may put in this file their own reactions to the material, discoveries made, or insights gainedfrom other reading or from talking with colleagues. These portfolio prompts, coupled with the suggestions forfollow-up work, make Exploring Open and Distance Learning a valuable source for teachers in distance or openlearning situations.

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182.Rowntree, Derek. Preparing Materials for Open, Distance and Flexible Learning: An Action Guide for Teachersand Trainers. New York: Nichols Publishing, 1993. 170p. Index. Bibliography. (Open and Distance LearningSeries). $29.95. ISBN 0749411597. OCLC 29831421.

Like other books he has written, this book by Derek Rowntree is itself written as an open learning text. It beginswith a list of objectives, or skills that the reader should acquire through reading this book; provides a wealth ofactivities for the reader to perform in addition to reading; and includes ways for readers to assess their ownprogress with the skills taught. It is also written in an informal style and is lavishly illustrated with many examplesfrom other open learning texts.

The book focuses on three stages in material preparation: planning, preparing, and writing. The planning stageincludes setting objectives, gathering and evaluating existing materials, and choosing media. Preparing involvesworking out a logical sequence for material presentation, deciding on format and graphics, and thinking ofactivities to integrate with the written text. Writing includes rewriting and assessment.

This work is another excellent addition to the Open and Distance Learning Series. This book or either ofRowntree's other two books on the subject, Exploring Open and Distance Learning (1992) and Teaching ThroughSelf-Instruction (1990), would be useful. Both are annotated in this chapter.

183.Rowntree, Derek. Teaching Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open Learning Materials. rev. ed. NewYork: Nichols Publishing, 1990. 389p. Index. $33.50. LC 89-49775. ISBN 0893973564; 1850919577pa. OCLC20824639.

This is a revised edition of Rowntree's 1986 book, Teaching Through Self-Instruction: A Practical Handbook forCourse Instruction (annotated below). Its only revision is its typeface; rather than being reproduced from atypescript as was the 1986 edition, this one is typeset. Interestingly, in a note to the 1986 edition, the author statedthat the typescript reproduction was done deliberately to keep costs down and to reassure the reader that high-tech,high-cost methods were not necessary to produce quality material. Other than the different production method, thetwo editions are identical.

184.Rowntree, Derek. Teaching through Self-Instruction: A Practical Handbook for Course Developers. New York:Nichols Publishing, 1986. 386p. Index. $28.50pa. LC 86-5163. ISBN 0893972509. OCLC 13269782.

As the subtitle indicates, this is definitely a ''practical handbook." Rowntree takes the potential teacher of a self-instruction course or module step-by-step through the process, beginning with setting and writing of aims andobjectives, through organizing the course into a logical sequence, choosing suitable media and activities, andpreparing the components. He ends with information on assessing student progress. He includes specifics onproduction: the need to write clearly and concisely, the importance of layout and typeface for written materials,and the importance of a pleasing voice quality for audio components.

Both the novice and the experienced self-instruction teacher could gain from this book. For the novice, it explainssome simple terms in a way helpful but not condescending, differentiating for example among types ofreproduction, from photocopying to letterpress. The experienced teacher will benefit from the logic and the detailin the sections on planning a course and on evaluation.

The appearance of the book (offset from the typescript but with generous margins and plenty of white space)seems to make this book user-friendly, not intimidating. It welcomes the reader at any level.

Two other helpful handbooks are Open Learning Handbook (1994) by Philip Race, and Distance Education: APractical Guide (1993) by Barry Willis, both annotated in this chapter. This book was published in a revisededition in 1990, with the title Teaching

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Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open Learning Materials. Except in its typeface, the revised edition isidentical to the original one.

185.Sileo, Lorraine, ed. Electronic Media for the School Market: Review, Trends, and Forecast. Wilton, Conn.:SIMBA Information, 1992. $695.00. additional copies, $395. OCLC 28498224.

No copy of this volume was available for examination and review. However, the publisher kindly sent adescriptive brochure, a photocopy of the table of contents, and a three-page "Executive Summary," consisting ofbrief facts.

The book is written for the businesses that hope to supply educational media, rather than for the consumers of it.According to the table of contents, one chapter, covering about 25 pages, is specifically devoted to distancelearning. It appears to give some background information on the extent of distance education, brief descriptions ofvarious delivery systems, forecasts, and information on specific providers, such as C-SPAN's and CNN's use inclassrooms. Other chapters would also be of interest to distance educators, chapters that give information onproviders of video-cassettes and videodisc, CD ROM, online services, and multimedia. There is also a chapter onbusiness-educational partnerships.

This book is about the business side of distance education, not about how to integrate media into a course or howto adapt teaching methods to distance education. As distance educators are the consumers and customers of thecompanies reported on here, this might be of interest and use. The price, of course, is steep for most schools.

Thorpe, Mary, and David Grugeon. Open Learning for Adults, 1987. See entry #147.

Tomlinson, Derrick, Frank Coulter, and Jane Peacock. Teaching and Learning at Home: Distance Education andthe Isolated Child, 1985. See entry #250.

Trask, Margaret, and Mairéad Browne. External Studies in Librarianship: An Investigation into the PotentialEfficacy of External Studies in Librarianship in Australia, 1979. See entry #293.

186.Walsh, Stephen Michael. "Attitudes and Perceptions of University Faculty toward Technology Based DistanceEducation." Ph.D. diss., University of Oklahoma, 1993. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993):781A.

One of the major conclusions of this thesis is that faculty attitudes toward distance education vary greatly andseem to bear no relation to years of experience or age of faculty member. Attitudes do, however, relate to personalexperience with the technique and to peer opinion. The influence of peer opinion is lessened if the faculty memberhas had personal experience with distance education. Most faculty studied believe that specific training forteachers in distance education is necessary and is at present usually inadequate. Walsh studied 121 facultymembers.

Wells, Rosalie. Computer-Mediated Communication for Distance Education: An International Review of Design,Teaching, and Institutional Issues, 1992. See entry #226.

Willen, Birgitta. Distance Education at Swedish Universities: An Evaluation of the Experimental Programme and aFollow-Up Study, 1981. See entry #227.

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187.Willen, Birgitta. Strategies for Strengthening Student-Teacher Contact in Distance Education. Milton Keynes,England: Open University of the United Kingdom, Distance Education Research Group, 198454p. Bibliography.(DERG Papers, No. 9). no price reported. LC 84-162423. OCLC 11574509.

Very little new or unique information is presented in this book. The bulk of the material is about the organizationof the Swedish university system and the distance education component within it. The final 10 pages of the textcontain a discussion of how to improve contact between student and teacher. The author concludes that differentmethods of contact are necessary and desirable because students differ in their responses to motivation efforts.Perhaps the most valuable insight is drawn from the author's data indicating that the distant student is not self-selected as one who is autonomous and self-motivated, the kind of student most likely to succeed with this methodof instruction. Rather, students choose distance education for practical reasons of time and space, and most stillneed to be actively motivated and encouraged.

188.Willis, Barry. Distance Education: A Practical Guide. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational TechnologyPublications, 1993. 138p. Index. Bibliography. Glossary. $29.95. LC 92-32544. ISBN 0877782555. OCLC26586634.

Willis brings together in this book a lot of common sense and a lot of widely accepted axioms on distanceeducation and does so in an attractive and readable way. Chapters are short, with titles indicative of their content,and each chapter is full of bold type headings. This arrangement makes it easy to skim, browse, or dip into thebook for information on a specific aspect of distance education. The most useful chapters include one on theprocess of creating a distance education course, describing the steps of designing, developing, evaluating, andrevising; a chapter devoted to necessary changes and adaptations of teaching style to cope with a distanceeducation setting; and a chapter on various technologies with a list of pros and cons for each.

The tone of the book is reassuring for the beginning teacher or administrator (or student who happens onto it),making it clear that the distance education method is simply a different delivery system for learning. Willisemphasizes that the method used (distance or traditional) is not as crucial to success as is the talent and motivationof both student and teacher.

Other useful handbooks on distance education include Open Learning Handbook, (1994) by Philip Race, andTeaching through Self-Instruction (1990) by Derek Rowntree, both annotated in this chapter.

Willis, Barry. Effective Distance Education: A Primer for Faculty and Administrators, 1993. See entry #150.

Winders, Ray. Information Technology in the Delivery of Distance Education and Training, 1988. See entry #151.

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189.Zubot, Myra. Writing Your Course: A Short Guide for Writers of Distance Education Materials. Saskatoon,Saskatchewan, Canada: University Extension Press, University of Saskatchewan, 1993. 71p. No price reported. LCC93-098160-X. ISBN 0888802927. OCLC 28850035.

Many of the points covered in other handbooks on course preparation Zubot covers here as well: the need for clearobjectives, the need to write simply and concisely, the need to use the active voice, and the need to use familiarexamples. Zubot does include some more unusual points as well. One is the role of the teacher as course preparer,as opposed to the role of an instructional designer, and a discussion of the interaction between the two. The otheris a brief description of distance learners and how both they and the process of distance learning differ fromconventional teaching.

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Appendix A: Journals in Distance Education 165

Appendix B: Distance Education Online 167

Author Index 169

Title Index 173

Subject Index 181

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5The Student in Distance Education

Introduction

The fact that student and teacher are separated from each other in distance learning necessarily means that a distantstudent's experiences are different than those of a traditional student. People decide to become distance studentsfor different reasons than those that motivate tradional students. The process of study and learning itself is differentbetween residential and distance students. Different factors influence success as a student.

Why Students Become Distance Students

Students choose distance education for a variety of reasons. Perhaps geographic isolation makes it the only way togain a general education or a particular course needed for a job qualification. Some students move after earningmost of the credits for a degree, with only a few courses needed to finish the program; distance education is moreconvenient than registering at a new campus. Perhaps family responsibilities are so heavy that traveling to acampus is impossible; study and learning at home, wedged in between home duties, is more appealing and morefeasible. Sometimes work responsibilities, particularly for those who work odd schedules or who travel frequently,preclude regular class attendance. People who live in rural areas, far from a college campus, and who are reluctantor unable to move are obvious candidates for distance education.

Sometimes even the weather is a factor. Students in harsh climates, for whom a trip to campus would mean adangerous drive of several hours, make use of distance education. Although some students report that they studythrough distance education because they prefer it, most do so because it is the option that fits most easily into analready busy life.

A number of books discuss the factors that contribute to the decision to study at a distance. Among them is WhoUses External Studies? Who Should? (1987) by John Anwyl, et al. In Distance Education in Rural Alaska: AnOverview of Teaching and Learning Practicing in Audioconferencing Courses (1991), Barry M. Sponder profilesthe experiences of students in rural Alaska, who battle against weather, bad roads, and faulty telephoneconnections. In chapter 6, on special groups, other authors tackle additional reasons people use distance education.

Most distance students are adults, who have the autonomy to make choices. Although distance education is used atprimary levels of education, particularly in sparsely populated areas, it is usually done in conjunction withintensive tutoring by a family member. Most distance education is experienced by adults who are highly motivatedand self-directed.

Many studies find that distance students sign up for a course for a specific reason: to gain promotion at work, tolearn a particular skill that will

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assist them on the job, or to sample an academic area before committing to it full time. Some, of course, undertakea general study program and even gain a degree. Britain's Open University and Canada's Athabasca University areboth proof that people can obtain a degree through this method. Most people's experience with distance education,particularly in the United States, is limited to courses taken with a specific, short-term intent.

Isolation of Distance Students

Yet even the highly motivated students who register for distance education courses on their own initiative find theexperience lonely, difficult, and sometimes daunting. Studying alone can be discouraging and can lead to failure.Distance students lack the support mechanisms, both formal and informal, that residential students take for granted.On the formal side, distance students seldom have access to any counseling, either academic or personal, or anyadvice on what courses to take or how to sequence them. Professors are not as available to distance students asthey are to the students on campus. No matter what system of contact is set up for the distance student, whethercorrespondence, telephone contacts, or computer communication, it is still easier for the residential student tolinger after class, to visit professors during posted office hours, or to make special appointments. Even thecommuter student has more convenient access to professors' time than does the student at a distance.

Access to Library Sources

Library resources, too, are far less available to the distant student. Particularly in rural areas or in small towns, thestudent has no access to a research collection or to research assistance from a librarian. Small public libraries donot have the necessary collections. Academic libraries are often not open to anyone outside their own campuscommunity, which means that even if distance students live near a campus, they may be denied access to thelibrary if they are not registered there. Distance students must send to their own campus for specific books, ratherthan browsing the shelves as a residential student may.

A number of people have studied the problem of library resources. Much of the research has come from Canadaand Australia, two vast countries that look at distance education as a way to maximize their educational resources.In Library Services for Off Campus and Distance Education (1991), Sheila Latham and others have assembled abibliography of journal articles on the subject; a number of these articles describe ongoing library programs.Barton M. Lessin has edited a number of Proceedings of the Off Campus Library Services Conference (1985,1986, and 1988) as well as a collection of papers from these conferences, Off Campus Library Services (1991).These also describe programs and services provided by various libraries to their off-campus students. Three booksedited by Christine Crocker show the efforts being undertaken in Australia.

In the United States, many distance education programs provide help with library resources for their distanceeducation students. Colorado State

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University in Fort Collins, Colorado, provides an "Extended University Library Services" program for its off-campus students. Susan Schwellenback, the Extended University Programs Librarian, fields requests from off-campus students. Her services include helping students identify local libraries that will offer them services(including libraries with electronic access to Colorado State University library databases); working with those locallibraries to arrange access; suggesting reference sources; giving instruction over the phone in how to use databasesor printed indexes; and providing photocopies of journal articles held at CSU. She also has prepared some printedmaterials concerning library use and services that she distributes. The program has a toll-free telephone number forstudent use, as well as a fax number.

Informal Support Systems

Informal support for distance students may be even more important, and it too is lacking. There are no chats over acup of coffee at the student center, no casual encounters on campus with either the professor or with fellowstudents, no contact with people who took the same course previously. There is no way for the distance student tocheck progress: Students in a classroom can hear others asking questions and realize that they are not the only onesconfused on a certain point. Residential students can hear others talk about how hard a particular chapter is tounderstand or how difficult an assignment is; distance students do not have that chance. If a student is havingtrouble with an assignment, it is easy for that student to think that everyone else is doing fine.

One student in Denver, Margaret Levi, who took a number of telecourses for her bachelor's degree, bears this out.She said that, for her, the lack of interaction with other students was the greatest drawback of distance education,because she felt that she was missing out on the enjoyment of campus life. For a look at student attitudes towarddistance education in general, read the comments from distance education students that are inserted throughout thedirectory The Electronic University (1993).

Some people have attempted to replace the informal support of residential students with a more formal system.Carole Carter, in Counseling Distance Learners: Preferred Support Strategies for Social and Personnel Difficulties(1992) discusses ways in which counseling services can be implemented. She recommends that an institutionprepare packets of information on topics of common concern, such as stress management or communication skills,and offer them as needed.

Outside Factors

Lack of support is sometimes aggravated by a home situation. Students who choose distance education because ofhome responsibilities often find those responsibilities interfere with study. Trying to study while caring forchildren or cooking dinner can be chaotic; the lack of adequate and quiet study space can make study moredifficult. Even if a family says it is supportive, it is all too easy for family members to think of school as a casualand tertiary activity, not as important as family commitments. In such conditions,

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study time gets squeezed and shrunk, and sometimes the student drops out or fails the course as the result.

Work, too, can take precedence over study for many distance students. After all, it is work that pays the bills,including the tuition bill, and therefore many students believe that it must come first. A sudden deadline at workcan take precedence over a class assignment, an unexpected out-of-town trip can eliminate the three eveningsplanned for study, and increased pressure and stress at work can make concentrating on textbooks difficult. Inaddition, studying at home is hard. It is easy to procrastinate, easy to convince oneself that other duties must becompleted before studying.

Two theses indicate the great influence that factors outside the course have on drop-out rates. Maureen R.Garland's 1992 Ph.D. dissertation, and Jane E. Brindley's 1987 master's thesis both show how outside timecommitments of job and family can cause a person to drop a distance education course. Ronald E. Ostman et al. inAdult Distance Education, Educational Technology and Drop Out (1988) come to the same conclusion. Theseauthors also insist on the importance of students having both a clear goal and a conviction that the distanceeducation course will help them meet that goal. If a course is seen as incidental in achieving a particular goal, thatcourse will be readily dropped.

Factors Within the Course

Of course, factors within the course can also influence the drop-out rate. Both Keith Richard Johnson in his 1993Ph.D. dissertation and Fabio J. Chacon-Duque in his dissertation from 1987, show that outdated course materials,whether textbooks, handouts, or media, greatly discourage students. In his 1987 master's thesis, Charles Kit HungWong demonstrates that timeliness on both the students' and the instructor's part is crucial. Timely submission ofassignments by the students contributes to success rate; and timely return of those assignments by the professor hasthe same effect.

Technical Factors

Technical considerations also play a part in the difficulties distance students encounter. Students must be carefulthat they own or have access to the technical equipment necessary for a particular course. Sometimes thatrepresents a substantial monetary outlay, which some students are unwilling to make. Cutting corners or making docan lead to failure. For example, trying to use the computer at work rather than having one at home can causeproblems if an assignment is due on Monday and the student has no access to the work computer over theweekend. Other problems occur when the work computer is shared by someone else, or the system is down.

Sometimes the student tries to use a computer in a local campus computer lab, or a public library. These often havewaiting lines, which leads to frustration and unfinished assignments. The same applies to fax machines. In today'sincreasingly high-tech world, and high-tech distance education, a student who does not personally own equipmentis often at a disadvantage. Even video can be a problem. A majority of homes have a VCR, but how many

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have more than one? On the night a parent had planned to view a course-related video, a child may need to use theVCR for a school assignment.

In less affluent or more isolated areas, technical equipment can be even a more severe problem. Rural areas fromAlaska to Africa offer distance education over radio, with the broadcast received at a communal study centerwhere all gather to listen together. Breakdowns in transmission, faulty equipment, interference and static can makethe program unintelligible. The same applies to efforts to use telephone transmission, either for a lecture or forindividual conferences with students. Telephone transmission to some areas is less reliable and more problematicthan others, and students gathered for an eagerly awaited telephone call may be unable to hear it. The book bySponder (1991), already mentioned above, addresses this problem.

What Can Be Done: Teachers

Truly, a distance education student must clear formidable hurdlesof technical equipment, family support, pressureat work, and a sometimes overwhelming feeling of isolation and aloneness. Still, with careful planning on the partof everyone involved, distance education students can avoid some of the pitfalls.

Teachers must state clear objectives, must divide and present course material in manageable chunks ofinformation, and must avoid frightening the student at the outset with a seemingly impossible course. A teachercan. provide constant self-testing components, so students can check on progress and feel assured that they areunderstanding the material. A teacher also can work at providing two-way communication. A regular schedule oftelephone contacts could be set up, or teachers could set office hours specifically for distance education studentsand be available by phone for consultation.

Some courses require one initial orientation session, at which students must be present if at all possible. At leastone student in Colorado, who was interviewed on the subject for this book, felt that such sessions were valuablefor the opportunity they provided to ask initial questions about the course. They also allowed her to meet otherstudents, at least briefly, and to know that she was not alone. Some teachers encourage or even require theirstudents to have access to e-mail and answer questions through that means. Even if the distance education is doneentirely through the old-fashioned method of correspondence, a teacher can work at whittling down the turnaroundtime for assignments submitted and returned with comments, so that students are not working on one assignmentbefore knowing how they did on the three previous ones.

Teachers use various technologies to establish and encourage two-way communication with their students oramong students in their classes. Rune Flinck, in Correspondence Education Combined with Systematic TelephoneTutoring (1978), discusses how regular telephone contact between tutor and student can help make the student feelconnected to the course. Study centers, with tutors on duty, also provide a service for students who are studyingalone but who live close enough to a center to use one. The Open University of the United Kingdom has long hadregional study centers set up to provide a gathering place for students. Judith A. Timmons and A. Ivan Williams in

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Handbook on the Organization and Management of Distance Education Study Centres (1990) discuss the conceptin general, and give guidelines for establishing such centers. Other methods are becoming more common astechnology develops. A number of books discuss the growing reliance on computer interaction to provide a senseof community to isolated students. Three important publications are Online Education by Linda Harasim (1990),Personal Computers for Distance Education by Ann Jones et al. (1993), and Mindweave by Robin Mason andAnthony Kaye (1989).

What Can Be Done: Institutions

Institutions can play a part as well. Preliminary material on the program or the institution can be clearly writtenand distributed in a timely fashion. From the outset, students need to know such details as how late they can drop acourse and still get a tuition refund, or what the grading policies are. Institutions can facilitate communicationbetween professor and student by providing postage for sending in assignments, funding a toll-free number forphone calls, or hiring teaching assistants to read and grade papers. They can provide local study or tutoring centersor summer sessions, either required or encouraged, which allow a student the give and take of a regular classroomand a taste of campus atmosphere. They can work on agreements between institutions to allow students access tolibraries and laboratories at other campuses. Many of the students who are profiled in The Electronic University(1993) make the point that two-way communication is an essential component in successful distance education.

What Can Be Done: Students

The student also bears a responsibility. The first necessity is to assess oneself. Potential distance students must besure that they are self-motivated, able to work on long-term projects without much direction or encouragement,and able to set up and maintain a schedule. They must also select their course or courses wisely. If the point ofdistance education is to enhance a career, students must select courses accordingly. The course must be bothrelated to the current or the desired job and acceptable to the employer. Some employers do not consider coursescompleted through the distance method as meaningful as they do on-campus classes. If students expect thatcompletion of a distance education program will qualify them for a promotion or a raise, they must be sure thatemployers agree.

It would be helpful to know what practical support an employer offers. Some provide tuition reimbursement or aregenerous with time off for class attendance. An occasional opportunity to reschedule work when the pressures ofschool become great can be helpful, and a student should know at the outset to what extent this might be possible.

The content of the course, and its requirements, should be examined. A course requiring weekly assignments, dueon a regular basis, might cause difficulties for someone who works an irregular job schedule. Long-termassignments, such as a paper or a project requiring long periods of concentrated effort, can be difficult for someonewho must wedge studies into odd

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half-hours of a busy day. Someone with heavy work or family responsibilities, someone living in an extremelyisolated area, or someone with very limited financial resources, might find it difficult to attend a required summersession or to meet with a study group once a week.

Dianna Shomaker, director of the RN-BSN Outreach Program at the School of Nursing, University of NewMexico, uses a creative way to assess students' commitment to the program. She asks that potential off-sitestudents themselves make the arrangements to set up a viewing site. They talk to local hospital administrators orcommunity college personnel to arrange a location at which the programs can be received. This investment in timeand effort, Shomaker believes, makes the student think seriously about the potential time and energy commitment.A student who has worked to put together a receiving site will be more motivated to complete the course.

Developments in technology will help mitigate the isolation of the distant student. More and more programs andclasses are using computer technology to link students with their professor and with each other. E-mail capabilityallows students to participate in class discussions, to hold informal, ongoing conversations, and to ask theprofessor questions. Students involved in a course with this component praise it loudly, saying that it made thedifference between feeling alone with their texts and feeling part of a class. Robin Mason's Mindweave, mentionedabove, makes this point strongly. As this technology develops and becomes more affordable and widely available,it should change both distance and traditional education, pulling them both toward the center of the continuumthey are both on.

Even without such developments, even with only the connections available today, people continue to seek this wayof study and learning. Testimonials written by participants in distance education abound, bearing witness to thestudents' satisfaction with the method. Students express their conviction that without this means of learning, highereducation would be impossible for them. Some even state that the difficulties themselves made them concentratemore, work harder, andultimatelylearn more. Clearly, distance education offers benefits that make the manyobstacles worth scaling.

Sources

190.American Symposium on Research in Distance Education. Distance Education Symposium: Selected Papers, Part1. University Park: American Center for the Study of Distance Education, The Pennsylvania State University,1992. 72p. Bibliographic references. (ACSDE Research Monographs, 4). $20.00pa. ISBN 1877780065.

The papers in this book were presented at the Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education,held in 1991. Papers from the first symposium were published in Contemporary Issues in American DistanceEducation, edited by Michael G. Moore (1990), entry #121. Most of the papers here review the research on aparticular topic. One is about designing a distance education organizational structure, another discusses supportservices for distance learners, and several papers focus on learner characteristics.

Parts 2 and 3 of the symposium papers are annotated in chapter 3 (see entries #65 and #66).

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191.Anwyl, John, Margaret Powles, and Kate Patrick. Who Uses External Studies? Who Should? Parkville, Australia:Centre for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne, 1987. 190p. Bibliography. No price reported.ISBN 0949036250. OCLC 27613788.

Commissioned by the Commonwealth Tertiary Educational Commission, the authors hoped that their findingswould be used to influence public policy decisions in the field of external studies. Their statistics includeinformation on students' age, gender, marital status and children, place of residence, income (both that of thestudents themselves and of students' parents), occupations, previous schooling, and educational and vocationalgoals. All data is presented in tabular form.

The group's first recommendation is that those most likely to want external study be identified: women withchildren, rural or otherwise isolated populations, people who left conventional schooling at an early age, andpeople with no access to conventional education, such as prisoners. They also have a series of recommendationsthat concern ways to target these groups and make information about external studies available to them.

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Sharing Innovative Strategies for Self-Learning Materials, 1988. See entry #257.

Bååth, John A. Postal Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education: An Empirical Investigation, 1980.See entry #154.

Bååth, John A., and Rune Flinck. Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education: An Introduction to theResearch Project, 1973. See entry #155.

192.Brindley, Jane E. ''Attrition and Completion in Distance Education: The Student's Perspective." Master's thesis,University of British Columbia, 1987. OCLC 20250522.

Brindley interviewed 40 students at Athabasca University, a distance education university in British Columbia. Sheasked open-ended questions concerning incidents in the distance education experience that either hindered orfacilitated completion of the course. Students reported that their completion was helped by such things as theavailability of a tutor and the motivation that resulted from receiving a high grade in an early assignment. Events orinstances that mitigated against completion included nonavailability of a tutor or getting so far behind in a coursethat it seemed impossible to catch up. Brindley codifies the responses. One of the major factors that hinderedcompletion was changes in the student's time commitments and duties outside the distance education course orprogram.

Although the sample is small, this survey does provide a starting point for discussion about why students drop out.

193.Brockman, John R., and Jane E. Klobas. Libraries and Books in Distance Education. Perth, Australia: WesternAustralian Institute of Technology, 1981. 89p. Bibliography. Appendices. (Western Library Studies, 1). no pricereported. pa. LC 85-238307. ISBN 0908155808. OCLC 12208057.

During the early to mid-1980s, librarians researched and wrote a number of monographs on the need for librarysupport of distance education students and the best way to provide it. Many of these studies were done inAustralia, a country so vast as to necessarily depend on distance education. This slim book is one of those studies;the bulk of it is tables and explanatory data on the study itself. Appendices reproduce the questionnaires and letterssent to the participants in the study.

For the general reader interested in distance education, the introductory and concluding material is of most interest;it is here that the survey is discussed and

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evaluated. The authors queried both external and resident students on their use of library materials. They foundthat neither group made much effort to read beyond the list of required texts. External students relied more onbuying books than on locating materials in libraries. When, however, external students did need to acquirematerials from a library they were more likely to ask for help from a librarian than were resident students. Theywere also on the whole more satisfied with the material they located with this help than were resident students withthe selections they made on their own from library collections.

The authors conclude that distance students can be better helped if instructors will verify that course materialsbothrequired reading and suggestions for supplementary readingare readily available in libraries that are accessible totheir students; if instructors inform libraries in a timely manner of works that might be needed by a number ofstudents; and if libraries put more effort into preparing guides on how to use the library for external students.

194.Burge, Elizabeth J., and Joan L. Howard. Developing Partnerships: An Investigation of Library-BasedRelationships with Students and Educators Participating in Distance Education. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: OntarioInstitute for Studies in Education, 1988. 90p. Bibliography. Appendices. no price reported. spiral bound. OCLC21300789.

Although this book looks amateurish, a typescript in spiral binding, it has some useful information from a studydone by the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. It is specific, limiting itself to a discussion of libraryservices needed and received by distance education students in Canada.

Students and faculty involved in distance education were surveyed, as well as both public and academic librarianswho might be involved in providing information to distance education students. Most students surveyed reportedeither being unaware of available library services or of using libraries only in a very limited way, most often torequest a particular book. Many librarians were also not aware of distance education students as part of theirclientele, although some reported interlibrary loan requests by these students, or telephone or in-person requestsfor particular material. In some few instances, deposit collections were provided to a local public library by theinstitution teaching the distance education course, and students availed themselves of this specific collection.

In the last few years changes in methods of communication, most notably computer communication, have no doubtimproved both students' awareness of library facilities and their ability to access distant collections. Despite thisimprovement, this report does illustrate a difference that still exists between on-site students at a physicaluniversity and those students pursuing distance education, a difference that is often deleterious to the distanceeducation participant: that universities without walls are often without readily available resources as well.

194A.Burgess, William E. The Oryx Guide to Distance Learning. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1994. 424p. Subject index.Delivery system index. Institution name index. Appendix. $89.95pa. ISBN 0897748239. LC 94-10004. OCLC

Burgess's Oryx Guide includes, as stated in the introduction, "information on 298 institutions offering over 1,500media assisted courses for which academic credit can be earned."

Entries are arranged geographically by state and alphabetically by institution name within the state. Information ineach entry includes name of institution; address and phone number; geographic area in which courses are available;media used; courses and programs offered; and a general description of the institution, including admissionrequirements, grading policies, credit offered, and library facilities. Course listings are complete and descriptionsresemble those in college catalogs.

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Burgess includes a subject index, an index by institution name, and one by delivery system used. The appendixlists those institutions whose courses are available either nationwide or worldwide.

This directory is more up-to-date than the also useful The Electronic University: A Guide to Distance Learning(1993) (see entry #202). Using both these directories should give prospective students a good idea of what isavailable through distance education.

195.Carter, Carole. Counseling Distance Learners: Preferred Support Strategies for Social and Personnel Difficulties.Sydney, N.S.W., Australia: TAFE Commission, 1992. 47p. Bibliography. (Open Training and Education NetworkOccasional Papers 4). no price reported. pa. ISBN 0730585409. OCLC 29475186.

The author believes that problems and stresses in a student's personal life, such as a move, the birth of a child,multiple home duties, or lack of family support, can affect that student's success as a distance learner. Sherecommends an increase in counseling facilities for distance learners, whether face-to-face, by telephone, or bycorrespondence.

Carter surveyed 86 students taking part in distance education within the Open Training and Education Network ofNew South Wales. Many students reported that fatigue and lack of self-confidence were the greatest barriers totheir success in the course. They also mentioned as problems lack of time for study and lack of a clear goal orunderstanding of why their particular course was personally important to them.

Carter's recommendations include:

Offering counseling in a variety of formats: in person, by telephone, or by correspondence.

Making telephone contact with counselors more available.

Publicizing the counseling services.

Preparing counseling packages on common topics, which could be distributed to students. Topics suggestedwere stress management, career choice, communication, and assertiveness.

196.Chacon-Duque, Fabio J. A Multivariate Model for Evaluating Distance Higher Education. College Park:Pennsylvania State University Press, 1987. 253p. Bibliography. $29.95. OCLC 24564056.

This publication, Chacon-Duque's Ph.D. thesis, examines the factors that influence completion of distanceeducation courses. Chacon-Duque examined 25 courses offered by The Independent Learning Project at thePennsylvania State University. Rather surprisingly, he found that such individual variables as sex, age, andprevious educational attainment were of little importance. More expectedly, he found that the difficulty of thecourse and the persistence of the student were major influences on the completion rate: too low a difficulty levelincreased drop-out rates at the beginning of a course, whereas too high a difficulty caused high drop-out ratestoward the end of a course. Such factors as the number of required assignments, the amount of institutional supportoffered to the student, and the amount of time the instructor had to devote to the course affected the level ofdifficulty.

The amount of persistence shown by the student is influenced by the difficulty of the course; thus finding theoptimum level of difficulty can increase student's persistence and lead to a higher completion rate. Conversely, ifways can be found to increase the perseverance of the students, students will perceive the course as less difficult.Thus the two factors of difficulty and persistence are interrelated and influence each other.

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Chacon-Duque found that the use of high-quality print materials and a variety of media in a course can increasethe students' persistence.

Of most interest to the general reader and student of distance education is Chacon-Duque's final chapter,"Conclusions and Recommendations." His discovery that difficulty and persistence are the leading factorsinfluencing completion led him to recommend:

regular and periodic revision of all distance education courses, to ensure that textbooks are up-to-date andappealing, and that contemporary and appropriate media are used;

evaluation of individual instructor's workload, to ensure that each has sufficient time to devote to all studentsbutnot so much time that students are not encouraged to be independent;

establishment of criteria for the selection of textbooks;

increased use of a multimedia approach; and

training and support for instructors.

Both instructors and administrators could benefit from a reading of Chacon-Duque's conclusions andrecommendations.

197.Crocker, Christine, and Craig Grimison. Library Services for External Students, A Guide. Armidale, N.S.W.:Library Association of Australia, Special Interest Group on Distance Education, 1989. no price reported. pa. ISBN0868040711. OCLC 27570411.

This simple volume lists the services offered to distance students by about 45 higher education institutions. Theone-page checklist devoted to each institution gives a yes or no answer to whether the institution offers suchservices to distance students as photocopies (free or at a charge), courier delivery service, information/referenceservice, interlibrary loan, and online searches.

The checklist was compiled after a conference in 1987 of the Library Association of Australia's Special InterestGroup on Distance Education. This group appointed a small working group to explore six issues:

improved coordination of information on distance education

a clearer definition of the role of libraries

better dissemination of information among libraries of what services were offered

access to libraries

information technology

a better definition of clientele

The working group, while exploring all six issues, decided that the third issue, better dissemination of information,could be dealt with fairly swiftly, and they compiled this checklist. An earlier working group in 1982 publishedGuidelines for Library Services to External Students, also under Crocker's editorship (see entry #198).

Although the information is useful for those wishing to know what services are available to them from theinstitution at which they are registered as distance students, this book does not answer a more important question:do any of these institutions offer services to distance students registered at other institutions? Presumably, distancestudents can inquire directly at their own institutional library concerning

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available services. As the 1982 conference pointed out (Crocker, Christine, ed. Library Services in DistanceEducation: Proceedings; see entry #199), students often want to use a library connected to a university at whichthey are not enrolled because that library is more convenient to where they live. Of more use would be informationon what services libraries offer students who are not part of their student body. The present volume, however,would be helpful to libraries just beginning to explore the possibility of offering services to off-campus students.

198.Crocker, Christine, ed. Guidelines for Library Services to External Students. Ultimo, N.S.W.: Special InterestGroup on Distance Education, Library Association of Australia, 1982. 35p. Index. no price reported. pa. ISBN0868044075. OCLC 14583309.

These guidelines were the result of a 1981 conference held in Brisbane, Australia (the conference proceedingswere published as Library Services in Distance Education. Proceedings, with Crocker as editor; see entry #199).The conference voted to convene a small working group to draft guidelines for library services to distanceeducation students. The group examined and designed guidelines for nine areas of library services: finance, staff,the collection, access, information services, user guides, loans, copying, and charges. Each set of guidelines issuccinct, usually two or three statements setting out the requirements in an area.

The layout of this book is attractive and contributes to ease of use. Each set of guidelines is printed in large typeand occupies a separate page. On the opposite page to each set of guidelines is a checklist of questions that amplifythe guidelines. Librarians using the guidelines can work through the questions to gauge their own library's level ofsupport for external students.

199.Crocker, Christine, ed. Library Services in Distance Education: Proceedings of a National Workshop, Brisbane.Ultimo, N.S.W.: Special Interest Group on Distance Education, Library Association of Australia, 1982. 72p. noprice reported. pa. LC 88-159233. ISBN 0909915989. OCLC 10387836.

The proceedings consist of four papers presented at the workshop on distance education. The workshop itselfeventually led to the publication of Guidelines for Library Services to External Students (see entry #198). Thepapers presented here detail the problems that distance students have in identifying and acquiring materials, as wellas the problems that libraries have in serving distance students. All types of libraries have difficulties: students inremote areas ask their very small public libraries to supply them with materials and services beyond that library'sscope, and students living in an area with an excellent university library expect to use that library, even if thestudent is affiliated with a different university. The authors of the papers detail the difficulties and identify what isneeded to ameliorate them: adequate support for all libraries; up-front recognition by distance educationadministrators and faculty of their students' library needs and the support to supply them; and more cooperationamong libraries.

Like the Off-Campus Library Services Conference: Proceedings, edited by Barton M. Lessin (see entry #213), thisvolume would make good reading for administrators responsible for the support of distance education programs.

Cross, K. Patricia. Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning, 1981. See entry #45.

200.Eastmond, Daniel Van. "Alone but Together: Adult Distance Study by Computer Conferencing." Ph.D. diss.,Syracuse University, 1993. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993): 2845A.

This study concentrated on student attitudes toward and use of computer conferencing in distance educationsettings. Eastmond discovered that most students

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were active users of the technique when it was offered and that they found it valuable. They used the technique totalk to one another online, to do joint projects, and to collaborate on learning. Relationships formed online rarelycontinued beyond the course.

201.Eifert, Harvey C. Answers in the Mail: A Correspondence Teacher Writes to His Students. Los Angeles: GSEPublications, 1978.217p. Index. $3.95. LC 77-18977. ISBN 0915668297. OCLC 3543287.

The introduction states that the book has two purposes: to "satisfy the curiosity of those who have often wonderedwhat correspondence instruction is like" and to teach the person interested in technology something of interest.However, the book falls far short of fulfilling those purposes. Entirely composed of questions from students inengineering correspondence courses, together with Eifert's written answers, it contains no editorial materialamplifying or bridging the answers. As such, it does not seem useful as a teaching tool for other correspondenceteachers wishing to hone their skills at answering student's questions. Neither does it accomplish the secondpurpose, except in a haphazard way, as this is no textbook. Perhaps for those wishing to satisfy their curiosity, thisbook may be of marginal use.

202.The Electronic University: A Guide to Distance Learning. Princeton, N.J.: Peterson's Guides, in cooperation withthe National University Continuing Education Association, 1993. 193p. Subject Index. Geographic Index.$15.95pa. LC 93-28518. ISBN 156079139X. OCLC 28587082.

Here is an up-to-the-minute directory of distance education programs in the United States and Canada. It is limitedto programs offered by colleges and universities, at the undergraduate, graduate, and professional certificationlevel; no K-12 programs are featured. Each entry for a college or university lists the name and address of theinstitution; enrollment figures; and a description of each program offeredprerequisites, degree or certificateawarded, methods of delivery; and name, address, phone number, and fax number of a contact person. Someinstitutions also provide a brief statement of purpose.

Supplementary material includes two indexes, one a subject index for locating programs in a certain academicsubject, one a geographic index. Preliminary material includes two thoughtful essays, one by Charles E. Feasely,author of Servicing Learners at a Distance (1983), entry #82, and one by Gary E. Miller, which offer advice to theprospective distance education student. They suggest questions students should ask themselves about their owngoals and level of motivation and questions they should ask about the quality of the program, the reputation of theinstitution, and the methods used in the program, such as how convenient or accessible the necessary technology isto them.

An interesting feature of this book is a series of student profiles, interspersed throughout the book, in whichstudents write about their own experiences with distance education.

203.Flinck, Rune. Correspondence Education Combined with Systematic Telephone Tutoring. Lund, Sweden:Hermods, 1978.142p. Bibliography. 45 kronen. LC 78-323061. ISBN 9123921439. OCLC 4667445.

The research reported here was supported by the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Fund and completed at theDepartment of Education at the University of Lund. Flinck studied the effect of regular telephone calls by tutors tostudents in courses in economics and French. Students were asked questions to discover if those who received suchcalls had a more positive opinion of the course than did a control group who did not receive calls; if the drop-outrate was affected; if such calls helped to overcome the feelings of isolation often experienced by distanceeducation students;

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if such calls influenced the amount of time a student put into studying; andperhaps the most important questionifsuch calls affected achievement.

The greater part of the book is a discussion of the methodology used; most people will be interested in the lastchapter, which is a review of the results. Flinck concluded that many students appreciated telephone tutoring, thatstudents felt more motivated knowing that someone was monitoring their progress and listening to their concerns,but that study time was not affected. His conclusion about course achievementa conclusion of questionable generalvalue as he surveyed students in only two coursesis that some courses will find telephone tutoring more valuablethan others. Students in the language course, in which oral practice is necessary and beneficial, showed higherachievement based on telephone tutoring than did those in the economics course.

Distance education researchers and administrators might find Flinck's methodology of interest, if they plan similarsurveys of achievement.

204.Garland, Maureen R. "Variables Affecting Persistence in Distance Education in the Natural Resource Sciences."Ph.D. diss., University of British Columbia, 1992. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993):2108A. ISBN 0315797312.

The group Garland studied comprised students in the natural resource sciences, who were taking courses with hardcontent that required much memorization. Many of the students who dropped out did so not because of the coursebut because of conflicts between school and their other responsibilities as family members or workers. In this,Garland echoes the studies of others. She also found that many students had difficulty in relating the materialstudied to real-life situations, or had trouble with moving beyond rote memory to applying that knowledge. Sherecommends a stronger support network for distance education students, a higher level of tutoring, and more helpfrom professors in demonstrating real-life applications of the subject matter.

205.George, Alan. Resource Based Learning for School Governors. Dover, N.H.: Croom Helm, 1985. 197p. Index.$26.50. LC gb84-25570. ISBN 070991184X. OCLC 111881998.

In 1981, the Open University of Great Britain prepared and made available a distance education course called"Governing Schools," meant to be used by members of school governing boards. This report describes andevaluates the course. The course included a quantity of written material, some television programs, and CMAs(computer-marked assignments for students to read and submit). Although participants could simply read thematerial on their own, many took the course with their fellow governors and formed discussion groups, often withthe participation of the head of their school. Because the program was voluntary and not for credit, methods ofparticipation and amount of time spent varied greatly. Some simply skimmed the material, some completed allassignments, some skipped watching the television programs, some read only that material of particular interest tothem.

The evaluative comments from students and the case studies presented, although specific to this course, areindicative of students' response to distance education generally. It is obvious in reading them that students felt noreluctance to pick and choose among the assignments and material, reading only the material that they believed tobe of direct use; that motivation is a key factor in successful completion of a distance education program; and thata large amount of course material, or material that appears disorganized, can frustrate or anger a student. Theseprinciples are not new but are important enough to bear repeating, and hearing them within the context of aspecific course makes them more believable.

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206.Gray, John. Library Services in Distance Education: Proceedings of a National Seminar. Adelaide, Australia: SouthAustralian College of Advanced Education Library, 1986. 98p. Bibliographic references. ISBN 0908087276.OCLC 18317574.

The papers in this book were presented at a seminar held by the South Australian College of Advanced EducationLibrary and the University and College Library Association of Australia, at Adelaide University in August 1985.Many of the participants in the conference have written extensively on library services to distance students:Christine Crocker edited Guidelines for External Students (1982), Library Services for Extension Students: AGuide (1989), and Library Services in Distance Education (1982), and Margaret Cameron coauthored withAndrew Winter External Students and Their Libraries (1983). All are annotated in this chapter.

The proceedings consist of nine papers, mostly detailing the experience of particular libraries in serving distanceeducation students. Of particular interest is the paper by Cameron, "The Winter-Cameron Report Two Years On,"which indicates that some progress has been made as a result of that initial report. As with other reports andproceedings on library services to this special segment of the student population, this book contains much ofinterest to those beyond the library community.

207.Harasim, Linda M., ed. Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment. New York: Praeger, 1990. 279p.Index. Bibliography. no price reported. LC 89-38987. ISBN 0275934489. OCLC 20263762.

In this edited collection of essays, Harasim goes beyond the study of either correspondence courses and televisionand radio broadcasts of classes to an examination of truly interactive distance education settings: the use ofinteractive computers. Using such technology, students can study anywhere and anytime, but can still jump in toask questions and make comments electronically through their keyboards.

Some of the essays state that computers still only supplement face-to-face contact, providing continuousinteraction between the limited face-to-face time usually allowed in a distance education situation. All theessayists, however, agree that use of interactive computers allows more frequent and spontaneous contact betweeninstructor and student than does more traditional distance teaching.

An added feature of this book is its discussion of how computer interaction can be superior to face-to-face contactfor some student groups. Examples include English as a second language students who have difficulty with spokenEnglish but are articulate in writing, or members of minority groups who may feel that their participation will betaken more seriously in this format.

Harrington, Fred Harvey. The Future of Adult Education, 1977. See entry #88.

208.Harry, Keith, and Coen de Vocht. European Association of Distance Teaching Universities. Milton Keynes,England: International Centre for Distance Learning for the European Association of Distance TeachingUniversities, 1988. 85p. $12.50. ISBN 1871502004. OCLC 19578445.

Harry and de Vocht have compiled a standard directory of the members of the European Association of DistanceTeaching Universities. Four of the members (the Open University in the United Kingdom, FernUniversität inGermany, Open Universiteit in the Netherlands, and the Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia in Spain)are independent degree-granting institutions that teach through the distance method. Other members are consortiaof a number of institutions. One member has as its main function research in distance education: Deutsches Institutfur Fernstudien an der Universität Tubingen, in Germany.

Each entry contains a large amount of information about the organization, including a history, a profile of thestudent body, course information, information on teaching methods, and information on structure and management.This guide is not

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as detailed in its course or program information as is the directory of United States and Canadian distanceeducation programs, The Electronic University: A Guide to Distance Learning (1993), entry #202.

Holmberg, Börje. Status and Trends of Distance Education, 1981. See entry #52.

Holmberg, Börje. Distance Education: A Survey and Bibliography, 1977. See entry #93.

Holmberg, Börje. Theory and Practice of Distance Education, 1989. See entry #53.

International Symposium on Media of Distance Education. Second International Symposium on Media of DistanceEducation: Prospects and Effectiveness, 1984. See entry #271.

209.Johnson, Keith Richard. "An Analysis of Variables Associated with Student Achievement and Satisfaction in aUniversity Distance Education Course." Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1993. Abstract inDissertation Abstracts International 54(1993): 2067A.

Johnson studied 160 students in teacher training courses. He found that differences in learning style, academicmajor, or gender did not affect achievement or satisfaction with the course. What did influence satisfaction wasthe quality of the videotapes and the textbooks used. Students who felt the quality of these components of thecourse was not good were dissatisfied in general with the course. Johnson thus believes that improvement in thequality of the media used will enhance student satisfaction.

In his emphasis on the quality of the teaching materials, Johnson sounds a similar note to that made by FabioChacon-Duque in his dissertation, A Multivariate Model for Evaluating Distance Higher Education (1987), entry#196.

Jones, Ann, Eileen Scanlon, and Tim O'Shea, eds. The Computer Revolution in Education: New Technologies forDistance Teaching, 1987. See entry #98.

210.Jones, Ann, Gill Kirkup, and Adrian Kirkwood. Personal Computers for Distance Education: The Study of anEducational Innovation. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. 180p. Index. Bibliography. $45.00. LC 92-41551.ISBN 0312095163. OCLC 27034293.

In 1987, Ann Jones, along with Eileen Scanlon and Tim O'Shea, edited The Computer Revolution in Education:New Technologies for Distance Education, entry #98, which looked at ways the personal computer was changingdistance education. In this newer book, she and her coauthors take a more specific look at developments in thefield, using the Open University of the United Kingdom as a case study.

The first three chapters look at learning theory, at how people learn, and at various uses of educational technology,particularly in distance learning. They also describe the present study. The next chapter gives details about OpenUniversity students: their age, occupation, amount of time devoted to study, whether and how the computer fitsinto their study plans, and social and family characteristics that influence their study and success. Chapters 5 and 6look at issues of access: Does the use of a personal computer in a course make the course more or less accessibleto more or fewer students? What role does economics play? Are disabled students better served with the increasinguse of computers? How are students assisted in developing competence in the use of computers? Access issueshave long been a concern for distance educators; indeed, one strong support for distance education has always beenthat it increases the accessibilty of education. Jones and others look at these

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access issues with a specific question in mind: Does the increasing popularity of the personal computer, the use ofwhich is required in some courses, increase or decrease accessibility? The next chapter explores ways in which theOpen University, and by extension other institutions, can help students gain both access to computers and expertisein using them.

The authors' concluding chapter discusses the role of technological developments in driving change in educationalinstitutions. Like other books that concentrate on rapidly changing technology and its effect on education, this oneprovides an intriguing look at what the future might hold, as well as solid information on what we are doing now.Other books to look at include Mindweave (1989) by Robin Mason and Anthony Kaye, entry #217; The EmergingWorldwide Electronic University (1992) by Parker Rossman, entry #61; Campus Networking Strategies (1988),entry #41, and Campus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Information (1990), entry #42, both by CarolineArms; and Jones's earlier book, entry #98.

211.Knowles, Malcolm. Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. Chicago: Association Press,1975. 135p. $4.95. LC 78-54632. ISBN 0695811169. OCLC 3868885.

Although not specifically concerned with distance education, this small book could be useful both to teachers indistance education programs and to their students. For teachers it presents ways to help students become moremotivated, self-directed, and efficient in learning, all requirements of the student at a distance. For students, it tellswhy self-direction is necessary and conducive to success and offers methods of becoming more so.

Fifteen "Learning Resources" (listed in the back of the book, labeled A through O) offer specific tasks andexercises that students can complete, either at the direction of the teacher or on their own, to become more self-directed. Exercises for students include writing a learning contract, examining and improving self-concept,learning how to become collaborative rather than competitive with their fellow students, and stating specificobjectives.

Students who will take the trouble to work through this book will probably improve their chances of success in anindependent learning situation, and teachers can use it to become better acquainted with the hurdles a student at adistance faces.

212.Latham, Sheila, Alexander Slade, and Carol Budnick. Library Services for Off Campus and Distance Education:An Annotated Bibliography. Chicago: American Library Association, 1991. 249p. No price reported. LC 91-6399.ISBN 0838921582. OCLC 22983510.

This annotated bibliography deals with a question often ignored in books about distance education: the provisionof resources to students at a distance. All the 535 items listed, mostly periodical articles, deal with the library's roleand the interaction between the library and the teaching institution. As shown by the 1988 book by ElizabethBurge on the same subject, Developing Partnerships: An Investigation of Library-Based Relationships withStudents and Educators Participating in Distance Education, entry #194, some important work on the subject hascome out of Canada.

Chapters address such issues as guidelines, collection building and management, services to students, instruction inlibrary use, document delivery, and cooperative efforts like consortia, resource sharing, and reciprocal privileges.

This is an important source for educators interested in providing distance students not only teaching but support forindependent investigation and research.

213.Lessin, Barton M., ed. The Off-Campus Library Services Conference. Proceedings of Conferences held in 1985 atKnoxville, Tennessee (261p); in 1986 at Reno, Nevada (353p); and in 1988 at Charleston, South Carolina (415p).Mt. Pleasant, MI:

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Central Michigan University Press. no price reported. OCLC (1985) 13386937. OCLC (1986) 1343187. OCLC(1988) 19090358.

Most of the papers collected in these conference proceedings are case studies of a specific library's attempts tograpple with the problems of the off-campus user. They discuss such issues as providing document delivery to off-campus users, instruction in library use, reference help, and developing devices like networks and consortia to aidin this process.

The papers raise some vital points on serving this population, by definition geographically far flung. The dearth ofliterature on the topic of library services to off-campus users makes these proceedings welcome. Administratorsresponsible for the support of such programs will benefit from the information.

A compilation of papers from the four conferences has been published. See the following annotation.

214.Lessin Barton M., ed. Off-Campus Library Services: Selected Readings from Central Michigan's Off-CampusLibrary Services Conferences. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1991. 242p. Subject index. Name index.Bibliographic references. $27.50. LC 91-38119. ISBN 0810825120. OCLC 19090358.

Papers presented at four conferences on library services to off-campus users have been chosen to reflect sixconcerns: models of programs; case studies of programs for library service to off-campus users; accreditationissues; faculty issues; international case studies from Australia, England, and Canada; and administrative issues.Far more professional looking than the proceedings themselves, this compilation may get a wider audience thandoes most printed material about library services to off-campus users.

Several editions of the Proceedings are also annotated in this chapter, under Lessin's editorship.

Ljoså, Erling. The System of Distance Education, 1, 1975. See entry #116.

215.McIntosh, Naomi E., Judith A. Calder, and Betty Swift. A Degree of Difference: The Open University of theUnited Kingdom. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1977. 320p. Name index. Bibliographic references. (PraegerSpecial Studies in International Economics and Development). no price reported. LC 77-23034. ISBN0030403413. OCLC 3089839.

Published six years after the first students entered Great Britain's Open University in 1971, this book presentsdetailed information on these students and their progress through their course of study. It gives such obviousstatistics as age, level of education, sex, occupation, and marital status, as well as some unexpected data: leisuretime interests, use of mass media, and travel time to and from work. It also notes success rates, based onwithdrawal from courses and on graduation. The authors saw this book as a help in predicting who would applytoand prosper inthe Open University in the future. It supplies a useful baseline to compare with statisticalinformation on later students, such as that in David Harris' Openness and Closure in Distance Education (1987),entry #50.

MacKenzie, Ossian, Edward L. Christensen, and Paul H. Rigby. Correspondence Instruction in the United States:A Study of What It Is, How It Functions, and What Its Potential May Be, 1968. See entry #25.

McLardy, Ailsa. ''Understanding Distance Education," 1991. See entry #58.

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216.Marland, P. W., W. G. Patching, and I. J. Putt. Learning from Text: Glimpses Inside the Minds of DistanceLearners. Townsville, Australia: James Cook University of North Queensland, 1992 126p. Bibliography. no pricereported. pa. ISBN 0864434375. OCLC 27590338.

The authors studied 17 distance education students. Nine of the students were taking an education course towardtheir bachelor's degree; the other eight were taking a basic subject toward an associate degree. The students wereobserved at their studies, were interviewed, and were asked to complete a questionnaire. The purpose was toascertain students' methods of approaching and studying written material.

Most of the students appeared to skim the reading material, rather than reading in depth. Most also adopted themethod of a "twice over" approach. They read material through quickly at first, then reread relevant parts whilepreparing assignments, seeking out only those sections of use in the assignment.

The authors end with a dilemma: much of the theory of distance education supports a teaching method that grantsstudents much autonomy in how and when they study. Yet such autonomy, without strong direction from theteacher, seems to leave students with only a surface knowledge of the course material. The authors conclude thatthese students did not greatly enhance their subject knowledge through the course. They conclude also that thetype of person attracted to distance education programspeople with heavy responsibilities of job or family outsidethe study programwill by necessity use such study techniques.

217.Mason, Robin, and Anthony Kaye. Mindweave: Communication, Computers, and Distance Education. New York:Pergamon, 1989. 273p. Index. Bibliography. No price reported. LC 89-31110. ISBN 0080377556. OCLC19352255.

According to the acknowledgements, Mindweave "is dedicated to an exploration of the ways in which the benefitsof computer-mediated communication, as experienced by these students, can be made more widely available toadult distance learners." The papers in Mindweave present a very thorough look at computer-mediatedcommunication, or CMC, from a variety of viewpoints. Some papers discuss how to integrate CMC into alreadyexisting courses and the effect it will have on students' motivation, thus changing the course itself. Others presentplans for developing courses around the existence of CMC. Some are theoretically based, discussing how anelectronic text is different from a paper one, how it changes the students' approach or reaction to course material;others are more practical and hands-on, describing courses that use this method. Most of the contributors are fromOpen University or from other distance teaching universities in England and Canada.

This book presents a strong point of view and is an advocate for the medium of CMC, not only because the editorsbelieve strongly in its efficacy but because they are afraid that it will not be widely adopted. Both costs and a fearof new methods are among the reasons they give for possible reluctance to embrace this new tool. Curiouslyenough, the editors fear that distance education institutions themselves, with the most to gain from this technology,will be less willing to adopt it than will more traditional universities. Distance education universities such as theOpen University of the United Kingdom have already invested heavily in alternative technology and may bereluctant to reinvest in something new.

Moore, Michael G., Peter Cookson, Joe Donaldson, and B. Allan Quigley, eds. Contemporary Issues in AmericanDistance Education, 1990. See entry #121.

Morgan, Alistair. Improving Your Students' Learning: Reflections on the Experience of Study, 1993. See entry#172.

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218.Obradovic, Robert. Degrees Through Distance Education: How to Earn a Bachelor's, Master's, or Doctoral Degreewithout Attending a University. Toronto: Granice Press, 1987.126p. Index. $18.95pa. ISBN 0969265719. OCLC16178440.

After two brief introductory essays, one on the history of distance education and one on earning credit through lifeexperience, Obradovic presents a directory of institutions that grant degrees through distance education. He notesname and address of institution, level of degree and in some cases subject areas taught, transfer credit accepted,accreditation, and residency requirements. Canadian, U.S., and some British institutions are included.

A more recent directory is The Electronic University: A Guide to Distance Learning Programs (1993), entry #202.

219.Ostman, Ronald E., Graham A. Wagner, and Harold M. Barrowclough. Adult Distance Education, EducationalTechnology and Drop Out. Wellington, New Zealand: Council for Educational Research and New ZealandTechnical Correspondence Institute, 1988,189p. Bibliography. (Studies in Education, No. 48). No price reported.ISBN 0908567731. OCLC 22099457.

The authors surveyed students enrolled in the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute's managementcourse between 1980 and 1982. They distributed 942 questionnaires and received 724 usable ones in return, areturn rate of 76.9 percent. Questions concerned the students themselves (age, gender, work), their study habits,and their reasons either for dropping out or remaining in the course. The authors wished to find out which factorsinfluencing drop out were related to the course or the institution, and which were related to factors in the students'lives over which the institution had no control.

The authors present their questionnaire and their analysis of it. Factors influencing course completion and drop outare divided into four categories. First are personal factors, such as lack of time or heavy commitments other thanschool. Second are social interaction factors. The only conclusion drawn from this category is that students whotravelled extensively overseas during their time on the course were more likely to continue with the course.Psychological factors, the third category, included student's happiness or unhappiness in their job (studentscontented with their jobs were more likely to continue) and students' belief that the course would contribute to aclear goal. Institutional factors, the final category, included the need for rapid turnaround time between assignmentcompletion and return and a desire on some students' part to have a variety of media introduced into the course.

The authors conclude with a series of recommendations. They recommend first that students receive counselingbefore enrolling, to ensure that the course meets their personal goals and that their academic preparation isadequate. They recommend further that the expectations of the course be made clear, that tutoring support beadequate, including contact by telephone, that students be tracked and contacted with encouragement when a longtime goes by between submission of assignments; that assignments within a course be integrated but not overlap;and that educational media be more widely introduced.

220.Parer, Michael, and Robyn Benson. Professional Training by Distance Education: Perspectives from PsychologyMajorsA Student Diary Report. Churchill, Australia: Centre for Distance Learning, Gippsland Institute, 1989.51p.Bibliography. $20.00 Aust., plus $5.00 s & h. pa. ISBN 090917038X. OCLC 27599520.

Thirty-nine students in psychology at Gippsland Institute kept a diary for 33 days. Each day, each studentanswered four questions about his or her study habits and techniques and reactions to the distance educationmethod. The editors have collated these diary comments and present the comments in six areas:

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Vocational

Personal

Academic

Teaching

Learning

Social context

The recorded comments give a picture of at least a small sample of distance education students. As might beexpected, they record feelings of isolation and discouragement. In addition, they record feelings ofaccomplishment, as well as determination to see the program through.

221.Race, Philip. How to Win as an Open Learner: A Student's Guide to Tackling an Open Learning Course. London:Council for Educational Technology, 1986. 87p. £2.50pa. ISBN 0861841654. OCLC 13667985.

This book offers a lot that would be motivational for the student new to independent learning. Race gives practicalhints for undertaking open learning, interspersing these hints with questions for the reader to answer and activitiesto undertake, in the best self-directed and open learning method. Along with Malcolm Knowles' Self-DirectedLearning (1975), entry #211, this book would be useful for the student a bit reluctant or apprehensive aboutbeginning a program.

222.Reid-Smith, Edward R., ed. External Studies in Library and Information Science. Wagga Wagga, Australia: Officeof Research in Librarianship, 1980. 136p. Bibliographic references. No price reported. ISBN 0949866008. OCLC8315225.

After an introductory essay by the editor on the history of the external degree in Australia, Canada, the UnitedKingdom, and the United States, this volume continues with a series of case studies of external programs inlibrarianship. Case studies are of programs in Scotland, South Africa, and a number of institutions in Australia.Most focus on the difficulties experienced by both teachers and students at a distance and the means ofovercoming them, such as how to provide access to sources to isolated students.

Sponder, Barry M. Distance Education in Rural Alaska: An Overview of Teaching and Learning Practices inAudioconferencing Courses. 2d ed., 1991. See entry #247.

223.Tait, Alan, ed. International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education. Selected Papers. Milton Keynes,England: Open University Press, 1987. 130p. Bibliographic references. MF $1.18. PC $19.80. LC gb85-9235. ED291352. OCLC 12520248.

This book publishes 16 papers presented at the 1987 Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education. Theconference was sponsored by the International Council on Distance Education (ICDE) and took place inCambridge, England. The papers are by people from several different countries and institutions.

The papers deal with a variety of issues, including the characteristics needed in a counselor of distance educationstudents; counseling of students before admission in an effort to decrease the drop-out rate; and counseling ofstudents with special needs, such as the disabled and older students. One paper discusses the benefits an institutionof distance education will derive from a well-supported counseling program. The topic of the conference indicatesthe established but now growing conviction that distance education students need a strong support system to helpthem succeed.

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224.Tait, Alan, ed. Interaction and Independence: Student Support in Distance Education and Open Learning. MiltonKeynes, England: Open University, 1989. 270p. Bibliographic references. MF $1.18. PC $36.30. ED 317-188.

Twenty-six papers from the third conference sponsored by the International Council for Distance Education(ICDE) and the British Open University, in September 1989, are presented here. Conference papers explore theconcepts of interaction and independence in distance education. Although distance education necessarily fostersindependent learning, it has always included as part of its definition some degree of interaction between studentand teacher. Papers deal with various aspects of this tension. One aspect is the difficulty in achieving interactionwhen methods of doing so are slow and primitive, as they often are in remote areas where mail is slow, telephoneconnections unreliable, and computer hookups nonexistent. Other aspects are the necessity of interaction not onlyto explain course concepts and materials but also to provide socialization among students and a sense of being in agroup; and the influence on interaction of newly developed technology, such as interactive television, computerconferencing, and e-mail capability. Some papers report on specific methods of interaction and how best to makeuse of them, such as contact by telephone, tutoring, and correspondence. Some papers argue that a high level ofinteraction can actually influence course and program direction and content because programs change in responseto student feedback.

An earlier conference, held in 1987, also examined the issue of interaction between student and teacher, with aslightly different focus. It was also edited by Tait and is annotated above.

Thorpe, Mary, and David Grugeon. Open Learning for Adults, 1987. See entry #147.

225.Timmons, Judith A., and A. Ivan Williams. Handbook on the Organization and Management of DistanceEducation Study Centres. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1990.78p. Bibliography. $11.00.

Although this book is brief, it is specific and helpful, giving in concise form much useful information about theformation and operation of study centers. The authors provide a list of administrative, academic, and social reasonsfor why these centers are desirable and useful; how they should be designed and built; what kinds of personnelmight staff them, such as an administrator, a tutor, and a librarian; and what functions the centers might perform,such as providing course materials or supplementary resources, providing electronic links to the main campus, orproviding quiet study space. It also gives a general idea of how some specific study centers in various systemsoperate. The systems profiled are taken from several different countries, including Australia, Nigeria, Canada,Great Britain, and Japan, all countries with widely differing systems of distance education.

The authors have managed to pack a lot of questions and answers into this short handbook. What questions it doesnot answer it at least asks, so that the potential founder or director of such a study center has an idea of what isinvolved in creating and running one.

Verduin, John R., and Thomas A. Clark. Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice, 1991. Seeentry #64.

226.Wells, Rosalie. Computer-Mediated Communication for Distance Education: An International Review of Design,Teaching, and Institutional Issues. University Park: American Center for the Study of Distance Education, ThePennsylvania State

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University, 1992. 69p. Bibliography. (Research Monographs No. 6). $20.00pa. ISBN 1877780073. CICLC26738497.

Wells begins with an explanation of the ways in which computer-mediated communication can be helpful todistance education studentsin overcoming isolation, allowing group interaction with a course, allowing easy accessto professors and tutors, and providing access to source materials at libraries worldwide. She then proceeds todiscuss teacher, student, and institutional issues that should be evaluated when designing a course using computer-mediated communication.

Design issues include how to choose an appropriate course in which to integrate computer-mediatedcommunication, how to encourage its use by sometimes reluctant students, and how to decide on an optimum sizefor a class. One student issue is how to mitigate the difficulties that students might have in learning computer skillsand online communication skills concurrently with learning the material in a new course. An issue relating toinstructors is their need to find a balance between being an active participant in online discussions and allowingstudents more independence. Too great an involvement on the instructor's part might be interpreted by somestudents as overwhelming the novice, whereas a lesser degree of participation can be seen as passivity and lack ofinterest on the instructor's part. Institutional issues center on access to computers: should the institution providecomputers and modems for students; does computer-mediated communication automatically exclude students withless money than others from participating; and should the institution provide instruction in the computer skillsstudents need to participate.

The use of personal computers to allow online discussion is a growing part of distance education. Computerconferencing, online discussion groups, and questions and answers between student and professor are all possible.This short monograph presents the issues succinctly and clearly. Two other books that discuss many of the sameissues in more depth are Mindweave: Communication, Computers, and Distance Education (1989), entry #217,and Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment (1990), entry #207.

227.Willen, Birgitta. Distance Education at Swedish Universities: An Evaluation of the Experimental Programme and aFollow-Up Study. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell International, 1981. 301p. Bibliography. Appendices. no pricereported. ISBN 9155412289. OCLC 9725178.

A revision of Willen's doctoral thesis, this book contains much statistical material. It reports the results of hersurveys of teachers and students in distance education programs and courses, including what students and teachersexpect from distance education, what they expect to put into it in terms of time and effort, and how much time andeffort they actually do expend. In addition, Willen presents a great deal of information about what teachers identifyas difficulties with the distance teaching method.

Part 4, "What happens to the university's distance students? A follow-up investigation after five years," givesstatistics on completion rates; on whether students would recommend distance education to others; on satisfactionwith the method of learning through distance courses or programs; and on the relationship of distance educationstudies both to changes in occupational situation and in increased self-esteem.

The book explores some questions that often get lost in the race to evaluate methods and discuss technology:questions on the efficacy of distance education and on whether it accomplishes its aims.

Willis, Barry. Distance Education: A Practical Guide, 1993. See entry #188.

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228.Winter, Andrew, and Margaret Cameron. External Students and Their Libraries: An Investigation into StudentNeeds for Reference Material, the Sources They Use, and the Effects of the External System within which TheyStudy. Geelong, Victoria, Australia: Deakin University, 1983. 117p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. ISBN0730002020. OCLC 13306860.

For this book, the authors surveyed 1,500 students from 10 Australian colleges and universities. They sent out2,000 questionnaires and attained a 75 percent return rate. The book details the sample (age of students, the collegeattended, the courses taken), and the survey (the use of the home library, the use of tertiary libraries, the use ofservices by mail, and attitudes toward libraries and library services).

Most students saw lack of access to libraries as a serious problem. Many advocated loosening restrictions on usinglibraries of institutions at which they were not enrolled. The authors use the survey as a reason to espouse anational scheme of reciprocal borrowing privileges. In this scheme, external students would be given a nationallibrary card that would allow them to borrow from any university library. They also advocate the development ofmore local study centers, which would maintain collections of study materials and which would advise students onlibrary use.

The survey further found that students were often frustrated to find that books and other materials recommended asessential to their course were not available from their library. According to the authors, one solution to thisfrustration would be to include librarians in the planning process for distance education courses so that materialscould be purchased. In general, the survey indicates that distance education students see the lack of adequatelibrary services as a serious problem.

229.Wong, Charles Kit Hung. "Measuring Completion Rates in Distance Education." Master's thesis, University ofBritish Columbia, 1987. OCLC 20250633.

Wong studied drop-out and completion rates of students at the 1984 summer session of the Department ofExtramural Studies, the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He compared the drop-out rate with two other factors:(1) the turnaround time between when a student submits an assignment and when feedback on it is received; and(2) the swiftness with which students completed and submitted assignments. Wong found that quick turnaroundtime did lower the drop-out rate. Perhaps more surprisingly, he also found a correlation between completion rateand the rate with which students submitted assignmentsstudents who were in the habit of submitting assignmentsregularly and on time had a higher completion rate. He also found that the first half of the course was crucialthecorrelation between drop-out rate and the above two factors was greater for the first half of the course. From theseresults he postulates that institutions should work on quick turnaround time and on encouraging students to developgood study habits quickly.

230.Woodley, Alan, and Naomi McIntosh. The Door Stood Open: An Evaluation of the Open University YoungerStudents Pilot Scheme. London: Falmer Press, 1980. 261p. $25.00. ISBN 0905273141. OCLC 13064828.

When the Open University of the United Kingdom began teaching in 1971, it was open to students 21 years oldand older. Its mandate was to serve the mature population, those who had been unable to attend conventionaluniversities or who wished to return to school but continue working. However, early on it was proposed thatyounger students, from 18 to 21, also be admitted. This happened in 1974; the first group completed courses in1979. This report is about the first younger students at the Open University.

It reports first on the difficulties of advertising and recruiting: Open University had been publicized as being forolder students, and younger people simply did not

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pay attention to its existence. Some of the particular problems of younger students are chronicled and examined.

Younger people are often involved in other time- and emotion-consuming endeavors, such as first jobs,marriage, or caring for young children.

Younger people miss the social interaction of the regular classroom and find isolated study lonely.

They sometimes lack the discipline to study on their own.

They feel out of place among older students, particularly at the required summer schools.

The drop-out rate was high for younger students, yet those who persisted had a high success rate.

The authors give detailed information on this first group of younger students, including demographics, studyhabits, completion rates, and reasons for dropping out. They also draw some conclusions and makerecommendations: They believe that younger students should continue to be admitted. They also believe thatconventional universities can learn from this study ways to make higher education more accessible to youngpeople: provision of day care for children, more part-time courses, and more help with costs.

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Appendix A: Journals in Distance Education 165

Appendix B: Distance Education Online 167

Author Index 169

Title Index 173

Subject Index 181

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Mahdi
Rectangle
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6Special Groups Served by Distance Education

Introduction

In a sense, every user of distance education is a special group of one. Each user must work alone, without thecompanionship and encouragement of classmates. Each has to find individual study methods and individualmotivation. Each also has to work out an individual way of interacting with the teacher, of asking questions, ofseeking help with assignments.

Despite this built-in individuality, distance learning practitioners can still identify certain groups whom distanceeducation serves. Some of these groups are isolated geographically. Either they live far from an educationalinstitution that offers suitable courses or far from any educational institution. These people study through thedistance method because of necessity, not choice. Other groups that find distance education attractive are thephysically handicapped, the incarcerated, those in particular jobs, those with heavy family responsibilities, or thoseprevented by lack of academic background from attending traditional schools.

Geograhic Isolation

The geographically isolated are a diverse group. They can be children in the United States, attending a school toosmall to offer specialized courses. They can be women in Manitoba, Canada, interested in job training. All thesepeople struggle against the great odds of their geographical isolation and see distance education as a means ofovercoming those odds.

One special subgroup consists of people whose jobs isolate them from educational opportunities. Perhaps someonebegan a university program, then was transferred. Rather than giving up the degree program or transferring toanother college with a consequent loss of credits, some people would rather pursue the degree through a distanceeducation program. The ideal would be if their original university offered credits by distance. Failing that, theymay seek another institution that teaches the distance student. Other people whose jobs are essentially lonelyaforest ranger, someone on a scientific expedition, even a traveling salesperson whose home is often a motelroomcould carry on an academic program only through a distance method.

A huge category of people have jobs that do not isolate them completely but still deny them access to particularspecialized training. Many professionals wish to continue their education and perhaps qualify for promotion but donot live and work near an institution offering an appropriate program. They can take advantage of distanceeducation. For example, the University of New Mexico provides courses for nurses in small towns in New Mexico,Colorado, and Utah, who have received an associate degree and wish to study

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for their bachelor's. Most live too far from the campus to attend classes on-site. For them, the outreach program isessential.

Younger students can also be geographically isolated and need distance education. In Australia, children living inremote stations are taught through the Schools of the Air, with occasional visits from teachers and intensive dailytutoring by their parents. Two books that describe the Australian system are Primary Distance Education:Population, Problems, and Prospects (1984) by Peter Taylor and Derrick Tomlinson; and Teaching and Learningat Home: Distance Education and the Isolated Child (1985) by Derrick Tomlinson, Frank Coulter, and JanePeacock.

Sometimes it is an institution that is isolated, not an individual or a group of individuals. Rural schools in allcountries are a case in point. Such schools, with low enrollment, budgetary constraints, and difficulty in attractingteachers, find it hard to offer an array of courses. Some of the courses they wish to offer but cannot are thosegreatly neededforeign languages, upper mathematics courses, courses needing extensive laboratory facilities.Perhaps only one or two students want to study Japanesenot enough to offer a full course, but enough that theschool wishes to accommodate the desire.

One answer to this dilemma has been consolidation of schools. Consolidation, however, brings its own problems.Students have to be bussed to classes, often long distances, which extends the school day. The students are thrownin with others not from their own communities and find it difficult to make friends. After-school activities, whichwould help form those friendships, are hurt by the transportation problem. Often, too, a small school is part of atown or village's character. Close the school, bus the children to another community with a larger school, and thecommunity loses some of its distinctive flavor. So consolidation, much as it appeals to the advocates of efficiencyand cost savings, is not always the answer.

Distance education can help. Through distance methods, whether by television broadcast, interactive video,computers, or some other method, schools can share the skills of one teacher. Students in several schools, linkedtogether through media, can study Japanese, or trigonometry, or world history. Schools can share in the costs, canuse the same lesson plans and assignments, can benefit from the same teacher. A number of books discuss the useof distance education in rural schools, among them The Distance Education Handbook: An Administrator's Guidefor Rural and Remote Schools (1992) by Bruce O. Barker; Lifelines of Learning: Distance Education andAmerica's Rural Schools (1993), published by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting; and Multi-MediaApproaches to Rural Education (1972) by Tony Dodds.

Industry Applications

Industry's use of distance education is another major area of interest. Corporations are training their own workersthrough the method; the military is doing so as well. Many countries other than the United States are using thedistance education method for worker training. Two of the most complete works on industry use of distanceeducation are Greville Rumble and Joao Oliveira's Vocational Education at a Distance: International Perspectives(1992) and Hilary Temple's Open Learning in Industry: Developing Flexibility and

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Competence in the Workforce (1991). Distance Education for Corporate and Military Training (1993), a book ofreadings edited by Michael G. Moore is also useful. For a look at how France has dealt with this situation, seeDistance Learning for Heads of Firms and Managerial Staff in the Small Business Sector of France (1988) by M.Rennard and F. Weygard; Luciano Osbat has explored the question in The Provision of Distance Learning in Italy(1986).

Women

Women are a large special group whom distance education helps. Often women's lives are greatly influenced bytheir families. Women who are home with small children, women who have moved because of a husband'stransfer, or women who are caring for aging parents or other relatives, all can benefit from the flexibility ofdistance education. They can elect to study early in the morning or late at night or while the children arethemselves at school. They can finish up a degree program that was interrupted by the birth of a child, by atransfer, or by the necessity of going to work. They can change career paths, update long-neglected skills, or learnnew ones in preparation for a return to the job market.

On a more emotional level, women sometimes report that distance education, with its anonymity and its emphasison written work rather than class participation, is easier for them. Perhaps in a traditional class they would be olderthan most of the students and reluctant to participate. Perhaps they believe the common perception that women arenot good in math, or science, or computer studies, and would be intimidated by classmates they thought were moreadvanced. For whatever reason, many women find distance education an appealing method of learning. One bookthat explores the effect of distance education on women is Karlene Faith's Toward New Horizons for Women inDistance Education: International Perspectives (1988). A shorter study is found in Susan May's Ed.D. thesis,''Women's Experiences as Learners in Distance Education" (1993).

Physically Disabled

Physically handicapped people can also benefit from distance education. Those who are homebound, unable to getto classes easily, those who find college campuses difficult to negotiate, or those with hearing loss who cannotparticipate in lecture classes can find the self-paced and independent aspect of distance education helpful. Also,those who simply need more time to cover material, perhaps because their physical condition makes it necessaryfor them to rest often, can use distance education to learn at their own pace. There is some concern among distanceeducators that the increasing reliance on computer screens and video tapes will make it more difficult for thevisually impaired. However, even for these students, material can be adapted. Videos now come with descriptivenarration and computers can be voice-activated and manipulated. In general, distance education can be a boon tothe physically challenged. A master's thesis that explores this aspect of distance education is "The Role ofComputer Delivered Distance Education

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in Increasing Access to Post-Secondary Education" (1991) by Trudy Smit Quosai.

Socioeconomic Factors

Those isolated not by geography or handicap but by socioeconomic factors can also find opportunity in distanceeducation. People who dropped out of high school but now want to continue their education may be unable to doso through traditional methods because of work or family commitments. A distance course can be the answer.

Those whose early schooling was inadequate can catch up with this method. There are distance educators whowork with the prison population and believe that this method of education can be used to reduce recidivism byoffering job training to inmates before release. John Anwyl et al. in Who Uses External Studies? Who Should?(1987), discusses the use of distance education with the prison population. Scott Alfred Frederickson's Ed.D.thesis, "Teaching Incarcerated Youths Using Microcomputer Distance Education Technology" (1989) also exploresthis application.

Distance educators assume that they reach populations unserved by traditional educational methods: the smallisolated villages that could not support a wide spectrum of programs in their schools; the people with irregular jobhours who could not commit to a full-time program; women constrained by child care from taking daytime classes.Distance education has offered a chance to those who dropped out or were frozen out of traditional educationalmethods. With increasing numbers of people needing and wanting job retraining but not wishing to give up full-time employment to return to school, with people desiring lifelong learning opportunities either for economicreasons or simply the desire to learn, with governments recognizing that education often leads to increasedeconomic prosperity, there is no reason to suppose that distance education will not continue.

Sources

Anwyl, John, Margaret Powles, and Kate Patrick. Who Uses External Studies? Who Should?, 1987. See entry#191.

231.Barker, Bruce O. The Distance Education Handbook: An Administrator's Guide for Rural and Remote Schools. 2ded. Charleston, W. Va.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Remote Schools, 1992.65p. Bibliography.$14.00pa. LC 91-43540. ISBN 1880785013. OCLC 29417215.

Although this second (and newly titled) edition of Barker's Interactive Distance Learning Technologies for Ruraland Small Schools is short, it is extremely useful for the administrator of a rural school. It provides someinformation about the costs of competing technologies in the field of distance education. Although such specificcost information will soon be outdated, it gives some idea of comparative costs among different technologies. Italso gives brief descriptions of a number of ongoing distance education programs and brief definitions of types ofsystemsaudioconferencing, coaxial cable, fiber optics, microwave. A list of various technologies indicates theiradvantages and disadvantages.

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It also asks many questions that an administrator needs to ask when faced with the many decisions involved insetting up a system. What purpose is the system to serve? What clientele or population is involved? Who controlsthe system? How are scheduling conflicts resolved? What are start-up costs? Ongoing costs? The number ofquestions can be overwhelming, but this book at least lays them out methodically. Administrators can workthrough them and know that they have examined the questions thoroughly. Particularly for the administrator in aremote area, without the technical support available in more populous areas, this book will take some of themystery out of the process of setting up a distance education program or course.

The bibliography consists of ERIC documents, including many conference papers, which are easily located.

Barker, Bruce O. Distance Learning Case Studies, 1989. See entry #70.

232.Bates, A. W. Broadcasting in Education: An Evaluation. London: Constable, 1984.272p. Subject index. Authorindex. Bibliography. (Communication and Society, vol. 7). no price reported. ISBN 0094635900; 009463680Xpa.OCLC 11411151.

Bates covers all levels and applications of educational broadcasting: radio and television, early childhoodeducation through university use, continuing education and basic education, the incidental use of broadcastprograms in a classroom, and full-scale teaching through broadcasting as done by the Open University of theUnited Kingdom. Bates reports on the state of these various applications at the time of writing.

Bates also discusses the political and social uses that educational broadcasting can have: promoting a certainpolitical cause, improving the educational level or disadvantaged groups, or allowing a second or third opportunityfor education to people who lost out the first time. He examines as well some of distance education's negativeeffects, such as its tendency to overwhelm local indigenous cultural values with those imposed by programming.One chapter is devoted to a specific discussion of the Open University and ways of providing higher educationthrough broadcasting.

Bosworth, David P. Open Learning, 1991. See entry #74

233.Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Lifelines of Learning: Distance Education and America's Rural Schools.Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 1993. 90p. Bibliography. MF $1.18. ED 357-919. OCLC28957355.

The Public Telecommunications Act of 1992 (PL 102-356) directed the Public Broadcasting Corporation toinvestigate and report on the state of distance education in rural schools. The result is this report. It first givesbackground on some of the difficulties facing rural schools, particularly the battle over consolidation. Schools withextremely low enrollments can offer only limited courses and resources, but consolidation often means a longcommute for students anda more philosophical considerationa lessening of the sense of community that a localschool engenders. Increasing numbers of rural schools are turning to distance education as a solution.

The report also details difficulties that the rural school faces when implementing distance education. Lack offunding is a major difficulty, as is access to electronic resources, negative attitudes by both students and teachers,problems with delivery, problems with two-way communication, and doubts about distance education'seffectiveness. The report describes some methods of distance education that should prove useful to rural schoolsand includes six case studies of ongoing programs.

234.Dodds, Tony. Multi-Media Approaches to Rural Education. Cambridge: International Extension College, 1972.48p. (IEC Broadsheet on Distance Learning, No. 1). £3.90pa. ISBN 0903632012. OCLC 10171201.

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Case studies of distance education programs aimed at rural residents make up the bulk of this book. The casestudies are bracketed by an introductory essay and a chapter of conclusions. The introductory essay sets the stage,presenting some of the problems unique to rural education and the way in which distance education is related tothem. This essay presents a similar theory to that in Robert F. Arnove's Educational Television: A Policy Critiqueand Giude for Developing Countries (1976), entry #252. Both Dodds and Arnove believe that traditional educationoften retards rather than promotes economic growth in rural areas because jobs utilizing the skills learned intraditional education are not readily found in rural areas. Thus people trained in traditional ways expect jobs ineducation or administration, or in clerical positions, which are few in rural societies; meanwhile these same peopleare not being trained in skills that could help the rural area. In addition, rural education is hampered by theisolation and dispersed nature of the population. Those few people who do have useful skills and the ability totransmit them to others cannot reach all the people needing them. Often too, people with some level of educationdo not have any support or backup when they begin to teach; they have no one to turn to if problems developbeyond their skill or training.

This monograph addresses some of these problems through a series of case studies of rural training programs, allof which use a multimedia approach. Case studies from such diverse locations as Ghana, Tanzania, France, andWisconsin are included. Seven are about two to three pages in length; 11 are briefer. These describe a variety ofmethods used to contact a rural population. Most programs combine some method of distance education (radio,films, television) with some kind of personal contact (personal visits by a central staff, locally run discussiongroups, home visits by local facilitators, or some combination). Almost all case studies emphasize the point thatdistance education methods cannot stand alone: people lose interest or misinterpret information. Some form offace-to-face contact is necessary.

The final chapter summarizes conclusions, which Dodds sees as being helpful to future planners. They include:

Local organization and support is essential.

Programs must meet the real needs of the community, not perceived needs imposed from outside.

Regular feedback is essential.

Programs must be entertaining as well as informative.

Use of a variety of media is helpful.

235.Eurich, Nell P. The Learning Industry: Education for Adult Workers. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,1990. 298p. Index. Bibliographic references. $25.00. $10.00pa. LC 90-48700. ISBN 0931050413; 0931050421pa.OCLC 22490357.

Although this book might be considered peripheral to a knowledge and understanding of distance education in anacademic setting, it is fascinating for its look at the application of distance education methods in industry. Onechapter in particular, "Delivering Instruction" surveys current efforts in a variety of commercial settings. Manycompanies are using distance education methods to train workers. Efforts run the gamut from videotapes shown byMcDonald's on the right way to fry potatoes, to a master's program in engineering offered by Stanford Universityto employees of Hewlett-Packard through a combined program of videotapes and on-site tutors. The variety ofmethods presented in this chapter is intriguing: videotapes; video presented in a classroom with a tutor present;audioconferencing; computer conferencing; and computer bulletin boards.

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For people involved in the formal delivery of distance education in an educational institution, complete withgrades and credits, it is revealing to see the applications of the format on a more informal levelfor peopleretraining, improving their knowledge of their job, or just for fun and intellectual stimulation. It proves that theproper emphasis in the term distance education is not distance, but education.

Evans, Terry D., and Bruce King. Beyond the Text: Contemporary Writing on Distance Education, 1991. See entry#46.

236.Faith, Karlene, ed. Toward New Horizons for Women in Distance Education: International Perspectives. London:Routledge Kegan Paul, 1988. 343p. Index. Bibliographic references. (Radical Forum on Adult Education Series).no price reported. LC 89-113295. ISBN 0415005655. OCLC 22594031.

In 19 essays by women involved in distance education throughout the world, this book offers a look at many facetsof distance education as it is used by women. Many of the essays are case studies, concentrating on a particularcountry, institution, or program. Essays are divided into three subgroups: "The Gender Factor in DistanceEducation;" "Issues of Equity;" and "Facing New Challenges." "The Gender Factor'' discusses such factors as thedifferences in choice of subject or degree course between male and female students at FernUniversität and thepursuit of distance education as a means of increasing self-esteem. "Issues of Equity" includes an essay aboutways in which distance education techniques need to be adapted to suit the lifestyle of Native American women inCanada and one about the attempts of the Turkish Open Learning Faculty to provide education for Turkish women."Facing New Challenges" addresses the changes that distance education can make to attract, retain, and educatelarger numbers of women.

A fourth section of this book, "Pioneers in Distance Education," presents biographies of 25 women important inthe field. The worldwide scope of this book turns it into a series of fascinating snapshots of distance education in avariety of countries, all with a focus on women.

237.Fredrickson, Scott Alfred. "Teaching Incarcerated Youths Using Microcomputer Distance Education Technology:A Case Study." Ed.D. diss., Texas Tech University, 1989. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 50(1989): 1635A.

Frederickson studied a group of adolescent prisoners who were taught both through the traditional method andthrough an audiographics system. Although the target group enjoyed the distance education portion of their course,Fredrickson found that students were more on task during traditional study. Despite this, he believes that distanceeducation techniques can be profitably used to extend education opportunities to incarcerated adolescents. JohnAnwyl et al. in Who Uses External Studies? Who Should? (1987), entry #191, also discuss the use of distanceeducation with the prison population.

Hakes, Barbara T., Steven G. Sachs, Cecelia Box, and John Cochenour, eds. Compressed Video: Operations andApplications, 1993. See entry #87

238.Hilliard, Robert L., ed. Television and Adult Education. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Books, 1985. 215p.$18.95. $12.25pa. LC 85-14172. ISBN 0870732412; 0870732455pa. OCLC 12189066.

In 1983, Emerson College in Boston cosponsored a seminar on television and adult education. Their cosponsorswere two organizations from what was then the Federal Republic of Germany: the Goethe Institute and the Adolf-Grimme-Institut. The papers in this volume were presented at the seminar.

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Two sections are of particular note. The papers in part 1, on pages 119, present a look at the structure of adulteducation in the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany. These papers offer some interesting historicalcontrasts between the two countries.

The other section of particular interest is part 2, titled "Target Audiences," on pages 2181. This series of paperslooks at what educational television can and should do for various special groups. Among the special groupsdiscussed are preschool children and the elderly. Other papers in the group examine the concept of minority groupsin general, discuss how to define and recognize such groups, examine how society keeps these groupsmarginalized, and explore how television can be used to address their needs. Still another paper looks at howtelevision can address vital issues of world survival by offering programs aimed at citizens on environmentalconcerns, such as pollution, overpopulation, recycling, and nuclear war.

Information on distance education to special groups is thin and hard to find. This book provides at least a limitedlook at some efforts.

Jenkins, Janet. Materials for Learning: How to Teach Adults at a Distance, 1981. See entry #272.

Johansen, Robert, Maureen McNulty, and Barbara McNeal. Electronic Education: Using Teleconferencing in Post-Secondary Organizations, 1978. See entry #97.

239.Johnson, Geraldine Roach. "An Analysis of the Continuing Education Curriculum of the Associated GeneralContractors of America for Delivery by Satellite Teleconferencing." Ed.D. diss., East Texas State University,1993. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993): 2993A.

Johnson distributed 461 questionnaires to executive directors of Associated General Contractors' chapters and toowners of general contracting companies; 177 were returned. Based on the returns, she concludes that satelliteteleconferencing is a viable means of providing continuing education to general contractors. Issues of law, safety,and computer applications are ones that can be explored through videoconferencing.

240.Kaye, Anthony. Using the Media for Adult Basic Education. London: Croom Helm, 1982. 255p. Index.Bibliography. £12.95. LC 82-111810. ISBN 0709915063. OCLC 8215244.

The Distance Education Research Group at England's Open University is responsible for this study. Their purposewas to review the use of mass media for basic education for adults in the European community. Included are sevencase studies from five European countries. Each of the programs profiled emphasizes reaching groups with needsin basic literacy and numeracy. The studies are particularly relevant to people working with the following groups:the unemployed; ethnic or cultural minorities; and the economically disadvantaged.

Supplementary material includes:

A "Directory and Selective Bibliography" that lists and briefly describes adult education provisions in variouscountries as well as published sources for additional information

A list of contributors

A list of reports produced for the study

An index

Khan, Inayat. Distance Teaching, 1993. See entry #101.

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Koul, B. N., and Janet Jenkins. Distance Education: A Spectrum of Case Studies, 1990. See entry #275.

241.Matheos, Kathleen. "An Assessment of the Use of Electronic Conferencing in a Course for Rural Women inManitoba." Master's thesis. University of Guelph, 1990. Abstract in Master's Abstracts 30 (1990): 470. ISBN0315628812.

Forty-four women participated in the Bridging for Rural Women program in Manitoba. Its purpose was to assistwomen in moving from being at home full-time into employment. The program utilized group work, home study,computer conferencing, and audioconferencing. Participants reported satisfaction with the face-to-face and withthe computer conferencing components of the program, but less satisfaction with the audioconferencingcomponent. They were especially pleased at the practice this program gave them with computers.

242.May, Susan. "Women's Experiences as Learners in Distance Education." Ed.D. diss. University of Toronto, 1992.Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993): 1637A. ISBN 0315788259.

May interviewed nine women who had studied either through home study or through teleconferencing. Allreported satisfaction with the method. All felt that these methods enhanced their opportunity for education.However, they reported being bothered by the solitary nature of the study and recommended more interaction andcollaboration. May thus recommends that the interactive components of distance study be enhanced. She suggestsusing teleconferencing, more interaction between tutor and student as well as among students, and morecollaborative learning methods.

243.Moore, Michael G. Distance Education for Corporate and Military Training. Washington, D.C.: ERIC, 1993. 150p.Bibliographic references. (Readings in Distance Education, 3). MF $1.18. PC $20.00. ED 354-896. ISBN1877780081.

Moore has selected and edited a group of readings that were originally published in volumes 15 of The AmericanJournal of Distance Education. These are case studies of projects carried out in various corporate or militarysettings. All are concerned with research in the field. The papers study such areas as cost-benefit analysis,improving teaching performance, choosing equipment, adapting teaching style to the use of media, and evaluatinga program. Although all the articles have been published before, it is useful to have them available as a unit,especially because information on industry and military applications for distance education is much less availablethan that on its use in academic settings. The paper copy of this report is available through the American Centerfor the Study of Distance Education, at Pennsylvania State University.

Osbat, Luciano. The Provision of Distance Learning in Italy (Summary), 1986. See entry #281.

Portway, Patrick S., and Carla Lane. Technical Guide to Teleconferencing and Distance Learning, 1992. See entry#138.

244.Quosai, Trudy Smit. "The Role of Computer Delivered Distance Education in Increasing Access to Post-SecondaryEducation." Master's thesis, University of Guleph, 1991. Abstract in Masters Abstracts 31 (1991): 69. ISBN0315679743.

Only five disabled adults receiving education through the distance method were interviewed for this study.However, their experiences were positive. All five recommended that more computer courses be offered, and thatdisabled adults be assisted with access to computers and training in their use. For another discussion of the use

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of distance education with the disabled, see Ann Jones et al., Personal Computers for Distance Education: TheStudy of an Educational Innovation (1993), entry #210.

245.Rennard, M., and F. Weygard. Distance Learning for Heads of Firms and Managerial Staff in the Small BusinessSector of France. Berlin: European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 1988. 144p. Bibliography.no price reported. ISBN 9282584704pa. OCLC 24173165.

France mandates some training for workers in businesses employing 10 or more people, and such training must bepaid for by the company. However, smaller businesses are exempt, nor is any training mandated for management.The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training believes that distance education methods mightbe used to fill these gaps. Distance education methods can keep costs down, thereby encouraging even companiesthat are not required to provide training to do so. Moreover, managers exempt from mandatory training often feelthey cannot get away from business long enough to attend any training sessions. Distance education methods canprovide on-site training and give more management the opportunity to attend.

Five examples of distance education courses are described. Three are in particular subjects: one in financialmanagement, one in electronics, and one in the building trades. The other two are case studies of teachingmethods: one examines the use of study centers and the other looks at computer-assisted instruction. The studyalso looks at existing organizations and systems available to provide distance training to industry.

246.Rumble, Greville, and Joao Oliveira, eds. Vocational Education at a Distance: International Perspectives. London:Kogan Page, 1992. 174p. Index. Bibliographic references. (New Developments in Vocational Education). no pricereported. ISBN 0749405503. OCLC 25610580.

The series "New Developments in Vocational Education" was initiated because of a perceived failure ofgovernments to address needs of training and retraining workers in the face of an increasingly global marketplace.Vocational education needs to be strengthened and aimed at younger people and at workers whose jobs areeliminated because of economic and technological changes.

This volume, edited by two leaders in distance education, concentrates on specific applications of distanceeducation for vocational training. It presents 12 case studies from around the world that describe operatingprograms in agriculture, computers, banking, and education. The editors chose these particular programs becausethey illuminate "some of the issues which we (the editors) believe to be relevant to the application of distanceeducation to vocational, professional and technical education."

246A.Saloman, Kenneth D., Mark I. Lloyd, Elliot H. Shaller, and Elizabeth A. Hewitt. Federal Disability Law andDistance Learning. Washington, D.C.: Instructional Telecommunications Council, 1994. 34p. $70.00. OCLC30492261.

The introduction states specifically that this book is not a substitute for legal counsel. Complying with the lawsconcerning disabilities is complicated; however, this is a start. It gives an overview of the Rehabilitation Act of1973 and its later amendments, and of the Americans with Disabilities Act. It continues with information on thebasic requirements of the laws and a look at the penalties for failure to comply. Definitions of some standardterminology follow.

The last section is a set of questions and answers that will be of interest to many distance education providers, suchas whether it is required that distance learning providers provide disabled students with computers.

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247.Sponder, Barry M. Distance Education in Rural Alaska: An Overview of Teaching and Learning Practices inAudioconferencing Courses. 2d ed. Fairbanks, Alaska: University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Center for Cross CulturalStudies, 1991. 137p. Bibliography. (University of Alaska Monograph Series in Distance Education, No. 1). noprice reported. ISBN 187796218X. OCLC 25078931.

Sponder describes the experience of students and teachers involved in Alaska's audioconferencing program ofeducation to rural residents. The book looks closely at "the sobering realities of rural Alaska, such as geography,climate, and culture" (p.21), all of which make distance education in this area an extreme challenge. Indeed, inreading this book, one is struck by the obstacles both students and teachers must overcome. Cultural differences areextreme, such as differences in communication patterns between native and non-native Alaskans. Infrastructureproblems are also great and include a mail system burdened with "poor weather, roundabout mail routes,inconvenient post office hours, and even volcanic disturbances," (p.64), and technical problems with the phonelines used for conferencing.

Of course distance education programs in Alaska have the same problems as distance education programseverywhere: the need for strong motivation, the lack of support services for distance students, the difficulty ofassessing student understanding during classes when no visual clues are present, and the difficulty of spontaneousand direct communication between teacher and student. When rural Alaska's special problems of geography andclimate are added to the mix, it makes distance education seem almost impossible. However, in addition tospotlighting the difficulties through extensive quotes from both teachers and students, Sponder highlights thetriumphs as well, triumphs of both students and teachersthe students who persevere despite cultural, technical, andpersonal difficulties, such as child care and job responsibilities and the teachers who develop new ways to presentmaterials and to communicate with students.

This book is a snapshot of a particular and unique distance education program. Although valuable for thisspecificity, it is useful as well for its universality. The people participating in Alaska audioconferencing, althoughstruggling against more extreme than usual geographical difficulties, experience and adjust to the same difficultiesas do all participants in distance education.

Sponder ends on a positive note. Three of the four appendices are checklists for improving distance educationprograms:

Appendix A: Teaching Strategies for Improving Audioconference-Based Instruction.

Appendix B: Administrative Strategies for Improving Audioconference-Based Instruction.

Appendix C: Support Strategies for Improving Audioconferenced-Based Instruction.

Although helpful, these lists contain suggestions that are mostly already well known (although they always bearrepeating). They advise teachers to connect homework assignments with the students' own experience andrecommend the creation of a student organization to offer support to distance students. The real value of Sponder'sbook is his capturing of a specific group of distance education teachers and students, a community most people inthe lower 48 know little about.

Tait, Alan, ed. International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education. Selected Papers, 1987. See entry#223.

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248.Taylor, Peter, and Derrick Tomlinson. Primary Distance Education: Population, Problems, and Prospects.Nedlands, Western Australia: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, The University of WesternAustralia, 1984. 194p. (Research Series No. 2). no price reported. LC 86-141507. ISBN 0864220154pa. OCLC1380047.

Like another book by Tomlinson, Teaching and Learning at Home: Distance Education and the Isolated Child(1985), entry #250, Primary Distance Education focuses on the home-schooled younger child in Australia. Like itscounterpart, it presents much data on the population served, such as distribution, age, and type of residence. It alsogives substantial information on current home-schooling practices, such as the role of the home tutor, and types ofsupport available both to the teacher at a distance and to the home tutor. It details as well some of the obstaclesencountered by those involved in home schooling. Many of these obstacles are sometimes not even thought of byurban dwellers. Such things as infrequent mail delivery, mail delivered to a distant post office and picked upinfrequently by the family, unreliable phone connections, or frequent power outages all make the delivery ofdistance education to rural areas precarious. The author's assessment of these problems is similar to that of BarrySponder in Distance Education in Rural Alaska (1991), entry #247, who also points out the difficulties faced bydistance educators and students in rural areas due to imperfect communications.

These difficulties with the infrastructure cause the authors to discount the emerging electronic technologies as away to help the home-schooled child. However, if reliable power supplies could be developed, the authors do seegreat promise in computer communication between home tutor and distance teacher.

According to the authors, lack of support for the home tutor is the biggest difficulty facing the entire home-schooling program. In this they agree with the assessment in Teaching and Learning at Home. Both books pointout that the ability and dedication of the home tutormost often the child's parentis the biggest factor in a child'ssuccess. Both books emphasize the importance of the role of the home tutor in the child's success and seek ways tosupport and improve that role.

249.Temple, Hilary. Open Learning in Industry: Developing Flexibility and Competence in the Workforce. Harlow,United Kingdom: Longman, 1991. 189p. Index. Bibliographic references. (Longman Open Learning). no pricereported. ISBN 0582080258. OCLC 28420870.

In most of the applications described in this book, distance learning is somewhat different from that experienced inthe academic world. Participants do not study for credit; they often have access to a study center at their place ofemployment; they sometimes study as a group at that study center; their supervisor sometimes acts as their tutor.Rather than an array of course possibilities, most study courses offered through a place of employment are limitedto those that relate to that employment, and most are designed to improve performance or offer opportunities forpromotion.

However, there are also similarities between academic and on-the-job distance learning. Most of the learningmaterials used in on-the-job applications are not produced in-house but are purchased as a package; the originatoror developer of the package is thus at a distance from the learner. A variety of media is used: video, personalcomputers, videodisc, interactive video, and the student studies independently a great deal of the time, setting anindividual pace and taking responsibility for completing assignments.

Temple describes several companies' arrangements for providing open learning opportunities for their employees.She also provides an overview of how to evaluate open learning in industrial settings and a discussion of what kindof learner support is necessary.

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Temple uses many examples of individual experiences with open learning, which lend a personal feel to this book.It is an intriguing look at distance education efforts outside the academic environment.

250.Tomlinson, Derrick, Frank Coulter, and Jane Peacock. Teaching and Learning at Home: Distance Education andthe Isolated Child. Nedlands, Western Australia: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, 1985. 124p.Bibliographic notes. (Research Series no. 4). $15.00 Aust. ISBN 0864220359pa. OCLC 27597353.

The authors of this book have written up their field notes of a study they undertook of 36 families in remote areasof Australia. The families all had primary school-age children being home schooled. The families were visited,observed, and interviewed. Schooling was done through correspondence, with children completing lessonsprovided by Departments of Education, supplemented by radio lessons from the School of the Air.

The researchers concluded that some pieces of conventional wisdom concerning distance education for youngchildren were true:

Children could not work on their own but needed a tutor to explain lessons, motivate, encourage, and marklessons.

Rapid feedback was important.

Tutors (often the children's mother) marked lessons themselves rather than wait for the two-week to one-monthlong turnaround time of sending the lesson to a central marking center.

Tutors had to make great efforts to compensate for the lack of easy, informal interaction that children get inschool.

Children in home schooling find the larger amount of written work required of them in comparison to theirschool-educated peers tedious, but that without the opportunity of spoken recitation and talks with the teacher,this written work is hard to avoid.

In the interviews and diaries kept by the home teacher, a few comments might be surprising to the professionaleducator. For instance, increased improvement in technology can actually increase a student's isolation. As high-tech communication increases, motivation to overcome geographic isolation by seeking population centersdecreases. The authors gave an example: if you can telephone a grocery order and go to a nearby rail center to pickthings up, there is less incentive to drive to a store at a greater distance to purchase them yourself. Anothercomment was made by several parents. They felt traditional academic education for the isolated child too closelyfollows the standards set up for city education. In their opinion, it gives no credit to the knowledge that a ruralchild has and that a town child often lacksknowledge of farming, weather, and flora and fauna. Education is toooften thought of in terms of academic education only.

The researchers suggest ways in which home schooling could be improved. Chief among the suggestions is toimprove the curriculum materials to give more guidance to home teachers about how materials could be presentedand explained. Home teachers often lack formal pedagogical training.

Extensive appendices include samples of the daily diaries kept by participants in the study and timetables of theteachers' days.

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251.Wall, Dennis, and Michael Owen, eds. Distance Education and Sustainable Community Development. Edmonton,Alberta, Canada: Canadian Circumpolar Institute with Athabasca University, 1992. 164p. Bibliographic references.no price reported. ISBN 0919737056. OCLC 24542501.

These 13 papers grew out of the first national conference on distance education and sustainable growth, inDecember 1990. Most of the papers describe distance education programs aimed at remote communities in Canadaand Africa. They explore the ways in which distance education can and should contribute to community stabilityand development. Rather than a program that imposes an alien and sometimes damaging culture from outside,these programs seek to work with the community. Methods include adapting the course content specifically tolocal needs and engaging the support and assistance of local residents, perhaps to act as tutors. It can also involvesuch simple but sometimes overlooked methods as scheduling courses in accordance with local activities andsending course materials far enough in advance that bad weather or breakdowns in mail delivery will not preventtheir timely arrival.

Participants in the conference believe strongly that distance education programs represent a partnership betweenthe institution and its students, not a relationship in which all the power and all the decisions reside with theinstitution.

Winders, Ray. Information Technology in the Delivery of Distance Education and Training, 1988. See entry #151.

Zigerell, James. Distance Education: An Information Age Approach to Adult Education, 1984. See entry #153.

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7The International Scene

Introduction

Distance education today is of interest all over the world. Large industrialized countries, small developingcountries, and every place in between, are using distance education and exploring means to improve and extendthat use. Germany has its national university, the FernUniversität, Denmark has its Jysk Aabent Universitet; andPapua New Guinea shares the resources of the University of the South Pacific with several other countries.Institutions are both large and small. The Open University of the United Kingdom has over 195,000 part-timestudents; the California Institute of Integral Studies reported a total enrollment in 199293 of 20 students. There areas many reasons for using distance education as there is interest. Students at the Open University of the UnitedKingdom, now 25 years old and a respected institution of distance education, gain teaching credentials or otherprofessional skills or work toward an undergraduate degree. At the other end of the educational spectrum,schoolchildren in remote areas of Australia get their basic education through the Radio Schools of the Air, withhelp from their parent-tutors. The Asia and Pacific areas use distance education methods to increase the number oftheir own citizens who have scientific and technical expertise, and people living on subsistence farms in Africalearn more advanced farming methods.

Methods vary as much as the reasons. National universities use packaged modules for complete courses andintegrate all kinds of media. The Schools of the Air also use packaged lessons, but also depend heavily on theparent-tutor. This greater use of tutors is natural considering the young age of the students. Radio broadcasts areoften used in developing countries to reach isolated populations in need of education for basic literacy orinformation about life skills. Other programs and courses use methods both more and less technically advancedthan radio, from the original method of correspondence lessons to the high-tech means of television and computertransmission.

Demand for Education

Why is there so much interest in distance education? There are many reasons, both sociological and economic.First, the rapidly growing world population is putting a greater strain on educational resources and encouragingboth individuals and governments to find new methods of providing education to greater numbers. That growingpopulation is increasingly mobile. People no longer accept the inevitability of following the same path as theirparents. They are interested in learning new skills, new abilities, perhaps following a new career. Long seen asavailable only to the elite, education is now being demanded by more and more people. At the same time, theeconomic situation of many people often makes it difficult or impossible for

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them to attend a college or university. Distance education comes more conveniently to them.

Economic considerations contribute to the growing demand for education. There is a belief that education iscrucial to an improved economic quality of life. This conviction is shared by both individuals and governments.Individuals see education as a way to improve economic status, a way to follow those paths not followed by theirparents, a way toward a better paying and more respected job. Governments want economic growth for theircountries. They want a better-educated populace, better-trained workers, a pool of people with managerial,scientific, teaching, or technical skills to draw on. With this, they feel, they will be less dependent on foreigntalent.

Although both governments and individuals see the economic value of education, governments have anotherconcern: to provide that education as efficiently as possible. Governments certainly want to provide education tomore people, but they want to provide it at the lowest possible cost. Governments, after all, have to balance thedemand of larger populations for access to education with the reality of limited resources. Distance education is away of providing education with true economy of scale. A packaged course, if taken by enough students, achievesquite a low unit cost. Even better, it need only be prepared once but can be distributed or presented many times.Only the outdating of the material would require an update or a revamping. Classroom teachers need to be paideach time they teach the same class; distance education can avoid or at least lessen this expense.

There is also an advantage in being able to extend educational opportunities to isolated populations, without thegreat monetary outlay of traditional education. Distance education programs do not require the physical facilities orthe transportation costs either for teachers or students. Yes, distance education has distribution costs, which can belittle or great depending on the technology used. It still seems cheaper to send education to the students rather thanto bring the students to it or to build an educational facility for perhaps only a few people.

Another saving comes through resource sharing. Nations, regions, or communities can share expertise. Rather thaneach country scrambling to train experts in every subject, countries can share these experts. One scholar canprepare a course or a lesson, or advise in its preparation, and students from many countries can benefit.

Convenience to the student is another reason for distance education's growing popularity. Those with jobs,families, or other time commitments appreciate the flexibility of home study. Those whose current situations donot permit them to move to a university area want education to come to them. Read Flexible and DistanceLearning. Special Report (1993) by Lieve Van Den Brande, to get an idea of what categories of people takeadvantage of distance education.

Distance Education Structures

The structures that provide distance education are as varied as the reasons for distance education, the methods ofproviding it, and those who take advantage of it. Some countries have a national distance education

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university, such as Great Britain's respected Open University, Germany's FernUniversität, or Holland's OpenUniversiteit. Some countries have an entire national plan for distance education or are exploring that possibility.Other countries are more fragmented. Information about distance education in various countries is found in manyplaces: for Canada, see Communications and Information Technologies and Distance Education in Canada (1984)by Elizabeth Burge et al.; for Asia and the Pacific, see Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific (1985) by BruceCahill. Two books by Keith Harry give specific information about distance education in two different parts of theworld: Africa: A Survey of Distance Education 1991 (1991) and Latin America and the Caribbean: A Survey ofDistance Education 1991 (1991). Other books deal with more than one country as well, such as Distance HigherEducation and the Adult Learner (1986) by Ger van Enckevort et al., Trends in Distance Higher Education (1984)by Peter Raggatt and Keith Harry, and Distance Education in a Number of Countries (1975), prepared by theSwedish Commission on Television and Radio in Education.

B. N. Koul and Janet Jenkins describe a number of individual programs in Distance Education: A Spectrum ofCase Studies (1990). Australia investigated the advisability of starting a national open university, but decided that aplan with more local autonomy would suit its needs better. That story is told by Barbara Falk and John Anwyl inDesirability and Feasibility of an Australian Open Type University (1973). The United States, with its mix of state,local, and private enterprise institutions, is perhaps the most fragmented of all.

Research

Research in distance education is as international as is its practice. The doyen of distance education scholars isprobably Börje Holmberg, a Swedish scholar whose writings on distance education date from the 1960s to thepresent and qualify him for the title. His Scandanavian colleagues, Rune Flinck and Birgitta Willen, are also wellknown in the field. An early theorist was Otto Peters, from Germany. Other recognized scholarship comes fromAsia, India, England, and Africa.

The Asian Programme for Educational Innovation for Development (APEID) has produced a number ofhandbooks that concentrate on distance education programs and methods for the Asia and Pacific region. DiversityDown Under in Distance Education (1984) by Kevin Smith, demonstrates the long-term interest in distanceeducation in that region. This book commemorates the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Australian andSouth Pacific External Studies Association, whose members provide distance education over an immensegeographic area. Flexible and Distance Learning (1993) by Lieve Van Den Brande, deals with trends anddevelopments in distance education in Western Europe. Books concerning efforts in Africa includeCorrespondence Education In Africa (1973) by Antoine Kebwasa and Martin M. Kaunda; Distance Education inAnglophone Africa (1992) by Paud Murphy and Abdelwahed Zhiri; and Correspondence Education in CentralAfrica (1983) by Matthew A. Wakatama. India's H. C. S. Rathmore has written Management of DistanceEducation in India (1993), and G. Ram Reddy edited Open Universities:

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The Ivory Towers Thrown Open (1988), which looks at distance education in a number of countries.

Problems Facing Distance Education

Is there a downside to distance education, despite its popularity? Of course.

Distance education is not always cost-effective. Cost-effectiveness can only be achieved through economies ofscale. If not enough students take a given courseor too many drop outunit costs rise and distance education is noless costly than is traditional education. In addition, start-up costs, particularly for projects using such high-techmethods as television or computers, are high. Some countries find these costs prohibitive.

Other difficulties are associated with projects heavily dependent on technology. First, many potential students lacknecessary receiving equipment, such as video players or television sets. Also, in some countries or areas of acountry, the lack of infrastructure or an undependable infrastructure make the use of these technologies uncertain.Two books that make this point are Developments in Distance Education in Asia (1989) by Kevin Smith and ChrisCurran, and Distance Education via Satellite (1987) by Willard D. Shaw.

Distance education can also exact social costs. Several authors point out that at times distance education educatesbeyond society's ability to provide suitable jobs. The local economy, often rural in nature, is unable to supply jobsfor people who have been educated to be white-collar workers, government bureaucrats, or teachers. Robert F.Arnove, in his Educational Television: A Policy Critique and Guide for Developing Countries (1976) is one suchauthor. Arnove also points out that television in particular is an extremely influential teaching medium and canactually overcome and force out the local culture, imposing a new culture from without. Other authors have thesame belief, but are more optimistic that distance education institutions can work with the existent culture, and canbe used to enhance that culture. A book that makes this point is Materials for Learning: How to Teach Adults at aDistance (1981), written by Janet Jenkins.

One problem of distance education shared by both developed and developing countries is the problem of finding abalance between increased access to education and successful completion rates. Distance education is often used toextend educational opportunities to those who were previously barred from it, either through geographic isolation,lack of preparation, economic difficulties, or an elitist educational system. Such increased access is achievedprimarily through lowering or eliminating admission standards, encouraging all to apply and to participate.However, many people admitted to education through these new open standards really do not have satisfactoryeducational backgrounds. They are ill-prepared for the rigors of higher education and their drop-out rate is highandso the unit cost goes up. It is a perennial problem for distance educators. Although not unique to developingnations, it is perhaps more of a problem there, as often basic education is even less available and more people areill-prepared to study on their own. Matthew Wakatama makes this point in Correspondence Education in CentralAfrica: An Alternative Route to Higher Education in Developing Africa (1983), as

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do some of the UNESCO publications, including Science, Technology and Outreach Courses by DistanceEducation: A Workshop-Report (1989).

Growing Interest

For all the difficulties, distance education is booming worldwide. Governments, universities, and private enterpriseall see distance education as a way to extend educational opportunity to those who have been denied it, to raise theeducational level of the country, and to increase economic growth. Everyone involved continues to battle on, tryingto minimize the problems and maximize the results. Numerous international conferences and workshops have beenheld, at which distance education practitioners get together to discuss both problems and triumphs. Among themare a number with published proceedings or papers: Learning at a Distance: A World Perspective (1982) by JohnDaniel et al; Teleteaching: Proceedings of the IFIP TC3 Third Teleteaching Conference (1993) by Gordon Daviesand Brian Samways; Distance Education for Development: International Seminar (1979) by Jan R. Hakemulder;Remote Education and Informatics: Teleteaching (1988) by Frank Louis; and Developing Distance Education(1988) by David Sewart and John S. Daniel.

If nothing else, distance educators are talking to each other. Delegates from all over the world meet at internationalseminars, workshops, and conferences. International efforts at cooperative programs also keep people incommunication with each other. Perhaps the educators are being educated about themselves and each other asmuch as they are educating their students.

Sources

Ansari, M. A. Economics of Distance Higher Education, 1992. See entry #67.

252.Arnove, Robert F., ed. Educational Television: A Policy Critique and Guide for Developing Countries. New York:Praeger, 1976. 224p. Bibliographic references. no price reported. LC 75-19761. ISBN 0275555100. OCLC2502806.

This book focuses exclusively on educational television, as opposed to other variations of distance education, andexclusively on the role of educational television in developing countries. The first three of the total seven essaysconcentrate on general themes: sociopolitical implications, economic costs, and administrative concerns. The lastfour are case studies of educational television in El Salvador, Ivory Coast, and Samoa, and of the children'stelevision show ''Sesame Street."

The essays explode some myths about educational television, notably the one that television is the most effectivemethod of teaching at a distance and that when cost considerations make it an unlikely alternative, the loss is great.Rather, the authors show that educational television can have sociopolitical costs and negative effects that shouldmake even countries and organizations that can afford it in money think seriously about its use. The authors note

that television's proclivity toward teaching and transmitting the dominant culture often incurs a cost to othercultures;

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that widespread use of educational television can raise expectations for improved jobs and increased economicgrowth that quite often the local society cannot fulfill; (For a similar view, see Tony Dodds, Multi-MediaApproaches to Rural Education, 1972, entry #134.)

and that educational television carries heavy administrative costs.

The case studies provide interesting descriptions of educational television projects in three different countries.

253.Asian Development Bank. Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific. Manila, Philippines: Asian DevelopmentBank, 1987. 2 vol. vol.1, 545p. vol.2, 736p. Bibliographic references. MF $1.43. PC $20.00. vol.1 ED 290-863.;vol.2 ED 290-864.

These are the proceedings of an eight-day conference held in Manila at the Sukhothai Thammathriat OpenUniversity in November 1986. Participants were policymakers and managers of distance education programs at alleducational levels throughout the Pacific. Volume 1 contains eight policy or resource papers that concentrate onsuch broad issues as the reasons for the growth of distance education in the Pacific and in Asia; the organization,management, and funding of distance education programs; choice of media; and how distance education might bemade even more useful. This volume also includes recommendations of the conference.

Volume 2 contains case studies of distance education in 17 countries: India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Republic ofKorea, Thailand, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Fiji, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, PapuaNew Guinea, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka.

A paper copy of this report is available from the Asian Development Bank.

254.Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Distance Education: Exemplar TrainingMaterials. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, 1984. 118p.$9.00pa. ISBN 9995365391. OCLC 13466358.

Institutions of several countriesIndia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and New Zealanddeveloped thematerials and papers published here. All are meant to be read and used by distance educators themselves in theregion, to help them improve their own work. The papers are grouped into three sections: papers on courseproduction techniques, on support services, and on evaluation. Some of the papers are in the form of a lesson to beworked through by the participant, with activities, questions to answer, and self-assessment. Others are written asmore traditional and formal papers.

255.Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Distance Learning Systems andStructures: Training Manual. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific,1987. 97p. $18.75pa. ISBN 9997364724. OCLC 16567609.

The APEID organization believes that distance education is a method of education that will help its membercountries improve their overall educational level. They further believe that distance educators themselves are oftenless well educated and trained than they should be to work in the field. In this booklet, and others produced byAPEID, also annotated in this chapter, APEID presents a number of course modules meant for actual practitionersin distance education, to help them improve their own abilities. Modules for course writers, editors, tutors, radioscriptwriters, and delivery system managers are among those presented. There are also modules for the actualdistance learner and for the parents of distance learners, to help them discover their own roles in the process.

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256.Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Evaluation of Distance EducationProjects under APEID: Report of a Study Group Meeting. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Regional Office forEducation in Asia and the Pacific, 1987. 47p. no price reported. pa. OCLC 19590766.

At the 1981 meeting of APEID, distance education was "for the first time acknowledged as a significant area andsource of innovation" (p.1). At that conference, the organization set objectives for the next several years, includingthe improvement of primary education, rural development, scientific knowledge, and work-related education. Theyalso stated that improved access to educational technology, increased professional support, and increased researchwould be necessary to achieve improvements in these areas.

This 1987 report is a report on progress in various countries and on APEID's role in that progress. Countriesreporting were Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka,and Thailand. These reports supply at least brief information on the state of distance education in Asian and Pacificcountries.

257.Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Sharing Innovative Strategies for Self-Learning Materials. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. 1988. 53p.$9.50pa. ISBN 9999574335. OCLC 18619398.

Participating countries in APEID shared their ideas for improving distance and other self-study methods. Thosemethods ranged from ways to decide on what courses to deliver, to help for the teacher in planning and writing acourse, to student manuals designed to give study tips, to evaluation procedures. The reports show what is beingdone not only in countries with high-tech resources, such as widespread access to television, but also in countriesthat rely on simpler, less expensive methods. Countries share their ideas on what works and what does not.

258.Asian Programme for Educational Innovation for Development (APEID). Training of Personnel for DistanceEducation: Report of a Regional Seminar. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asiaand the Pacific, 1984.108p. $31.25pa. ISBN 9994944606. OCLC 13869937.

This report has two focuses. One is the state of distance education generally in participating countries; the other ishow distance education is used itself to train distance educators. Countries reporting are Indonesia, Malaysia,Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, and Sri Lanka. Together with other APEID publications annotatedin this chapter, this booklet gives a good view into present-day distance education in particular countries.

259.Brande, Lieve Van Den. Flexible and Distance Learning. Special Report. Chicester, England: John Wiley andSons, 1993. 273p. Index. Bibliography. Glossary. £95. LC 92-26331. ISBN 0471930156. OCLC 26304678.

Although this book deals with trends and developments in distance education outside Europe (including in theUnited States, Canada, Japan, and Eastern Europe), material on these areas is peripheral to the book's major focus:an examination of the current state of and the probable future of distance education in western Europe. Prepared byindividuals at DELTA (Development of European Learning through Technology Advance), this book is packedwith information about both general research into distance education and specific applications. General researchtopics include how learners best learn, what equipment and methods work best in particular situations, and whatcategories of people are most likely to participate in distance education. Specific applications include informationabout particular universities in

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various countries. The book profiles distance teaching universities such as Britain's Open University, Germany'sFernUniversität, and Denmark's Jysk Aabent Universitet; examines primary and secondary programs usingdistance education in a number of different countries; and describes training programs for employed adultssomesponsored by the state, others by private industry.

The first part of the book contains general information on distance learning, such as new technologies, applicablelearning theory, and types of methods used. An overview of various national and transnational programs ofdistance education follows. The three following chapters concentrate on specific distance education programs inspecific countries: job training and retraining; university education; and primary and secondary education. Thefinal pages give briefer information on distance education outside western Europe.

This book takes concentration to read. It is full of technical terms and acronyms for national and transnationaldistance education groups and initiatives (a glossary helps decipher these terms), and is packed with statistics,diagrams, and tables. For those motivated by a need or a desire to learn what is happening worldwide in thisgrowing field, this book is invaluable.

260.Burge, Elizabeth J., Joy Wilson, and Audrey Mehler. Communications and Information Technologies and DistanceEducation in Canada. Toronto: TV Ontario, 1984. 62p. Bibliography. (New Technologies in Canadian Education,Paper 5). no price reported. pa. OCLC 17213495.

This overview of distance education in Canada begins with a history of distance education there and a descriptionof the country's three major distance education institutions: Athabasca University, the Open Learning Institute, andTélé-Université. It then describes various educational consortia and discusses the various media used, includingprint, radio and television, video- and audiocassette, computers, videodisc and videotext, satellite, andvideoconferencing.

261.Cahill, Bruce, ed. Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO, 1985. 119p.Bibliography. no price reported. OCLC 13367330.

Part 1 of this three-part book begins with a general discussion on why distance education is desirable in Asia andthe Pacific (it is cost-effective and can reach isolated populations) and goes on to describe the various media ofdistance education (cassettes, microcomputers, interactive technology). It also explains how improvements in thetechniques of distance education can be applied to more traditional education. To be successful, distance educationcourses and programs depend on exceptionally well designed course materials because the materials must oftenstand on their own, with no supplementary explanation from an on-site teacher and no repeated interaction betweenstudent and teacher. What we learn from designing such materials can be applied to learning theory in general.

Part 2 gives one- to three-page overviews of distance education in 16 different Asia and Pacific nations. Part 3gives more in-depth case studies of three countrywide or intercountry distance education systems. These casestudies have practical information on how to develop and operate a massive distance education program.

The bibliography for this book is especially valuable for its listing of materials about distance education in thisgeographic area. Materials on this region are not readily indexed and are hard to find. All items listed here,including articles from the Beijing Review and the Bangkok Post and pamphlet material published in both Chineseand English, are available from the UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific.

Chander, N. Jose. Management of Distance Education, 1991. See entry #77.

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262.Daniel, John S., Martha A. Stroud, and John R. Thompson, eds. Learning at a Distance: A World Perspective.Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Athabasca University, 1982. 339p. Author index. Subject index. Bibliography. noprice reported. LC 84-161869. ISBN 091973005. OCLC 8921088.

Truly international in scope, this book was edited by John S. Daniel, a leading author and researcher in the field,and published by Athabasca University, a well-known distance education university. The book was planned by theprogram committee of the Vancouver World Conference on Learning at a Distance, 1982, sponsored by theInternational Council for Correspondence Education (ICCE). It contains papers by 120 authors from 25 countries,including John A. Bååth of Sweden, Desmond Keegan of Australia, and Hilary Perraton of the United Kingdom.The committee identified topics of interest and chose people to write about them.

With such a wide range of authors, it is to be expected that the topics are wide ranging as well. The book isdivided into seven sections, each section preceded by a brief introduction of one or two pages. Some papersconcentrate on distance education in a particular country or on a particular application of distance education, suchas teaching languages or training teachers. Others discuss focused topics, such as increasing the student retentionrate or the role of tutors in distance education.

Altogether, this book provides an eclectic sampling of information and opinions about distance education fromwell-known researchers in the field.

263.Davies, Gordon, and Brian Samways, eds. Teleteaching: Proceedings of the IFIP TC3 Third TeleteachingConference. New York: North Holland, 1993. 946p. Bibliographic references. (IFIP Transactions A, ComputerScience and Technology). $171.50pa. LC 93-8819. ISBN 0444815856. OCLC 28294787.

Papers from the conference in this volume include both keynote addresses and presented papers. Papers deal withall levels of educationprimary, secondary, and university levelas well as with industry training. Many of the papersaddress the particular application of distance education techniques in developing countries, whereas a numberwrite about a theme of interest to almost all educatorshow to make limited resources stretch further. A number ofthe papers are case studies of particular teaching projects worldwide.

Distance Learning Systems and Structures: Training Manual, Report of a Sub-Regional Training Workshop, 1987.See entry #163.

264.Enckevort, Ger van, Keith Harry, Pierre Morin, and Hans G. Schutze, eds. Distance Higher Education and theAdult Learner. Asser, The Netherlands: Dutch Open University, 1986. (Innovations in Distance Education:Occasional Papers of the Dutch Open University, vol. 1). no price reported. LC 87-119792. ISBN 9023222482.OCLC 15361351.

All the authors in this collection of essays are practitioners in the field of distance education; one, Walter Perry,was the first vice chancellor at the Open University of the United Kingdom. Some are professors or directors atdistance education institutions; others are educational consultants.

The essays are grouped into three sections. Section 1 is a collection of essays on the student, discussingcharacteristics shared by most distance education students, groups from which the student is most likely to bedrawn, and barriers that inhibit people from becoming students. These barriers might be due to a student's lifesituation, problems of workload, location, or family responsibilities; institutional barriers, such as cost of aprogram or distance from a facility; or psychological factors, such as lack of confidence or fear.

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Section 2 offers descriptions of particular distance education programs in particular countries, including the DutchOpen University, the Open University of the United Kingdom, as well as programs in countries as diverse as Japanand the former Yugoslavia. The programs are themselves diverse, ranging from the extensive and centralizeduniversities in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands to smaller, more decentralized offerings in Australia andSweden. Some of these essays provide comprehensive overviews of the distance education situation in a particularcountry.

Part 3 contains a number of essays on various media used in distance education that describe the pros and cons ofeach.

Flaws in spelling and grammar, perhaps due to the fact that English is not the first language of many of theauthors, sometimes make the essays difficult to read. Despite this problem, the book is valuable and worth theeffort to read it.

Evans, Terry D., and Bruce King. Beyond the Text: Contemporary Writing on Distance Education, 1991. See entry#46.

Faith, Karlene, ed. Toward New Horizons for Women in Distance Education: International Perspectives, 1988. Seeentry #236.

Falk, Barbara, and John Anwyl. The Desirability and Feasibility of an Australian Open Type University, 1973. Seeentry #11.

265.Fu, Yuen-Ching Sin. "China's Radio and Television Universities: Policies, Problems and Prospects." Ph.D. diss.,University of Calgary, 1992. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (1993): 387A. ISBN 0315752092.

Fu examines some of the problems with China's distance education university, the Radio and Television UniversitySystem. The university seems to share some of the common problems of other distance teaching institutions. In aneffort to increase its respect, it has restricted its openness, limiting enrollment to those who can pass an entranceexam. For the same reason, it has employed university professors to prepare materials. However, because some ofthese professors, although proficient in their subject fields, have no knowledge of distance education techniques,the materials are not well prepared. Students then prefer face-to-face instruction from tutors, even though thetutors' subject knowledge is not as great as the professors'. This dependence on tutors in turn makes the institutionless of a distance teaching one.

Fu recommends that specifically prepared distance education teachers be employed to prepare materials and thatthe state fund the university more adequately.

Glatter, Ron, and E. G. Wedell. Study by Correspondence: An Enquiry into Correspondence Study forExaminations for Degrees and Other Advanced Qualifications, 1971. See entry #13.

266.Hakemulder, Jan R., ed. Distance Education for Development: International Seminar, 1315 September 1979. Bonn:German Foundation for International Development, 1979. 396p. no price reported. OCLC 15148585.

Several well-known people contributed to these proceedings of a conference held at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,among them Börje Holmberg, Greville Rumble, and Bakhshish Singh.

Both the opening address, written by Professor Adebayo Adedejik, executive secretary of the EconomicCommission for Africa, and the address by Jan Hakemulder, editor of this volume, on the aims of the conference,list three main points of the conference:

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to explore ways to train more distance education teachers, using both such conventional methods as workshopsand seminars and the distance education method itself;

to encourage international co-operation for distance education in developing countries, both among themselvesand with industrial countries;

and to work for the establishment of a Network of African Open Universities.

The participants of this conference see distance education as an economically sound and efficient way of extendingeducational opportunities to previously neglected segments of the population.

A series of addresses and papers describe the state of distance education in various countries in Africa and Asia.Some of the papers describe specific programs, others describe institutions or government involvement, and stillothers present proposals for future development. This collection of papers presents an interesting look at the stateof distance education in various parts of the world at the time of writing.

267.Harry, Keith. Africa: A Survey of Distance Education 1991. New York: UNESCO, 1991. 163p. (New Papers inHigher Education. Studies and Research. 4). no price reported. pa. OCLC 28540163.

Prepared by the International Council for Distance Education and The International Centre for Distance Learning,this book is a short survey of distance education institutions in Africa. Arranged by country, each entry givesinformation on a particular countrypopulation, area, languages spoken, GDP, an overview of distance education inthe country, and specific information on institutions involved in distance teaching. Institution information includesenrollment figures, budget figures, courses, and research projects underway.

A companion volume, Latin America and the Caribbean: A Survey of Distance Education (1991), entry #269, isavailable as well.

268.Harry, Keith. Distance Education in Western Europe: A Selective Annotated Bibliography of Current Literature.Berlin: CEDEFOPEuropean Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 1986. 174p. Author index. $4.00.ISBN 9282561429. OCLC 15297356.

Although the annotations are extremely brief, one or two lines only, this bibliography does pull together referencesto distance education theory and practice throughout western Europe. Through research at the document collectionof the International Centre for Distance Education of the United Nations, located at Britain's Open University,through online literature searches, and through personal contact with distance education theorists and practitionersthroughout Western Europe, Harry has assembled an impressive list of sources in many languages.

His longest section consists of writings about distance education as it is carried out in particular countries; as mightbe expected, the literature from Germany, the United Kingdom,and Spain is more voluminous than that from othercountries, with Sweden also occupying a lengthy section. Other parts include information on students, courses,media used, evaluation (both of students and of programs), production and distribution, student support, andeconomics.

This book presents a wealth of material about efforts in distance education in western Europe.

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269.Harry, Keith. Latin America and the Caribbean: A Survey of Distance Education 1991. New York: UNESCO,1991. 145p. (New Papers on Higher Education. Studies and Research 5). no price reported. pa. OCLC 28540196.

Like its companion volume, Africa: A Survey of Distance Education 1991 (1991), entry #267, this book providesinformation on specific distance education institutions. The directory is arranged by country, with entries forinstitutions within the country. Information covers budgets, students, courses and programs taught, ongoingresearch projects, and special features, such as library services.

Harry, Keith, Magnus John, and Desmond Keegan, eds. Distance Education: New Perspectives, 1993. See entry#90.

270.Harry, Keith, Tony Kaye, and Kevin Wilson. The European Experience of the Use of Mass Media and DistanceMethods for Adult Basic Education. Milton Keynes, England: Open University, Distance Education ResearchGroup, 1982. (DERG Papers, nos. 3a and 3b). £6.00. LC 81-209373. OCLC 11810545.

Volume 1 of this two-volume set is the main report; volume 2 is titled Appendices: Summaries of Case Studies;Directory of Projects and Initiatives; Select Annotated Bibliography. In a study commissioned by the Commissionof the European Communities, the Distance Education Research Group of the Open University explored thequestion of using distance education methods to provide basic education to adults in Europe. The group identifiedvarious segments of society lacking in basic education that could benefit from improved opportunities. Amongthese groups were the unemployed, immigrants, and migrants. The study defined the components of basiceducation as literacy and numeracy, family education, consumer skills, awareness of other educationalopportunities, and preparation for vocational and professional training. It summarized the usual methods ofeducation and listed pros and cons for each: face-to-face teaching, printed materials for self-study, andbroadcasting. It then made a case for the use of distance education techniques in basic education. Such techniquesinclude using a variety of media to teach, teaching at a distance with some local face-to-face support in the form oftutors or study groups, and use of self-study printed materials.

The research group collected information on a number of local projects that had successfully used distanceeducation methods for basic education, and identified their common characteristics. They then made a series ofrecommendations to the commission, including that the two main target groups for adult basic education be theunemployed and immigrant populations; that more information be collected on current successful projects; thatadvisory groups of various experts be formed to assist in the setting up of new projects; that countries shareteaching materials and co-operate in their production; and that various pilot projects be funded.

The material is obviously dated, but interesting in its look at the state of distance education in western Europe at aparticular time.

Hilliard, Robert L., ed. Television and Adult Education, 1985. See entry #238

Hommadi, Ahmed Hasan. Open University: Retrospect and Prospect, 1989. See entry #22.

271.International Symposium on Media of Distance Education. Second International Symposium on Media of DistanceEducation: Prospects and Effectiveness. Seoul: Korea Correspondence University, 1984. no price reported. OCLC13542106.

The papers in this book were presented at the Second International Symposium on Media of Distance Education,which took place November 2021, 1984, and was sponsored by the Korea Correspondence University. One of thepapers is by John S.

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Daniel, a major author in the field. All papers are presented in both English and Korean. Although papersoriginally written in Korean and translated into English suffer a bit from stilted translation, making an occasionalsentence unclear, the gists of the essays come through. Papers discuss the use, advantages, and disadvantages ofvarious types of media in distance education, including audiocassettes, videocassettes, videodisc, and personalcomputers. Daniel points out that predicting how media will develop is a fool's game because the field is changingso rapidly. This book is primarily interesting for its international aspects and its information on the KoreanCorrespondence University, which is discussed tangentially in some of the papers.

272.Jenkins, Janet. Materials for Learning: How to Teach Adults at a Distance. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1981. 209p. Index. Bibliography. $14.00. LC 81-5890. ISBN 0710008082. OCLC 7463977.

Jenkins aims her book at those people producing distance education courses or packages for underdevelopednations. She emphasizes courses in daily, practical life, such as nursing, child care, farming, or nutrition, and basiceducation for literacy and numeracy.

She takes a very practical approach, giving advice on the uses of various media, including radio, television, andaudiocassettes. She lists the advantages and disadvantages of each and offers hints on how to get the most out ofeach format. Her advice is basic, such as a recommendation to write in simple sentences and to use the activevoice. Interspersed with such practical comments is equally practical advice on respecting local culture andcustoms, on incorporating such local customs into any lessons, and on not imposing alien values on an alreadyorganized, working society.

This book of practical advice for the distance education provider is handicapped by its physical appearance. It isprepared from a typescript and is crowded and hard to read, with very badly reproduced photographs. Thebibliography is densely printed, single spaced, and has no indentations for separate entries. However, the simpleadvice included, so often lacking in more theoretical works, is worth reading.

273.Kakanopas, Boonnit. "The Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University's Distance Education in Thailand: AnExperiment in Adult Education." Ed.D. diss., Northern Illinois University, 1991. Abstract in Dissertation AbstractsInternational 52 (1991): 4186.

This study examined the success of Thailand's efforts to organize an open university based on the model of theUnited Kingdom's Open University. Kakanopas' study showed that the model was closely followed, with someexceptions: Thailand's Open University provides fewer study centers, television and radio are used less becausefewer students have access to them, and the curriculum is not as broad. Also, the students pay a greater proportionof the cost of the programs. Kakanopas concludes that more study is needed before an assessment of Thailand'sOpen University can be made.

Kamau, J. W., ed. Handbook in Record Keeping for Records Officers in Distance Education, 1992. See entry #99.

Kaye, Anthony, and Greville Rumble, eds. Distance Teaching for Higher and Adult Education, 1981. See entry#100.

274.Kebwasa, Antoine, and Martin M. Kaunda, eds. Correspondence Education in Africa. Boston: Routledge andKegan Paul, 1973. 173p. Index. Bibliography. LC 73-83076. ISBN 0710076819. OCLC 820048.

Correspondence Education in Africa is a collection of the papers presented at a 1972 correspondence educationseminar in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. This conference was the second such conference sponsored by UNESCO; thefirst was held in 1962. The first

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conference, in Tananarive, was titled "UNESCO Conference on the Development of Higher Education in Africa."Many of the almost 100 recommendations in the first report maintained that higher education in Africa shoulddirect some efforts to public services beyond academic teaching and research, activities that are traditionallyassociated with higher education. Such public service would include adult education, community programs, andtraining programs. According to that first conference, higher education in Africa should play an important role ineducating large numbers of people, rather than just an elite, and in educating them with an eye toward theireconomic improvement. Ten years later, the Abidjan seminar resulted in the formation of the Association forAfrican Correspondence Education, which was to work toward an organized, efficient, mutually self-helpfulcorrespondence education program. Its major thrust was to provide widespread and practical education.

Papers presented at the Abidjan conference include historical overviews of correspondence education in Africa, anumber of case studies, both of professional training programs such as teacher training and of some moretraditional academic programs, and a survey of correspondence programs in Africa.

Although some of the factual and statistical material is outdated and particular correspondence programs haveobviously changed or been replaced, the case studies remain of interest. The forward by Charles A. Wedemeyer,well known for his writings on correspondence education in the United States, lends further value to this volume.

Khan, Inayat. Distance Teaching, 1993. See entry #101.

Kitchen, Ronald D. Men of Vision: A University Challenge to Distance Education, 1985. See entry #24.

275.Koul, B. N., and Janet Jenkins. Distance Education: A Spectrum of Case Studies. London: Kogan Page, 1990.253p. Index. Bibliographic references. £25.00. LC gb90-30636. ISBN 0749402296. OCLC 21670480.

The editors have collected case studies on five different forms of distance education: higher education, teachereducation, school level, non-formal education for literacy and such life skills as farming and parenting, and non-formal education targeting a particular group. Case studies are uneven in length and in the amount of informationpresented, running from a few pages to 20 or more. Some consist of narrative description only; others containdetailed tabular information.

The case studies serve to show the diversity of distance education, in what is taught, for what purpose and to whatgroups, in the level of financial support provided, in the number of people taught, and in the amount of preliminaryplanning done. Studies range from two articles about the enormous and very successful Open University of theUnited Kingdom, to a rather charming history of a program aimed at offshore oil workers in the North Sea, whichbegan when two workers wrote to North-East London Polytechnic asking if a correspondence course could bearranged. Open University began after much high-level political debate and specific planning and writing ofcourses and operates today with formal, packaged courses. The offshore oil workers' courses were developed inresponse to students' needs and remain small and individualized.

Students of distance education can learn from the breadth of programs described here.

Koul, B. N., Bakhshish Singh, and M. M. Ansari. Studies in Distance Education, 1988. See entry #103.

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276.Louis, Frank, ed. Remote Education and Informatics: Teleteaching. New York: Elsevier, 1988. 155p. Bibliographicreferences. $85.75. LC 88-7218. ISBN 0444704183. OCLC 17726724.

The organizers of this international conference began with the premise that the widespread societal use ofcomputers had created difficulties in education. Older teachers were not willing to learn and use the newtechnology, which contributed to a growing lack of respect by the pupils for the teachers. In addition, rapidtechnological change means that continual education in new technology is necessary for larger numbers of people.It also means that many of the people needing such continuing education are already working and thus are not ableto attend school full time. Organizers see distance education as a way of overcoming these problems. By usingdistance education to teach the use of computers themselves, resistance to their use by teachers can be mitigated. Inaddition, by using the distance education method in many different fields, more students can be accommodated,convenient to their own schedules.

Papers from the conference include general ones about the purpose and efficacy of distance education, specificcase studies, papers describing the use of particular media, and papers on methods.

277.MacKenzie, Norman, Richmond Postgate, and John Scupham. Open Learning: Systems and Problems in Post-Secondary Education. Paris: UNESCO, 1975. 498p. Bibliography. Bibliographic references. no price reported.OCLC 2143839.

The authors attempt here to bring together research done by many groups, so that others dealing with distanceeducation (or open learning, as the authors prefer to call it) can benefit. The first section is a philosophical analysisof distance education, in which they discuss various issues: uses of media, costs, planning, the need for personalcontact between student and teacher, and evaluation. The heart of the book is a series of lengthy, substantivereviews of specific programs in many countries, both developed and developing. The programs reviewed rangefrom the by-now almost traditional Open University in the United Kingdom to more modest efforts in Poland.Each analysis begins by setting each program into its national context, with information about the country'spopulation, economy, and communications system. This backround information is followed by a description anddiscussion of the program itself.

278.MacKenzie, Ossian, and Edward L. Christensen, eds. The Changing World of Correspondence Study: InternationalReadings. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 1971. 376p. Bibliography. Bibliographicreferences. no price reported. LC 70-127384. ISBN 271001356. OCLC 131402.

''International Readings" is a somewhat misleading subtitle for this work, as only the final section of eight, "TheExtramural Tutorial around the World" is truly international in scope. The essays in this final section are writtenby authors from all over the world and give information on correspondence education at various institutions. Assuch, it belongs in this section on international practices. The remaining essays, however, are by U.S. writers. Thetrue interest of the book lies in the final international section and in the first two sections, "Classics in ExtramuralStudy" and "Pioneer Experiments." Although too old to speak of current-day methods, these three sections retaintheir interest.

279.Mayo, John K., Robert C. Hornik, and Emile G. McAnany. Educational Reform with Television: The El SalvadorExperience. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1976. 216p. Index. $11.50. LC 75-7484. ISBN0804708967. OCLC 2419534.

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In the early 1970s, El Salvador introduced massive educational reform; this book chronicles those changes. Amongthe reforms was the introduction of extensive use of television in the classroom. This book traces the history, statesthe costs, follows the ongoing evaluation of the program changes, and concludes that the introduction of televisionhad, on the whole, a positive result. Although enthusiasm for television in education did not remain at the originalhigh level, the authors ascribe the drop mainly to a lack of innovative programming rather than to dissatisfactionwith the medium itself.

Supplementary material includes a chronology of the introduction of educational reform; an analysis of the basicskills test given to participants; samples of surveys filled out by students, teachers, and community members; andsome achievement results. The bibliography is a list of published reports on El Salvador's Educational Reform, allpublished by the Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University, under contract with the U.S. Agencyfor International Development.

Moran, Louise, and Ian Mugridge. Collaboration in Distance Education: International Case Studies, 1993. Seeentry #123.

Mugridge, Ian, and David Kaufman, eds. Distance Education in Canada, 1986. See entry #125.

280.Murphy, Paud, and Abdelwahed Zhiri, eds. Distance Education in Anglophone Africa: Experience with SecondaryEducation and Teacher Training. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992. 147p. Bibliographic references. (EDIDevelopment Policy Case Series. Analytical Case Studies, no. 9). no price reported. LC 91-28366. ISBN0821319086. OCLC 24246638.

A conference in Zimbabwe on May 711, 1990, explored the potential of distance education for African countries.Papers presented here concentrate on distance education for secondary-level students and for teacher training.

Introductory chapters make the case for distance education. They emphasize distance education's economy ofscale, the decrease in unit costs once a course has been produced, and distance education's flexibility in reachingpeople in all areas and of many levels of background and achievement. They also emphasize the need for astructure to support the student studying at a distance and the high failure or drop-out rate of students studyingcompletely on their own, without the support of such an institution.

Subsequent sections discuss the use of distance education for secondary-level teaching and for teacher training.Both are great needs of African countries, due to those countries' already expanded access to primary education.These later chapters present much hard information based on actual programs on student demographics, includingsuccess rates, on costs of distance education, and on organizational structures. The two editors provide theconcluding chapter. Among their recommendations are greater intercountry cooperation on planning, greaterfinancial support, and more effort to increase the esteem in which distance education is held vis-a-vis traditionaleducation.

281.Osbat, Luciano. The Provision of Distance Learning in Italy (Summary). Washington, D.C.: CEDEFOPTheEuropean Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 1986. 29p. $4.00pa. LC 87-147082. ISBN9282565238. OCLC 25047981.

Osbat studied the extent of distance education in Italy, funded both publicly and privately, and offered boththrough educational institutions and through businesses. He concluded that most distance education programs inItaly were for the purpose of vocational training, including teacher training, and that people looked to distanceeducation as an avenue through which they could earn job advancement and promotion.

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The purpose of the study was to see if the multitude of ongoing programs in Italy could be integrated into anational plan.

Parer, Michael S., ed. Development, Design, and Distance Education, 1989. See entry #175.

Parmaji, S. Distance Education, 1984. See entry #131.

Perraton, Hilary, ed. Distance Education for Teacher Training, 1993. See entry #136.

282.Perraton, Hilary, ed. Alternative Routes to Formal Education: Distance Teaching for School Equivalency.Baltimore, Md.: published for The World Bank by The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982. 329p. Bibliographicreferences. £14.95. LC 82-7233. ISBN 0801825873. OCLC 12975942.

Perraton uses a simple definition of distance educationeducation in which the teacher and student are separated inspace or in time or in both and that uses a variety of media. His simple definition allows for a great variety inapplication. Unlike many theorists, he stresses the need for some degree of face-to-face contact, saying this isnecessary to motivate students and to humanize the educational process. His conditions for success include:

ways to motivate students;

a connection between the education program and an organization that can supply such services as counseling,feedback, and tracking, in addition to isolated lessons;

the use of a variety of media; and

some face-to-face study.

All these conditions relate to keeping students motivated and therefore to the success rate of the program.

Perraton is also concerned with costs. To calculate the cost of a distance education program, he considers not onlythe number of students taking a course, but the completion rate. If too many students drop out, the cost per studentrises to an unacceptable level.

He sees several major applications for distance study, particularly in the international arena, in developingcountries. Many countries have limited resources to apply to mass education, but also have large numbers ofpeople clamoring for schooling. People see education as a way to improve their lives and their economic standing.These countries can benefit from distance education programs. Perraton sees possibilities in both basic educationand professional education. Basic education for adults would include classes in literacy, numeracy, and life skills,such as farming and health. Professional education would include classes and programs for such groups asteachers.

Perraton then presents case studies of programs in many countries, which illustrate different uses of distanceeducation at the secondary, university, and professional level. Courses presented include the MalawiCorrespondence College, the Korean Air-Correspondence High School, and Everyman University in Israel.

Appendices provide some help on evaluating programs, including methods of cost analysis and evaluation ofvarious kinds of media.

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283.Raggatt, Peter, and Keith Harry. Trends in Distance Higher Education. Milton Keynes, England: Open University,Distance Education Research Group, 1984. vol.1. 49p. (DERG Papers, nos. 10a and 10b). no price reported. OCLC11643289.

Two- to three-page descriptions of various distance teaching programs make up volume 1 of this set. Volume 2was not available for examination, but the table of contents indicated that volume 2 is similar. Most of theprograms described are in western Europe, North America, Asia, and Australia. Coverage was limited to theseareas because institutions in other areas did not answer the authors' requests for information, not because distanceeducation institutions do not exist in those areas. On the contrary, according to the authors, eastern Europe has a"well-established and widespread" system of distance education; over 1,000 higher education institutions in theSoviet Union teach at least partly through the distance education method; and various South and Central Americancountries have national open universities or departments within other universities (p. ii).

These figures are the most interesting part of these volumes, which is not about trends so much as about specificprograms. For a more complete directory of programs, see Lieve van den Brande's Flexible and Distance Learning(1993), entry #259.

284.Rathmore, H. C. S. Management of Distance Education in India. New Delhi, India: Ashish Publishing House,1993. 225p. Index. Bibliography. no price reported. ISBN 817024532X. OCLC 28709483.

According to Rathmore, who teaches at Banaras Hindu University, very little systematic assessment of distanceeducation in India has been done; programs have grown without any assessment of their effectiveness. In 1988, theNational Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) commissioned several studies to begin theassessment process.

Rathmore's study consisted of questionnaires to 14 of India's 30 institutions offering correspondence or distanceeducation and to about 2,800 students at these institutions. He studied six areas:

development of courses

distribution of courses

methods of communication between student and teacher

the face-to-face component

support services, such as study centers and library materials

assessment

Rathmore's study provides some preliminary and useful information on the nationwide provision of distanceeducation in India.

285.Reddy, G. Ram. Open Universities: The Ivory Towers Thrown Open. New Delhi, India: Sterling PublishersPrivate, 1988. 270p. Index. Bibliographic references. $37.50. ISBN 8120708644. OCLC 19660195.

When the Indira Ghandi National Open University was opened in 1985, India hosted an international seminar onopen universities. Papers from that seminar are published here. After an introduction by Reddy, which discussesthe history of the open university movement and the definition of distance education, the papers begin. Papers areby educators involved in open universities from 12 countries: Canada, China, Federal Republic of Germany, India,Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Spain, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the United Kingdom. The papersdiscuss the history and the philosophy of open universities in these countries.

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Rennard, M., and F. Weygard. Distance Learning for Heads of Firms and Managerial Staff in the Small BusinessSector of France, 1988. See entry #245.

286.Renwick, William, Doug Shale, and Chandrasekhara Rao. Distance Education at the University of the West Indies:Report of an Appraisal Carried Out on Behalf of the Commonwealth of Learning. Vancouver, British Columbia,Canada: Commonwealth of Learning, 1992. 103p. Appendix. no price reported. pa. ISBN 1895369142. OCLC28638502.

The University of the West Indies serves 14 countries on three campuses and cooperates with a number ofindependent institutions. This report was prepared for the Commonwealth of Learning and presented a plan forimplementing and administering a distance education program at the university.

The authors' proposal calls for a dual mode of education at the university, with traditional and distance educationexisting side by side and faculty teaching both traditional and distance students in the same class. The reportdiscusses funding, management structure, and the faculty training necessary to help them incorporate distancemethods into their teaching. It also proposes various specific programs that could use the distance method. Theappendix contains a list of people who were interviewed for the book.

Rumble, Greville, and Keith Harry. The Distance Teaching Universities, 1982. See entry #142.

Rumble, Greville and Joao Oliveira, eds. Vocational Education at a Distance: International Perspectives, 1992. Seeentry #246.

287.Seet Ai Mee. Open Universities: An Asian Perspective. Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute of Southeast AsianStudies, 1992. 37p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. LC sls92-044807. ISBN 9813016302. OCLC 28960657.

Seet Ai Mee uses the term open university to mean a distance university. She wrote this very brief book to explorethe uses to which distance education can be put in Asia. Unfortunately, the book is too short to accomplish thisaim. Seet Ai Mee glancingly covers the use of media, costs of distance education, evaluation of programs, studentsupport systems, course production, and the special applications of distance education to teaching science andtechnology. She gives a few examples of the experiences of Britain's Open University and the Open University ofIsrael. This book does not address specifically either the problems of distance education in Asia or its advantagesto the region.

288.Sewart, David, and John S. Daniel, eds. Developing Distance Education: Papers Submitted to the WorldConference of the International Council for Distance Education, 14th, Oslo, Norway, 1988. Oslo, Norway:International Council for Distance Education, 1988. 472p. Bibliographic references. MF $1.18. PC $36.30. ED320-544. LC 92-120005. ISBN 8250810112. OCLC 26504359.

In 1988, the International Council for Distance Education celebrated its 50th anniversary. The 14th WorldConference of that organization recognized this 50th anniversary with the theme "Developing Distance Education."This book, which is also available through the ERIC system, includes most of the keynote and conferencewidepapers and many of the session papers presented at the conference.

The book is divided into two sections, one containing the keynote addresses, the other the session papers. Both setsof papers are international in scope, written by distance education leaders in many countries. The keynote papersare broad based, on national and sometimes international themes and concerns: the need for national

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or international policies and goals; the economics of distance education; methods of developing a distanceeducation course from scratch; the necessity of and ways to integrate developing communications technology intoa program of distance education; and the importance of student support services and ways to develop them.

The session papers are narrower and more personal, but still valuable and interesting. Because over 700 delegatesfrom over 60 countries attended the conference, the papers provide a look at a wide variety of distance educationefforts internationally. Some deal with a particular country's national program of distance education, some with aparticular course. Some discuss specific concerns of distance educators, such as the drop-out rate, student need forcounseling, or the ways in which a tutor can help students. Some deal with specific technologies, such as the useof personal computers by distance education students, the use of telephone communication to support learners, orthe use of satellite transmission.

One flaw in the arrangement of the book is with these specific papers. They are presented in alphabetical order bythe name of the author. There is no index or table of contents for the papers, only a table of contents for thekeynote addresses. It is awkward to locate papers of particular interest. One must page through looking at the titlesof the individual papers. Those with the patience to do so, however, will find this book rewarding.

A short version of the conference proceedings, containing keynote addresses and summaries of 10 other majoraddresses, but no conference papers, is published as Developing Distance Education: A Report (ED 320-535),entry #96.

Sewart, David, Desmond Keegan, and Börje Holmberg, eds. Distance Education: International Perspectives, 1983.See entry #62.

289.Shaw, Willard D. Distance Education via Satellite: A Case Study of the Indonesian Distance Education SatelliteSystem. Washington, D.C.: Academy for Educational Development, 1987. 93p. (Telecommunications and RuralDevelopment). no price reported. pa. ISBN 9991887741. OCLC 16392920.

The AID Rural Satellite Program, sponsored by the U.S. Agency for International Development, was instituted toexplore the efficacy of using satellite communication technology to extend telecommunications within developingcountries. It was felt that such technology, because it does not depend on cable links, would be less expensive thantraditional telecommunications and thus more likely to be used for rural, remote areas. It was also believed thatsatellite technology would be more reliable than cable systems and less prone to breakdowns due to weatherconditions.

One of the pilot projects was in Indonesia, which had already developed its satellite system, with 42 earth stationsand two satellites. The project concentrated on using the system to provide university-level education and in-service training for university faculty. It linked 13 universities in Indonesia, allowing students at multisites to takecourses from a single professor. The report follows the project from its goal-setting stage, through the technicalchoices made and the characteristics of the system itself, the equipment used, the organizational structuredeveloped, the training of the staff and teachers, and the types of programs provided. The program was evaluatedat all stages. The report gives data on the technical success of the program and the reliability of the equipment, aswell as on student, teacher, and tutor satisfaction with the method.

Participants in the project are optimistic about the applicability of satellite telecommunications to developingcountries. They see it as a way to reach historically isolated populations without the costs or the unreliability ofland-based systems.

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290.Smith, Kevin, ed. Diversity Down Under in Distance Education. Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia: DarlingDowns Institute Press, 1984. 105p. Bibliographic references. $8.50. LC 84184532. ISBN 0909306702. OCLC12052327.

The impetus for this volume was the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Australian and South Pacific ExternalStudies Association. The book developed into a collection of essays both general and specific on both theassociation itself and on some of the programs carried out by its members.

The three general articles, at the front of the book, relate the history of the association, discuss its philosophy andpurpose, and recount some of the difficulties it faces because of the extensive geographic area it covers and thedifferences within that area. Like many distance education programs and organizations, the ASPESA was foundedon a philosophy of equal access to education for all people, regardless of geographic isolation or academicbackground.

Its members continue to try to live by that philosophy. In nine articles in part 2 of the book, various authorsdescribe programs throughout the association: in Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and at theUniversity of the South Pacific, which at the time of writing served 11 separate governments, including Fiji,Western Samoa, and the Solomon Islands. This book provides a useful look at a region that, although a leader indistance education, is not as well understood by American readers as are the systems of western Europe.

291.Smith, Kevin, and Chris Curran. Developments in Distance Education in Asia: An Analysis of Five Case Studies.Paris: International Council for Distance Education and UNESCO, 1989. 200p. Bibliography. MF $1.18. ED 335-444.

UNESCO and the International Council for Distance Education cooperated on this study. Five systems usingcommunication technology for education were studied, two in India and one each in China, Indonesia, andThailand. The study examined organizational structure, costs, courses, access, and assessment.

The editors identify various issues that need to be addressed if distance education is to succeed. Issues center onaccessexpanding the scope of distance education to reach more students; achievementmonitoring student progressand striking a balance between increased access and admitting students whose lack of background make themlikely to drop out; acceptance of distance education in the larger community; staff training and competence; andorganization of distance education universities.

The bulk of the reportabout 125 pages of the 200-page reportcomprise the case studies of the five institutionsinvolved.

Smith, Peter, and Mavis Kelly, eds. Distance Education and the Mainstream: Convergence in Education, 1987. Seeentry #63.

292.Swedish Commission on Television and Radio in Education. Distance Education in a Number of Countries.Stockholm: The TRU Commission, 1975. 68p. Bibliography. no price reported. pa. ISBN 9138027143. OCLC2424072.

Some information on distance education is given for the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany,France, the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, the Soviet Union, Poland, and the German DemocraticRepublic. Information includes numbers of students,' student profiles, courses taught, organizational structures, andcosts. The information is sketchy, not giving a complete picture of the total scope of distance education in aparticular country, and is obviously outdated by now. Nevertheless, it provides historical background on distanceeducation efforts and accomplishments in several countries.

Tait, Alan, ed. International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education. Selected Papers, 1987. See entry#223.

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Taylor, Peter, and Derrick Tomlinson. Primary Distance Education: Population, Problems, and Prospects, 1984.See entry #248.

Timmons, Judith A., and A. Ivan Williams. Handbook on the Organization and Management of DistanceEducation Study Centres, 1990. See entry #225.

Tomlinson, Derrick, Frank Coulter, and Jane Peacock. Teaching and Learning at Home: Distance Education andthe Isolated Child, 1985. See entry #250.

293.Trask, Margaret, and Mairéad Browne. External Studies in Librarianship: An Investigation into the PotentialEfficacy of External Studies in Librarianship in Australia. Lindfield, Australia: School of Library and InformationStudies, Kuring-gai College of Advanced Education, 1979. vol.1, 89p. vol.2,290p. Bibliography. Appendices. noprice reported. spiral bound. LC 84-236180. ISBN 09091777163 (vol.1); 0909177171 (vol.2). OCLC 11676817.

The Educational Research and Development Committee, Canberra, funded this study on the possibility ofproviding a program for librarianship through external studies. This report first details the then-current state oflibrary studies in Australia, then states the hypothesis of the study and describes its methodology. The study grouphypothesized that external studies in librarianship would be as effective and productive as face-to-face studies.

For the study, the researcher prepared a packet of materials to teach indexes and indexing services. Theydistributed this packet to a library class at the Kuring-gai College of Advanced Education. A control group wastaught the same material through conventional classroom methods. Both groups were pre-and post-tested. Resultssupported the main hypothesis, and the study group recommended that an external studies program in librarianshipbe developed.

The appendices in volume 2 consist of letters explaining the course and the project to students, pre- and posttestresults, and all printed course materials.

294.UNESCO: Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific. Resource Materials Used in Distance Teachingby Higher Education Institutions. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and thePacific, 1984. 44p. (Regional Co-Operation Programme in Higher Education for Development). no price reported.pa. OCLC 11850489.

This directory contains information on 34 higher education institutions in six countries. The institutions were askedwhat subject areas they provided distance education in, at what level (diploma, bachelor's degree, master's degree,etc.), and what types or formats of study materials they used (printed materials, audiotapes, study guides, etc.). Theinformation is not reported consistently across institutions because the institutions used varying terminology todescribe their programs.

295.UNESCO: Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Science, Technology and Outreach Courses byDistance Education: A Workshop-Report. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia andthe Pacific, 1989.67p. (Regional Co-Operation Programme in Higher Education for Development in Asia and thePacific). no price reported. pa. OCLC 20820793.

Representatives from eight countries in Asia and the Pacific participated in this 1988 workshop. Workshopparticipants first identified difficulties in providing science and technology courses through distance education;these included:

the difficulty of providing a practical work component, such as laboratory experiments, to students at a distance

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the difficulty of adequately training staff in certain subject areas

the low regard in which distance education is often held

low student enrollment in scientific courses

the high cost of teaching certain subjects in the sci-tech area

The participants then studied various options and possibilities under each problem and presented conclusions andrecommendations.

Their recommendations concerning the problem of practical work were twofold. First, the program should be surethat such a component was indeed necessary in a particular course; the second step was to explore methods ofproviding it. Suggestions included using computer simulations, required short residential courses, or homeexperiment kits. Staff recruitment and training difficulties could be overcome by institutions concentrating moreresources in that area. Student recruitment should also be emphasized, but always with the proviso that anystudents admitted be academically qualified for the program and have a likelihood of success in it. Increasedfunding could come from industry, if programs and courses were geared more closely to industry needs. Finally,cost savings could be accomplished through the production of more modular course materials, to be used in morethan one course.

296.Wakatama, Matthew A. Correspondence Education in Central Africa: An Alternative Route to Higher Education inDeveloping Africa. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1983. 535p. Bibliography. $41.00pa. ISBN0819130974. OCLC 9280703.

The author based this book on his doctoral dissertation. It contains a massive amount of information on the then-current educational system (both traditional and correspondence) in various African countries. He also presentsinformation on the effectiveness of correspondence education in these countries, based on examination results anda study of drop-out rates.

Wakatama reviews the problems of correspondence education: poor library facilities, student isolation, students'lack of educational background, and students' other time commitments. He then makes a series ofrecommendations concerning correspondence education in Africa; these include:

raising the primary and secondary educational level to prepare more students for university-levelcorrespondence education

improving the training of teachers

providing specific training in the art of correspondence teaching

improving library facilities and access to them

providing more face-to-face instruction in the form of tutoring and brief residential courses

Whiting, John, and David A. Bell, eds. Tutoring and Monitoring Facilities for European Open Learning, 1987. Seeentry #148.

297.Young, Michael, Hilary Perraton, Janet Jenkins, and Tony Dodds. Distance Teaching for the Third World: TheLion and the Clockwork Mouse. London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1980. 249p. Index. Bibliography. £6.95pa. LC80-40368. ISBN 0710004796. OCLC 6899504.

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As the mouse is to the lion, so the authors feel distance education is to traditional, institutionalized education. Asin Aesop's fable, they feel the mouse has power. The authors examine past and current efforts at distance educationin the developing world, concentrating primarily on radio broadcasts. They support the expansion of such efforts,maintaining that such programs offer a real opportunity to expand education to more people in villages and ruralareas. They focus on the practical, vocational courses that distance education can offer, as well as the moretraditional academic offerings. This book is more than a report on current efforts and the effects of such efforts; itis rather a plea for the betterment of individual lives through education and an attempt to convince people thatdistance education has a role to play in this betterment.

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Appendix A: Journals in Distance Education

The following journals either have distance education as their main theme or publish a number of articles on thesubject.

AETT JournalETTIAssociation for Educational Training and Technologyc/o Centre for Continuing EducationCity UniversityNorthampton SquareLondon, England EC1V OH8FAX: 752-232375ISSN 0892-3647(incorporates Ed Tech News)

American Journal of Distance EducationPennsylvania State UniversityCollege of Education403 S. Allen Street, Ste. 206University Park, PA 16801Telephone: 814-863-3764

Canadian Journal of Educational CommunicationAssociation for Media and Technology in Education in Canada1750 The Queensway, Ste. 1318Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9 C5 H5FAX: 306-966-8719ISSN 0710-4340

Distance EducationUSQ PublicationsDistance Education CentreDarling HeightsToowamba, Queensland, Australia 4350Telephone: 61-76-312290FAX: 61-76-312868ISSN 0158-7919

ED-TECH ReviewAssociation for the Advancement of Computing in EducationP.O. Box 2966Charlottesville, VA 22902Telephone: 804-973-3987FAX: 804-978-7449

Educational Media InternationalKogan Page Ltd.120 Pentonville RoadLondon, England N1 9JNTelephone: 071-278-0433FAX: 071-837-6348ISSN 0952-3987

International Council for Distance Education BulletinInternational Council for Distance EducationRegional Academic Services, Open UniversityWalton HallMilton Keynes, England MK7 6AA7Telephone: 908-74066FAX: 908-653744ISSN 0264-0201

Journal of Computer Assisted LearningBlackwell Scientific PublicationsOsney Mead, Oxford, England OX2 OELTelephone: 865-240201FAX: 865-721205ISSN 0266-4909

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Journal of Computer Based InstructionAssociation for the Development of Computer Based Instructional Systems1601 W. Fifth Avenue, Ste. 111Columbus, OH 43212Telephone: 614-487-1528ISSN 0098-597X

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Journal of Distance EducationCanadian Association for Distance Education151 Slater StreetOttawa, Ontario, Canada K1P 5N1FAX: 604-291-4964

Machine Mediated LearningTaylor and Francis1900 Frost Road, Ste. 101Bristol, PA 19007Telephone: 215-785-5800FAX: 215-785-5515ISSN 0732-6718

Open LearningLongman Groups UKWestgate House, The HighHarlow, Essex, England CM20 1 YRTelephone: 279-442601FAX: 279-444501(Formerly Teaching at a Distance)

Research in Distance Education: A Forum for Researchers in Distance EducationCentre for Distance EducationAthabasca UniversityBox 100000Athabasca, Alberta, Canada AB TOG 2ROTelephone: 403-675-6179ISSN 0843-8854

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Appendix B: Distance Education Online

Various online services have developed that concentrate on distance education. Some are online journals; othersare discussion groups. The electronic world changes constantly, so this list is by no means complete.

ADLTED-LCanadian Adult Education NetworkTo subscribe: LISTSERV@ UREGINAL1.BITNET(a discussion group)

DEOS-LAmerican Center for the Study of Distance EducationThe Pennsylvania State University, College of Education403 South Allen Street, Ste. 206University Park, PA [email protected](an online discussion group)

DEOSNEWSAmerican Center for the Study of Distance EducationThe Pennsylvania State University, College of Education403 South Allen Street, Ste. 206University Park, PA [email protected](an online journal)

DISTED: The Online Journal of Distance Education and CommunicationUniversity of AlaskaTo subscribe: LISTSERV@UWAVM

EDISTAUniversity Distance Program, University of Santiago in ChileTo subscribe: [email protected] send messages: [email protected](an online discussion group)

National Distance Learning CenterTelnet ndlc.oc.uky.edu or 128.163.193.10login: ndlc(an information bank)

OFFCAMPWayne State UniversityTo subscribe: [email protected](an online discussion group)

The Online Chronicle of Distance Education and CommunicationTo subscribe: LISTSERV@ ALPHA.ACAST.NOVA.EDUFor all other inquiries: Chron@ alpha.acat.nova.edu(an online journal)

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Appendix A: Journals in Distance Education 165

Appendix B: Distance Education Online 167

Author Index 169

Title Index 173

Subject Index 181

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Mahdi
Rectangle
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Author Index

All numbers refer to entry numbers

A

Altrichter, Herbert, 40

American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, 65, 66, 190

Anderson, John, 33

Ansari, M. M., 67, 103

Anwyl, John, 11, 191

Arms, Caroline 41, 42

Armstrong, J. D., 68

Arnove, Robert F., 252

Asian Development Bank, 253

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), 254, 255, 256, 257, 258

B

Bååth, John A., 43, 69, 154, 155

Bailey, Kenneth Vye, 1

Barker, Bruce O., 70, 231

Barrowclough, Harold M., 219

Bates, A.W., 71, 156, 232

Batey, Anne, 72

Bell, David A., 148

Bell, Robert E., 44

Benson, Robyn, 220

Biedenback, Joseph M., 8

Birch, Derek, 73

Bittner, Walton Simon, 2

Black, Evelyn Joyce, 157

Blackmore, David E., 33

Blakely, Robert J., 3

Blakeslee, George, 179

Blanchard, Dana, 78

Bosworth, David P., 74

Box, Cecilia, 87

Brande, Lieve Van Den, 259

Brey, Ronald G., 95

Brindley, Jane E., 192

British Broadcasting Corporation, 4

Brockman, John R., 193

Brown, Maureen, 179

Browne, Mairéad, 293

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Budnick, Carol, 212

Burge, Elizabeth J., 194, 260

Burgess, William E., 194A

Burke, Michael A., 158

Byrne, T. C., 5

C

Cahill, Bruce, 261

Calder, Judith A., 215

Cameron, Margaret, 228

Campbell-Thrane, Lucille, 75

Carlisle, Robert D., 6

Carter, Carole, 195

Chacon-Duque, Fabio J., 76, 196

Chander, N. Jose, 77

Chang, T. M., 159

Childs, Gayle B., 39

Christensen, Edward L., 25, 278

Chu, Godwin C., 7

Clark, G. Christopher, 122, 171

Clark, Thomas A(llen), 64, 160

Clennell, S., 161

Cochenour, John, 87

Cookson, Peter, 121

Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 233

Coulter, Frank, 250

Cowell, Richard N., 72

Crocker, Christine, 197, 198, 199

Crombag, H. F., 159

Cross, K. Patricia, 45

Curran, Chris, 291

Curtis, John A., 8

Cyrs, Thomas E., 162

D

Daniel, John S., 262, 288

Davies, Gordon, 263

Dillon, Connie, 78

Dodds, Tony, 79, 234, 297

Donaldson, Joe, 121

Drift, KDJM, van der, 159

Duke, Christopher, 9

Duning, Becky S., 80

E

Eastmond, Daniel van, 200

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Edelstein, Stewart L., 119, 120

Eifert, Harvey C., 201

Ellington, Henry, 134

Elliot, Sergio, 81

Enckevort, Ger van, 264

Eurich, Nell P., 10, 235

Evans, Terry, 40, 46, 47, 48

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F

Faith, Karlene, 236

Falk, Barbara, 11

Feasley, Charles E., 82

Ferguson, John, 12

Flinck, Rune, 155, 203

Fredrickson, Scott Alfred, 237

Fu, Yuen-Ching Sin, 265

G

Garland, Maureen R., 204

Garrison, D. Randy, 49, 164

George, Alan, 205

Gerber, Ron, 165

Gilcher, Kay W., 83

Giltrow, David, 84

Glatter, Ron, 13

Gooler, Dennis D., 128

Graff, Kurt, 59

Granholm, Gunnar, 86

Gray, John, 206

Grimison, Craig, 197

Grugeon, David, 147

Gunawardena, Charlotte Nirmalani, 166

H

Hakemulder, Jan R., 266

Hakes, Barbara T., 87

Harasim, Linda M., 207

Harrington, Fred Harvey, 88

Harris, David, 50

Harris, W. J. A., 14, 89, 167

Harrison, Nigel, 168

Harry, Keith, 90, 142, 208, 264, 267, 268, 269, 270, 283

Hartnett, Rodney T., 15

Hawkridge, David G., 16

Hewitt, Elizabeth A., 246A

Hezel Associates, 91

Hill, Frank Ernest, 17

Hilliard, Robert L., 238

Hodgson, Barbara, 92

Hodgson, Vivien E., 51

Holmberg, Börje, 18, 19, 20, 21, 52, 53, 62, 93

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Hommadi, Ahmed Hasan, 22

Hornik, Robert C., 279

Houdek, Elizabeth, 94

Howard, Joan L., 194

Hudspeth, DeLayne R., 95

Hughes, L. J., 23

I

International Council for Distance Education, 54, 96

International Symposium on Media of Distance Education, 271

J

Jenkins, Janet, 272, 275, 297

Johansen, Robert, 97

John, Magnus, 90

Johnson, Geraldine Roach, 239

Johnson, Keith Richard, 209

Johnstone, Sally M., 83

Jones, Ann, 98, 210

K

Kakanopas, Boonnit, 273

Kamau, J.W., 99

Kaufman, David, 125

Kaunda, Martin M., 274

Kaye, Anthony, 100, 217, 240

Kaye, Tony, 270

Kebwasa, Antoine, 274

Keegan, Desmond, 55, 56, 56A, 57, 62, 90

Kekerix, Marvin J. van, 80

Kelly, Mavis, 63

Kember, David, 168A

Khan, Inayat, 101

King, Bruce, 46

Kirkup, Gill, 210

Kirkwood, Adrian, 210

Kitchen, Karen, 102

Kitchen, Ronald D., 24

Klobas, Jane E., 193

Knott, Tara, 102A

Knowles, Malcolm, 211

Koul, B. N., 103, 275

Krebs, Arlene, 104

Kreplin, Hannah, 119

L

LaFleur, Clay, 33

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Lane, Carla, 138

Latham, Jack, 73

Latham, Sheila, 212

Lenk, Cecilia, 179

Lessin, Barton M., 213, 214

Lewis, Raymond J., 105, 106

Lewis, Roger, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115

Ljoså, Erling, 116

Lloyd, Mark I., 246A

Lochte, Robert H., 169

Lockwood, Fred, 170

Louis, Frank, 276

M

McAnany, Emile G., 279

McIntosh, Naomi (E.), 215, 230

MacKenzie, Norman, 277

MacKenzie, Ossian, 25, 278

McLardy, Ailsa, 58

McNeal, Barbara, 97

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McNulty, Maureen, 97

Maddux, Cleborne D., 117

Mallory, Hervey F., 2

Mansson, Nils-Ove, 69

Markowitz, Harold J., 118

Marland, P.W., 216

Marriott, Stuart, 26

Mason, Robin, 217

Matheos, Kathleen, 241

May, Susan, 242

Mayo, John K., 279

Medsker, Leland L., 119, 120

Mehler, Audrey, 260

Moir, Guthrie, 27

Moonen, J.M., 159

Moore, Michael G., 121, 122, 171, 243

Moran, Louise, 123

Morgan, Alistair, 40, 172

Morin, Pierre, 264

Moss, Robin, 124

Mugridge, Ian, 123, 125

Murphy, Paud, 280

N

Nation, Daryl, 47, 48

National Home Study Council, 126

Neil, Michael W., 127

Niemi, John A., 128

Noffsinger, John S., 28

O

Obradovic, Robert, 218

Office of Technology Assessment, 129

Oliveira, Joao, 246

Ortner, Gerhard E., 59

Osbat, Luciano, 281

O'Shea, Tim, 98

Ostendorf, Virginia A., 130, 173

Ostman, Ronald E., 219

Owen, Michael, 251

P

Paine, Nigel, 60

Parer, Michael (S.), 174, 175, 220

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Parmaji, S., 131

Patching, W. G., 216

Patrick, Kate, 191

Paul, Ross H., 132

Paulsen, Morton Flate, 133

Peacock, Jane, 250

Percival, Fred, 134

Perraton, Hilary, 135, 136, 176, 282, 297

Perry, Walter, 30, 31, 137

Peters, J., 161

Portway, Patrick S., 138

Postgate, Richmond, 277

Powles, Margaret, 191

Price, Mike, 78

Purdy, Leslie N., 139

Putt, I. J., 216

Q

Quigley, B. Allan, 121

Quosai, Trudy Smit, 244

R

Race, Philip, 177, 178, 221

Raggatt, Peter, 283

Rao, Chandrasekhara, 286

Rathmore, H. C. S., 284

Reddy, G. Ram, 285

Reid-Smith, Edward R., 222

Rennard, M., 245

Renwick, William, 286

Rigby, Paul H., 25

Roberts, Nancy, 179

Robinson, John, 32

Rossman, Parker, 61

Rothe, J. Peter, 33

Rowntree, Derek, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184

Ruggles, Robin H., 33

Rumble, Greville, 34, 100, 137, 140, 141, 142, 246

Ruyle, Janet, 119

S

Sachs, Steven G., 87

Saloman, Kenneth D., 246A

Samways, Brian, 263

Scanlon, Eileen, 98

Schramm, Wilbur, 7, 143

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Schutze, Hans G., 264

Schwenkmeyer, Barry, 10

Scupham, John, 277

Seet Ai Mee, 287

Sewart, D(avid), 62, 161, 288

Shale, Doug, 164, 286

Shaller, Elliot H., 246A

Shaw, Willard D., 289

Shea, John, 119

Sileo, Lorraine, 185

Singh, Bakhshish, 103

Slade, Alexander, 212

Smith, Frank A., 162

Smith, Kevin, 290, 291

Smith, Peter, 63

Sponder, Barry M., 247

Store, R. E., 68

Stroud, Martha A., 262

Swedish Commission on Television and Radio in Education, 292

Sweet, Robert, 144

Swift, Betty, 215

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T

Taerum, Terry, 33

Tait, Alan, 223, 224

Taylor, Peter, 248

Temple, Hilary, 249

Thompson, John R., 262

Thorpe, Mary, 146, 147

Tight, Malcolm, 44

Timmons, Judith A., 225

Tomlinson, Derrick, 248, 250

Trask, Margaret, 293

Tunstall, Jeremy, 35

U

UNESCO: Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 295

UNESCO: Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, 294

V

Verduin, John R., 64

Vocht, Coen de, 208

W

Wagner, Graham A., 219

Wakatama, Matthew A., 296

Wall, Dennis, 251

Walsh, Stephen Michael, 186

Watkins, Barbara L., 36

Wedell, E.G., 13

Wedemeyer, Charles A., 37, 38, 39

Wells, Rosalie, 226

Weygard, F., 245

Whiting, John, 148

Willen, Birgitta, 187, 227

Williams, A. Ivan, 225

Williams, John D. S., 89

Williams, Michael, 165

Williams, W. E., 17

Willis, Barry, 149, 150, 188

Wilson, Joy, 260

Wilson, Kevin, 270

Winders, Ray, 151

Winter, Andrew, 228

Wong, Charles Kit Hung, 229

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Woodley, Alan, 230

Wright, Stephen J., 36

Y

Yenbamrung, Patamaporn, 152

Young, Michael, 297

Z

Zaborowski, Leon M., 80

Zhiri, Abdelwahed, 280

Zigerell, James, 153

Zubot, Myra, 189

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Title Index

All numbers refer to entry numbers

A

Activities in Self-Instructional Texts, 170

Administration of Distance-Teaching Institutions: A Manual, 79

Adult Distance Education, Educational Technology and Drop Out, 219

Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning, 45

Africa: A Survey of Distance Education 1991, 267

''Alone but Together: Adult Distance Study by Computer Conferencing," 200

Alternative Routes to Formal Education: Distance Teaching for School Equivalency, 282

"Analysis of the Continuing Education Curriculum of the Associated General Contractors of America for Deliveryby Satellite Teleconferencing," 239

"Analysis of Variables Associated with Student Achievement and Satisfaction in a University Distance EducationCourse," 209

Answers in the Mail: A Correspondence Teacher Writes to His Students, 201

Aspects of Educational Technology. Volume XV. Distance Learning and Evaluation, 134

"Assessment of the Use of Electronic Conferencing in a Course for Rural Women in Manitoba," 241

Athabasca University: The Evolution of Distance Education, 5

"Attitudes and Perceptions of University Faculty toward Technology Based Distance Education," 186

"Attrition and Completion in Distance Education: The Student's Perspective," 192

B

Backstairs to a Degree: Demands for an Open University in Late Victorian England, 26

Beyond Distance Teaching. Towards Open Learning, 51

Beyond the Text: Contemporary Writing on Distance Education, 46

Big Media, Little Media: Tools and Technologies for Instruction, 143

Brandenburg Memorial Essays on Correspondence Instruction, Volumes I and II, 37

British Open University in the United States: Adaptation and Use at Three Universities, 15

Broadcasting in Education: An Evaluation, 232

Building Academic Quality in Distance Higher Education, 76

C

CADEA System for Computer-Assisted Distance Education, 69

Campus Networking Strategies, 41

Campus Strategies for Libraries and Electronic Information, 42

Changing World of Correspondence Study: International Readings, 278

"China's Radio and Television Universities: Policies, Problems and Prospects," 265

Collaboration in Distance Education: International Case Studies, 123

Communications and Information Technologies and Distance Education in Canada, 260

Compressed Video: Operations and Applications, 87

Computer-Mediated Communication for Distance Education: An International Review of Design, Teaching, andInstitutional Issues, 226

Computer Revolution in Education: New Technologies for Distance Teaching, 98

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Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education, 121

Correspondence Education Combined with Systematic Telephone Tutoring, 203

Correspondence Education in Africa, 274

Correspondence Education in Central Africa: An Alternative Route to Higher Education in Developing Africa, 296

Correspondence Education in the Light of a Number of Contemporary Teaching Models, 43

Correspondence Education Moves to the Year 2000, 75

Correspondence Education: A Survey of Applications, Methods, and Problems, 18

Correspondence Instruction in the United States: A Study of What It Is, How It Functions, and What Its PotentialMay Be, 25

Correspondence Schools, Lyceums, Chautauquas, 28

Cost of Distance Education, 135

Counselling Distance Learners: Preferred Support Strategies for Social and Personnel Difficulties, 195

Critical Reflections on Distance Education, 47

Critical Review of the Use of Audiographic Conferencing Systems, by Educational Institutions for InstructionalDelivery, 83

D

Degree of Difference: The Open University of the United Kingdom, 215

Degrees Through Distance Education: How to Earn a Bachelor's, Master's, or Doctoral Degree without Attending aUniversity, 218

Desirability and Feasibility of an Australian Open Type University, 11

Developing Courses for Students, 180

Developing Distance Education: A Report from the 14th World Conference, 96

Developing Distance Education: Papers Submitted to the World Conference of the International Council forDistance Education, 14th, Oslo, Norway, 1988, 288

Developing Open Learning Courses, 174

Developing Partnerships: an Investigation of Library-Based Relationships with Students and EducatorsParticipating in Distance Education, 194

Development, Design, and Distance Education, 175

Developments in Distance Education in Asia: An Analysis of Five Case Studies, 291

Distance Education, by David Giltrow, 84

Distance Education, by S. Parmaji, 131

Distance Education: Exemplar Training Materials, 254

Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice, 64

Distance Education: An Information Age Approach to Adult Education, 153

Distance Education: International Perspectives, 62

Distance Education: New Perspectives, 90

Distance Education: An Overview, 72

Distance Education: A Practical Guide, 188

Distance Education: A Selected Bibliography, 117

Distance Education: Selected Papers, Part 2, 65

Distance Education: Selected Papers, Part 3, 66

Distance Education: A Spectrum of Case Studies, 275

Distance Education: Staff Handbook, 118

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Distance Education: Strategies and Tools, 149

Distance Education: A Survey and Bibliography, 93

Distance Higher Education and the Adult Learner, 264

Distance Education and Geography Teaching, 165

Distance Education and Sustainable Community Development, 251

Distance Education and the Changing Role of the Library Media Specialist, 158

Distance Education and the Mainstream: Convergence in Education, 63

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Distance Education as Two-Way Communication: Essays in Honour of Börje Holmberg, 59

Distance Education at Swedish Universities: An Evaluation of the Experimental Programme and a Follow-UpStudy, 227

Distance Education at the University of the West Indies: Report of an Appraisal Carried Out on Behalf of theCommonwealth of Learning, 286

Distance Education for Corporate and Military Training, 243

Distance Education for Development: International Seminar, 13-15 September, 1979, 266

Distance Education for Teacher Training, 136

Distance Education Handbook: An Administrator's Guide for Rural and Remote Schools, 2d ed., 231

Distance Education in a Number of Countries, 292

Distance Education in Anglophone Africa: Experience with Secondary Education and Teacher Training, 280

Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific, by the Asian Development Bank, 253

Distance Education in Asia and the Pacific, by Bruce Cahill, 261

Distance Education in Canada, 125

Distance Education in Rural Alaska: An Overview of Teaching and Learning Practices in AudioconferencingCourses, 2d ed., 247

Distance Education in Western Europe: A Selective Annotated Bibliography of Current Literature, 268

Distance Education Symposium: Selected Papers, Part 1, 190

Distance Education Systems, 81

Distance Education via Satellite: A Case Study of the Indonesian Distance Education Satellite System, 289

Distance Learning Case Studies, 70

Distance Learning for Heads of Firms and Managerial Staff in the Small Business Sector of France, 245

Distance Learning Systems and Structures: Training Manual, 255

Distance Learning Systems and Structures: Training Manual, Report of a Sub-Regional Training Workshop, 163

Distance Learning: on the Design of an Open University, 159

Distance Teaching, 101

Distance Teaching for Higher and Adult Education, 100

Distance Teaching for the Third World: The Lion and the Clockwork Mouse, 297

Distance Teaching Universities, 142

Distance Tutor: Education by Correspondence, 167

Diversity Down Under in Distance Education, 290

Door Stood Open: An Evaluation of the Open University Younger Students Pilot Scheme, 230

E

Economics of Distance Higher Education, 67

Education at a Distance: From Issues to Practice, 164

Education of Adults at a Distance: A Report of the Open University's Tenth Anniversary International Conference,127

Educational Reform with Television: the El Salvador Experience, 279

Educational Telecommunications Delivery Systems, 8

Educational Television: A Policy Critique and Guide for Developing Countries, 252

Effective Distance Education: A Primer for Faculty and Administrators, 150

Electronic Education: Using Teleconferencing in Post-Secondary Organizations, 97

Electronic Media for the School Market: Review, Trends, and Forecast, 185

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Electronic University: A Guide to Distance Learning, 202

"Emerging Electronic University: A Study of Student Cost-Effectiveness (Distance Education)," 152

Emerging Worldwide Electronic University: Information Age Global Higher Education, 61

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European Association of Distance Teaching Universities, 208

European Experience of the Use of Mass Media and Distance Methods for Adult Basic Education, 270

Evaluating Open and Distance Learning, 146

Evaluation in Distance Teaching, 68

Evaluation of Distance Education Projects under APEID: Report of a Study Group Meeting, 256

Exploring Open and Distance Learning, 181

Extending Opportunities for a College Degree, 119

External Students and Their Libraries: An Investigation into Student Needs for Reference Material, the SourcesThey Use, and the Effects of the External System within which They Study, 228

External Studies in Librarianship: An Investigation into the Potential Efficacy of External Studies in Librarianshipin Australia, 293

External Studies in Library and Information Science, 222

F

"Faculty Attitudes toward Distance Education in United States Public Higher Education," 160

"Faculty Support for Distance Education in a Conventional University," 157

Federal Disability Law and Distance Learning, 246A

53 Interesting Ways to Write Open Learning Materials, 177

First Athabasca University, 23

Flexible and Distance Learning. Special Report, 259

Flexible Designs for Learning: Report of the World Conference of the ICDE. 13th., Melbourne, Australia, 1985,54

Foundations of American Distance Education: A Century of Collegiate Correspondence Study, 36

Foundations of Distance Education, 55

From Bulletin Boards to Electronic Universities: Distance Education, Computer-Mediated Communication, andOnline Education, 133

Future of Adult Education, 88

G

Going the Distance: A Handbook for Developing Distance Degree Programs Using Television Courses andTelecommunications Technologies, 85

Great Britain's Open University: First Chance, Second Chance, or Last Chance?, 10

Green Chair Group. Predicting Distant Education in the Year 2001, 126

Growth and Structure of Distance Education, 19

Guidelines for Library Services to External Students, 198

H

Handbook in Record Keeping for Records Officers in Distance Education, 99

Handbook on Distance Education, 89

Handbook on the Organization and Management of Distance Education Study Centres, 225

Home Study Students, 14

How to Communicate with the Learner, 107

How to Design Effective Text-Based Open Learning: A Modular Course, 168

How to Develop and Manage an Open-Learning Scheme, 108

How to Find and Adapt Materials and Choose Media, 109

How to Help Learners Assess Their Progress, 110

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How to Manage the Production Process, 111

How to Tutor and Support Learners, 112

How to Win as an Open Learner: A Student's Guide to Tackling an Open Learning Course, 221

I

Improving Teaching at a Distance: A Guide to Resources, 78

Improving Your Students' Learning: Reflections on the Experience of Study, 172

Information Technology in the Delivery of Distance Education and Training, 151

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Instructional Applications of Information Technologies: A Survey of Higher Education in the West, 105

Instructional Telecommunications: Principles and Applications, 95

Integrating Telecommunications into Education, 179

Interaction and Independence: Student Support in Distance Education and Open Learning, 224

Interactive Television and Instruction: A Guide to Technology, Technique, Facilities Design, and ClassroomManagement, 169

International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education. Selected Papers, 223

K

Key Terms and Issues in Open and Distance Learning, 92

L

Latin America and the Caribbean: A Survey of Distance Education 1991, 269

Learning at a Distance and the New Technology, 33

Learning at a Distance: A World Perspective, 262

Learning at the Back Door, 38

Learning from Television: What the Research Says, 7

Learning from Text: Glimpses Inside the Minds of Distance Learners, 216

Learning Industry: Education for Adult Workers, 235

Learning over the Air: 60 Years of Partnership in Adult Learning, 32

Libraries and Books in Distance Education, 193

Library Services for External Students, A Guide, 197

Library Services for Off Campus and Distance Education: An Annotated Bibliography, 212

Library Services in Distance Education: Proceedings of a National Seminar, 206

Library Services in Distance Education: Proceedings of a National Workshop, Brisbane, 199

Lifelines of Learning: Distance Education and America's Rural Schools, 233

Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education, 129

Listening Schools: Educational Broadcasting by Sound and Television, 1

London External Degree and the English Part-Time Student, 9

M

Management of Distance Education, 77

Management of Distance Education in India, 284

Management of Distance Learning Systems, 140

Managing Distance Education Courses, 94

Managing Open Learning, 73

Materials for Learning: How to Teach Adults at a Distance, 272

"Measuring Completion Rates in Distance Education," 229

Media and the Adult Student: One Man's Journal, 6

Meeting Learners' Needs through Telecommunication: A Directory and Guide to Programs, 106

Men of Vision: A University Challenge to Distance Education, 24

Mindweave: Communication, Computers, and Distance Education, 217

Multivariate Model for Evaluating Distance Higher Education, 196

Multi-Media Approaches to Rural Education, 234

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N

"New Communications Technologies and Distance Education: A Paradigm for the Integration of Video-BasedInstruction," 166

New Perspectives in University Correspondence Study, 39

New Ventures in Broadcasting: A Study of Adult Education, 4

O

Off-Campus Library Services: Selected Readings from Central Michigan's Off-Campus Library ServicesConferences, 214

Off-Campus Library Services Conference., Proceedings of Conferences held in 1985 at Knoxville, Tennessee; in1986 at Reno,

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Nevada; and in 1988 at Charleston, South Carolina, 213

On the Methods of Teaching by Correspondence, 20

On the Nature of Distance Education, 56

Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment, 207

Open Learning, 74

Open Learning and Distance Education in Canada, 29

Open Learning and Management: Leadership and Integrity in Distance Education, 132

Open Learning for Adults, 147

Open Learning Guide Series, 113

Open Learning Handbook: Promoting Quality in Designing and Delivering Flexible Learning, 178

Open Learning in Action. Case Studies, 114

Open Learning in Industry: Developing Flexibility and Competence in the Workforce, 249

Open Learning in Transition: An Agenda for Action, 60

Open Learning: Systems and Problems in Post-Secondary Education, 277

Open Universities: A British Tradition?, 44

Open Universities: An Asian Perspective, 287

Open Universities: The Ivory Towers Thrown Open, 285

Open University From Within, 12

Open University of the United Kingdom: An Evaluation of an Innovative Experience in the Democratization ofHigher Education, 34

Open University Opens, 35

Open University: A Personal Account by the First Vice Chancellor, 31

Open University: History and Evaluation of a Dynamic Innovation in Higher Education, 30

Open University: Retrospect and Prospect, 22

Openness and Closure in Distance Education, 50

The Oryx Guide to Distance Learning, 194A

Otto Peters on Distance Education: The Industrialization of Teaching and Learning, 56A

P

Personal Computers for Distance Education: The Study of an Educational Innovation, 210

Planning and Evaluating Distance Education: A Guide to Collaboration, 102A

Planning and Management of Audio-Visual Media in Distance Learning Institutions, 71

Planning and Management of Distance Education, 141

Planning for Educational Telecommunications: A State by State Analysis, 91

Planning for Telecommunication: A School Leader's Primer, 102

Policymaking Guidelines for Extended Degree Programs: A Revision, 120

Post-Secondary Distance Education in Canada: Policies, Practices, and Priorities, 144

Postal Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education: An Empirical Investigation, 154

Preparing Materials for Open, Distance and Flexible Learning: An Action Guide for Teachers and Trainers, 182

Primary Distance Education: Population, Problems, and Prospects, 248

Professional Training by Distance Education: Perspectives from Psychology MajorsA Student Diary Report, 220

Provision of Distance Learning in Italy (Summary), 281

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R

Radio's Listening Groups, 17

Reaching Learners through Telecommunications, 80

Reaching New Students through New Technologies, 139

Readings in Distance Learning and Instruction, 122

Readings in Principles of Distance Education, 171

Recent Research into Distance Education, 21

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Reforming Open and Distance Education: Critical Reflections from Practice, 48

Remote Education and Informatics: Teleteaching, 276

Resource Based Learning for School Governors, 205

Resource Materials Used in Distance Teaching by Higher Education Institutions, 294

"Role of Computer Delivered Distance Education in Increasing Access to Post-Secondary Education," 244

Role of Technology in Distance Education, 156

S

Science, Technology and Outreach Courses by Distance Education: A Workshop-Report, 295

Second International Symposium on Media of Distance Education: Prospects and Effectiveness, 271

Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers, 211

Servicing Learners at a Distance, 82

Setting Up the Open University, 16

Sharing Innovative Strategies for Self-Learning Materials, 257

Short Guide to Distance Education, 137

Status and Trends of Distance Education, 52

Strategies for Strengthening Student-Teacher Contact in Distance Education, 187

Studies in Distance Education, 103

Study by Correspondence: An Enquiry into Correspondence Study for Examinations for Degrees and OtherAdvanced Qualifications, 13

"Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University's Distance Education in Thailand: An Experiment in Adult Education,"273

System of Distance Education, Volume I, 116

System of Distance Education, Volume II, 86

T

Teaching and Learning at Home: Distance Education and the Isolated Child, 250

Teaching and Television, 27

Teaching for the Open University, 161

"Teaching Incarcerated Youths Using Microcomputer Distance Education Technology: A Case Study," 237

Teaching through Self-Instruction: A Practical Handbook for Course Developers, 184

Teaching Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open Learning Materials, 183

Technical Guide to Teleconferencing and Distance Learning, 138

Techniques of Writing Correspondence Courses, 176

Technologies for Learning outside the Classroom, 128

Teleclass Teaching: A Resource Guide, 162

Telecommunications for Learning, 145

Teleteaching: Proceedings of the IFIP TC3 Third Teleteaching Conference, 263

Television and Adult Education, 238

Theoretical Principles of Distance Education, 57

Theory and Practice of Distance Education, 53

To Serve the Public Interest: Educational Broadcasting in the United States, 3

Toward New Horizons for Women in Distance Education: International Perspectives, 236

Training of Personnel for Distance Education: Report of a Regional Seminar, 258

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Trends in Distance Higher Education, 283

Tutoring and Monitoring Facilities for European Open Learning, 148

Two-Way Communication in Correspondence Education: An Introduction to the Research Project, 155

Two-Way Video Classroom, 173

U

"Understanding Distance Education," 58

Understanding Distance Education: A Framework for the Future, 49

University Teaching by Mail: A Survey of Correspondence Instruction Conducted by American Universities, 2

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USDLA Funding Sourcebook for Distance Learning and Education Technology: A Guide to Foundation,Corporate and Government Support for Telecommunications and the New Media, 104

Using the Media for Adult Basic Education, 240

V

"Variables Affecting Persistence in Distance Education in the Natural Resource Sciences," 204

Video: The Educational Challenge, 124

Vocational Education at a Distance: International Perspectives, 246

W

What Every Principal, Teacher, and School Board Member Should Know about Distance Education, 130

What Is Open Learning: An Introduction to the Series, 115

Who Uses External Studies? Who Should?, 191

Windows: Research and Evaluation on a Distance Education Course, 40

"Women's Experiences as Learners in Distance Education," 242

Writing Study Guides, 168A

Writing Your Course: A Short Guide for Writers of Distance Education Materials, 189

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Subject Index

All numbers refer to entry numbers

A

Abidjan, Ivory Coast, conference at, 274

Access issues, 5, 128

for adult learners, 45

in Asia, 291

in Canada, 144

in developing nations, 46

and equity, 46, 60, 128, 131

in higher education, 67, 144

in India, 67, 131, 291

influences on, 60

at Open University of the United Kingdom, 50, 224

personal computer, use of, 207, 210, 217, 226

radio, 32

Active learning, 170, 180

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Distance Education for Development: International Seminar, 266

Adult education, 45, 60, 64, 88

Abidjan, Ivory Coast, conference in, 274

in Africa, 274

Green Chair Group, report of, 126

history of, 4, 27

industry applications, 60, 126, 235

influences on, 153

management, 100

Open University, Tenth Anniversary International Conference, 127

technologies for, 153, 235, 240, 244

television, 27

in Western Europe, 240, 259, 270

Africa, 99, 131, 251, 266, 267, 274, 280, 296

Aged, distance education for the, 126, 238

Alaska, 247

Learn Alaska Network, 151

Allama Iqbal. See PakistanAllama. Iqbal

American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, First Symposium, 121

American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, Second Symposium, 65, 66, 190

Asia, 253, 257, 261, 262, 287

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), report of 1981 meeting, 256

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), report of 1984 meeting, 258

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assessment of programs, 254, 256, 257

assessment of students, 254

case studies, 253, 291

course development and production, 254, 255, 257, 261

course materials, 294

faculty development and training, 163, 254, 255, 257, 258

higher education, 294

program descriptions, 266, 283, 294, 295

scientific-technical programs, 295

Sukhothai Thammathriat Open University, conference at, 253

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), report of 1981 meeting, 256

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), report of 1984 meeting, 258

Assessment of programs, 46, 52, 93, 95, 102A, 146, 149, 180

in Asia, 254, 256, 257

Association for Educational and Training Technology, 15th Annual Conference, 134

in Australia, 68, 256

Deakin University, 40

in El Salvador, 279

in higher education, 76, 196, 277

in India, 77, 256, 284, 291

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Assessment of programscontinuedInternational Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

in the Pacific, 256

telecourses, 162, 279

in the United Kingdom, 34, 146, 215, 230

in Western Europe, 148, 268

Assessment of students, 52, 81, 93, 110, 146, 180

in Asia, 254

in Australia, 68

in higher education, 209

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

in Sweden, 227

telecourses, 139

in the United Kingdom, 50

in Western Europe, 268

Association for Educational and Training Technology, 15th Annual Conference, 134

Athabasca University. See CanadaAthabasca University

Attitudes towards distance educationFaculty

in Alaska, 247

in El Salvador, 279

in higher education, 2, 58, 105, 157, 160, 186, 217, 226

history, 2

in rural schools, 233, 247

in Sweden, 227

toward technologies, 186, 217, 226

in the United States, 160

Attitudes towards distance educationStudents, 202

in Alaska, 247

in Australia, 40, 220

in Canada, 192

toward computer mediation, 200, 210, 217, 226

toward correspondence education, 75, 154

in El Salvador, 279

in higher education, 2, 58, 192, 209, 217, 227

K-12 education, 233

media quality, effect of, 209

in rural areas, 233

in Sweden, 227

toward telecourses, 139

in the United Kingdom, 205

Audio, 128, 130

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Audioconferencing, 83, 138, 151, 241, 247

Audiographics, 237

Australasia, 283

Australia, 131, 190, 262, 292

adult education, 264

assessment of programs, 40, 68, 256

assessment of students, 68

Australian and South Pacific Studies Association, 290

workshop at, 68

case studies, 40, 68, 123, 165, 214, 222, 253

course development and production, 40, 174

course materials, 250

Deakin University, 40

geography teaching, 165

higher education, 24, 40, 142, 294

International Council for Distance Education, 13th World Conference, 54

K-12 education, 143, 248, 250

librarianship, study for, 222, 293

library services, 193, 197, 198, 199, 206, 214, 228

Library Services in Distance Education, workshop on, 199

media, 143

open learning in, 11

organizational structure, 142

planning, 11

program descriptions, 62, 264, 290

students, 191, 216, 220, 248

support services, 195, 225

Townsville College of Advanced Educationworkshop at, 68

University of Queensland, 24

Australian and South Pacific External Studies Association, 290

Ausubel's advance organizer model, 43

B

Bangladesh, 253, 256

Basic education, 232, 240, 270, 272, 274, 275, 282, 297

Bhutan, 253

Bibliographies, 21, 29, 78, 93, 117, 212, 268

British Broadcasting Corporation, 4, 27, 32, 165

Broadcasting, 1, 3, 8, 32, 134, 153, 232

Bruner's discovery learning model, 43

Burma, 253

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C

Canada, 29, 125, 259, 285, 292

Athabasca University, 5, 23, 29, 100, 125, 260

case studies, 123, 144, 165, 213, 214

community support for programs, 251

course development and production, 174

directories of programs, 218

First National Conference on Distance Education and Sustainable Growth, 251

drop out, 192

geography teaching, 165

higher education, 144, 260

librarianship, study for, 222

library services, 194, 214

Open Learning Institute, 125, 260

study centers, 225

Télé-Université, 29, 125, 260

Caribbean, 269

Case studies, 6, 79, 114, 134, 146, 282, 285

Abidjan, Ivory Coast, conference in, 274

adult education, 6, 240, 270

in Africa, 274

in Asia, 253

in Australia, 40, 68, 123, 165, 213, 214, 222, 253

in Canada, 123, 144, 165, 213, 214

in El Salvador, 252

Everyman University, Israel, 282

First Invitational National Forum on Correspondence Education, proceedings of, 75

in France, 234, 245

in Ghana, 234

higher education, 263, 277

IFIP TC3 Third Teleteaching Conference, proceedings of, 263

in industry settings, 243, 245, 246, 263

in India, 253, 291

IsraelEveryman University, 282

in the Ivory Coast, 252

K-12 education, 70, 263

Korean Air-Correspondence School, 282

librarianship, study for, 222

in military settings, 243

Malawi Correspondence School, 282

in the Pacific, 253

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prisoners, 237

rural areas, 233, 234

in Samoa, 252

in Scotland, 222

Sesame Street, 252

in South Africa, 222

South Australian College of Advanced Education Library, national seminar in, 206

Tanzania, 234

in the United Kingdom, 165, 205, 213, 214

in the United States, 70, 83, 123, 233, 234

in Western Europe, 240, 259, 270

women, 236

Chatauquas, 2, 28

China, 256, 265, 285, 291

Colleges and universities. See Higher education

Columbo, Sri Lanka, UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, regional workshop at, 163

Community support, 51, 95, 102, 124, 130, 141, 234, 251

Computer conferencing, 97, 133, 138, 200, 239, 241, 242

Computer corrected assignments, 69, 154, 155

Computers in distance education, 41, 42, 61, 63, 98, 122, 148, 179, 217, 244, 276

See also Computer corrected assignments; Personal computers; Accesscomputer facilitated; Two-waycommunication, computers used to facilitate

Conference proceedings. See name of conference

Cooperative efforts, 60, 70, 123, 139, 149, 266, 274, 280, 288

Copyright, 149, 162

Correspondence education, 38, 39, 43, 69, 75, 154, 155, 161, 176, 201, 203

Abidjan, Ivory Coast, conference at, 274

in Africa, 274, 296

in East Germany, 13

First Invitational National Forum on Correspondence Education, proceedings of, 75

in France, 13

history of, 18, 278

International Council for Distance Education, 14th World Conference, 96, 288

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Correspondence educationcontinuedInternational Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

management of, 18, 20

in the Netherlands, 13

in Poland, 13

in Russia, 13

in Sweden, 13

in the United Kingdom, 13, 14, 167

in the United States

history of, 2, 25, 36

management of, 2, 25, 28

in West Germany, 13

Costs, 52, 135, 152, 282, 292

in Africa, 280

in El Salvador, 279

of equipment, 78, 85

in India, 67, 103

rural areas, 231

television, 252, 279

in the United States, 129, 130, 231

Counseling, 120, 181, 195

International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education. See International Workshop on Counselling inDistance Education

See also Support servicesCounseling

Course delivery, 74, 81, 118, 139, 284

See also Delivery systems

Course development and production, 52, 53, 62, 95, 122, 164, 170, 175,

in Asia, 254, 255, 257, 261

in Australia, 174

Deakin University, 40

in Canada, 174

case studies, 79

computers, use in distance education courses, 217

correspondence courses, 176

First American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, at Pennsylvania State University, 1988, 121

handbooks, 73, 93, 118, 168, 168A, 177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 184, 188, 189

higher education, 120

in India, 174, 254, 284

International Council for Distance Education, 14th World Conference, 96, 288

management of production process, 111

Open University's Tenth Anniversary International Conference, 127

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for telecourses, 139, 162

in the United Kingdom, 174

in the United States, 174

in Western Europe, 148, 268

See also HandbooksCourse design

Course materials, 81, 109, 181, 182, 183, 184

in Asia, 294

in Australia, 250

higher education, 76, 196, 209, 294

K-12 education, 250

in the Pacific, 294

for telecourses, 95

in the United Kingdom, 205

D

Day care facilities. See Support Servicesday care facilities

Deakin University. See AustraliaDeakin University

Definitions of distance education, 19, 56, 58, 64, 171

Delivery systems, 8, 60, 122, 128, 138, 144, 151, 188

See also Course delivery

Denmark

Jysk Aabent Universitet, 259

Developing countries, Distance education in, 46, 60, 272, 277, 282

in Africa, 296

Distance Education for Development: International Seminar, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 266

IFIP TC3 Third Teleteaching Conference, proceedings of, 263

in Indonesia, 289

industry applications, 263, 297

television, 7, 252

Dictionaries, 92

Directories, 104, 106, 194A, 202, 208, 218, 267, 269, 294

Disabled, use of distance education by, 46, 95, 210, 223, 244, 246A

Distance Education and Sustainable Growth, First National Conference, 251

Distance Education for Development: International Seminar, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 266

Drop out, 145, 262

adult education, 219

in Africa, 280

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higher education, 192, 196, 204, 229

K-12 education, 280

Open University of the United Kingdom, 215, 230

teacher training programs, 280

Dutch Open University. See NetherlandsDutch Open University

E

Early childhood education, 232, 238

East Germany, 142, 292

Eastern Europe, 259, 262, 264

Educational broadcasting. See Broadcasting

Educational television. See Television

Egan's structural communication model, 43

El Salvador, 252, 279

Empire State College, 11

Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Distance Education for Development: International Seminar, 266

Evaluation. See Assessment

External Degree, 9, 13, 44, 142, 222

F

FacultyAttitudes towards Distance Education. See Attitudes towards Distance EducationFaculty

Faculty Development and training, 94, 118, 138

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, conference at, 266

in Africa, 266

in Asia, 163, 254, 255, 257, 258

Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), report of 1984 meeting, 258

handbooks, 85, 149, 150

for higher education teachers, 186

in India, 101, 254, 291

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

motivation, 2, 131

in the Pacific, 163, 254, 255, 258

recruitment, 94

role of, 82, 95, 106, 122, 129, 131, 150, 158

UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, regional workshop in Colombo, Sri Lanka,1984, 163

at University of the West Indies, 286

Faculty isolation, 131

Federal Republic of Germany. See West Germany

FernUniversität. See West GermanyFernUniversität

Fiji, 253

First American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, Pennsylvania State University, 1988 meeting, 121

First Invitational National Forum on Correspondence Education, proceedings of, 75

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First National Conference on Distance Education and Sustainable Growth, 251

France, 13, 234, 245, 292

Paris University III, 143

Funding, 75, 104, 116, 120, 128, 233, 286

Future of distance education, 57, 60, 150, 151

access, 8

adult education, 88

in Canada, 125

Green Chair Group, report of, 126

higher education, 41, 42, 61

relationship to traditional education, 63

technologies, 8, 210

See also TechnologyFuture of

G

Gagne's general teaching model, 43

Geography teaching, 165

German Democratic Republic. See East Germany

Germany, 268

See also East Germany and West Germany

Ghana, 234

Green Chair Group, report of, 126

H

Handbooks

adult students, working with, 147

applying business principles to distance education, 140

course design, 168, 168A, 178, 180, 182, 183, 184, 189

See also Course Development and Production

higher education, 100

management, 73, 94

See also Management

overviews of distance education, 72, 82, 93, 102A, 118, 137, 150, 153, 188

radio, 89

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Handbookscontinuedrural schools, 231

setting up a program or institution, 141

on television and telecommunications, 85

in the United States, 129

Higher education, 105, 138, 142, 152, 164, 166, 263

in Asia, 294

assessment of programs, 76, 196, 277

assessment of students, 209

in Australia, 24, 40, 142, 294

in Canada, 5, 23, 29, 100, 125, 260

case studies, 263, 275

course development and production, 120

course materials, 76, 196, 209, 294

directories, 106, 202, 208, 218, 283

drop out, 192, 196, 204, 229

faculty attitudes towards, 2, 58, 105, 157, 160, 186, 217, 226

faculty development and training, 186

future of distance education, 41, 42, 61

See also Technologyfuture of

in India, 22, 285, 291, 294

in Indonesia, 289

management, 84, 100

media, 33, 105, 164, 196, 264, 277

open learning, 277

student attitudes towards, 2, 58, 192, 209, 217, 227

technology, 87

television, 139

in the United States, 41, 91, 105

in Western Europe, 259

See also Names of specific colleges and universities

History, 37, 49, 53, 150, 164, 278

Holmberg, Börje, 59

Hong Kong, 253

I

IFIP TC3 Third Teleteaching Conference, 263

India, 77, 101, 103, 131, 284

access issues, 67, 131, 291

assessment of programs, 77, 256, 284, 291

case studies, 253, 291

costs, 67, 103

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course development and production, 174, 254, 284

faculty development and training, 101, 254, 291

higher education, 22, 285, 291, 294

library services, 103

program descriptions, 294

Indonesia, 253, 254, 258, 285, 289, 291

Industry applications, 75, 151, 243, 246

academic education, comparison with, 57

adult education, 60, 126, 235

in Africa, 274

compressed video, use of, 87

in developing countries, 263, 297

in France, 245

IFIP TC3 Third Teleteaching Conference, 263

in Italy, 281

teleconferencing, use of, 97, 138

in the United Kingdom, 74, 249

in the United States, 74

in Western Europe, 259

Inner-city schools, 70

International Council for Distance Education, 14th World Conference, 96, 288

International Council for Distance Education, Third World Conference, 224

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

International Council on Distance Education, 13th World Conference, 54

International Symposium on Media of Distance Education, Second, Seoul, Korea, 1984, 271

International understanding, 22

International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education, 223

Interviews, 58, 70, 152, 250

IsraelEveryman University, 282

Italy, 281

Ivory Coast, 252

Abidjan, conference in, 274

J

Japan, 225, 253, 259, 264, 285, 292

Job training. See Industry applications

Jones, Thomas Edward, 24

Jysk Aabent Universitet. See DenmarkJysk Aabent Universitet

K

K-12 education, 138, 158, 259, 263, 275

in Africa, 280

attitudes of students towards, 233

in Australia, 143, 248, 250

drop out, 280

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management, 12, 72, 130

in the United States, 70, 87, 91

Korea, Republic of, 253, 256, 258, 285

Korean Air Correspondence High School, 282

Korean Correspondence University, 271

Second International Symposium on Media of Distance Education, Seoul, Korea, 1984, 271

L

LANs. See Local Area Networks

Latin America, 269

Learn Alaska Network. See AlaskaLearn Alaska Network

Learning theory, 43, 45, 51, 53, 55, 57, 62, 121, 159, 164, 210, 261

Librarianship, study for, 222, 293

Library services, 61, 76, 85, 95

Association for Educational and Training Technology, 15th Annual Conference, 134

in Australia, 193, 197, 198, 199, 206, 214, 228

in Canada, 194, 214

in India, 103

K-12 education, 158

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Charleston, South Carolina, 213

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Knoxville, Tennessee, 213

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Reno, Nevada, 213

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Selected Readings, 214

South Australian College of Advanced Education Library, national seminar at, 206

in the United Kingdom, 214

in the United States, 42, 158, 212, 213, 214

See also Support services

Library Services in Distance Education, workshop on, 199

Literacy education. See Basic education

Local Area Networks (LANs), 151

Lyceums, 28

M

MalawiMalawi Correspondence College, 282

Malaysia, 174, 253, 258

Management, 52, 81, 121, 141, 149

adult education, 100

applying business principles, 140

of audiovisual materials, 71

case studies, 79

costs, 135

handbooks, 73, 90, 93, 94, 108, 113, 118, 149

higher education, 84, 100

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in India, 77

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

K-12 education, 12, 72, 130

radio, 89

in remote areas, 89

student records, importance of, 99

of telecommunications systems, 80, 85, 102

See also Handbooksmanagement

Media, 62, 71, 81, 82, 109, 143, 156, 171

adult students, 6, 51, 153, 240, 264, 272, 282

in Asia, 261

in Australia, 143

in Canada, 260

case studies, 6, 282

computers, use of, 179

equity, 46, 60

handbooks, 79, 90, 93, 149, 151, 180

in higher education, 33, 105, 164, 196, 264, 277

in India, 77, 101, 103

industry applications, 60, 151, 249

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

Pacific, 261

providers, directory of, 185

in rural schools, 234

Second International Symposium on Media of Distance Education, Seoul, Korea, 1984, 271

televisionin real time, 162, 169, 173

in Western Europe, 268, 270

See also Names of specific media, such as television

Military applications, 243

Minority groups, 207, 238, 240

Motivation

Faculty. See FacultyMotivation

Student. See StudentsMotivation

N

Nepal, 256, 258

Netherlands, 13

Dutch Open University, 264

New York, 70

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New Zealand, 219, 253, 254, 256, 290, 294

Nigeria, 225

North America, 283

North Carolina, 70

Norway, 62

Numeracy. See Basic Education

O

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Charleston, South Carolina, 213

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Knoxville, Tennessee, 213

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Reno, Nevada, 213

Off-Campus Library Services Conference, Selected Readings, 214

Oklahoma 70

Olsen, Frank Jackson, 24

Open learning, 51, 52, 53, 74, 113, 115, 174

with adult students, 147

in Australia, 11

directory of programs, 92

future of, 60

handbooks, 177, 178, 181, 182

student handbooks, 221

higher education, 277

International Council on Distance Education, 13th World Conference, 54

in the United Kingdom, 44, 74, 277, 285

Open Learning Institute. See CanadaOpen Learning Institute

Open Universiteit. See NetherlandsDutch Open University

Open Universities, 11, 22, 26, 44, 60, 131, 159, 285

Open University of the United Kingdom, 33, 100, 210, 259, 264

assessment of, 34, 146, 215, 230

history of, 9, 10, 12, 16, 30, 31, 35, 143

influence in other countries, 15, 142, 153

openness vs. closure at, 50

student profiles, 215

teaching methods, 53, 161

Tenth Anniversary International Conference, 127

Open University's Tenth Anniversary International Conference, 127

Organizational structure, 52, 53, 90, 132, 192

in Africa, 280

in Asia, 291

Association for Educational and Training Technology, 15th Annual Conference, 134

in Australia, 142

directories, 106

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drop out, 215, 230

handbooks, 82, 84, 121

higher education, 142

in India, 77

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

Open University's Tenth Anniversary International Conference, 127

Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, 65, 66, 190

in Sweden, 187

types of distance education institutions described, 64, 119, 120, 142, 159 University of the West Indies, 286

Orientation sessions for students. See Support servicesOrientation sessions

P

Pacific, 257, 261, 262

Assessment of programs, 256

Case studies, 253

Course materials, 294

Faculty development and training, 163, 254, 255, 258

Program descriptions, 294

Scientific-technical programs, 295

University of the South Pacific, 290

Pakistan, 253, 254, 256, 258, 285, 294

Allama Iqbal, 100

Papua New Guinea, 253, 290

Paris University III. See FranceParis University III

Pennsylvania, 70

Pennsylvania State University, 6, 41

Pennsylvania State University, First American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, 1988 meeting, 121

Pennsylvania State University, Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, 65, 66, 190

Personal computers, 128, 156, 179, 207, 210, 217, 226

See also Computers in education

Peters, Otto, 56A

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Philippines, 253, 254, 258

Plymouth Audioconferencing Network, 151

Poland, 13, 277, 292

Prisoners, 191, 237

R

Radio, 1, 4, 17, 32, 89, 156, 232, 297

See also Broadcasting

Records management, 99

Regional learning centers. See Support ServicesRegional learning centers

Remote Education and Informatics: Teleteaching, 1988 International Conference, 276

Research, 7, 21, 40, 70, 76, 90, 153, 171, 190, 243, 259

Ringrose, Edward Colin D., 24

Rogers' model for ''facilitation of learning," 43

Rothkopf's model for written instruction, 43

Rural areas, 70, 158, 191, 231, 233, 234, 241, 247, 289

Russia, 13

Rutgers university, 15

S

Samoa, 252

Satellite, 8, 289

Science and technology education, 295

Scotland, 222

Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, at Pennsylvania State University, 65, 66, 190

Second International Symposium on Media of Distance Education, Seoul, Korea, 1984, 271

Sesame Street, 252

Skinner's behavior control model, 43

Social costs of distance education, 45, 46, 60, 128, 232, 234, 251, 252, 272, 276

South Africa, 222

South Australian College of Advanced Education Library, national seminar at, 206

Soviet Union, 142, 292

Spain, 100, 268, 285

Sri Lanka, 100, 253, 256, 258, 285, 294

Student isolation, 77, 154, 220, 242

Students

attitudes toward distance education. See Attitudes towards distance educationstudents

barriers to success, 264

characteristics of, 93, 121, 189, 190, 196, 264, 294

demographic information, 13, 14, 35, 45, 82, 127, 129, 180

in Australia, 191, 248

in India, 67

in New Zealand, 219

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in Western Europe, 268

motivation, importance of

of adult learners, 45, 64, 88

in Australia, 216, 220

in Canada, 125

of correspondence students, 2, 13, 75

in India, 77

ways to motivate, 53, 75, 76, 93, 124, 172, 211, 221

at the Open University of the United Kingdom, 35, 210, 215, 230

Open University's Tenth Anniversary International Conference, 127

reasons for study, 45, 88, 93, 153, 172, 180, 202

in Australia, 191, 216

in Sweden, 187

Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, 65, 66, 190

student records, importance of, 99

study habits, 14, 216, 219

Study centers, 76, 101, 103, 147, 159, 225, 245, 249, 284

See also Support services

Sukhothai Thammathriat Open University, conference at, 253

Summer sessions. See Support servicesSummer sessions

Support services, 110, 190, 288

in Africa, 280

in Asia, 254, 257

in Australia, 195, 225

in Canada, 144

counseling, 85, 120, 147, 148, 181, 195, 223, 282

day care facilities, 230

feedback to students, 116, 147, 148, 224, 282

in India, 101, 103, 284

in industry, 249

influence on student success, 76, 85

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Support servicescontinuedInternational Council for Distance Education, 14th World Conference, 96, 288

International Council for Distance Education, Third World Conference, 224

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th annual conference, 86, 116

International Workshop on Counselling in Distance Education, 223

orientation sessions, 85

regional learning centers, 88, 159

study centers, 76, 101, 103, 147, 159, 225, 245, 249, 284

summer sessions, 88, 159

telephone contact, 95, 181, 203

testing centers, 95

tutors, 112, 147, 148, 181, 204

in Western Europe, 268 See also Library services; Study centers; Tutors

Surveys

Africa, 267

Asia, 294

Australia, 193

audiovisual materials, use of, 71

barriers to success, 195

Canada, 194

Caribbean, 269

correspondence education, 2, 13, 14

cost-effectiveness of distance education, 152

drop out, factors influencing, 219

higher education, 105, 152, 166

India, 284

K-12 education, 91

Latin America, 269

library materials, use of, 193, 194

New Zealand, 219

television, use of, 166

United Kingdom, 13, 14

United States, 129

Sweden, 13, 165, 187, 227, 264, 268

T

Tanzania, 234

Teacher training, 136, 145, 209, 262, 275, 276, 280, 296

Technology, 129, 156

in Canada, 144

comparison of technologies, 57, 102, 128, 231

and equity, 128, 210

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future of, 41, 42, 51, 61, 63, 210, 217

See also Future of distance education

importance for two-way communication, 59

personal computers, 210, 217, 226

television in real time, 162, 169, 173

Telecommunications, 80, 85, 91, 95, 102, 138, 145, 148, 171, 179

Teleconferencing. See Computer conferencing

Telephone, 8, 95, 138, 181, 203

Télé-Université. See CanadaTélé-Université

Television, 122, 124, 128, 139, 171

and adult education, 238

and the elderly, 238

in El Salvador, 279

handbooks, 85

history, 3, 7, 139

integration into courses, 166

and preschool children, 238

in real time, 162, 169, 173

social uses, 232, 238

in the United Kingdom, 1, 4, 27, 32, 232

in the United States, 3

See also Broadcasting

Testing centers. See Support servicesTesting centers

Texas, 70

Thailand, 174, 253, 256, 285, 291, 294

Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, 273

Thatcher, Thomas, 24

Theories of distance education, 57, 62

of Evans, Terry, 47, 48

in French law, 56

of Garrison, D. R., 49

history of, 53, 55

of Holmberg, Börje, 19, 22, 52, 53, 56

of Keegan, Desmond, 22, 55, 56, 64

of Moore, Michael G., 56

of Nation, Daryl, 47, 48

of Peters, Otto, 22, 56, 56A

Townsville College of Advanced Education. See AustraliaTownsville College of Advanced Education

Training of distance education personnel. See Faculty, development and training

Tutors, role of, 74, 159, 262, 270

in Australia, 248, 250

in India, 101

influence on student success, 76, 192

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K-12 education, 248, 250

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by telephone, 203

in the United Kingdom, 161, 167

See also Support servicesTutors

Two way communication, 57, 59, 73, 74, 95, 107, 181, 224

with adult students, 219

in Australia, 250

computers used to facilitate, 69, 159, 200, 207, 210, 217, 226

in correspondence education, 43, 75, 86, 88, 116, 154, 155, 176, 201

in higher education, 277

in India, 77, 101, 103, 284

influence on student success, 74, 88, 93, 147, 229

International Council on Correspondence Education, 10th Annual Conference, 86, 116

K-12 education, 70, 250

regional study centers, 159

rural areas, 233, 234

and student autonomy, 52, 53

and student isolation, 116

summer sessions, 159

in Sweden, 187

telephone contact, 203

See also Telephone

and traditional education, 63

tutors, use of, 112, 159, 161

See also Support servicesTutors; Tutors

women, 242

written communication, 161

U

Unemployed, 240, 270

UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, regional workshop in Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1984,163

United Kingdom, 49, 268, 292

assessment of programs, 205

assessment of students, 50

case studies, 165, 205, 213, 214

correspondence education, 13, 14, 167

course development and production, 174

course materials, 205

directories, 218

geography teaching, 165

history, 1, 4, 27, 32, 232

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industry applications, 74, 249

librarianship, study for, 222

library services, 214

open learning in, 44, 74, 277, 285

personal computers, use of in distance education, 210

program descriptions, 62

students, attitudes toward distance education, 205

support services, 167, 225

television, 1, 4, 27, 32, 232

United States, 129, 164, 259, 292

case studies, 70, 83, 123, 233, 234

cooperative efforts, 123

correspondence education

history of, 2, 25, 36

management of, 2, 25, 28

costs, 129, 130, 231

course development and production, 174

directories, 218

faculty attitudes, 160

higher education, 41, 91, 105

industry applications, 74

K-12 education, 70, 87, 91

library services, 42, 158, 212, 213, 214

open education in, 74

rural areas, 233

television, 3

See also Names of individual states

University of Houston, 15

University of London, 9, 13, 142

University of Maryland, 15

University of Mid-America, 123, 142

University of Queensland. See AustraliaUniversity of Queensland

University of the South Pacific, 290

University of the West Indies, 286

Utah, 70

V

Venezuela, 100

Video, 87, 124, 128, 130, 138, 151

W

Washington, 70

West Germany, 13, 238, 285, 292

FernUniversität, 53, 56A, 100, 259

West Indies, 286

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Western Europe, 148, 240, 259, 262, 264, 268, 270, 283

Wisconsin, 234

Women, 191, 236, 241, 242

Y

Yugoslavia, 264

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