Effective Tutoring Strategies and Overviews of Effective ... · Effective Tutoring Strategies and Overviews of Effective Tutoring Programs Institutions of higher education have historically

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MARKET EVALUATION SURVEYING DATA ANALYSIS BENCHMARKING INNOVATIVE PRACTICES LITERATURE REVIEW

Effective Tutoring Strategies and Overviews of Effective Tutoring Programs

Institutions of higher education have historically tried a variety of methods to increase student academic achievement. One method that is used at many colleges and universities is tutoring. Tutoring can occur in a variety of methods and mediums, and though it is beyond the scope of this report to discuss them all in detail, we provide overviews of several programs that have been successful at improving student performance.

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ACADEMY ADMINISTRATION PRACTICE

© 2010 Hanover Research – Academy Administration Practice

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Introduction

Supporting students on their journey through the world of higher education is of prime importance to colleges and universities across the country. Unfortunately, many students entering college may not be fully prepared for higher education opportunities or for the workforce. Indeed, The American College Testing Service has reported that “In 2004 only 22% of high school graduates met university readiness benchmarks in English, math, and science, and only 56% of tested students completed the recommended core curriculum for college entry in 2005.”1 It should come as no surprise, then, that the U.S. Department of Education has found that approximately 44 percent of all college students who complete a four-year degree enrolled in at least one remedial course in math, reading, or writing.2 Many students who enroll in institutions of higher education simply do not persist to degree completion. As the National Center for Education Statistics notes:

Approximately 57 percent of first-time students seeking a bachelor‟s degree or its equivalent and attending a 4-year institution full time in 2001–02 completed a bachelor's degree or its equivalent at that institution in 6 years or less. This indicator focuses on the cohort of first-time, full-time students seeking a bachelor's degree or its equivalent who began attending a 4-year institution in 2001 and who completed a bachelor's degree or its equivalent 4, 5, and 6 years later.3

While it should be noted that of course academic factors and attitudes are by no means the sole reason for student attrition, they are indeed important. A 2004 ACT (ACT is an independent, not-for-profit education services organization) Policy Report indicated that “Academic-related skills,” “Academic self-confidence,” and “Academic goals” all had a positive relationship to student retention.4 Clearly, colleges and universities can do more to help students.

1 Herzog, Serge. “The Effect of High School Attended on Academic Preparation and Retention of College Freshman.” http://www.cis.unr.edu/IA_Web/research/HSAttributes.pdf, p.3. 2 Swail, Watson Scott, Redd Kenneth E., et al. “Retaining Minority Students in Higher Education.” http://www.educationalpolicy.org/pdf/Swail_Retention_Book.pdf, p.8. 3 “Fast Facts.” National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=40. 4 Lotkowski, Veronica A., Robbins, Steven B., et al. “The Role of Academic and Non-Academic Factors in Improving College Retention ACT Policy Report.” ACT. http://www.act.org/research/policymakers/pdf/college_retention.pdf.

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Tutoring Research and Best Practices

Tutoring is one method colleges and universities have employed in their attempts to increase students‟ academic achievement and persistence. The results of college-level tutoring programs have not been purely positive,5 but studies have demonstrated benefits to tutoring at the post-secondary level. For example, a mid 1990s evaluation of Student Support Services (SSS) at the post-secondary level, which was funded under the federal TRIO programs, “identified peer tutoring, workshops and cultural events as effective components, with peer tutoring shown as particularly effective.”6 Other research has also highlighted the potential effectiveness of tutoring at the postsecondary level. For instance, a study of the effects of reciprocal peer tutoring on student achievement in an Environmental Control Systems course offered by the Department of Construction Science at Texas A&M University found that the use of reciprocal peer tutoring (a technique in which students operate equally as both peer tutor and tutee) had a statistically significant positive effect on student‟s grades in the Environmental Control Systems course versus students who had taken the course in an earlier semester and did not use reciprocal peer tutoring in the course.7 In this study, students who made use of the reciprocal peer tutoring technique were divided into small groups of between three and five students which met every alternate day during the class period and spent time discussing materials presented by a tutor from the previous day, developing questions from the materials, and using these questions to quiz each other.8 Analysis revealed that a higher percentage of students who used the reciprocal peer tutoring technique earned “As” and “Bs” in their class than students who did not make use of reciprocal peer tutoring.9 Likewise, in a study of nearly 100 college peer tutors and tutees as well as a control group of students not involved in the tutoring program, Westcott, Jackson, and Dunwoody found student‟s academic skills, and not merely their understanding of academic content, could be influenced by peer tutoring.10 The same study also found that both tutors and tutees were “overwhelmingly positive” about their experience in the tutoring program and believed that peer tutoring “increased their knowledge and

5 Landrum, R. Eric, and Chastain, Garvin. “Demonstrating Tutoring Effectiveness Within a One-Semester Course.” Journal of College Student Development. Vol. 39 No. 5. September/October 1998. http://psych.boisestate.edu/EricLandrum/Reprints/Demonstrating%20Tutoring%20Effectiveness%20%28Landrum%20&%20Chastain,%201998%29.pdf, p.1. 6 Bailey, Thomas R., and Alfonso, Mariana. “Paths to Persistence: An Analysis of Research on Program Effectiveness at Community Colleges.” Lumina Foundation for Education. http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/PathstoPersistence.pdf, p.20. 7 Choudhury, Ifte. “Use of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring Technique in an Environmental Control Systems Course at an Undergraduate Level.” Journal of Construction Education. Vol. 7 No. 3. Fall 2002. http://www.ascjournal.ascweb.org/journal/2002/no3/Fall%202002,%20Vol.%207,%20No.%203,%20pp.%20137-142.pdf. 8 Ibid, p.2. 9 Ibid, p.5. 10 Westcott, Kathryn M., Jackson, Theresa, et al. “The Positive By-Products of a Peer Tutoring Program For Tutors and Tutees.” http://www.wabash.edu/sotl/docs/Westcott_peer%20tutoring%20sessionIIA.pdf, p.2.

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understanding of the material.”11 Both tutors and tutees also reported that they would participate in the program again in the future.12 But all tutoring programs are not the same. A 1990 review of the literature on tutoring notes some of the different philosophies that underlie tutoring programs. For instance, in the past some tutor training programs offer tutors “assertiveness training…so that they may train their students to be assertive when necessary. Some programs stress collaborative learning…or reality counseling…or learning theory and study skills…or probing skills.”13 Tutoring in higher education can itself take different forms. In a 1997 literature review of academic mentoring and tutoring, Powell identifies four basic types of tutoring in higher education. These four types are briefly overviewed below:

Surrogate Teaching: Surrogate teaching involves delegating teaching to selected students, such as graduate students.14 In this manner, both the surrogate teacher and undergraduates are offered an opportunity to learn.15

Proctoring: Proctoring involves students who serve as one-on-one tutors for other students “at a similar or lower stage in study.”16 Powell notes that this method is widely used in American institutions of higher education, features a goal of “subject matter mastery” and that in proctoring study is often self-paced and makes use of guides and “occasional lectures.”17

Co-tutoring: Co-tutoring is an informal process in which students who are having difficulty in their studies are partnered with each other.18 Powell points out that many institutions of higher education feature formalized co-tutoring programs.19

Teacherless Groups: These groups are “peer-led discussion groups” which meet without a teacher. These groups are intended to encourage students to become more self-directed in their work through motivating them to become more involved in the learning process. Powell notes that work is usually assigned to groups of between four and eight students for discussion.20

11 Ibid, p.19. 12 Ibid. 13 Maxwell, Martha. “Does Tutoring Help? A Look at the Literature.” Review of Research in Developmental Education. Vol. 7 No. 4. 1990. http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/doane/does%20tutoring%20help.pdf, p.3. 14 Powell, M. Anne. “Academic Tutoring and Mentoring: A Literature Review.” California Research Bureau. October 1997. http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/97/11/97011.pdf, p.20. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid, p.20-21.

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However, there appears to be at least some agreement as to the characteristics of effective tutoring programs. In the 1990 review of the literature on tutoring mentioned above, the author (Maxwell) goes on to note that experts do agree on what constitutes a successful tutoring program:

At a minimum, tutors are recommended by a faculty member, carefully screened and selected on the basis of performance criteria and knowledge of the subject, trained how to work with underrepresented students before they start tutoring them, and evaluated regularly by their coordinators, instructors, and their students.21

Other scholarship has echoed some of these statements – for example, Westcott, Jackson, and Dunwoody note that:

Studies examining outcomes of peer tutoring have found that tutees working with tutors who had prior training (Fuchs et al, 1994) or with trained tutors in scripted or structured interactions (Ismail & Alexander, 2005; King, Staffieri, & Adelgais, 1998) had improved performance over those who received tutoring with non-trained tutors or less structured tutoring sessions.22

In today‟s increasingly electronic classroom, however, tutoring does not have to happen in person. Online tutoring has received increased amounts of attention over the years and has evolved a great deal. Historically speaking, online tutoring began with email, but has since grown into a number of different possible offerings.23 Tutoring online can take place in synchronous or asynchronous formats.24 Despite the broad range of possible online tutoring formats and designs, several general “best practices” in online tutoring have been put forth. For example, in a review of online tutoring and its best practices, authors Turrentine and MacDonald (2006) indentify a few “best practices” in online tutoring. Turrentine and MacDonald first note that it is important for an online tutoring program to define its parameters by deciding exactly what it is and how it is to be used.25 Expectations and parameters for students should be identified as well.26 Once these expectations have been dealt with, attention should be paid to the online tutoring “climate.”27 Online tutoring should seek to build some rapport between tutors and tutees, and thought should be given to creating strategies which deal with the lack of

21 Maxwell, Martha. “Does Tutoring Help? A Look at the Literature.” Op. Cit. 22 Westcott, Kathryn M., Jackson, Theresa, et al. Op. Cit., p.20. 23 Turrentine, Penny, and MacDonald, Lucy. “Tutoring Online: Increasing Effectiveness With Best Practices.” http://lacmsig.pbworks.com/f/tutoring%20online.pdf, p.1. 24 Ibid, p.2. 25 Ibid, p.5. 26 Ibid, p.6. 27 Ibid.

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body language and eye-to-eye contact in online tutoring.28 Tone and word usage are also important thanks to this lack of body language and other physical cues.29 Tutors should be mindful of this and can take a number of steps to deal with this, such as adding emoticons or phrases which convey emotion while avoiding words which could be taken negatively.30 Turrentine and MacDonald also stress the importance of the initial contact between tutor and tutee in online tutoring.31 Tutors should acknowledge that online tutoring is still quite “new.”32 Students who are using synchronous tutoring systems may need an overview of the tutoring system before moving on to tutoring itself.33 It is further pointed out that some students may “resist the guided discovery learning process” – as such it can be important to communicate to the student why tutoring is being done the way it is and that the student will shortly “get it on their own.”34 Extra “illustrative” examples are also important if the online tutoring system does not have a “whiteboard” of sorts.35 Tutors in a synchronous environment should also be sensitive to pauses in communication and their potential causes, which could be any one of a number of factors such as the student taking notes, thinking about a possible response, or not achieving understanding of the concept.36 Finally, online tutors should be sensitive to the feedback they give their students – positive feedback should be given and tutors should recognize the power that feedback has in shaping the tutoring relationship; as Turrentine and MacDonald point out, “If essays are returned in editing mode, then students will think that online tutoring is an editing service.”37 Obviously, however, tutoring programs can vary from institution to institution. Below, we present case studies of several tutoring and academic support service programs in an effort to highlight steps other institutions of higher education are taking to successfully tutor students.

28 Ibid. 29 Ibid, p.8. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid, p.6. 32 Ibid, p.7. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid, p.8.

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Overviews of Effective Tutoring Programs

North Carolina State University North Carolina State University is located in Raleigh, North Carolina38 and features almost 8,000 faculty and staff and over 31,000 students.39 North Carolina State University has an “Undergraduate Tutorial Center” which hires and trains qualified students to provide tutorial services to help students succeed. Services provided by the Undergraduate Tutorial Center “are available to all undergraduate students enrolled for credit in targeted NC State courses.”40 Tutoring services offered by the Undergraduate Tutorial Center fall into three main categories: one-on-one tutoring, drop-in tutoring, and group assistance.41 Within these broad categories, the University offers a number of tutoring services. The Undergraduate Tutorial Center offers two types of “tutoring by appointment” during fall and spring semesters:42

Weekly Assigned Tutoring: Weekly assigned tutoring gives students the option to be tutored by the same tutor all throughout the semester and is intended for students who are open to being tutored for two hours a week, every week.43

Sign-Up Tutoring: Sign-up tutoring is scheduled online and is for students who want to schedule appointments as needed. “Sign-up” tutors are often the most experienced tutors employed by the Undergraduate Tutorial Center.44

North Carolina State University further notes that students can be tutored by a weekly assigned tutor in one subject and also be tutored by a sign-up tutor in one additional subject.45 For students to use either of the above tutoring programs, they must first attend a half-hour orientation in which the student is informed of the Undergraduate Tutorial Center‟s policies and is allowed to submit an application.46 Students who have been tutored in previous semesters are allowed to submit an

38 “Visiting NC State University.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/about-nc-state/visit-nc-state/index.php. 39 “Discovery Begins at NC State.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/about-nc-state/index.php. 40 “Welcome.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/. 41 “University: North Carolina State University.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/assessment/assesspnp/strengthening/undergraduate_tutorial_center.pdf, p.1. 42 “Tutoring By Appointment Home.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/tba.htm. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid.

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application online.47 These forms of “tutoring by appointment” are available for “100-200 level math, physics, and chemistry classes.”48 The Undergraduate Tutorial Center also offers what it terms “supplemental instruction,” which provides students with group tutorial sessions to help them with large lecture sessions.49 Supplemental instruction tutors are peers who have already completed the course for which they are tutoring.50 These sessions are typically held three to four times per week, and each session is approximately an hour in length.51 Supplemental instruction targets “historically difficult courses”52 and SI tutors are required to attend all class times and act as a “model student.”53 Supplemental Instruction is an informal resource which allows students to come and go at any time.54 In addition, the Undergraduate Tutorial Center offers “Writing and Speaking Tutorial Services” which offer primarily one-on-one tutoring to students looking to improve their speaking and writing skills.55 In the spring and fall semesters, Writing and Speaking Tutorial Services offers services Sunday-Friday in the mornings, afternoons, and evenings through a variety of campus locations.56 In the summer, the University offers 1-2 tutors Monday through Friday on an appointment basis.57 Tutors are undergraduate and graduate peers.58 Furthermore, the University offers “workshops on a variety of common writing and speaking issues, such as conducting an interview, revising and editing a paper, and delivering effective oral presentations”59 and all locations feature a library of resources on reading and speaking such as dictionaries, thesauruses, writing textbooks, etc.60 The campus offers one location that is “appointment-based” and three “drop-in” locations.61

47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 “University: North Carolina State University.” Op. Cit. 50 “What Can I Expect During an SI Session?” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/si/expect.html 51 “Frequently Asked Questions.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/si/instructors.html. 52 “Supplemental Instruction (SI).” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/si/index.html. 53 “Frequently Asked Questions.” Op. Cit. 54 “What Can I Expect During an SI Session?” Op. Cit. 55 “About Us.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/writespeak/aboutus.htm. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 “Writing and Speaking Tutorial Services.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/writespeak/download/WSTSfactsheet.pdf.

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The University features a number of requirements for its peer tutors. Tutors must:

“Be an enrolled undergraduate with at least a 3.0 GPA overall.”62

“Attend an information session about becoming a UTC tutor.”63

Have received a B+ or better in a list of specified courses, which includes 100 and 200 level courses in Chemistry, Math, and Physics (see web site for full course list).64

Enroll in USC 210, Introduction to College tutoring, during the first semester of their tutoring activities. This is a 1-credit hour course designed, in the words of North Carolina State University, “to introduce tutors to effective tutoring techniques based on educational research, to help tutors implement a variety of tutoring methods depending on the students‟ specific needs, and to guide tutors in self-evaluating their individual tutoring progress and goals.”65

“Tutor at least 2 students per week (about 4 hours/week.)”66

“Be able to tutor 2 subsequent semesters.”67 The Undergraduate Tutorial Center also produces materials designed to be used for tutor training and uses these materials in the training of its own tutors.68 The University produces a video on “productive tutoring techniques” as well as a video on “productive group learning sessions.”69 These videos are available for purchase. The Undergraduate Tutorial Center is certified at all three levels by the College Reading & Learning Association (CRLA).70 North Carolina State University also performs assessment of the Undergraduate Tutorial Center. A 2009-2010 “Assessment Impact Report” contains a great deal of information on the Undergraduate Tutorial Center and its usage. In Fall 2009, the Undergraduate Tutorial Center received 1,669 unique student visitors, with 1,552

62 “How to Become a Tutor.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/employment.htm#Courses. 63 Ibid. 64 Ibid. 65 “USC – University Studies Course.” North Carolina State University. http://www2.acs.ncsu.edu/reg_records/crs_cat/USC.html#USC%20210. 66 “How to Become a Tutor.” Op. Cit. 67 “Tutor Training Products.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/products.htm. 68 Ibid. 69 Ibid. 70 “Our Mission.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/mission.htm.

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unique student visitors in Spring 2010.71 The Undergraduate Tutorial Center served 10,157 total hours in Fall 2009 and 8,883 total hours in Spring 2010.72 A variety of information collected by the University seems to indicate that the tutoring offered is effective at improving tutee‟s academic achievement. For example, in a small survey of students, students indicated that overall they “agreed” or “strongly agreed” with the statement “I am satisfied with the UTC tutoring that I received this semester.”73 Figure 1: Responses to Student Survey Question: “I am satisfied with the UTC tutoring that I received this semester” (1-5 Scale, 1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree74

Fall 2009 Spring 2010

Individual Weekly Assigned 4.52 (n = 23) 4.42 (n = 49)

Group Weekly Assigned 4.14 (n = 15) 4.50 (n = 8)

Sign-Up Tutoring 3.71 (n = 52) 4.21 (n = 33) Source: North Carolina State University.

Students also appeared satisfied with Writing and Speaking Tutorial Services, as is evidenced by the data below. Figure 2: “Questions Relevant to WSTS Student Satisfaction” (Scale 1-5, 1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree)75

Questions Relevant to WSTS Student Satisfaction Fall 2009 (n = 24)

Spring 2010 (n =

33)

I am satisfied with the WSTS tutoring that I received this semester.

4.29 4.16

Overall, how well did WSTS meet your needs this semester?

4.17 3.72

Source: North Carolina State University.

Tutors at the Undergraduate Tutorial Center appear to share their tutee‟s beliefs that tutoring is helpful overall. According to the “Tutorial Goal Setting Report II,” which is completed at the end of the semester by “all weekly assigned tutors” for each tutee

71 “2009-2010 Assessment Impact Report Undergraduate Tutorial Center (UTC) Division of Undergraduate Academic Programs.” North Carolina State University. http://www.ncsu.edu/tutorial_center/download/assessment/2009-2010%20Assessment%20Impact%20Report.pdf, p.1. 72 Ibid. 73 Ibid, p.4. 74 Table Adopted From: Ibid. 75 Ibid, p.6-7.

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they have worked with in excess of four times, overall tutors seemed to agree that their tutoring sessions helped tutored students improve in a wide variety of academic areas and study skills.76 Figure 3: Tutorial Goal Setting Report II (Completed by Tutors; Scale: 4 = Strongly Agree, 3 = Agree, 2 = Disagree, 1 = Strongly Disagree) (N/A = No Assistance Was Needed in This Area77

During this semester, the tutoring sessions helped this tutee improve within each of the

following areas:

Fall 2009 (N = 150)

Spring 2010 (N = 135)

Average NA Average NA

Finding and creating an effective study space 3.15 87 3.16 78

Breaking material down into manageable steps 3.37 2 3.38 2

Understanding course concepts 3.38 n.d. 3.29 1

Establishing a study schedule and budgeting time 3.03 44 2.97 45

Taking notes more effectively 3.05 52 2.90 63

Reading the textbook more effectively 3.08 8 3.05 19

Using a variety of strategies to remember information

3.22 9 3.21 11

Using resources more effectively to assist with completing homework

3.31 7 3.37 8

Using resources more effectively to assist with preparing for tests

3.36 8 3.37 7

Becoming a more independent learner 3.25 5 3.16 10 Source: North Carolina State University.

Note: N.d. = no data. Obviously, however, tutoring could be perceived well by both the tutor and the tutee without having an appreciable impact on the tutee‟s academic achievement. However, analysis by North Carolina State University points to the fact that all forms of tutoring offered by the Undergraduate Tutorial Center are effective in raising student GPAs. For example, the University ran a hierarchical linear model to model the effect that hours spent in “tutoring by appointment” programs had on the student‟s final course grade and found that:

We see an increase of 0.058 in a student‟s final course grade for every hour he spends in tutoring, keeping all other variables constant. Practically, this means that for every 6 hours spent in tutoring, the student will see a ± 1/3 grade difference; however, the interaction term suggests that this effect lessens as the student‟s previous GPA increases.78

76 Ibid, p.12. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid, p.13.

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Likewise, models constructed to discern whether students who attended supplemental instruction would have more success in their supplemental instruction course than non-attendees revealed that “For each additional SI visit, course grade will increase .043/.033 grade points. Therefore, a student attending 10 times may expect a third or more of a letter grade increase above what they would receive if they never attended SI.”79 Finally, the University used a hierarchical linear model to model the effect that WSTS tutoring had on the student‟s final course grade. North Carolina State University assessment noted that “We see an increase of 0.369 in a student‟s final course grade for every hour he spends in tutoring, keeping all other variables constant,”80 however “the interaction term suggests that this effect lessens as the student‟s previous GPA increases.”81 Lewis-Clark State College Lewis-Clark State College is located in Lewiston, Idaho, and featured a total enrollment of approximately 3,900 students in Fall 2008.82 Lewis-Clark State College was ranked as one of the top public colleges in the West by U.S. News & World Report in the “Comprehensive-Bachelor‟s Degree categories.”83 Lewis-Clark State College has historically been involved in the federal TRIO SSS (Student Support Services) program.84 The SSS program (which is one of eight federal TRIO programs) is designed to increase the retention and graduation rates of its participants.85 A 2002 report on TRIO SSS “best practices” identified the tutoring component of Lewis-Clark State College‟s SSS program as particularly effective.86 According to the 2002 report, the Lewis-Clark State College SSS program features 3 25-member “learning communities” which are comprised of SSS students.87 These learning communities allow students to take their four freshman core classes together, as well as a fifth course, a 3 credit SSS study skills class.88 As such, students in these learning communities spend at least 100 hours together during their freshman year.89 Students receive a variety of support through the study skills class

79 Ibid, p.14. 80 Ibid, p.16. 81 Ibid. 82 “Lewis-Clark State College.” United States Department of Education. http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/datacenter/Snapshotx.aspx?unitId=acafadaeadb3. 83 “Who We Are!” Lewis-Clark State College. http://www.lcsc.edu/welcome/. 84 Reese, Mary Ann. “Best Practices TRIO Student Support Services and Upward Bound.” University of Idaho. Fall 2002. http://www.educ.uidaho.edu/bestpractices/images/text/Final5_color.pdf, p.2. 85 “Student Support Services Program.” United States Department of Education. http://www2.ed.gov/programs/triostudsupp/index.html. 86 Ibid. 87 Ibid. 88 Ibid. 89 Ibid.

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mentioned above, including “advising, writing skill development, study skills linked to course content, computer and test-taking skills and other support as needed.”90 In addition to this, the 2002 report notes that the SSS program at Lewis-Clark State College offers drop-in tutoring through a lab every weekday.91 This dedicated tutoring lab is open weekdays from 8-5.92 At the time of the publication of the document on Lewis-Clark State College‟s tutoring program, the tutoring lab featured 11 tutors, nine peer tutors and two “specialists” – one with a Master‟s degree in math and the other a graduate student in microbiology at a nearby university.93 The peer tutors provided were program veterans who earned at least a “B” in all core topics, and many of the “upper division” tutors had specialties such as math, physics, Spanish, or other subjects.94 Students who visit the lab sign in and out and write down the name of the tutor they plan to meet with to aid in record-keeping.95 Tutoring is provided in core subjects such as English, math, and science, and tutors can also provide help with study and time management skills.96 Tutor training consists of a six-hour workshop at the start of each semester which focuses on issues such as “patience, listening skills, and being „sensitive problem solvers.‟”97 Tutor training focuses less on helping tutors to provide answers and more on helping students as they find the answers for themselves.98 Other training focuses on issues such as learning styles and study skills, and tutors participate in role-playing exercises to give them the skills and insight they require to solve problems.99 Tutors are evaluated once a semester by the program‟s director, and SSS students evaluate the entire program 1-2 times a year.100 In addition to this, the Lewis-Clark State College tutoring program was certified by the CRLA (College Reading & Learning Association) in 2001.101 Results of the program have been impressive. In the 2002 report on TRIO “best practices” the author noted that “A number of students interviewed for this story said they doubted they would still be in college without the personal and academic support tutors provide.”102 Overall, the SSS program at Lewis-Clark State College

90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 Ibid, p.3. 93 Ibid, p.4. 94 Ibid. 95 Ibid, p.3. 96 Ibid, p.4. 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid, p.4-5. 100 Ibid, p.5. 101 Ibid, p.6. 102 Ibid, p.4.

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(which includes tutoring as well as other services) was proven successful in improving student achievement and retention (see below).103 Figure 4: Average GPA and Retention for Degree-Seeking Students at Lewis-Clark State College, All Students Versus SSS Students104

Degree Seeking Students at LCSC

Average GPA % Retained

All Students 2.63 59.00%

SSS Students 3.02 72.80%

All Freshman 2.61 65.50%

SSS Freshman 2.87 82.90% Source: University of Idaho.

It should be remembered, though, that the above information is from a document several years old. According to the Lewis-Clark State College web site, the institution continues to provide TRIO services, such as a learning lab which provides both individual and group tutoring.105 University of North Carolina Greensboro The University of North Carolina Greensboro is located in Greensboro, North Carolina and features an enrollment of over 17,500 on-campus students and approximately 950 other students enrolled in distance-learning programs.106 The University of North Carolina Greensboro offers several tutoring programs through its “Learning Assistance Center.”107 The University‟s Learning Assistance Center is an academic support program which offers a variety of academic services, including tutoring, academic skills instruction, and workshops to help students.108 The University of North Carolina Greensboro offers tutoring services in a variety of 100 and 200 level courses, as well as 300-600 level courses in the field of Nursing.109 Tutoring is free and students may receive tutoring in up to two courses a semester.110 Tutoring is a weekly commitment – tutees receive tutoring 1-2 hours per week and

103 Since the SSS program contains more than purely tutoring, the data on SSS student GPA and retention rates should not merely be thought of as a reflection of the effects of tutoring alone on student success. 104 Table From: Ibid, p.4. 105 “Services Provided By Student Support Services.” Lewis-Clark State College. http://www.lcsc.edu/sss/services%20provided.htm. 106 “UNCG At A Glance.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://www.uncg.edu/campus_links/inside_uncg/inside_glance.html. 107 “Learning Assistance Center.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/. 108 Ibid. 109 “Tutoring Information For Students.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/tutoring/student-page.htm. 110 Ibid.

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session times are determined by the student and their tutor.111 The University offers two main types of tutoring:

One-on-one tutoring: The tutee meets with a peer tutor for a minimum of one hour per week.112

Group tutoring: In group tutoring sessions, the tutor meets with 2-3 students for 2 hours a week.113 All tutees in the group “must be enrolled with the same professor, preferably in the same section.”114

Finally, several other academic departments at the University sponsor walk-in tutoring at a variety of locations across campus.115 For example, the University offers walk-in tutoring in such areas as Computer Science (C++), Math and Statistics, and ENG/101.116 The University also features a “Tutoring Contract” which is to be signed by a tutor and tutee.117 This tutoring contract outlines the “goals of tutoring,” the tutor‟s and the student‟s responsibilities, and how the goals of tutoring are and are not achieved.118 The contract stipulates that tutoring goals are achieved through a variety of means, such as engaging students in discussions of what they know and what they do not about a subject, allowing students to find answers in their own academic materials, asking students questions and giving them opportunities to practice what they are learning using practice problems, mini-quizzes, etc., and reviewing notes, tests, homework assignments and other student work to identify the strengths/weaknesses of the student.119 Students seeking tutoring services can apply online.120 The contract also features an “attendance policy” which stipulates that students who miss a scheduled tutoring session and do not properly notify the tutoring office or their specific tutor will be classified as a “no-show.”121 Consequences for a “no-show” are as follows:

Tutees charged with their first “no-show” receive written notification of their missed session and a reminder of the attendance policy.122

111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. 113 Ibid. 114 Ibid. 115 Ibid. 116 Ibid. 117 “Student Success Center Learning Assistance Center Tutoring Contract.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/tutoring/Tutoring%20Contract_FA2009.pdf. 118 Ibid. 119 Ibid, p.2. 120 “Tutoring Information For Faculty/Staff.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/tutoring/faculty-staff-page.htm. 121 Ibid. 122 Ibid.

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Upon their second “no-show” (or their third cancelation) the tutee‟s tutoring services are temporarily suspended.123 The tutee must meet with the Assistant Director for Tutoring Services for their tutoring services to be reinstated.124

At the third “no-show,” tutoring services will be revoked.125 If this occurs, the student must meet with Assistant Director for Tutoring Services to receive tutoring services in future semesters.126

Tutors are made up of university students that meet a number of considerations, including:

Tutors must have earned a “B+” or better in the course they are tutoring.

Tutors must have at least a 3.0 GPA (cumulative) and retain that GPA while

they are employed as a tutor.

Potential tutors must also be available for a minimum of five hours a week,

and be given a faculty recommendation in each discipline they tutor

Potential tutors must be able to attend paid trainings provided by the

University through each semester they serve as a tutor. These sessions are scheduled Mondays 4:00-5:00 p.m. and Tuesdays from 5:00-6:00 p.m. Tutors are required to attend one of these sessions each week per academic semester (for a total of 10 sessions).127

It should also be noted that the tutoring program at the University of North Carolina Greensboro Student Success Center (the Student Success Center is made up of three offices, one of which is the Learning Assistance Center)128 is certified by the College Reading and Learning Association (CRLA) at three different levels, I, II, and III.129 According to the College Reading and Learning Association, the certification levels each require 10 hours of tutor training and 25 hours of time spent actually tutoring.130 As such, the level I certification requires a minimum 10 hours of training and 25 hours of tutoring time, the level II certification requires a minimum of 20 cumulative hours of tutor training and 50 hours spent tutoring, and the level III certification requires at least 30 cumulative hours of tutor training and 75 hours of tutoring.131

123 Ibid. 124 Ibid. 125 Ibid. 126 Ibid. 127 Points Adopted From: Ibid. 128 “Learning Assistance Center.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/. 129 “Tutor‟s Information.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/tutoring/tutor-page.htm. 130 “ITPC Certification Requirements.” College Reading & Learning Association. http://www.crla.net/itpc/certification_requirements.htm. 131 Ibid.

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In addition to tutoring, the University of North Carolina Greensboro offers what it terms the “Supplemental Instruction Program.”132 The Supplemental Instruction Program (SIP) is a series of discussion/review sessions that are offered for “historically difficult” classes.133 Supplemental instruction occurs three times a week for one hour a session.134 These sessions consist of discussion which is facilitated by the SIP leader.135 Leaders consist of students who have successfully completed the course in question136 and attend the course in question both to keep abreast of course content and to model effective student practices and attitudes.137 Students enrolled in a SIP course are allowed to attend all SIP sections138 but do not have to attend all sections throughout the semester – SIP is simply there for the student if and when they need it.139 The results of both the tutoring and the Supplemental Instruction Program have been positive. The University maintains data on the academic effects of tutoring which appear to show that students who receive 3+ hours of tutoring fare better in terms of average GPA and average course grade than students who receive less than three hours of tutoring (see below). Figure 5: GPA and Course Grades By Tutoring Service Hours (Students Tutored for 3+ Hours)140

More than 3 Hours of Tutoring

Number of Students

Average GPA

Average Course Grade

2008-2009 AY 937 2.91 2.44

Sp 2009 393 2.93 2.47

Fa 2008 544 2.89 2.4

2007-2008 AY 764 2.89 2.39

Sp 2008 361 2.91 2.44

Fa 2007 403 2.86 2.34

2006-2007 AY 766 2.86 2.29

Sp 2007 341 2.87 2.24

Fa 2006 487 2.82 2.33 Source: University of North Carolina Greensboro.

132 “Supplemental Instruction Program.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/sip/. 133 Ibid. 134 “Program Overview.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/sip/overview/. 135 Ibid. 136 “Frequently Asked Questions.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/sip/faqs/. 137 Ibid. 138 “Program Overview.” Op. Cit. 139 “Frequently Asked Questions.” Op. Cit. 140 Table From: “Success Outcomes.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/lac/outcomes/default.htm.

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Figure 6: GPA and Course Grades By Tutoring Service Hours (Students Tutored for Less Than 3 Hours)141

Less Than 3 Hours Tutoring

Number of Students

Average GPA

Average Course Grade

2008-2009 AY 163 2.69 2.21

Sp 2009 61 2.7 2.14

Fa 2008 102 2.67 2.28

2007-2008 AY 268 2.78 2.19

Sp 2008 84 2.78 2.04

Fa 2007 184 2.78 2.33

2006-2007 AY 203 2.52 1.8

Sp 2007 62 2.54 1.83

Fa 2006 103 2.49 1.77 Source: University of North Carolina Greensboro.

Analysis of the supplemental instruction program produced similar statistics. The University reports that if one considers the grades of SIP participants (students who attended SIP 3 or more times) and SIP non-participants (students who attended SIP 0-2 times), a higher percentage of students who attended SIP more than three times earned grades of “A,” “B,” and “C” and a lower percentage of students earned “D” or “F” grades every semester (the Supplemental Instruction Program was begun as a pilot program in 2003142 and data is compared since Fall 2004) when compared with students who attended SIP 0-2 times.143

141 Table From: Ibid. 142 “Program Overview.” Op. Cit. 143 “Student Success Center Supplemental Instruction Program UNCG Measures of Success.” University of North Carolina Greensboro. http://success.uncg.edu/sip/outcomes/Sp09%20Measures%20of%20Success.pdf.

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