Early French Canadian Architectural Types of the French Colonial Period

Early French Canadian Architectural Types of

the French Colonial Period

Anthony DelRosario

History of the Architecture in the Americas I

Professor Ann Masson

Master in Preservation Studies

Tulane School of Architecture

1 PRST 6610 - History of Architecture in the Americas I – Professor Ann Masson – December 3, 2008

Anthony DelRosario – Masters of Preservation Studies - Tulane School of Architecture

The French Colonial empire in North America lasted for over two centuries,

from the founding of Port Royal, Nova Scotia in 1605 to the Louisiana Purchase in

1803. During this period, New France grew from an outpost on the North Atlantic

seaboard, to the St. Lawrence River valley, across the Great Lakes, and down the

Mississippi River valley. Despite the immense expanse of the area, very few

French Colonial buildings outside of Canada remain. However, one can trace the

lasting impact of early French Canadian architecture of the French Colonial period

to several buildings throughout Louisiana. The architectural types of French

Colonial Canada will be explored via the history of the colony and these types will

be compared to the architecture of Louisiana.

Short History of the French Colonial Empire in Canada Exploration and Failed Beginnings

By the end of the fifteenth century, Europeans were seeking a route to the

Orient by going west. One of the first explorers was John Cabot who was

dispatched by Henry the VII of England in 1497. King Francis I of France sent an

Italian, Giovanni da Verrazzano, to scout the Atlantic seaboard in 1524. Ten years

later, during the first of three expeditions, Jacques Cartier planted the flag of France

at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. In 1541, Cartier returned to North America

for a third time with the Sieur de Roberval and attempted to establish the first

permanent European settlement in North America at Charlesbourg-Royal. By 1543,

Charlesbourg-Royal was abandoned due to poor weather conditions, disease, and

unfriendly relations with the native Iroquoians. For the next sixty years, France (and



all other European nations) did not attempt to establish another permanent

settlement in what is now Canada. During this period, the French mainly used the

North Atlantic seaboard for fishing and beaver hunting. (Bowerman)

New France Takes Hold and Construction Begins

More extensive fur trading led to new efforts of French colonization in North

America. Samuel de Champlain was hired by Pierre du Gaust, Sieur de monts, who

had acquired the exclusive trading rights in Canada from the king of France, Henry

IV. (Reps 47) After a failed attempt the previous year at Ste. Croix Island (or

Douchet Island) in what is now Maine, in 1605 Champlain established Port Royal on

the western coast of Nova Scotia in a harbor off the Bay of Fundy. (Reps 48-49)

The Port Royal Habitation was a very basic fortification layout of a simple rectangle

of buildings around a central courtyard with two bastions for protection – “a French

post-medieval fortified farm dwelling, translated to North America in the era of the

early attempts at French colonization of the continent.” (Rosinski 4) In the

courtyard, the settlers created the first European seed garden in North America.

(Marsh) At this site, the French constructed their buildings with a process of hewn

horizontal logs laid atop of one another called “pièce-sur-pièce”. According to

Edwards and Kariouk in A Creole Lexicon, pièce-sur-pièce is an abbreviation of

pièce de bois sur pièce de bois (piece of wood on piece of wood), a “method

originated in New France, probably in 1605 at the military site of l’Habitation at Port

Royal in Acadie (Nova Scotia), where military engineers constructed a small fort at

the first permanent North American French settlement.” The method was adopted



into vernacular construction that spread throughout Canada and the Mississippi

Valley. (153) The style of the buildings of Port Royal with steep roof forms (Figs. 1

and 2) imitated that of buildings found in the cold regions of France. (Moogk 23)

The pièce-sur-pièce construction method created a good insulation, while the steep

roof kept snow and water from collecting.

Fig. 1: Reconstruction of Port Royal Fig. 2: Champlain’s sketch of Port Royal Samuel de Champlain returned to Canada in 1608 to establish a trading post

farther inland up the St. Lawrence River. He reached the site of Quebec and

claimed it for France and built a massive, wooden fortification called “L’Habitation”

(Fig. 3) on a narrow shelf by the St. Lawrence River. During the early years, the

town grew around l’Habitation in a medieval fashion with the fortress as a radial

endpoint. By 1615 early residents of the town included traders and missionaries

who created the beginning of town life with houses and a chapel. (Reps 49)



Fig. 3: L’Habitation, Quebec

Montreal was established in 1642 by Paul Chomedey, Sieur de

Maisonneuve, and became the third major French settlement along the St.

Lawrence River (eight years after Trois-Rivières). As with Quebec, early residents

of the town included traders and missionaries. Churches and chapels (Fig. 4) were

often among the earliest buildings of these settlements. Many buildings were built

with a method often found in France called colombage pierroté, a half-timber

construction with stone rubble and plaster of lime in-fill. This method was “a

substitute for solid wooden walls at a time when wood was increasingly expensive

in western France. Nevertheless, the French builders perpetuated the technique in

New France (and) Upper Louisiana…where wood was abundant.” (Edwards and

Kariouk 65) However, with a nearly limitless supply of timber, builders in New

France often utilized the pièce-sur-pièce method that originated at Port Royal to

create better insulation.



Fig. 4: sketch of early church at the site of Montreal

Expansion

In the second half of the seventeenth century, New France saw a period of

significant growth. In 1663, Quebec officially became a royal province of France.

To populate this area of invigorated interest, King Louis XIV sent a shipload of

women for the settlers in the province (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Men of New France welcome women sent by King Louis XIV

After setting up missions in the western Great Lakes area and learning of a

great river from the local native tribes, French missionary Father Jacques Marquette

was joined by Louis Joliet, a French Canadian explorer, in 1673 to search for the

Mississippi River. Marquette and Joliet found and traveled the river to the mouth of



the Arkansas River and turned back for fear of encountering Spanish explorers

further downriver. Nine years later Robert de LaSalle canoed down to the mouth of

the Mississippi and laid claim to entire Mississippi River basin for King Louis XIV. In

the following decades, these explorations lead to the founding of settlements along

the Mississippi River at such sites as Ste. Genevieve, Missouri (1735), Cahokia,

Illinois (1696), and New Orleans, Louisiana (1718).

Fig. 6: extent of the French Colonial empire in North America

As the colony grew in size (Fig. 6), the original settlements along the St.

Lawrence River also grew. A metropolitan vision began to take shape after Quebec

became a royal province. City planning became more regularized. The first three

major settlements (Québec City, Montréal and Trois-Rivières) were established in a

medieval conception of aristocratic ‘bourg’ (town) was marked off from the ‘faux

bourg’ (suburb or ‘false town’) (Marsh). New gridded plans were drawn up for these

cities as well as new fortifications based on concepts from Sébastien Le Prestre,

Seigneur de Vauban, the great French military engineer (Figs. 7, 8 & 9). Vauban’s



influence on fortification design would also be seen in the designs of New Orleans,

Mobile, and Biloxi.

Fig. 7: Montreal

Fig. 8: Louisbourg

Fig. 9: Quebec



While the builders in the rural settlements continued to use the familiar half-

timbered colombage construction method, more permanent methods were being

used in the cities.

Monumental architecture in the metropolis had an early impact on the

cityscape of the new provincial capital: the Château Saint-Louis (1647,

1692), the Church and College of the Jesuits (1666, 1725), the Cathedral of

Québec City (1684) and the Episcopal Palace (1692) imposingly embodied

the principles of French classicism, which religious communities and orders

adopted in their turn. In Québec City, Montréal and Trois-Rivières

monumental structures were built whose scale and formal expression,

seemingly at odds with the vast uncleared tracts round about, left an imprint

on the built landscape as a whole. (Marsh)

The two versions of the Château Saint-Louis greatly influenced the style of

rural dwellings throughout the following century. (Marsh) The first Château Saint-

Louis (Fig. 10) built in 1647 by Charles Jacques Huault de Montmagny, the

governor of New France after Champlain, was a larger version of the double pitched

roof houses found in France with a slight modification. The houses in France often

had a roof-to-living space height ratio of two-to-one; the first Château Saint-Louis

and the houses influenced by it design had a roof-to-living space height ratio of

closer to one-to-one. A prime example of a house in this style is the Boucher-de-

Niverville Manor (Fig. 11) in Trois-Rivières built in 1729. This style continued to be

built in Louisiana, as seen in Lafitte’s Blacksmith Shop (1772) found in the French

Quarter of New Orleans (Fig. 12). The second Château Saint-Louis (Fig. 13) built in

1692 by Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau, another governor of



New France, was also double pitched, but in addition, was also hipped. The

influence of this style was found in buildings throughout Quebec (Fig. 14) and down

the Mississippi River in New Orleans (Fig. 15).

Fig. 10: first Château Saint-Louis, Quebec, 1683

Fig. 11: Boucher-de- Niverville Manor, Trois-Rivières Fig. 12: Lafitte’s Blacksmith Shop, New Orleans



Fig. 13: second Château Saint-Louis, Quebec, 1683

Fig. 14: Manoir Mauvide-Genest, Ile d’Orleans, 1750 Fig. 15: Faubourg Marigny, New Orleans, ~1820

Fig. 16: Jesuits’ College and Church, Quebec, 1666



The Church of the Jesuits (Fig. 16) in Quebec City was a large version of the

simple chapels and churches that had been and continued to be built in New

France. The exterior form of these buildings was usually quite plain – a gabled roof

with a single tall spire at one of the gabled ends that also had the main entrance.

Between 1669 and 1680, Mgr de Laval, first Bishop of Quebec, commissioned a

series of churches for the parishes around Quebec. According to Alan Gowans:

They were small, and from a world viewpoint hardly significant; but to the

history of architecture in Canada they are very important, for it was in them

that the first distinctively Canadian architectural forms appeared. Not that

any of their individual features were new – any one of them could have been

found, in one place or another, in French architecture of the period. What

made them distinctive was the peculiar way these features were combined.

Nowhere in France is there precisely the same combination of high-pitched

roof and transept, splayed eaves, niches, quoins, oculus, spire, as here.

(Looking at Architecture in Canada, 41)

This design continued to dominate the construction style of churches in Quebec

through the eighteenth century (Fig. 17) as Laval’s successor, Bishop Saint-Vallier,

“strove to maintain standardization in church design” after he created eighty-two

parishes in 1721. (Kalman 71) On the outside, these parish churches were

diametrically opposite of the twin towered ornate churches found throughout

Colonial Spain. However, the Canadian and Mexican churches often shared a

Baroque lavishness on the inside.



Fig. 17: Example of an eighteenth century parish church

A sketch of Montreal (Fig. 4) when first settled shows a simple church in this

style built in the pièce-sur-pièce method. Often the church would have small

extensions from the sides to create a cross-shaped building. Most rural churches

that survive today in the province of Quebec are the third or fourth built on the site

as the earliest churches were framed in wood that deteriorated and the use of stone

was uncommon until about 1730. (Traquair 135) In addition to the pièce-sur-pièce

method, colombage construction was commonly utilized for churches throughout

Quebec. Along the Mississippi River, churches were also built with the colombage

method, for example the chapel at Fort St. Jean Baptiste, Louisiana built around

1730 and the Holy Family Log Church in Cahokia, Illinois built in 1799. These two

churches were built using two different post methods that were common in New

France. The chapel at Fort St. Jean Baptiste was constructed with the poteaux-en-



terre method in which the timber frame of the wall was created by posts set in the

ground. While at Cahokia, the poteaux-sur-solle method was used in which the

timber frame of the wall was created by posts mounted onto a heavy sill which was

either set on the ground or raised off the ground. In Louisiana, very few churches

influenced by this simple style remain and they are in rural areas.

Conflict and Loss

From the late seventeenth century until the late eighteenth century, France

was in almost constant conflict with England over North American territory. During

this period, the two countries engaged in four conflicts called the Intercolonial Wars

in Quebec and called the French and Indian Wars in America. In 1702, the second

of these wars, also known as Queen Anne’s War, began as a fight for Acadia. In

1710, the British took control of France’s first permanent settle in North America,

Port Royal. The Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1713 and gave Britain possession

all of Hudson Bay, all of Newfoundland, and Acadia (which was renamed Nova

Scotia) except for except l'Ie- Royale (Cape Breton Island). France still held

possession of Quebec and in 1717 constructed Fort Louisbourg (Fig. 20) on l'Ie-

Royale to keep the British from invading the St. Lawrence River. By 1755 the fourth

and final conflict had begun and the British expelled all French Canadians

(Acadians) from Nova Scotia that would not pledge allegiance to Britain (Fig. 18).

This scattered the Acadians throughout the American colonies including Louisiana

where their ancestors became known as Cajuns.



Fig. 18: The Great Expulsion – le Grand Dérangement, 1755

From 1758 to 1760, the major French fortifications of Louisbourg, Quebec,

and Montreal fall to British possession. In 1763 France ceded Louisiana to Spain

and its remaining possessions to Britain by way of the Treaty of Paris. (The British

abandoned Louisbourg after the Treaty of Paris and the site was left for ruins (Fig.

19) like Panama La Vieja in Panama.)

Fig. 19: The ruins of Fort Louisbourg Fig. 20: Reconstruction of Fort Louisbourg



In 1801 a Franco-Spanish alliance returned Louisiana to France, but two years later

the French colony was sold to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase (Fig. 21)

and ended the two centuries of the French Colonial empire in North America.

Fig. 21: Louisiana Purchase

Architecture of the French Colonial Empire in Canada and Its Influence in Louisiana The influence of French Colonial Canadian architecture upon the architecture

found in the Mississippi River valley and basin, especially in Louisiana, can be

traced through style and method of construction of dwellings. Despite being the

dominant style of church construction throughout the eighteenth century in Quebec,

the style influenced by Laval’s parishes of the late seventeenth century did not

leave a lasting impression on church design in Louisiana. However, the impact of

French Colonial Canadian architecture in Louisiana is found in a variety of buildings

from homes in the French Quarter of New Orleans, to cottages on the bayou, to



plantations along the Mississippi River. Alan Gowans states that “New France’s

principal impact and legacy on the North American landscape has been the rural

homestead.” (Styles and Types of North American Architecture, 30)

Styles and Methods Found in French Colonial Canada

The style and method of construction of homes in French Colonial Canada

have roots going back to designs found in similarly cold regions of France. A

parallel in steep, hipped roof forms can be seen. Peter Moogk writes:

Confirmation of the relationship of climate and roof structure came from Louis

Savot’s L’Architecture Françoise, a book that was written in the 1630s when

the farms of the first French colonists were being cleared around Quebec.

Savot observed that a steep roof which readily shed rain and snow, was

desirable in ‘cold regions’ because ‘if it were too low, the snow would

accumulate on it and when it melted, it would form ridges of ice on the eaves;

these ridges would cause the water to back up and to leak into the garret or

attic.’ It appears that the roof of the Canadien farmhouse during the French

regime, with a slope of around 55 degrees from the horizontal and whose

height accounted for nearly two-thirds of the building’s elevation, was a

seventeenth century response to the climate of the St. Lawrence valley. The

same form was likewise employed in the cold and rainy areas of

contemporary France. (22-23)

In addition to the gabled roof houses of this French origin, houses with double

pitched roofs were commonly found in New France (Fig. 22).



Fig. 22: Double pitched roof building in France

Fig. 23: Marcotte House, Cap-Sante, 1750 Fig. 24: French Quarter, New Orleans

In addition to the steep roof style (Fig. 23), the houses of Canada and France

shared a construction method from the medieval period known as colombage, a

half-timber wood frame (Fig. 26). The colonists in Canada employed two versions

of the colombage method – colombage pierroté and colombage bousillé. The

difference between the two was the material used as in-fill between the wooden



posts. Colombage pierroté used stone and mortar and colombage bousillé (Fig. 25)

used bousillage, a mixture of mud and/or clay with a “vegetable binder such as

straw and (optionally) lime.” (Edwards and Kariouk 33)

Fig. 25: colombage bousillé construction

“In comparison with the full timber house, half-timber dwellings made little sense in

New France.” (Moogk 28) In Europe, the colombage method evolved from entirely

wood framed buildings due to rising costs of lumber whose supply was declining.

The availability of timber, the belief that wood was a better insulator, and the

extreme temperature changes that destroyed the bonding of the fill contributed to

the reversal of trend back to completely wooden type of construction in New France.

(Moogk 29) Also in some areas such as Montreal, stone was difficult to find and

entire walls of vertical posts replaced the in-fill method. (Moogk 30)



Fig. 26: colombage construction, Lamontagne House, Quebec

Eventually the transition from vertical to horizontal timbers became popular.

The pièce-sur-pièce construction method (Fig. 27) first utilized at Port Royal was

considered superior to colombage and walls of vertical timbers. Moogk writes that

vertical timbers “provided good insulation and water would drain easily from a wall

of upright posts. However, when the timbers were laid upon one another

horizontally, the chinking of moss, cedar bark, clay or plaster was less likely to fall

out and the building would remain weathertight.” (32) “The ultimate consideration

[for the pièce-sur-pièce construction method] would be that a single man with a few

portable tools could do most of the work of building himself.” (Moogk 34)

Fig. 27: pièce-sur-pièce construction, Port-au-Persil, Charlevoix, Québec



In addition to the horizontal timber and vertical timber options for creating the walls

of the house, there were two options for the placement of the timber frame, poteaux-en-

terre (posts in ground) and poteaux-sur-solle (posts on sill). The poteaux-en-terre

method was often used in combination with vertical timbers (Fig. 28); the poteaux-

sur-solle method was often used in combination with horizontal timbers. However,

these methods were not necessarily always found in these combinations. A

surviving example of vertical timbers used with poteaux-sur-solle is the old

courthouse in Cahokia, Illinois (Fig. 29).

Fig. 28: poteaux-en-terre

Fig. 29: poteaux sur solle, Cahokia Courthouse after restoration

French Colonial Canada Styles and Methods Transplanted to the Mississippi River Valley and Louisiana



These styles and methods of construction in French Colonial Canada were

transplanted along the Mississippi River Valley and throughout Louisiana. “In

French America, only among the Mississippi and Great Lakes settlements did

vertical construction long remain popular. In Canada it gave way generally to

horizontal construction or stone.” (Kniffen and Glassie 164) “The earliest form of

construction in French Canada was poteaux en terre, which was introduced into

Louisiana by the Canadian Iberville.” (165)

Cahokia and Colombage Church

Cahokia, Illinois was one of the first French settlements along the Mississippi

River after Lasalle claimed the basin for King Louis XIV. The town was established

by Father Francois Pinet in 1696 as the site for a mission and home of the Church

of the Holy Family (Fig. 30). The church building that currently stands (with 80% of

its original wood) was erected in 1799 but was built of the same vertical-log

construction method of the original church built a hundred years earlier. The form of

the church is the same as the late seventeenth century parish church found in

Quebec, the simple cruciform shape which Laval and Saint-Vallier proliferated. As

the existing seventeenth and eighteenth century parish churches in Quebec are of

stone, the Holy Family log church is the remaining example of a French Colonial

cruciform shaped church constructed with the vertical timber method.



Fig. 30: Holy Family log church, Cahokia, Illinois, 1799

Adapting to the Climate

The earliest houses built by the French in Louisiana utilized the colombage

pierroté method in combination with the poteaux-en-terre form. These methods

went through a metamorphosis in order to adapt to a drastically different climate of

the heat and humidity found in the bayous of Louisiana. The use of colombage

pierroté was converted to the use of colombage bousillé as the French learned from

the local natives that a bousillage mixture of mud and Spanish moss better suited

the climate. An alternate in-fill method was briquette-entré-poteaux which utilized

bricks (Fig. 31). This method was more popular in cities or near brick plants. The

French also soon recognized that poteaux-en-terre construction was not the most

appropriate method for Louisiana where there was much rain, flooding, and high

temperatures. To counter these factors, the French supplanted poteaux en terre

construction with raised poteaux-sur-solle construction. This change helped in two



ways. First, with the frame raised off the ground, decomposition due to wet wood

on wet ground would not occur. Second, a raised frame allowed air to circulate

under the house to keep the house cooler. (Cazayoux 364)

Fig. 31: briquette-entré-poteaux construction method, Marigny, New Orleans

The hot and humid climate of Louisiana had a great impact on the style of

houses that the French built along the Mississippi River and in the bayous. To stay

cool in the much warmer climate, the French added porches and verandas or

galleries around the houses. In addition to creating shade to keep the house cool,

the covered verandas also protected the walls of the structures from the abundant

rainfall. (Cazayoux 365)

By adding a gallery with a differently angled roof, the roof of the houses

became double pitched. Two existing examples of a double pitched roof, galleried

house in the upper Mississippi River valley are the Saucier House, also known as



the Old Courthouse, (Fig. 32) in Cahokia, Illinois (1737) and the Louis Buldoc

House (Fig. 33) in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri (1770).

Fig. 32: Cahokia Courthouse before restoration

Fig. 33: Buldoc House, Ste. Genevieve, Missouri

The Unique Outcome of French Colonial Types from Canada and the Climate of Louisiana

By raising these galleried houses an entire story above the ground and

enclosing the newly created bottom floor to create a raised basement, a structure

type unique to Louisiana was created, the Louisiana Raised Cottage. This type of

building is also known by the following names: Louisiana Plantation House,



Louisiana Planter Raised Cottage, Louisiana Raised French Planter, Louisiana

French Colonial, Creole Cottage, Colonial French Planter, and French Louisiana

Planter. One reason that the combination of raised house and bousillage

construction was so successful was that it created a natural air conditioning system.

The walls soaked up moisture from the ground which was evaporated by breezes

and thus became cooler. (Cazayoux 366) One of the finest examples this

vernacular type is Destrehan Plantation (Fig. 34), built in 1787 outside of New

Orleans. Although enlarged and renovated in the Greek Revival style around 1840,

the core of the building retains its French Colonial qualities.

Fig. 34: Destrehan Plantation

Across the Ocean and Down the River

Over the course of two centuries, the French held and eventually

relinquished some of the largest amounts of land in North America during the



colonial period. The French empire stretched from the North Atlantic down the

Mississippi River valley to the Gulf Coast and across to the Rocky Mountains.

During these two hundred years, the evolution of a unique house style can be

traced. A simple house plan from the northern part of France was brought to North

America in the early seventeenth century where French Canadians slowly

populated the new land and adapted building styles to the conditions. As the

French expanded their territory south, the buildings continued to evolve as warmer

climate conditions were encountered down the Mississippi River. After settling

Louisiana’s wet and hot territory, the French builders out of necessity created the

unique house style known as the raised creole cottage.

i PRST 6610 - History of Architecture in the Americas I – Professor Ann Masson – December 3, 2008


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iii PRST 6610 - History of Architecture in the Americas I – Professor Ann Masson – December 3, 2008


Images

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iv PRST 6610 - History of Architecture in the Americas I – Professor Ann Masson – December 3, 2008


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Figure 19 – M. O. Hammond, Archives of Ontario,

<http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/on-line-

exhibits/hammond/big/big_36_louisburg.aspx>

v PRST 6610 - History of Architecture in the Americas I – Professor Ann Masson – December 3, 2008


Figure 20 – Dennis MacDonald,

<http://www.canadastockphotos.net/search.php?m=kw&kp=Interest&cu=TAE

1865&p=3>

Figure 21 – Louisiana101,

<http://www.louisiana101.com/1770_louisiana_territory_map.jpg>

Figure 22 – Building a House in New France: An Account of the Perplexities of

Client and Craftsmen in Early Canada. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart,

1977. Pg. 67

Figure 23 – Styles and Types of North American Architecture: Social Function and

Cultural Expression. New York, N.Y.: Icon Editions, 1991. Pg. 32

Figure 24 – Wikipedia,

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latour_and_Laclottes_Atelier.jpg>

Figure 25 – Louisiana Studies in Historic Preservation, Louisiana Division of Historic

Preservation,


eole16.htm>

Figure 26 – Jean Bélanger, <http://www.civilization.ca/virtual-museum-of-new-

france/daily-life/vernacular-architecture-in-new-france/>

Figure 27 – Denis Angers, <http://flic.kr/p/8sb4hD>

Figure 28 – JMZ2007, <http://www.panoramio.com/photo/54023335>

Figure 29 – Kevin Stewart, <http://flic.kr/p/2VsCM4>

Figure 30 – Mark Scott Abeln, <http://flic.kr/p/4cM1PD>

Figure 31 – Alex, <http://flic.kr/p/DUNSf>

vi PRST 6610 - History of Architecture in the Americas I – Professor Ann Masson – December 3, 2008


Figure 32 – French Colonies in America,

<http://www.southalabama.edu/archaeology/french-colonies-in-

america_cahokia-courthouse.html>

Figure 33 - Waymarking.com,

<http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM3Y62_Louis_Bolduc_House_St

e_Genevieve_Missouri>

Figure 34 - Louisiana Studies in Historic Preservation, Louisiana Division of Historic

Preservation,


eole25.htm>

Documents

Early French Canadian Architectural Types of the French Colonial Period