DRUG Dosage 2aa

8/3/2019 DRUG Dosage 2aa

1/76

POULTICES

A soft magma or mush prepared by wetting various powders or otherabsorbent substances with oily or watery fluids, sometimes medicated,

and usually applied to the surface while hot; it exerts an emollient,

relaxing, or stimulant, counterirritant effect on the skin and underlyingtissues.

Also used in the manufacture of porcelain and pottery, as an emollient,and as a poultice and gastrointestinal adsorbent. Nontoxic. The final

report to the FDA of the Select Committee on GRAS Substances stated

in 1980 that it should continue its GRAS status with no limitations other

than good manufacturing practices. CLOPIDOL Additive used in

chicken and turkey feeds to combat parasites. The FDA tolerance for

residues in milk is 0.02; for cereal, grains, vegetables, fruits, meat of

cattle, sheep, and goats, and in edible tissue of swine, it is 0.2 ppm.The tolerance is 1.

The roots, flowers, andleaves are used externally as a poultice.Nontoxic. There is reported use of the chemical, it has not yet been

assigned for toxicology literature. ALUM Potash Alum. Aluminum

Ammonium. Potassium Sulfate. A colorless, odorless, crystalline, water-

soluble solid used in astringent lotions, after-shave lotions, and as a

styptic (stops bleeding). A double sulfate of aluminum and ammonium

potassium, it is also employed to harden gelatin, size paper, or

waterproof fabrics. In concentrated solutions alum has produced gum

damage and fatal intestinal hemorrhages.

ROUTES ADMINISTRATION OF POULTICE

It is used externally as an astringent for wounds and boils. Formerly, itwas in use as a replacement for quinine. It is still used for headaches

and fatigue. Homeopathic Uses: Uses include for poor digestion

and chronic attacks of fever. precautions and adverse reactions Health

risks or side effects following the proper administration of designated

therapeutic dosages are not recorded. dosage Mode of Administration:Formerly the drug was used internally as a tincture as an alternative to

quinine and externally as a liquid extract."
http://www.naturalpedia.com/Leaves.htmlhttp://www.naturalpedia.com/chronic.htmlhttp://www.naturalpedia.com/Leaves.htmlhttp://www.naturalpedia.com/chronic.html


2/76

MIXTURES

A MIXTURE is a combination of two or more substances that are notchemically united and do not exist in fixed proportions to each other.

Most natural substances are mixtures.

"Natural mixtures may sometimes be more potent thansynthetic mixtures because even though both mixtures may have the

same physical "structures," they will have different functional

properties due to their different systemic (informational and energetic)

histories. Probably the most controversial heretofore unexplainedobservations involving memory and memory retrieval are reported in

parapsychology. It is commonly claimed in parapsychological folklore

as well as some well documented case studies

Routes of administration / Dosage forms

Oral

Digestive tract (enteral)
http://www.naturalpedia.com/studies.htmlhttp://www.naturalpedia.com/studies.html


3/76

Solids

Pill Tablet Capsule Time release technology Osmotic controlled releasecapsule (OROS)

Liquids

Solution Softgel Suspension Emulsion Syrup Elixir Tincture Hydrogel

Buccal / Sublabial / Sublingual

Solids

Orally Disintegrating Tablet (ODT) Film Lollipop Lozenges Chewing gum

Liquids

Mouthwash Toothpaste Ointment Oral spray

Respiratory tract

Solids

Smoking device Dry Powder Inhaler (DPI)

Liquids

pressurized Metered Dose Inhaler (pMDI) Nebulizer Vaporizer Gas

Oxygen mask Oxygen concentrator Anaesthetic machine Relativeanalgesia machine

Ocular / Otologic / Nasal

Nasal spray Ear drops Eye drops Ointment Hydrogel Nanospheresuspension Mucoadhesive microdisc (microsphere tablet)

Urogenital

Ointment Pessary (vaginal suppository) Vaginal ring Vaginal doucheIntrauterine device (IUD) Extra-amniotic infusion Intravesical infusion

Rectal (enteral)


4/76

Ointment Suppository Enema (Solution Hydrogel) Murphy dripNutrient enema

Dermal

Ointment Liniment Paste Film Hydrogel Liposomes Transfersomevesicals Cream Lotion Lip balm Medicated shampoo Dermal patch

Transdermal patch Transdermal spray Jet injector

Injection / Infusion

(into tissue/blood)

Skin

Intradermal Subcutaneous Transdermal implant

Organs

Intracavernous Intravitreal Intra-articular or intrasynovial injectionTransscleral

Central nervous system

Intracerebral Intrathecal Epidural

Circulatory / Musculoskeletal

Intravenous Intracardiac Intramuscular Intraosseous IntraperitonealNanocell injection

Additional explanation:

Mucous membranes are used by the human body to absorb the dosagefor all routes of administration, except for "Dermal" and

"Injection/Infusion".

Administration routes can also be grouped as Topical (local effect) or

Systemic (defined as Enteral = Digestive tract/Rectal, or Parenteral =

All other routes).


5/76

CAPSULE

DEFINITION:

Enclosed in or formed into a capsule.

In the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, Encapsulation refers to a range oftechniques used to enclose medicines in a relatively stable shell known as acapsule, allowing them to, be taken orally or be used as suppositories

TYPES OF CAPSULES:

The two main types of capsules are:

1. Hard-shelled capsules,2. Soft-shelled capsules,

1.Hard-Shelled Capsules:

They are normally used for dry, powdered ingredientsor miniature pellets or tablets. They are also called Hard gel capsules
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suppositorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suppositories


6/76

The capsules are made in two parts by dipping metal rods in thegelling agent solution. The capsules are supplied as closed units to thepharmaceutical manufacturer. Before use, the two halves are separated, thecapsule is filled with powder (either by placing a compressed slug of powderinto one half of the capsule, or by filling one half of the capsule with loose

powder) and the other half of the capsule is pressed on. This is also calledTwo-piece gel encapsulation

Two-piece, hard starch capsule

2.Soft-Shelled Capsules:

These are primarily used for oils and for active ingredients that aredissolved or suspended in oil.

These are single-piece gelatin capsule sealed with a drop ofgelatin solution. Initially Moths and Dublanc were granted a patent for amethod to produce a single-piece gelatin. They used individual iron mouldsfor their process, filling the capsules individually with a medicine dropper.Later on, methods were developed that used sets of plates with pockets toform the capsules, but this equipment is not produced commercially anymore. All modern soft-gel encapsulation uses variations of a process

developed by R.P. Scherer in 1933. His innovation was to use a rotary die toproduce the capsules, with the filling taking place by blow molding. Thismethod reduced wastage, and was the first process to yield capsules withhighly repeatable dosage. The process is also known as Single-piece gelencapsulation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pauli_Schererhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blow_molding#Injection_blow_moldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kapseln.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pauli_Schererhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blow_molding#Injection_blow_molding


7/76

Cod liver oil soft gel capsules.

COMPSITION OF CAPSULES:

Both of these classes of capsules are made from aqueoussolutions ofgelling agents like:

Animal protein mainly gelatin; Plant polysaccharides or their derivatives like carrageenans and

modified forms ofstarch and cellulose.

Other ingredients can be added to the gelling agent solution like

plasticizers such as glycerin and/or sorbitol to decrease the capsule'shardness,

coloring agents, preservatives, disintegrants, lubricants and Surface treatment.

CAPSULE SIZE

psule sizes are denoted by a number, which indicates the size andvolume of the capsule. There are four sizes of Cap-M-Quick filler

available; size 1 which is the smallest, size 0, size 00 and size 000 which isthe largest. Each capsule filler is specific to its capsule. For instance, size1Cap-M-Quick filler will only fit size1 capsules. Size '0' will only work with '0'

Ca
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cod_liver_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrageenanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbitolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disintegrant&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codliveroilcapsules.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cod_liver_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrageenanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbitolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disintegrant&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_treatment


8/76

capsules, etc. Some confusion exists because there are only two tampers,size 1/0 and size 00/000. But the filler itself is exclusive to the capsule size.Some of the capsule sizes we offer include:

Capsule Name 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5

Height ininches

1.03 0.92 0.85 0.76 0.71 0.63 0.56 0.44

Height in mm26.14

23.30

21.70

19.40

18.00

15.90

14.30

11.10

Volume in mL 1.37 0.95 0.68 0.50 0.37 0.30 0.21 0.13

Volume inounces

1/20 1/30 1/40 1/55 1/751/100

1/135

1/220

Average fillweights in mg(depending onpowderdensity)

1370-615

950-430

680-305

500-225

370-165

300-135

210-95

130-60

Whether you need empty gelatin capsules, vegetarian capsules, or any other

SIZE 0f CAPSULES:

These all-natural capsules are perfect for taking essential oils internally.These capsules are made of cellulosic raw materials and are vegetarianapproved and kosher certified. One-hundred-fifty size-0 capsules come in awhite plastic pill container with a simple twist-on/off lid

Size 00 Size 0


9/76

Volume:.91 ml

Volume:.68 ml

Size "0" is the industry standard and most popular size used forcapsulated products.Gelatin source: kosher beef, sulfite free.

Size "0" is about 50% smaller than size "00" and is close to the size ofa nickel.

Each "0" capsule will hold 400 mg - 800 mg or so (5,000 mg = 1teaspoon), depending on the powder and whether or not you use a

Tamper when filling the capsules. Heavy and dense powders, such asBentonite clay, Kelp and Spirulina, will be closer to the 800 mg range inone "0" capsule. Light and fluffy powders, such as Slippery Elm andSiberian Ginseng, will be closer to the 400 mg range in one "0"capsule. Of course, using a Tamper will drastically increase the amountthat will fit into each capsule.

Precaution: Even though these capsules are designed to hold liquid,they will dissolve within a few minutes when in contact with a liquidunless professional banding equipment is used

DETERMINATION OF CAPSULE SIZE:

Hard Gelatin capsules are made in arange of fixed sizes; the standard industrial sizes use today is forhuman medicines are from 0-4.

Estimating Fill Weight for Powders:

To estimate the fill weight for powders, thesimplest way is to multiply the body volume by its tapped bulk density

Estimating Fill Weight for Liquids:

The fill weight for liquids is calculated bymultiplying the specific gravity of the liquid by the capsule bodyvolume multiplied by 0.9
http://www.bulkherbstore.com/Cap-M-Quick-Tamper-Size-0-?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Bentonite-Clay-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Kelp-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Spirulina-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Slippery-Elm-Bark-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Ginseng-Root-Siberian-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Cap-M-Quick-Tamper-Size-0-?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Bentonite-Clay-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Kelp-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Spirulina-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Slippery-Elm-Bark-Powder?id=wL6AIBAuhttp://www.bulkherbstore.com/Ginseng-Root-Siberian-Powder?id=wL6AIBAu


10/76

To accommodate special needs some intermediate sizes are produced,termed Elongated Sizes, that typically have an extra 10% of fill volumecompared to the standard sizes, e.g. for 500mg doses of antibiotics,elongated size 0 capsules are commonly used.

Size

Volume(ml)[A]

Locked length(mm)[A]

External diameter(mm)[A]

5 0.13 11.1 4.91

4 0.21 14.3 5.31

3 0.3 15.9 5.82

2 0.37 18 6.35

1 0.5 19.4 6.91

0 0.68 21.7 7.65

0E 0.7 23.1 7.65

00 0.95 23.3 8.53

000 1.37 26.14 9.9113 3.2 30 15.3

12 5 40.5 15.3

12el

7.5 57 15.5

11 10 47.5 20.9

10 18 64 23.4

7 24 78 23.4

Su07

28 88.5 23.4

CAPSULE SIZE CHART
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#endnote_approxAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#endnote_approxAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#endnote_approxAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#endnote_approxAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#endnote_approxAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_(pharmacy)#endnote_approxA


11/76

SHAPES AND DESIGNS OF CAPSULES

The shape of the capsule has remain virtually unchanged since its inventionover 150 years ago , except for the development of the self unlockingcapsule during the 1960s, when automatic filling and packaging machineswere introduced. Filled capsules were subjected to vibration during thisprocess, causing some to come apart and spill their contents. To overcomethis, Modern capsule shells have a series of identifications on the inside ofthe cap and on the external surface of the body which when the capsule is


12/76

closed after filling, form an interference fit sufficiently strong to hold themtogether during mechanical handling. The manufacturers of the empty shellscan be identified from the types of indent which are specified to each one.Some shapes of different types of capsules are as follows:

Caplets and Ovals

19 mm

Caplet

19 mm

Capletbreakbar

22 mm

Caplet

22 mm

Caplet

breakbar

15 mm

SmallOval

22 mm

Large Oval

22 mm Large

Ovalbreakbar

Soft Gel Capsules

4

Round

5

Round 3 Ovall 5 Oval

6.75

Oval 7.5 Oval 8.5Ova 12 Oval

5

Oblon

g

7

Oblong

9.

5 Oblong

1

2 Oblong

1

4 Oblong

1

6 Oblong

2

0 Oblong

Soft Gel Tubes

8 Tube 18 Tube

Two Piece Hard-Gels

Size 1

Coated

Size 0 2

Colour

Size 00 Hard

Gel


13/76

ADVANTAGES OF ENCAPSULATION:

Encapsulation makes it possible to separate an objects implementationfrom its behavior to restrict access to its internal data. This restrictionallows certain details of an objects behavior to be hidden.

It allows us to create a "black box" and protects an objects internalstate from corruption by its clients.

Encapsulation is a technique for minimizing interdependencies amongmodules by defining a strict external interface. This way, internalcoding can be changed without affecting the interface, so long as thenew implementation supports the same (or upwards compatible)external interface.

So encapsulation prevents a program from becoming sointerdependent that a small change has massive ripple effects.

The implementation of an object can be changed without affecting theapplication that uses it for: Improving performance, fix a bug,consolidate code or for porting


14/76

SPIRITS & PLASTERS

Pharmacology A solution containing a volatile

substance, usually alcohol

Examples

aromatic ammonia spirit an ammonia-containingpreparation used as a respiratory stimulant insyncope, weakness. Aromatic ammonia spirit is amixture of ammonia, ammonium carbonate, andother agents for use as an inhalant to revive a

person who has fainted. camphor spirit a solution of camphor and alcohol,

used topically as a local counterirritant. rectified spirit alcohol.

Uses For aromatic ammonia spirit

Aromatic ammonia spirit is used to prevent or treat fainting.

Fainting may be caused by some kinds of medicine, by an unpleasantor stressful event, or by a serious medical problem, such as heart

disease. Fainting in an older person is often more serious than faintingin a younger person. Older people and people with a history of heartproblems should seek medical attention as soon as possible afterfainting.

Aromatic ammonia spirit is available without a doctor's prescription.

Before using aromatic ammonia spirit

In deciding to use a medicine, the risks of taking the medicine must beweighed against the good it will do. This is a decision you and your

doctor will make. For aromatic ammonia spirit, the following should beconsidered:

Allergies

Tell your doctor if you have ever had any unusual or allergic reaction toaromatic ammonia spirit or any other medicines. Also tell your health


15/76

care professional if you have any other types of allergies, such as tofoods, dyes, preservatives, or animals. For non-prescription products,read the label or package ingredients carefully.

Pediatric

aromatic ammonia spirit has been tested in children and, in effectivedoses, has not been shown to cause different side effects or problemsthan it does in adults. However, aromatic ammonia spirit should not begiven to children without first checking with their doctor.

Geriatric

Many medicines have not beenstudied specifically in older people.Therefore, it may not be knownwhether they work exactly the sameway they do in younger adults.Although there is no specificinformation comparing use ofaromatic ammonia spirit in the elderlywith use in other age groups, aromaticammonia spirit is not expected tocause different side effects orproblems in older people than it doesin younger adults.

Interactions with Medicines

Although certain medicines should not be used together at all, in othercases two different medicines may be used together even if aninteraction might occur. In these cases, your doctor may want tochange the dose, or other precautions may be necessary. Tell yourhealthcare professional if you are taking any other prescription or

nonprescription (over-the-counter [OTC]) medicine.

Interactions with Food/Tobacco/Alcohol

Certain medicines should not be used at or around the time of eatingfood or eating certain types of food since interactions may occur. Usingalcohol or tobacco with certain medicines may also cause interactions


16/76

to occur. Discuss with your healthcare professional the use of yourmedicine with food, alcohol, or tobacco.

Other Medical Problems

The presence of other medical problems may affect the use ofaromatic ammonia spirit. Make sure you tell your doctor if you haveany other medical problems, especially:

Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, or other chronic lung disease, or

Eye problemsaromatic ammonia spirit may make these conditionsworse

Flushed faceThe cause of the fainting may be a serious conditionthat should be treated by a doctor


17/76

PLASTER

sticking plaster n (Medicine) athin cloth with an adhesivesubstance on one side, used forcovering slight or superficialwounds Usual US term adhesivetape

EXAMPLE

Sal-Acid Plasters (Salicylic AcidTopical)?

Salicylic acid is a keratolytic (peeling agent). Salicylic acid causesshedding of the outer layer of skin.

Salicylic acid topical is used in the treatment of acne, dandruff, corns,and warts.

Salicylic acid topical may also be used for purposes other than thoselisted here.

What should I discuss with my healthcare provider before taking Sal-Acid

Plasters (Salicylic Acid Topical)?

Avoid the eyes, mouth, lips, inside the nose, genitals, and anal areaswhen applying salicylic acid topical. Do not use the wart remover onmoles or birthmarks, or warts with hair growing from them, red edges,or unusual color. Also, do not use salicylic acid topical on sunburned,windburned, dry, chapped, irritated, or broken skin; or on openwounds. If medication is applied to any of these areas, wash withwater.

Before using salicylic topical, talk to your doctor if you

have kidney disease

have liver disease

have diabetes

have poor circulation; or

are treating a child


18/76

What are the possible side effects of Sal-Acid Plasters (Salicylic Acid Topical)?

Serious side effects are not likely to occur with the use of salicylic acid

topical. If you do experience any of the following rare serious sideeffects, stop using salicylic acid topical and seek emergency medicalattention or contact your doctor:

an allergic reaction (shortness of breath; closing of the throat; swellingof the lips, face, or tongue; or hives); or

severe skin irritation

Other, less serious side effects are more likely to occur. Continue touse salicylic acid topical and talk to your doctor if you experience skinburning; stinging; itching; dryness; redness; peeling; or irritation.

EXTRACT- a distillate composed of active and/or inert ingredients extractedfrom plant or animal matter, and represented in concentrated form.

- It is made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a

solvent such as ethanol or water.

Variants: Tincture- liquid solution of herbs and a fluid menstruum, usually

ethanol. The dried or fresh herbs are combined with alcohol, then the solid

matter is removed leaving only the oils of the herbs.

Example: Tincture of Iodine used as a disinfectant

Powdered or Dried Extracts- formed by evaporation of all the solvents after

the process of extraction.

Example: Wild Yam extract used as a treatment for colic.

Wild Yam Extract Tincture of

Iodine


19/76

Composition: small percentage of solvents (mostly ethanol) used from

extracting, oils of the extracted substance, powdered/dried residue of the

extracted substance.

Routes of Administration:

Oral Route: some powdered-form extracts are dissolved

or mixed with water (hot or cold); then it could be taken

orally by the consumer as a tea or as juice.

- some extracts which are capsulated are taken

orally.

Inhalation Route: Powdered-form extracts such as Aloe

Vera extracts are inhaled by the patient to Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Tincture

of Benzoin can also be inhaled in steam as a treatment for various conditions

including bronchitis and colds.

Topical Route: Compound Tincture of Benzoin (CTB) is often applied to skin

before applying tape or other adhesive bandages.

Example:


20/76

COLLYRIUM- is a lotion or liquid wash used as a cleanser for the eyes,

particularly in diseases of the eye.


21/76

Variants: Liquid Collyrium/ Opthalmic solutions

Composition: Liquid collyria are composed of ophthalmic powders, or waters,

such as rose-water, and plantain-water. Boric acid, which has mild antibiotic

properties against fungal or bacterial infection, is a common component of

Collyria..

Route of Administration: Collyria are taken topically. Some are sprayedinside the injured eye and the area around it. Affected eye is flushed directlywith the solution.

Tablet


22/76

- Is a pharmaceutical dosage form. It comprises a mixture of

active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed

or compacted from a powder into a solid dose. The excipients can

include diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids)

and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to

promote tablet break-up in the digestive tract.

- A polymer coating is often applied to make the tablet smoother

and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the active

ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending

its shelf life), or to enhance the tablet's appearance.

- The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use

today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid

dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet

can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it

is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually,

buccally, rectally or intravaginally.

Example Of Tablets

1. Creatinine

2. Vitamin C(Asrorbic Acid)

Tablet properties

- tablets can be made in virtually any shape, although

requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most

are round, oval or capsule shaped. More unusual shapes have beenmanufactured but patients find these harder to swallow, and they

are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems.

Tabletting formulations

- In the tablet-pressing process, it is important that all ingredients

be fairly dry, powdered or granular, somewhat uniform in particle


23/76

size, and freely flowing. Mixed particle sized powders can segregate

during manufacturing operations due to different densities, which

can result in tablets with poor drug or active pharmaceutical

ingredient (API) content uniformity but granulation should prevent

this. Content uniformity ensures that the same API dose is delivered

with each tablet.

Advantages and disadvantages of tablets

tablets are simple and convenient to use. They provide anaccurately measured dosage of the active ingredient in aconvenient portable package, and can be designed to protectunstable medications or disguise unpalatable ingredients. Colored

coatings, embossed markings and printing can be used to aid tabletrecognition. Manufacturing processes and techniques can providetablets special properties, for example, sustained release or fastdissolving formulation.

Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route.For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured bystomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Somedrugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried therefrom the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the "firstpass effect"), making them unsuitable for oral use.

Tablet coating

Many tablets today are coated after being pressed. Although sugar-coatingwas popular in the past, the process has many drawbacks. Moderntablet coatings are polymer and polysaccharide based, with plasticizersand pigments included. Tablet coatings must be stable and strongenough to survive the handling of the tablet, must not make tabletsstick together during the coating process, and must follow the finecontours of embossed characters or logos on tablets.


24/76

Liniments

I. Therapeutic Uses and Route of Administration

Liniments are liquid forms of drugs which are usually used in

temporary treatment of pain. However, some can also come in semi-solid or

semi fluid form Liniments are administered through the dermal or topical

route onto the skin covering the area in which an individual is experiencing

pain, usually muscle pain. Liniments are incorporated with friction onto the

skin and contain substances such as menthol that cause mild irritation of

receptors on the skin to bring about more blood to the painful area, therefore

temporarily relieving pain and aches as temporary topical analgesics.

II. Composition

Liniments are composed of a variety of oil or alcohol bases such as

camphor, oil of turpentine, oil of wintergreen, or ethyl alcohol. Substances

which possess counterirritant aromatic properties such as menthol, methyl

salicylate, or benzoin resin are also incorporated into the composition of

liniments as well as substances which quickly evaporate. Some linimentscontain sweet-smelling components to mask some of the irritating scents

derived from the other ingredients.

III. Variants

Oil-based liniments are commonly used for a variety of different

ailments. Most oil-based liniments such as Red Flower Oil and White Flower

Oil are used for relief of muscle and joint aches as well as clearing the

sinuses and alleviating sinus headaches. Oils

Alcohol-based liniments, such as herbal liniments which contain

isopropyl alcohol, can sometimes be homemade and used for muscle pains,

bruising and sprains, however unlike oil-based liniments, give a cooling

effect to the painful area.

III. Size of Dosage


25/76

Liniments are usually packaged in 3 to 6 ounce bottles or vials.

Application requires only a minimal to moderate amount, sufficient enough

to cover the painful area. Liniments should not be in contact with mucous

membranes.

IV. Additional Information

Menthol primarily activates the cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin.

Menthol, after topical application of the liniment, causes a feeling of coolness

due to stimulation of the 'cold' receptors by inhibiting Ca2+ currents of

neuronal membranes. Liniments may also yield analgesic properties via

kappa-opioid receptor agonism. The effect of liniments only lasting for a

course of hours.

Glycerites

I. Uses and Routes of Administration

A glycerite is a liquid preparation that uses glycerin to extract the

constituents from an herb. Glycerin is both a solvent and a preservative and

ideal for preparing children's remedies due to its sweet taste and lack of

alcohol. Such preparations can be stirred into juice. They are also an option

for people who do not want the alcohol in tinctures. Glycerites are most

commonly administered through the oral route, absorbed in the intestines

and metabolically processed in the liver. Note that glycerin is less absorbedafter metabolic processing in the liver than alcohol.

II. Composition

Glycerites are simply composed of the main component glycerin, fresh or

preserved herbs, and essential oils.

III. Variants

Different types of glycerites are present, including starch and tannic

acid glycerites. Starch glycerite is composed of glycerin, starch,benzoic acid, and water. This mixture is marketed as an emollient

(skin softening or soothing agent). Tannic acid glycerite is made up

of tannic acid, sodium citrate, sodium sulfite, and glycerin. Because

of the high concentration of tannic acid, this mixture is produced

and marketed as an astringent, which causes contraction.


26/76

Astringent is also known as styptic, meaning "astringent" or

"arresting hemorrhage" (bleeding) because of an astringent quality.

Mucilages

-Mucilages are generally normal products of metabolism formed within

the cell- The mucilaginous plants work on remedies for wounds, to soothe

itching, irritation and pain and also for drying and binding a tissue that isdamaged. The action is referred to as being emollient or

demulcent.

- The demulcent action is continued in the lining of the digestive tract

and this explains the remedies that mucilage bring for ulcers, lesions,

inflammations in the gastrointestinal tract and for reducing the excessive

acid secretions.

- The mucilaginous remedies have properties that are soothing for the

urinary tracts, the bronchial tissues, and acts as a comfort where there isvigorous coughing syndrome and they increase the bronchial secretions ifthey go dry and also in an asthmatic condition they help to reduce thespasms. Thus in asthmatic situation, there are symptoms of breathlessnessand nervous coughing, this provides great help. In bladder infections or inurinary infections, they help to reduce colic pain due to stones. So it islooking into management rather than providing a remedy but theseconditions bring in many cases where the approach may be very muchuseful.

- valuable aids in the management of irritable digestive disorders,especially where ulceration is a feature.

- Mucilage is most commonly used as adjuvant in the manufacturing ofdifferent pharmaceutical dosage forms. They possess a variety ofpharmaceutical properties, which include binding, disintegrating,suspending, emulsifying and sustaining properties at different proportion indifferent pharmaceutical dosage forms
http://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/cuts.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/itching.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/pain.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/ulcers.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/cough.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/asthma.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/bladder_infection.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/urinary_inf.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/cuts.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/itching.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/pain.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/ulcers.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/cough.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/asthma.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/bladder_infection.htmhttp://www.herbs2000.com/disorders/urinary_inf.htm


27/76

**binding agent in tablet formulations and these mucilages were foundto be suitable binders for uncoated tabletsas compared to starch. And it alsoshow comparable disintegration , hardness and release data as starch.

**gelling agent generally applied externally. It is used topically on theexternal skin for the control of pain. But when applied to body cavity it have

a specific purpose such as improvement of bioavailability, control of sideeffects and drug targeting.**suspending agent to stabilize the suspension types of drugs. Aids in

suspending insoluble substances in liquid formulations; their colloidalcharacter and viscous nature prevent immediate sedimentation.

**disintegrant facilitates the break up or disintegration of tablets intosmaller particles that dissolve more rapidly than in the absence ofdisintegrants. Mucilages are used as disintegrant due to its swellingproperty.

Functions of mucilages- Storage material

- Water storage reservoir

- Protection for germinating seeds.

Occurence

- Epidermal leaf cells (Senna)

- Seed coats (linseeds, psyllium)

- Roots (marshmallow)

- Barks (Slippery elm)

Routes of administration

Nasal

CONSTITUENTS OF PSYLLIUM (an herb containing mucilages)All the seeds contain mucilage in the epidermis of the testa.

2 fractions have been separated from the mucilage

- One is soluble in cold water, & the other in hot water, making a viscous

solution which gels on cooling.

The seeds also contain fixed oil

Sugars


28/76

Sterols

Protein

Ointment

Description

It is a homogeneous, viscous, semi-solid preparation, most commonly a

greasy, thick oil (oil 80% - water 20%) with a high viscosity, that is intended

for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. They are used as

emollients or for the application of active ingredients to the skin for

protective, therapeutic, or prophylactic purposes and where a degree of

occlusion is desired.

Ointments are used topically on a variety of body surfaces. These include

the skin and the mucous membranes of the eye (an eye

ointment),vagina, anus, and nose. An ointment may or may not be

medicated.

Composition

A topical ointment composition includes a mixture of non-systemic bases

comprising calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and aluminum

hydroxide. The composition also includes an anhydrous lanolin base carrier

material and a hydrophilic ointment base carrier material, and is effective to

essentially adjust the acid-base balance at the area of topical application to a

point which corresponds with normal healthy body tissue. The composition

may further include a compound having pharmaceutically acceptable

anesthetic properties.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nose


29/76

A method is provided for treating skin injuries involving inflammation or

destruction of tissue, such as decubitus ulcers, varicose ulcers and burns,

which method involves preparing the above noted composition and applying

it to the affected area.

There are five (5) classes or types of ointment bases which are differentiatedon the basis of their physical composition. These are:

oleaginous bases

absorption bases

water in oil emulsion bases

oil in water emulsion bases

water soluble or water miscible bases

Each ointment base type has different physical characteristics and

therapeutic uses based upon the nature of its components. The following

table summarizes the composition, properties, and common uses of each of

the five types.

SUMMARY CHART: PROPERTIES OF OINTMENT BASESOleaginousOintmentBases

AbsorptionOintmentBases

Water/OilEmulsionOintment Bases

Oil/WaterEmulsionOintmentBases

Water-miscibleOintmentBases

Composition

oleaginouscompounds

oleaginousbase + w/osurfactant

oleaginous base+ water (< 45%w/w) + w/osurfactant(HLB 45% w/w)+ o/wsurfactant

(HLB >9)

Polyethylene Glycols(PEGs)

WaterContent

anhydrous anhydrous hydrous hydrous anhydrous,hydrous

Affinity forWater

hydrophobic hydrophilic hydrophilic hydrophilic hydrophilic

Spreadability

difficult difficult moderate toeasy

easy moderateto easy


30/76

Washability

nonwashable nonwashable non- or poorlywashable

washable washable

Uses protectants,emollients(+/-),

vehicles forhydrolyzabledrugs

protectants,emollients(+/-), vehicles

for aqueoussolutions,solids, andnon-hydrolyzabledrugs

emollients,cleansingcreams,

vehicles forsolid, liquid, ornon-hydrolyzabledrugs

emollients,vehicles forsolid, liquid,

or non-hydrolyzabledrugs

drugvehicles

Examples WhitePetrolatum,WhiteOintment

HydrophilicPetrolatum,AnhydrousLanolin,Aquabase,Aquaphor,Polysorb

Cold Creamtype, HydrousLanolin, RoseWaterOintment,Hydrocream,Eucerin,Nivea

HydrophilicOintment,Dermabase,Velvachol,Unibase

PEGOintment,Polybase

Route of Administration

-Topical administration

Pharmacokinetics (of lidocaine ointment)

The rate and extent of absorption depends upon concentration and totaldose administered, the specific site of application and duration of exposure.In general, the rate of absorption of local anesthetic agents, following topicalapplication to wound surfaces and mucous membranes is high, and occursmost rapidly after intratracheal and bronchial administration. Lidocaine isalso well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, although little intact drugmay appear in the circulation because of biotransformation in the liver.

The plasma binding of lidocaine is dependent on drug concentration, and thefraction bound decreases with increasing concentration. At concentrations of1 to 4 g of free base per mL, 60 to 80% of lidocaine is protein bound.Binding is also dependent on the plasma concentration of the alpha-1-acidglycoprotein.

Lidocaine has a total plasma clearance of 0.95 L/min, a volume of


31/76

distribution at steady state of 91 L, an elimination half-life of 1.6 hours andan estimated hepatic extraction ratio of 0.65. The clearance of lidocaine isalmost entirely due to liver metabolism, and depends both on liver blood flowand the activity of metabolizing enzymes.

Lidocaine is metabolized rapidly by the liver, and metabolites and unchangeddrug are excreted by the kidneys. Biotransformation includes oxidative N-dealkylation, ring hydroxylation, cleavage of the amide linkage, andconjugation. Only 2% of lidocaine is excreted unchanged. Most of it ismetabolized first to monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX) and then toglycinexylidide (GX) and 2,6-xylidine. Up to 70% appears in the urine as 4-hydroxy-2,6-xylidine.

The elimination half-life of lidocaine following an i.v. bolus injection istypically 1.5 to 2.0 hours.

Examples of Ointments

Katinko -an ointment for common body pains like

muscle pains, headaches, stomachaches and even

menstrual cramps

Erythromycin Ophthalmic Ointment USP-for the treatment of superficial ocular infectionsinvolving the conjunctiva and/or cornea causedby organisms susceptible to erythromycin

Lidocaine- stabilizes the neuronal membrane byinhibiting the ionic fluxes required for the
http://www.reviewstream.com/reviews/?p=97500http://www.reviewstream.com/reviews/?p=97500


32/76

initiation and conduction of impulses, thereby effecting local anestheticaction.

Vagistat-1-is used either on the skin or in the vagina for fungalinfections

MASSES

Description

Mass drug is a powerful drug producing rapid gains in size and strength.

Testosterone propionate is a commonly manufactured, oil-based injectable

testosterone compound. It is therefore comparatively much faster acting

than other testosterone esters such as cypionate or enanthate, and requires

a much more frequent dosing schedule. While cypionate and enanthate areinjected on a weekly basis, propionate is generally administered (at least)

every third day. To make this drug even more uncomfortable to use, the

propionate ester can be very irritating to the site of injection. In fact, many

sensitive individuals choose to stay away from this steroid completely, their

body reacting with a pronounced soreness and low-grade fever that may last

for a few days. Even the mild soreness that is experienced by most users can


33/76

be quite uncomfortable, especially when taking multiple pharmacokinetics.

The "standard" esters like in ection enanthate and cypionate, which are

clearly easier to use, are therefore much more popular among athletes.

Composition

Testosterone-17-propionate; 17-(1-Oxopropoxy)-(17b)-androst-4-en-3-one


-intramuscular injection

Pharmacokinetic

Testosterone esters less polar than free testosterone. Testosterone esters in

oil injected intramuscularly are absorbed slowly from the lipid phase, thus

testosterone enantate can be given at intervals of two to four weeks.

Testosterone in plasma is 98% bound to a specific testostrone estradiolbinding globulin and about 2 % is free. The free testostrone concentrate will

determine its half life.

About 90% of a dose of testosterone is excreted in the urine as glucoronic

and sulfuric acid conjugates of testosterone and its metabolites, about 6 % of

a dose is excreted in the feces, mostly in the unconjugated form.


34/76

FLUID EXTRACT

- a liquid preparation, containing alcohol as a solvent or as a

preservative, that contains in each cubic centimeter the medicinal

activity of one gram of the crude drug in powdered form.

- is a type of fluid-solid extraction, that usually employ Soxhlet

Apparatus to extract certain compound with known solubility in a

solvent. Such as extracting lipids from a plant(solid) using

ethanol(liquid). In recent years this has expanded to include

specialized extraction methodologies and equipment of a proprietary

nature to ratio-intact extract multiple groups of compounds with


35/76

discovered solubility in a solvent. Such as extracting polysaccharides,

resins and organic acids from a plant(solid) using glycerol(liquid).

- Extracts are usually prepared in two phases. The first phase involves

getting the active principle into solution followed by partial or total

evaporation of the liquid obtained in order to concentrate the product.

Fluid products are prepared so that one part by weight corresponds to

one part by weight of the dried drug. They are first steeped and then

percolated. The percolation technique is to pass the solvent through a

glass or enamel tube filled with drug to be extracted the menstrum is

collected drop by drop until 85% of the final volume is obtained; the

remaining 15% is obtained by draining the solvent-saturated plant

material and concentrating the liquid obtained by dissolving a soft or

dry drug extract in alcohol of appropriate strength followed by filtering

if necessary.

Composition

- Whatever the preparation method, fluid extracts must have identical

composition. The most commonly used fluid extracts are

hydroalcoholic (alcohol at 95%). Alcohol, apart from possessing greater

solvent capacity than water that acts as a preservative. Fluid extracts

can be used in drop form directly but are usually used in the

preparation of syrups or other dosage forms.

Fluid extractions can sometimes be improved by the addition of fruit juice.

For example , prune juice improves the therapeutic action of a laxative, pear

juice may act as a chalagogue and blackberry juice enchances the effects ofdiuretics.


Enteral

*Oral


36/76

DECOCTION

- is the process of extraction of water-soluble substances of a drug or

medicinal plants by boiling.

- Decoction is a method of extraction, by boiling, of dissolved chemicals,

or herbal or plant material, which may include stems, roots, bark andrhizomes. Decoction involves first mashing, and then boiling in water

to extract oils, volatile organic compounds, and other chemical

substances.

- Convenient administration and easy absorption

- Better efficacy and lower toxicity and side effects


37/76

- Flexibility in combination of drug and hence and expansion of their

application to a wider scoop of remedies

Routes of Administration

Enteral

*Oral

BACKGROUND AND SUPPORTING DETAILS ABOUT POWDER

A powder is a dry,thick(not creamy) bulk solid composed of a large number

of very fine particles that may flow freely when shaken or tilted. Powders are

a special sub-class of granular materials, although the

terms powder and granular are sometimes used to distinguish separate

classes of material. In particular, powders refer to those granular materials

that have the finer grain sizes, and that therefore have a greater tendency to

form clumps when flowing. Granulars refers to the coarser granular materialsthat do not tend to form clumps except when wet.

Powders are transported in the atmosphere differently from a coarsegranular material. For one thing, tiny particles have little inertia compared tothe drag force of the gas that surrounds them, and so they tend to go withthe flow instead of traveling in straight lines. For this reason, powders maybe an inhalation hazard. Larger particles cannot weave through the body's
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granular_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granular_material


38/76

defenses in the nose and sinus, but will strike and stick to the mucousmembranes. The body then moves the mucous out of the body to expel theparticles. The smaller particles on the other hand can travel all the way tothe lungs from which they cannot be expelled. Serious and sometimes fataldiseases such as silicosis are a result from working with certain powders

without adequate respiratory protection.Also, if powder particles are sufficiently small, they maybecome suspended in the atmosphere for a very long time. Random motionof the air molecules andturbulence provide upward forces that maycounteract the downward force of gravity. Coarse granulars, on the otherhand, are so heavy that they fall immediately back to the ground. Oncedisturbed, dust may form huge dust storms that cross continents and oceansbefore settling back to the surface. This actually explains why there isrelatively little hazardous dust in the natural environment. Once aloft, thedust is very likely to stay aloft until it meets water in the form of rain or a

body of water. Then it sticks and is washed downstream to settleas mud deposits in a quiet lake or sea. When geological changes later re-expose these deposits to the atmosphere, they may have already cementedtogether to become mudstone, a type of rock. For comparison, the Moon hasneither wind nor water, and so itsregolith contains dust but no mudstone.

LISTS OF DRUGS IN POWDER FORM

Aconite- Powder.Grayish-brown; starch grains, nearly spherical, simple or 2

to 5 compound (3 to 15 in diam.); stone cells, large, tabular, irregular, or

elongated to fibers; yellowish-brown cork fragments, few; tracheae, spiral,reticulate or with bordered pits; parenchyma, relatively thick-walled, filled

with starch.

Althaea

Powder.White or light yellow; starch grains, numerous (5 to 20 in diam.),

calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates (15 to 35 in diam.); bast

fibers in groups, sometimes not strongly lignified, tracheae scalariform or

with bordered pits; numerous parenchyma fragments with large mucilage

cells.

Anisum

Powder.Yellowish-brown, fragments of pericarp showing portions of yellow

oil reservoirs numerous; small tracheae accompanied by sclerenchyma

fibers; endosperm cells filled with aleurone (about 6 in diam.), each

containing a rosette crystal of calcium oxalate (about 2 in diam.); 1-celled
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_stormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regolithhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/althaea-offi.htmlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/pimpinella.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_stormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regolithhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/althaea-offi.htmlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/pimpinella.html


39/76

hairs up to 2000 long, having slight projections on the surface; the

endocarp is characteristic.

Arnica

Powder.Yellowish-brown, pappus consists of multicellular axis withunicellular branches; non-glandular hairs 1- to 6-celled, glandular hairs of

three kinds, with unicellular stalk and unicellular head; a 4-celled stalk and

unicellular head, or a 10-celled stalk of a double row of cells with a 2-celled

head; pollen grains numerous, spherical (25 to 35 in diam.)

Amylum

Powder.White, starch grains, polygonal, rounded or spherical (3 to 35 in

diam.) with central cleft 3 to 5 rayed.

Buchu Powder.Pale green, consists mostly of parenchyma, often containing

sphaerocrystals of inulin (25 to 40 in diam.) and numerous globules short

and unicellular; aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate (15 to 25 in diam.);

tracheids and bast fibers, few.

PAPER FORM DRUG

Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known

as lysergide and colloquially as acid, is a semisyntheticpsychedelic drug of

the ergoline family, well known for its psychological effects which can include
http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/arnica.htmlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/amylum.htmlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/barosma.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semisynthetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_drughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergolinehttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/arnica.htmlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/amylum.htmlhttp://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/barosma.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semisynthetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_drughttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergoline


40/76

altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals,synaesthesia, an

altered sense oftime and spiritual experiences, as well as for its key role

in1960s counterculture. It is used mainly as an entheogen, recreational drug,

and as an agent inpsychedelic therapy. LSD is non-addictive, is not known to

cause brain damage, and has extremely low toxicity relative to dose,

although in rare cases adverse psychiatric reactions such as anxiety ordelusions are possible.

LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite (for some, it increases), andwakefulness. Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable andnonspecific, and some of these reactions may be secondary to thepsychological effects of LSD. The following symptoms have been reported:numbness, weakness, nausea,hypothermia or hyperthermia (decreased orincreased body temperature), elevated blood sugar, goose bumps, increasein heart rate, jaw clenching,perspiration,saliva production, mucus production, sleeplessness, hyperreflexia, and tremors. Some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strongmetallic taste for the duration of the effects.

LSD is not considered addictive by the medical community. Rapid tolerancebuild-up prevents regular use, and there is cross-tolerance shown betweenLSD,mescaline and psilocybin. This tolerance diminishes after a few dayswithout use and is probably caused by downregulation of5-HT2A receptors inthe brain.

In the 1950s and 1960s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhancepsychotherapy. Some psychiatrists believed LSD was especially useful at

helping patients to "unblock" repressed subconscious material through otherpsychotherapeutic methods, and also for treating alcoholism.One studyconcluded, "The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is itspotential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender," presumably byforcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche.

In December 1968, a survey was made of all 74 UK doctors who had usedLSD in humans; 73 replied, 1 had moved overseas and was unavailable. Ofthe 73 replies, the majority of UK doctors with clinical experience with LSDfelt that LSD was effective and had acceptable safety: 41 (56%) continuedwith clinical use of LSD, 11 (15%) had stopped because of retirement orother extraneous reasons, 9 (12%) had stopped because they found LSD

ineffective, and 5 (7%) had stopped because they felt LSD was toodangerous.

LSD is produced in crystalline form and then mixed with excipients orredissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is eitherdistributed in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into adistribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugarcubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Appearing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaesthesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mydriasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthermiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goose_bumpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreflexiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreflexiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tremorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-tolerancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescalinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A_receptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A_receptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A_receptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excipienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaesthesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mydriasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthermiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goose_bumpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreflexiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreflexiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tremorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-tolerancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescalinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A_receptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excipienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet


41/76

in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across, "OrangeSunshine" acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possessionwas made illegal. Tim Scully, a prominent chemist, made some of it, but saidthat most "Sunshine" in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark, who importedapproximately thirty-five million doses from Europe.

After tablets came "computer acid" or "blotter paper LSD", typically made bydipping a preprinted sheet ofblotting paper into an LSD/water/alcoholsolution. More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since1975. About the same time as blotter paper LSD came "Windowpane" (AKA"Clearlight"), which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter ofan inch across. LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short-livedand regionally restricted street names including Acid, Trips, Uncle Sid,Blotter, Lucy, Alice and doses, as well as names that reflect the designs onthe sheets of blotter paper. Authorities have encountered the drug in other

formsincluding powder or crystal, and capsule.Pharmacokinetics

LSD's effects normally last from 612 hours depending on dosage, tolerance,body weight and age. The Sandoz prospectus for "Delysid" warned:"intermittent disturbances of affect may occasionally persist for severaldays."Contrary to early reports and common belief, LSD effects do not lastlonger than the amount of time significant levels of the drug are present inthe blood. Aghajanian and Bing (1964) found LSD had an elimination half-lifeof only 175 minutes. However, using more accurate techniques, Papac andFoltz (1990) reported that 1 g/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer

had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasmaconcentration of 5 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blotting_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_in_the_Sky_with_Diamondshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blotting_paperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_in_the_Sky_with_Diamonds


42/76

SOLUTIONS

A solution is a clear, homogeneous liquid dosage form that contains one ormore chemical substances dissolved in a solvent or mixture of mutuallymiscible solvents.Hand trituration.

TYPES OF SOLUTION

Gas

If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under any given set of

conditions. An example of a gaseous solution is air (oxygen and other gases

dissolved in nitrogen). Since interactions between molecules play almost no

role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions. In part of the literature, they

are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures.

Liquid

If the solvent is a liquid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved.

Examples are:

Gas in liquid:

Oxygen in water.

Carbon dioxide in water is a less simple example, because the

solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction (formation of

ions). Note also that the visible bubbles in carbonated water are

not the dissolved gas, but only an effervescence of carbon

dioxide that has come out of solution; the dissolved gas itself is

not visible since it is dissolved on a molecular level.

Liquid in liquid:

The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but

different concentrations to form a constant.(Homogenization of

solutions)

Solid in liquid:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonated_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effervescence_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonated_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effervescence_(chemistry)


43/76

Sucrose (table sugar) in water

Sodium chloride or any other salt in water forms an electrolyte:

When dissolving, salt dissociates into ions.

Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that arenot homogeneous: colloids, suspensions, emulsions are not considered

solutions.

Solid

If the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved.

Gas in solid:

Hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium;

this is studied as a means ofhydrogen storage.

Liquid in solid:

mercury in gold, forming an amalgam

Hexane in paraffin wax

Solid in solid:

Steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrixof iron atoms.

Alloys like bronze and many others.

Polymers containing plasticizers.

Pharmacokinetic properties

Risperidone is completely absorbed after oral administration. Peak

plasma concentrations are attained within 1 to 2 hours. Food does not

affect the absorption of risperidone.

RISPERDAL is metabolized by cytochrome P-450-IID6 to 9-hydroxy-

risperidone which has a similar pharmacological activity to risperidone.

Risperidone and 9-hydroxy-risperidone form the active antipsychotic

fraction.

After oral administration to psychotic patients, risperidone's half-life is

about 3 hours. The elimination half-life of 9-hydroxy-risperidone and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraffin_waxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraffin_waxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticizer


44/76

the active antipsychotic fraction is 24 hours.

Steady state is reached within 1 day for risperidone in most patients

and 4-5 days for 9-hydroxy-risperidone


45/76

TRITURATIONS

the process of reducing substances to fine particles in a mortar with a pestle.Mortars are usually made of glass porcelain, or wedgewood and the pestlesare made of the same ' material as the mortar.

TYPES OF TRITURATIONS

Hand triturationThe process of reducing a substance to a fine powder with the use of mortarand pestle.

Mechanical triturationThe process of reducing a substance to fine powder with the use ofmachines.

Tablet Triturates: These may be prepared either by molding or bycompression. They are small, round with flat opposing surfaces. Of TabletTriturates there are (1) dispensing tablets and (2) hypodermic tablets
http://www.wasanlab.com/pharm/glossary.htmlhttp://www.wasanlab.com/pharm/glossary.htmlhttp://www.wasanlab.com/pharm/glossary.htmlhttp://www.wasanlab.com/pharm/glossary.html


46/76

Tinctures

- A tincture is an alcoholic extract (e.g. of leaves or other plant material)

or solution of a non-volatile substance (e.g. of iodine, mercurochrome).

- To qualify as a tincture, the alcoholic extract is to have an ethanol

percentage of at least 40-60% (80-120 proof) (sometimes a 90% (180

proof) pure liquid is even achieved).

- In herbal medicine, alcoholic tinctures are often made with various

concentrations of ethanol, 25% being the most common. Other

concentrations include 45% and 90%.

- Herbal tinctures do not always use ethanol as a solvent, though this is

the most frequent. Other solvents include vinegar, glycerol, ether andpropylene glycol, not all of which are used for internal consumption

Examples of tinctures

Some examples that were formerly common in medicine[2] include:

Tincture of Cannabis sativa

Tincture of Benzoin

Tincture of cantharides

Tincture of ferric citrochloride (a chelate of citric acid and Iron(III)

chloride)


47/76

Tincture of green soap (which also contains lavender)

Tincture of guaiac

Tincture of iodine

Tincture of opium (laudanum)

Camphorated opium tincture (paregoric)

Tincture of Pennyroyal

Warburg's Tincture (aka Tinctura Antiperiodica aka AntiperiodicTincture), an antipyretic medicine of the 19th-century.

Advantages of tinctures

Ethanol is able to dissolve substances which are less soluble in water,

while at the same time the water content can dissolve the substances less

soluble in ethanol. It is possible to vary the proportion of ethanol and

water to produce tinctures with different qualities because of different

substances. One example of this is tincture of Calendula officinalis, which

is frequently used either at 25% ethanol or 90% ethanol. The solvent also

acts as a preservative.

Disadvantages of tinctures

Chemically speaking, ethanol possesses a profound intrinsic denaturing

and inert rendering quality. This quality accounts for a large part of

ethanol's anti-microbial properties. This denaturing and inert rendering

quality also has an undesired effect on many extracted botanical

constituents. For instance, alcohol intrinsically fractures and denatures

many highly complex aromatic compounds and denatures many extracted

for polysaccharides. Other constituents are likewise subjected to

denaturing and being rendered inert. The basic tenets of chemistry teach


48/76

that anytime a biologically viable component is denatured or rendered

inert, it will reduce or negate the prior biological viability. This factor

needs to be seriously considered and weighed by the clinician or

consumer when determining the hoped for biological viability of an

ethanol-based botanical tincture both as to sought for efficacy and dosage

considerations.

Ether and propylene glycol tinctures are not suitable for internal

consumption and are instead used in such preparations as creams or

ointments.

INFUSION

Its the slow therapeutic introduction of fluid other than blood into a vein.

intravenous infusion


49/76

1 a solution administered into a vein through an infusion set that includes aplastic or glass vacuum bottle or bag containing the solution and tubingconnecting the bottle to a catheter or a needle in the patient's vein.

2 the process of administering a solution intravenously. Swelling of the limb

around and distal to the site of injection may indicate that the tip of thecatheter or needle is in the subcutaneous tissue and not in the vein. The fluidmay be infiltrating the tissue spaces. It should be withdrawn and the limbelevated. Redness, swelling, heat, and pain around the vein at the site ofinjection or proximal to it may indicate thrombophlebitis. The infusion shouldbe discontinued and the inflammatory condition treated. The infusion isusually begun again at another site.

constant-rate infusionthe continuous intravenous administration of medication usually through anelectronic delivery device, in order to maintain constant blood levels. Most

suitable for use with rapid onset of action and short half-life.

intramammary infusionmaterial used to introduce medicaments, especially antibiotics, into the teatand udder sinuses for the treatment or prevention of mastitis. May be inliquid or thin paste form and usually prepackaged in tubes for the treatmentof individual quarters. Contain antibiotics and adjuvants in a slow or fast-release base depending on objective, e.g. dry period or lactation periodtreatment. May contain dye to warn that milk may contain antibiotics.Specially prepared watery infusions of escharotic agents, e.g. silver nitrate,copper sulfate, may be used to dry off permanently a quarter that is

chronically affected.

intrauterine infusionadministration of fluids for irrigative purposes.

Hypodermoclysis

the injection of an isotonic or hypotonic solution into subcutaneous tissue tosupply a continuous and large amount of fluid, electrolytes, and nutrients.The procedure is used to replace the loss or inadequate intake of water and

salt during illness or surgery or after shock or hemorrhage. It is performedonly when a patient is unable to take fluids intravenously, orally, or rectally. The rate of absorption into the circulatory system is increased with theaddition to the solution of the enzyme hyaluronidase. The most commonsites of administration are the anterior thighs, the abdominal wall along thecrest of the ilium, below the breasts in women, and directly over the scapulain children; sites should be changed when multiple infusions are given. Thepatient is placed in a comfortable position because the procedure takes a


50/76

long time. The nurse observes for signs of circulatory collapse, respiratorydifficulty, and edema at the site of injection. Also called hypodermatoclysis,interstitial infusion, subcutaneous infusion.

subcutaneous infusion

administration of fluids directly into subcutaneous tissues for the purpose ofproviding hydration

TYPES OF INTRAVENOUS ADMINISTRATION

An I.V. injection is the administration of a relatively small volume ofsolution directly from a syringe. When administered over a short period, it

is sometimes called an I.V. push. Before the medication is administered; asmall volume of blood is usually drawn into the syringe (aspirated) tomake certain that the needle is in the vein. Frequently, I. V. injections andI. V. pushes are done into an existing I. V. line or I. V. access device.

The introduction of larger volumes of solution directly into a vein is knownas an I.V. infusion, in which the solution is permitted to flow into the veinover a relatively long period. Infusions are given to overcomedehydration, to restore depleted blood volume, and to serve as a vehiclefor the administration of medications

Infusions may be administered continuously or intermittently

Continuous infusions are used to administer a large volume of solution overseveral hours at a slow, constant rate. An example of a continuous infusion isthe administration of 40 milliequivalents (mEq) of potassium chloride in1,000 milliliters (mL or ml) of 5% dextrose injection over eight hours.

Intermittent infusions are used to administer a relatively small volume over ashort time at specific intervals. An example of an intermittent infusion is theadministration1 g of ampicillin in 50 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride injectionover 15-20 minutes every six hours.

Piggyback administration of medications has these advantages:

1. An additional venipuncture is not necessary.2. Medications can be given at intervals rather than by continuous infusion,providing higher blood levels of the drug more quickly. This may lead to themore effective and rational use of many antibiotics.
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/hypodermatoclysishttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/interstitial+infusionhttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subcutaneous+infusionhttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/hypodermatoclysishttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/interstitial+infusionhttp://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subcutaneous+infusion


51/76

SETUP FOR CONTINUOUS INTRAVENOUS INFUSION

o A container for the solution to be administered; this is almost

always a plastic bag, but may be a glass bottleo An administration set, consisting of a spike for insertion into the

solution container, a drip chamber, a length of plastic tubing, aclamp, and a needle adapter

o A needle or catheter, which is inserted into the patient's vein

The solution container is supported about three feet above the level of theinjection site so that gravity causes the solution to flow from the container. Alength of plastic tubing connects the solution container to the needle in thepatient's vein. As the solution flows from the container, it passes through adrip chamber, which is a small reservoir connected to the plastic tubing near

the solution container. By collecting in the drip chamber, the solution can flowcontinuously through the remainder of the tubing without mixing with air, thusavoiding the formation and administration of air bubbles. A nurse can alsodetermine how rapidly the solution is being administered by counting thenumber of drops per minute that enter the drip chamber. The clamp is used toregulate the flow of the solution through the tubing. Closing the clampprogressively flattens the tubing from the "wide-open" to the "shutoff"position. At the end of the plastic tubing is a plastic needle adapter to which a


52/76

needle or catheter (discussed later in this chapter) is attached. All of thesecomponents are sterile and disposable in order to reduce the risk of Infection.Proper technique is obviously critical to maintain that sterility.

SETUP FOR INTERMITTENT INTRAVENOUS INFUSION

First, the primary solution drip rate is established. At the appropriate time for

administration of the medication, the clamp to the piggyback set can be

opened to allow the piggyback solution to flow through the tubing, Because

the piggyback solution is hanging higher than the primary solution, the

greater pressure allows it to flow in preference to the primary solution. The

piggyback solution is prevented from flowing up and into the primary


53/76

solution container by a one-way check valve on the primary set. This check

valve allows the solution to flow from the primary container to the patient,

but not the opposite way.


54/76

NTRAVENOUS PUMPS AND INFUSION DEVICES

An I. V. infusion pump is a device used to control the delivery of an I. V.solution at a selected rate. Under normal circumstances, gravity providesenough pressure to allow an I. V. solution to flow through an administrationset and into the vein. The pressure generated by gravity depends on theheight at which the I. V. solution is hung, but is generally sufficient toovercome the back pressure from inside the vein. However, several factorsmay impede the flow of solution; they include clogged filters, small(microbore) tubing or catheters, thick (viscous) solutions, and increased

pressure in the vein. Pumps can be adjusted to provide just enough pressureto overcome resistance to flow and maintain a constant flow rate.

Pumps are used to:

o Assure accurate delivery of an I.V. solution, usually within 2-5%of the selected rate


55/76

o Provide an enhanced 1evelof safety through various built-inalarms. Pumps may sound an alarm if there is air in the I. V. lineor the flow of solution is impeded for any reason - for example, ifa filter clogs; a patient pinches off the tubing accidentally, or theI. V. container becomes empty.

o Store data such as volume of solution already infused, infusionrate, etc.o Save time for nurses by eliminating the need to repeatedly check

on the status of the I. V. infusion

Infusion pumps are used most commonly in special care areas of a hospital,such as intensive care units and pediatric units, as well as with certain typesof admixtures, such as parenteral nutrition solutions, chemotherapysolutions, and potent drugs that must be administered very accurately.

Most I. V. pumps are designated for use in conjunction with large-volume

infusions. However, many are designed to be used with a syringe to deliverthe drug. Syringe pumps are most commonly used with pediatric patients,although many hospitals use syringe pumps to deliver intermittent I.V.medications as an alternative to minibags or minibottles.


56/76

ELIXIR

Elixirs are clear, sweetened, hydro-

alcoholic liquids intended for oral use.They contain flavoring substances and, i

n some cases,active medicinal

agents . Theprimary solvents in elixirs ar

e alcohol and water. Sugar or other age

nts

are added as sweeteners. Elixirs are used either as vehicles or for the effect of the drugthey contain (for example, phenobarbita

l elixir)

CharacteristicsElixirs are clear, usually brilliantly colored medications

pleasing to the eye and thepalate (taste).Because of their palatability, thisform of medication is often given to infants and children.

Types of elixirs.

1. Medicated elixirs-used for their medicinal and therapeutic effects.

2. Nonmedicated elixirs- used as flavoring agents and vehicles.

Versatility.They are easy to prepare and are stable forms of medication.

Their range of application is limited on ly by the number of medications thatcan be made into elixir form. Generally, the alcohol content of elixirs,ranging from 4percent to 40 percent, is limited toan amount sufficient to keep the medication or activeprinciples in solution.

Incompatibility.Elixirs are o ften incompatible with aqueous solutions

and hydro-alcoholic solutions with very low alcohol content. When combined with such


57/76

solutions, the elixir genera lly throws some of its dissolved material out of solutionbecause its alcohol content has been reduced. On the other hand , the aqueoussolution precipitates its dissolved material because its alcohol conten

t has beenincreased. Of course, the incompatibilities of specific active ingredients can vary widely

Composition

An elixir is a hydro-alcoholic solution of at least one active ingredient. Thealcohol is mainly used to:

Solubilize the active ingredient(s) and some excipients

Retard the crystallization of sugar

Preserve the finished product

Provide a sharpness to the taste

Aid in masking the unpleasant taste of the active ingredient(s)

Enhance the flavor.

The lowest alcoholic quantity that will dissolve completely the activeingredient(s) and give a clear solution is generally chosen. Highconcentrations of alcohol give burning taste to the final product.

An elixir may also contain the following excipients:

Sugar and/or sugar substitutes like the sugarpolyolsglycerol and sorbitol.

Preservatives like parabens and bezoates and antioxidants like butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and sodium metabisulfite.

Buffering agents

Chelating agents like sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)

Flavoring agents and flavor enhancers

Coloring agents
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excipienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbitolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxytoluenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxytoluenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_metabisulfitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffering_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelating_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDTAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavoring_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor_enhancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excipienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbitolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxytoluenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxytoluenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_metabisulfitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffering_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelating_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDTAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavoring_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor_enhancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color


58/76

Cream

A cream is an emulsion of oil and water in approximately equalproportions. It penetrates the stratum corneum outer layer of skin well.Creams for application to mucus membranes such as those of the rectum orvagina are also used. Cream is thicker than lotion, and maintains its shapewhen removed from its container. It tends to be moderate in moisturizingtendency. For topical steroid products, oil-in-water emulsions are common.

Creams have a significant risk of causing immunological sensitization due topreservatives. It has a high rate of acceptance by patients. There is a greatvariation in ingredients, composition, pH, and tolerance among genericbrands.

Composition:

Water Oil Emulsifier

Thickening agentUses of creams:

The provision of a barrier to protect the skin This may be a physical barrier or a chemical barrier as with sunscreens To aid in the retention of moisture (especially water-in-oil creams) Cleansing Emollient effects As a vehicle for drug substances such as local anaesthetics, anti-

inflammatories (NSAIDs or corticosteroids), hormones, antibiotics,

antifungals or counter-irritants.

Pharmaceutical preparations for tre

Documents

DRUG Dosage 2aa