IllInoIs ReadIng CounCIl JouRnal Vol. 38, no. 4 Fall 201014

Effective Primary Literacy strategies for English Language LearnersOlga FishkinLiberty Elementary School Bartlett, IL

A National Center for Education Statistics (1996) survey shows that only 29.5% of teach-ers of English Language Learners (ELLs) have the necessary training to teach second language learners. Most teachers do not have adequate training in teaching ELLs. More and more ELLs are entering classrooms each year with vari-ous language proficiencies. Approximately five million ELLs are enrolled in U.S. schools, of whom 80% are Spanish speaking (Teale, 2009). Teachers find it difficult because of the lack of training, to teach ELLs, and they feel the pres-sure of bringing them up to an acceptable level of performance. These are the challenges that mainstream teachers all over the United States are currently facing on a regular basis.

What is second language acquisition? How long does it take to acquire another language? These might be some of the questions that you ask yourself. Well, let’s explore these two questions further before we get into the effec-tive strategies. Second language acquisition is the process of successfully learning a second language in addition to the first language(s) (Brown, 2000). The second question is not as easily answered as the first. The process of acquiring another language varies from person

to person. On average, it takes about three to five years for an ELL to have sufficient language to function successfully and independently in a mainstream classroom (Brown, 2000). How-ever, each child is an individual; what might take one student seven years to fully obtain might take another student only three years.

Who Are ELL students?No Child Left Behind (NCLB) uses the acronym Limited English Proficient (LEP) and labels an ELL as an individual who “(a) is between the ages of 3 to 21 years; (b) has enrolled or is preparing to enroll in elementary or secondary school; (c) was not born in the U.S. or English is not a native language; (d) comes from a back-ground in which English has had a considerable impact on an individual’s English Language Pro-ficiency; (e) comes from an environment where English is not the primary language; and (f ) has had difficulties in speaking, writing, reading, or understanding the English language that may deny the individual the ability to meet the state’s proficient level of achievement” (NCLB, as cited in Wolf et al., 2008, p. 2).

ELLs are not considered a homogenous group; rather, they are a heterogeneous group. They come from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds and have varying prior academic backgrounds and levels of language proficiency. The acronyms ELL (English Language Learn-ers) and ESL (English as a Second Language) tend to be used interchangeably. ESL has an inclination to be used less often when describ-ing English Language Learners because it is an outdated acronym. However, when referring to ELLs, most often it is a reference made to bilin-gual students. A language other than English is used as the primary language in their teach-ing. The acronym ESL refers to students being taught in English only.

Most ELL teachers find the following lit-eracy strategies to be most effective when teaching their students: building vocabulary

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and background knowledge, using visual aids to scaffold learning, providing hands-on activi-ties, modeling, and offering opportunities for student-to-student interactions. Qualita-tive, quantitative, mixed methods, and action research studies have been conducted on these strategies. Finally, examples will be provided of some activities that teachers can use based on these strategies to enhance their own teaching.

The purpose of this article is to inform teachers of effective research-based strategies to use with ELLs. Due to the increase of ELLs entering classrooms each year, teachers will at one point in their careers have ELLs to teach. Teachers need to be educated on what strategies are most effective in teaching ELLs. This article focuses on research that demonstrates successful literacy strategies that teachers can use in their classrooms to help their ELLs be successful.

strategy 1: Building Vocabulary and Background KnowledgeOne strategy that has been proven to be valuable is building vocabulary and background knowl-edge. Most ELLs have a limited vocabulary, and some have limited background knowledge as well. They may not have had the experiences that other regular education students have had; therefore, they do not share the same background knowl-edge. Building vocabulary is a key component in learning language and comprehending text while reading. Vocabulary needs to be defined and intro-duced to students: “Vocabulary knowledge is a key building block in children’s early literacy develop-ment. It provides the foundation for learning to decode and comprehend text” (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997; Senechal, LeFevre, Thomas, & Daley, 1998; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998, as cited in Silverman, 2007, p. 365).

The Silverman (2007) study investigated the effectiveness of a kindergarten vocabulary intervention through storybook read-alouds. This research was conducted in five kindergar-ten classrooms. There were three mainstream,

one two-way bilingual, and one structured immersion classroom. The classrooms had 44 English-only students and 28 ELLs. Most of the research conducted in this area was either in an experimental or quasi-experimentally con-trolled setting with children from similar back-grounds in mainstream classrooms. There were two questions that guided the study: (1) Given a research-based vocabulary intervention that is implemented across classrooms, do English-only and ELL children learn words taught in the intervention at the same rate? and (2) Com-paring English-only students and ELLs across classrooms, do the two groups of children grow in overall vocabulary knowledge at similar rates? The findings showed that through the interven-tion, ELLs learned target words at the same rate and grew in general vocabulary at a quicker rate than English-only students.

Not only is building vocabulary important, but building background knowledge is equally as imperative in reading comprehension. “The more background knowledge students have about a topic, the better they will be able to com-prehend what they’re reading” (Rothenberg & Fisher, 2007, p. 253). It is extremely important to spend time building background knowledge throughout the day. This helps students increase understanding, language, and skill. Teachers highlighted the need to avoid making assump-tions regarding what students know about a topic (Facella, Rampino, & Shea, 2005). When asking students if they know a particular topic, most often they will respond with a yes when, in real-ity, they know very little, if anything, about it.

According to Silverman (2007), early knowledge, socioeconomic status, and language background are all linked with children’s vocab-ulary learning. ELLs may not know many of the words that are the foundation of children’s early vocabulary, and they may need more explicit teaching and support than English-only students in order to learn new English vocabu-lary words. Research shows that visual aids and manipulatives supplement verbal explanations,

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and using gestures and facial expressions clarify word meaning. This provides opportunity for children to repeatedly say words aloud and establishes a clear phonological representation of the words.

My read-aloud lessons always begin with pre-teaching vocabulary and building upon background knowledge: “Reading storybooks to young children has been shown to be an ideal means of introducing them to new words” (Silverman, 2007, pp. 365-366). I feel that my students are more successful when new vocabu-lary is defined for them and background knowl-edge is built. Without exposing students to these two essential strategies during my read-alouds, I would be setting them up for failure. This would make them feel stressed, and they would not be able to get anything out of the lesson. Com-prehension is difficult in itself, especially for ELLs. If background knowledge is not built and vocabulary is not defined, most likely, students will not be able to comprehend the story. This is just one example of why applying this strategy is so crucial. Building vocabulary and background knowledge is not feasible without the use of visual aids to support the learning process.

strategy 2: Visual AidsThe second strategy that is viewed as being helpful is using visual aids to enhance teaching. In the Hite and Evans (2006) qualitative study, 22 Florida teachers from Title I elementary schools at the 1st-grade level were surveyed and interviewed. The schools were chosen in both urban and rural settings, with ELL populations of 15% or more. They were each asked the fol-lowing question: What strategies do 1st-grade teachers report using with the ELLs in their classes? Teachers cited some of the commonly used strategies that they used consistently: “We used visuals including pictures, word/picture cards, graphic organizers, computers, books, videos, drawings or writing on the board, and body language, including gestures and role

playing to enhance our learning” (p. 96). These are all great examples of visual aids that these teachers have used in their lessons with ELLs. Visual aids provide students with something concrete that they can refer to when learning (Ranker, 2009). According to Hite and Evans (2006), “Visual scaffolding is an approach in which the language used in instruction is made more understandable by the display of draw-ings or photographs that allow students to hear English words and connect them to the visual images being displayed” (p. 98).

I have many visual aids posted throughout my classroom. I find visual aids to be one of the most effective strategies to use with my stu-dents. Each new vocabulary word that my class studies is displayed in the classroom accompa-nied with a picture that represents the word. All of my centers are labeled and have visual aids with step-by-step instructions to go along with them. Using visual aids leads to hands-on activities that also support learning.

strategy 3: Hands-on LearningELL students learn best when they can engage in hands-on activities which allow them to gain additional experiences in using new skills and work cooperatively with other students. Facella et al. (2005) conducted a study in April 2004 on the most effective strategies used among ten teachers from public school systems in Chelsea and Brookline, Massachusetts. They were asked two open-ended questions about their teach-ing practices. The first question asked was what strategies they felt were most effective in pro-moting language acquisition with their ELL students. The second question focused on why they felt these strategies worked. Interviews were conducted with teachers from different grade levels, from pre-kindergarten to 2nd grade. One of the strategies named as the most effective and commonly used with all ten teach-ers was the use of hands-on materials. One of the teachers stated, “At the kindergarten grade

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level, I find that having real concrete objects benefits all of the children” (Facella et al., 2005, p. 213).

It is through the use of hands-on activi-ties that students learn best. They are able to manipulate objects and make sense of them. Seventy-five percent of teachers interviewed stated that the children were more engaged in the activities and lessons when they used objects and props that were authentic or were real concrete objects (Facella et al., 2005). This shows the importance of providing students with hands-on learning.

Many of the hands-on activities that I use in my classroom are done during center time. This is the time when students can explore on their own with real objects and make connec-tions from objects to concepts. During math center, students can explore through the use of pattern blocks, geo-boards, counting rods, etc. Throughout the word work center, students use magnetic letters to form words. The pocket chart center is another example of a hands-on activ-ity that my students use in the classroom. They build sentences, compound words, and contrac-tions, and they match synonyms, antonyms, and word families. Modeling is another strategy that should be used with hands-on learning.

strategy 4: ModelingAnother strategy that has appeared in most of the research conducted on effective ELL strategies is modeling. Fagan conducted an action research in her classroom in September 2003 with 20 of her 5th-grade ELL students. She wanted to find a way to help her students become more deliberate and knowledgeable about the reading process. During the first weeks of school, she worked with them individually to figure out how she could help them. She noticed that many of them did not attend to punctuation; they simply read words and became breathless in their mis-sion to finish the paragraph. Also, students failed to notice when they did not comprehend what

they were reading; they simply kept on read-ing. By conducting research on her 20 students’ prior educational experiences, she concluded, “The strategies students learn from reading and writing in their native language are the building blocks for learning another language” (p. 38). Ten of her students had completed 5th grade in their native countries, but the other ten students had completed less than five years of education and often were deficient by one and a half years or more in their native language education. She concluded by stating that interrupted schooling in their native language may have contributed to students’ reading difficulties.

Fagan’s (2003) goal was to help her students learn to recall critical information and then syn-thesize that information. Three interventions were put in place to achieve her goal: (1) using t-charts, (2) sticky notes, and (3) key words. She found that modeling the three interventions to students helped them become better readers and synthesizers: “Teachers need to model their own reading habits so students can visually see how good readers read and comprehend” (p. 39). Her interventions proved to be effective with her students through the use of modeling. She spent time with each lesson modeling to stu-dents what each step should look like, and that modeling helped them internalize the process. They then began to use the strategies that she modeled to help them with their own reading.

In the Hite and Evans (2006) study men-tioned earlier, teachers also found the impor-tance of modeling essential to the instruction of ELLs. The primary demonstration of concepts was either given by the teacher or by the stu-dents as an instructional tool to enhance under-standing. Learning styles of students were also mentioned to show why concepts should be modeled in different ways. When students are presented with a model, they have a reference point of what they should be doing. This helps students, especially ELLs, because they might not have had these strategies in their native countries.

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In my classroom, I use a great deal of mod-eling, especially when introducing new con-cepts or ideas to my students. For example, in the beginning of the school year, as I introduce each center in my classroom, I have the visual aids posted along with the directions. These visuals are kept up in the center for the remain-der of the year for students to refer back to in case any confusion arises. Another example of how I use modeling is during my mini-lessons in writing. We first read a book together as a class, and then I model the strategy to my stu-dents. We then write together as a class using the same strategy that was just introduced to them. They then go back to their seats to write on their own. They can refer back to the model that I wrote and the one that we wrote together as a class. As you can see, I use a lot of modeling throughout my day which helps my ELLs better grasp ideas and concepts. It is also the teach-ers’ responsibility to model what the expected behaviors are that leads to student-to-student interactions.

strategy 5: student-to-student interactionsThe last strategy to be discussed is student-to-student interactions. Learning a new language does not consist of listening and reading alone: “There needs to be opportunities to produce language, to practice speaking and writing” (Rothenberg & Fisher, 2007, p. 253). Students should be engaged in meaningful conversations throughout the day with their peers to build their language. The more practice they have speaking with one another, the quicker their language will develop.

It is the teachers’ responsibility to pair two students to complete a given task. When pairing students, it is fundamental to have one of the partners be the stronger English model. Some of the examples of formatting for partner work are think-pair-share, buddy reading, and con-versation role play. These are all great examples of some of the student-to-student interactions

that can take place in the classroom. Students feel more at ease when they share with each other instead of sharing in front of the entire group. This gives them a boost of confidence with speaking in front of others. At times, ELLs feel self-conscious when sharing due to lack of language. Working with a partner creates a stress-free environment, which leads to students being willing to take more risks: “Our goal when working with ELLs is to create an environment that allows them to take risks without stress” (Garcia & Buhrow, 2006, pp. 10-11).

I use numerous grouping activities through-out the day for the development of verbal com-munication skills among my students. Students are paired up with a partner and are given many opportunities during the day to practice speaking to each other. I do a lot of this during my read-aloud and when working on a particular compre-hension strategy. Students are asked questions, and they take turns sharing their thoughts with a partner. We call this a think-pair-share activ-ity. It gets the students talking to one another, and they feel more comfortable sharing in pairs instead of sharing in a big group.

ConclusionEach year, there is a significant increase in English Language Learners entering schools in the U.S.; however, most teachers do not have the necessary training to teach them. These five strategies—(1) building vocabulary and back-ground knowledge, (2) visual aids, (3) hands-on learning, (4) modeling, and (5) student-to-stu-dent interactions—are seen as being most effec-tive when teaching ELLs. If you are part of the 70.5% of teachers who have not had any prior training, you will find that applying these strate-gies will be beneficial in your classrooms. Apply-ing these strategies is imperative; however, there are also a few other components that are equally as important to incorporate in order to have suc-cessful ELLs. Holding high expectations among all students, incorporating the students’ cultures,

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and parental involvement are the three compo-nents that all teachers should use when working with ELL students. It is through the use of effec-tive strategies and these three components that teachers can have success with their ELLs.

As a former ELL student, I was fortunate enough to be surrounded by excellent teachers who applied effective ELL strategies to make me a successful student. It is due to their outstanding teaching that I became an ELL teacher. By apply-ing these strategies, I am now able to give back to my students what was once given to me.

ReferencesBrown, D. H. (2000). Principles of language learning and

teaching. New York: Pearson. Facella, M. A., Rampino, K. M., & Shea, E. K. (2005).

Effective teaching strategies for English language learners. Bilingual Research Journal, 29, 209-221.

Fagan, B. (2003). Scaffolds to help ELL readers. Voices from the Middle, 11, 38-42.

Garcia, A. U., & Buhrow, B. (2006). Ladybugs, torna-does, and swirling galaxies: English language learners discover their world through inquiry. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Hite, C. E., & Evans, L. S. (2006). Mainstream first-grade teachers’ understanding of strategies for accom-modating the needs of English language learners. Teacher Education Quarterly, 23, 89-110.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (1996, December). Are limited English proficient LEP students being taught by teachers with LEP training? (NCES 97-907). Washington, DC: Author.

Ranker, J. (2009). Learning nonfiction in an ESL class: The interaction of situated practice and teacher scaf-folding in a genre study. The Reading Teacher, 62, 580-589.

Rothenberg, C., & Fisher, D. (2007). Teaching English language learners: A different approach. New York: Pearson.

Silverman, R. D. (2007). Vocabulary development of English-language and English-only learners in kinder-garten. The Elementary School Journal, 107, 365-383.

Teale, W. H. (2009). Students learning English and their literacy instruction in urban schools. The Reading Teacher, 62, 699-703.

Wolf, M. K., Kao, J., Herman, J., Bachman, L. F., Bailey, A., Bachman, P. L., et al. (2008). Issues in assessing English language learners: English language

proficiency measures and accommodation uses. National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, 731, 1-35.

About the AuthorOlga Fishkin is a 1st and 2nd grade multi-age ESL teacher at Liberty Elementary School in Bartlett, Illinois. She has received a Master of Education in Literacy from Judson University in Elgin, Illinois. Olga would like to dedicate this article to her two ESL teachers, Mrs. Turkel and Ms. Plotkin, who have had significant influence on who she is today. She would also like to thank her family for their constant support.

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