Dr. Jan Frodesen Director, English as a Second

LanguageDepartment of Linguistics

UC-Santa Barbara

Linguistic Challenges of Summary and Paraphrase

Outline of presentation Overview of paraphrasing and summary

tasks Plagiarism issues: Defining unacceptable

paraphrase Multilingual writers’ paraphrasing strategies Problems with existing paraphrase

instruction Activities and tasks for guided paraphrase

instruction

An overview of summary and paraphrasing tasks

Many kinds of academic assignments in and out of class require writing from sources. The importance of summary and paraphrase skills for these purposes has been well documented.

(Leki and Carson, 1997, Johns and Mayes, 1990, Shi, 2004, Keck, 2006)

Summarizing

Although there are many types of summary, in general they involve the following:

Understanding the author’s purpose and the meaning of text on various levels

Selecting key ideas appropriate for the writing task: reducing source text to its “gist” to varying extents

Combining ideas effectively from different parts of text

Using appropriate citation methods for referencing sources

Using an appropriate balance of paraphrase and quotation

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is usually defined as a textual borrowing strategy in which the writer states another’s ideas in a form other than the original. It often involves the following skills in academic writing:

Understanding the meaning of source sentences within their contexts

Determining what ideas outside of a source sentence may need to be referenced to produce a paraphrase within the writer’s own text that is comprehensible to another reader.

Paraphrasing cont.

Deciding which vocabulary to keep and which to replace in a paraphrase

Technical specialized vocabulary that cannot be replaced

Distinctive vocabulary that should not be copied General vocabulary that can be used but not in large “chunks”

Drawing on appropriate vocabulary and grammatical forms for rewording

Using resources (dictionaries, thesauruses, collocation dictionaries) effectively

Paraphrasing cont.

Integrating quotations into paraphrases appropriately and grammatically

Using inferential thinking (Yamada, 2003) Introducing and citing the source of the

paraphrase appropriately

Problems identified in unsuccessful summaries/paraphrases

Inappropriate “copy-delete” strategies in summarizing: Lots of verbatim replication of text

Inappropriate paraphrasing strategies“Near copies” (Campbell 1990) or “patchwriting” (Howard, 1996)A few words have been substituted with synonyms,but most words and phrasing are kept, and syntaxof the original is retained.

Plagiarism issues Attitudes about plagiarism in relation to student

writing vary; some researchers feel that copying, near copying reflect developmental stages in student writers’ referencing of sources (Pecorari, 2003)

Teachers vary in what they consider acceptable paraphrases

Applied linguistics researchers have attempted to identify more precisely what constitutes an unacceptable paraphrase in terms of closeness to original:

Unacceptable paraphrases

Unique links (Keck, 2006):

Individual lexical words or exactly copied strings of words used in the paraphrase that occurred in original but only in one place in the original.

Unacceptable paraphrases

Example of unique links of three or more words:Original: Women have less work experience, less seniority, a lower rate of unionization and so on.

Paraphrase: Women have less job experience, less seniority, and a low rate of unionization.

Research on multilingual writers’ summary and paraphrasing strategies

Findings summarized in Shi (2004) ESL writers tended to alter the tone or intent of the

original (Bashman & Rounds, 1981) ESL writers had problems with syntactic

simplifications of texts in summaries (Johns & Mayes, 1990)

Especially with international ESL writers, copying was viewed as a legitimate strategy for paraphrasing (Currie, 1998,Leki and Carson, 1997)

Citation: ESL writers tended to use implicit attribution (e.g., “It is said…”;” native English writers tended to mention authors explicitly (Moore, 1997)

Research findings, cont. Paraphrase analysis in summaries of L1 and L2

writers: Keck (2006) Four types of paraphrase attempts identified: o Near Copyo Minimal Revisiono Moderate Revision o Substantial Revision L2 writers used significantly more Near Copies L1 writers had more Moderate and Substantial

Revision paraphrases Most exact copies (118/144) were used by L2 writers – These were considered not attempted paraphrases

Problems with existing paraphrase instruction

Almost every handbook and academic writing website offers guidance for paraphrasing. However, this guidance is often not adequate for multilingual writers Unacceptable vs. acceptable paraphrase

models are difficult to follow for developing writers: The writers can see that the examples are different but they can’t decode the processes by which writers move from the source text to a substantial paraphrase of it.

Unacceptable/acceptable paraphrase Example from OWL at Purdue

(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/). The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.

Unacceptable/acceptable paraphrase,cont

A legitimate paraphrase: In research papers students often quote excessively, failing

to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).

A plagiarized version: Students often use too many direct quotations when they

take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

Copyright ©1995-2007 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue

Other problems with paraphrase instruction

Step-by step guidance for paraphrasing can be helpful, but again it may not be enough for less advanced student writers in creating effective paraphrases.

Paraphrasing steps Step 1: Understand what you are reading. If

you don't understand it, you can't paraphrase it correctly. That's guaranteed.

Step 2: Think about the ideas, especially how the ideas may relate to your specific topic.

Step 3: Not looking at the original, write down the ideas.

Step 4: Look back at the original to see if you have changed the grammar and vocabulary. If not, change them now.

(http://oregonstate.edu/~healeyd/162/162paraphrase.html; accessed March 8, 2004)

Step by step paraphrasing Sample:

Named for James Brady, the White House press secretary who was shot and wounded by John Hinckley Jr. during the attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan in March 1981, the Brady Bill establishes a national waiting period and background check for the purchase of a handgun. (Bender, 1995: 137)

Changing the order of ideas, grammar, and vocabulary:

Bender (1995) explains that people who want to buy handguns in the US now have a waiting period and a background check as a result of the Brady Bill. The bill was named after White House press secretary James Brady, who was wounded during an assassination attempt on President Reagan. (137).

Students’ paraphrase attempt

Your turn: Downlut believes that the Brady Bill trespasses on the

rights of law-abiding citizens, and is therefore inconsistent with the Constitution, because it imposes a waiting period on exercising the right to own guns. (Bender, 1995: 137)

What students wrote after listing key terms and covering up the original:

Downlut believes that the Brady Bill trespasses law-abiding people’s rights and is against the Constitution since it imposes a waiting period to get a gun. (Bender, 1995: 137)

Example from Margi Wald, UCB

One last problem with typical paraphrasing instruction

Writers may understand the processes of producing an acceptable rephrasing but lack the ability to manipulate word forms and recast sentences with substantial syntactic changes. Their paraphrases end up distorting the meaning of the original and/or are not comprehensible to readers.

Thus… Many student writers could benefit from more

guided instruction and practice in the following areas: Considering the language of paraphrases in the

context of their own texts Appropriately attributing the source; using

appropriate reporting verbs Developing vocabulary (including knowledge of

kinds of vocabulary that require paraphrasing) Building on grammar knowledge and the ability

to manipulate syntactic forms in ways that serve paraphrasing goals (including inserting quotations within paraphrases)

Guiding paraphrasing practice

What follows are a variety of activities and exercises intended to help multilingual writers better meet the challenges of paraphrasing for academic writing tasks. Many of these have been used with students in my undergraduate writing classes.

Paraphrases in context

In paraphrasing source materials, writers must pay special attention to words and phrases that get part of their meaning from other parts of the original text. Look at the following groups of words from “Why People Don’t Help in a Crisis” and identify the language that depends on other sentences in the passage for the full meaning. Then substitute a word or phrase that would make the meaning clear if you used it in your own text.

Paraphrases in context

Dazed and shocked, she calls for help…

All of these explanations share one characteristic…

But if we look closely at the behavior of these witnesses, they begin to seem less indifferent.

This tendency is not merely slavish conformity…

Using appropriate reporting verbs Directions: Circle the reporting verb that is most

appropriate for each sentence given the information in parentheses after the sentence. ExampleDavid Elkind (asserts/remarks/speculates) that children grow up too fast. (express a strong claim)

1. Miller (confirms/contends/suggests) that the results are deceiving. (express a weak claim)2. Johns (mentions/proposes/stresses) the importance of good writing. (express an important point)3. Williams (cautions/notes/remarks) that all the evidence must be considered. (express offering advice)

Identifying distinctive character words that need paraphrasing

Directions: The following are excerpts from the passage “Why People Don’t Help in a Crisis.” Circle “D” if the underlined word is distinctive vocabulary and “N” if non-distinctive vocabulary. For all underlined words, suggest a synonym (word or phrase)Example:(a) Dazed and in shock, she calls for (b) help, but the hurrying (c) stream of people simply parts and flows past.

Synonymsa) D N confusedb) D N assistancec) D N crowd

Identifying distinctive character words

More examples: Distinctive vs. neutral1. There are three (a) things bystanders must do if

they are to (b) intervene in an emergency.

2. He (a) clutches his chest, (b) staggers to the nearest (c) building and slumps sitting to the sidewalk.

3. We often find that a bystander in an (a) emergency is an (b) anguished c) individual in genuine doubt.

Using synonyms for distinctive words and key (non-technical) words

Directions: Underline one distinctive word or phrase in each sentence and then provide a synonym (word or phrase) for it in the blank below.

Example:

How can so many people watch another human being in distress and do nothing?Synonym: suffering

Using synonyms for distinctive words and key words

(Identify words, provide synonyms)1. The presence of other bystanders may at each stage inhibit action.

Synonym:

2. This tendency is not merely slavish conformity.

Synonym:

3. Each individual feels that his or her responsibility is diffused and diluted.

Synonym:

Vocabulary development: Word families

The native languages of many multilingual writers do not have different word forms (e.g., noun, verb, adjective forms); thus, learning and using word forms may be a special challenge for some. Knowing a word means knowing its various forms. This kind of vocabulary knowledge is important for paraphrasing tasks.

In the following task, students are given a chart

with vocabulary and asked to complete the chart by writing in different grammatical forms of the words

Vocabulary development: Word families

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb

explain

intervention

fascinated

Vocabulary development: General academic vocabulary Corpus linguistics research (e.g.,

Biber et al.) has identified vocabulary that is frequently used across a variety of academic registers. Especially useful for developing paraphrasing skills are common adjectives and nouns. These can be used to develop exercises such as the following. (For lists, see Hinkel 2004)

Using synonyms for descriptive adjectives commonly found in academic writing

Directions: In the blank provided, write a word that could substitute for each underlined word; be careful that the word makes sense in the context.Examples:incessant complaints about job conditions

unending complaints

an elaborate design for the building a complex design

Vocabulary development: Using Synonyms

1. a legitimate excuse 2. a credible witness 3. an ingenious argument 4. perpetual disagreements 5. innate characteristics

Changing syntactic structures in paraphrases

Multilingual writers often have difficulty with the first steps of changing sentence structures. Guided practice in specific kinds of changes can help them gain awareness of the options they have in manipulating syntax and the need to look at all parts of the resulting sentence in rewording.

Paraphrase strategy: Changing active to passive voice

The following exercise provides practice in rephrasing by changing voice. Obviously some prior discussion of this strategy is needed since not all sentences can be or should be changed in this way. These kinds of syntactic re-structurings should be considered just one step in constructing a paraphrase; by themselves they do not produce acceptable paraphrase.

Paraphrase strategy: Changing voice Directions: Change the underlined clauses or

sentences to passive voice. Rewrite the sentence as needed for grammatical correctness. Hint: Read the sentence closely for understanding. Find the verb; change the verb and then re-structure the sentence accordingly.

ExampleThere are three things bystanders must do if they are to intervene in an emergency.

Rewrite: Three things must be done by bystanders if …

Paraphrase strategy: Changing voice Change from underlined from active to passive voice:

1. Ordinarily we derive much valuable information about new situations from how others around us behave. (Note: Only the underline part needs to be rewritten)

2. Screams in the street may signal an assault or a family quarrel.

3. The presence of other bystanders may at each stage inhibit action.

Note: After changes have been made, you may want to work with students to substitute synonyms or make other changes to create a complete paraphrase.

Paraphrase strategy: Changing structure

In the next exercise, students are askedto write a paraphrase of the original textusing a specific word or words in theirparaphrase. Using these words will require the writer to restructure thesentence in some way such as reversing order of constituents.

Paraphrase strategy: Changing structure

Directions: Rewrite the sentence as a paraphrase using the words in parentheses. Make any additions, deletions or other changes as needed, but do not change the meaning of the sentence.ExampleAll of these explanations share one characteristic.(is present)Rewrite: One characteristic is present in all of these explanations.

This example changes the relational verb which triggers the change in sentence constituents.

Prompting structural change

1. People trying to interpret them to see how to react. (base reactions on)2. There are three things bystanders must do if they are to intervenein an emergency. (necessary)3. Even if a person defines an event as an emergency...(decides)

Note: Once again, after writers make the structural changes, they can take additional steps to rephrase words, etc.

Benefits of tasks requiring changing structures

In exercises such as the preceding, giving writers prompts helps in the following ways: You can direct the kinds of structural changes

that would be useful for them to practice. Students get practice paying attention to the

grammatical changes needed by selection of different vocabulary.

Students can develop a better sense of how they can make changes for future paraphrasing work.

Composing and draft revision activities Moving from guided exercises to actual

paraphrases in student drafts, you can ask students to practice the various strategies in paraphrasing source materials in assignments or to revise paraphrases in their drafts, paying attention to concerns such as clarity of meaning in context, use of distinctive vocabulary, restructuring of sentences and grammatical accuracy.

Draft revision activities

Writers can also check drafts to edit for grammatical accuracy in places where they have inserted quotations along with paraphrases. Quotations need to fit the grammar of the writer’s sentence!

Example from UCB CWR4A draft:

Also, Henry describes part of his father’s success in “gently and not so gently exploited his own” (p. 54).

In conclusion…

“Textual borrowing” in academic writing is clearly a complicated process!

Paraphrasing effectively requires a great many language skills; through guided activities, we can help multilingual writers understand the processes underlying successful paraphrases and develop the language skills needed to create them.

Students’ second attempt Your turn: Downlut believes that the Brady Bill trespasses on the rights of law-abiding

citizens, and is therefore inconsistent with the Constitution, because it imposes a waiting period on exercising the right to own guns. (Bender, 1995: 137)

What students wrote after practice with paraphrase techniques: Because the Brady Bill’s waiting period puts limits on owning

guns, Downlut argues that the bill is unconstitutional since it does not allow citizens who obey laws to practice their rights.

According to Downlut, the waiting period to buy a gun--required by the Brady Bill--infringes on the rights of people who obey the law; thus, the Brady Bill violates the Constitution.

Example from Margi Wald, UCB