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electronic structure, density-functional theory, plane waves
Stefano BaroniScuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati and
DEMOCRITOS National Simulation CenterTrieste - Italy
a quick overview of terms and concepts
the saga of time and length scales
10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3
time [s]
length [m]
10-9
10-6
10-3
nano scale! = 1
! = 0macro scale
the saga of time and length scales
10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3
time [s]
length [m]
10-9
10-6
10-3
nano scale! = 1
! = 0macro scale
hic sunt leones
the saga of time and length scales
10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3
time [s]
length [m]
10-9
10-6
10-3
nano scale! = 1
! = 0macro scale
hic sunt leones
thermodynamics& finite elements
kinetic Monte Carlo
electronic structure methods
classical moleculardynamics
size vs. accuracy
quantum many-body methods quantum Monte Carlo MP2, CCSD(T), CI GW, BSE
accuracy
size
/du
rati
on
classical empirical methods pair potentials force fields shell models
quantum empirical methods tight-binding embedded atom
quantum self-consistent methods density Functional Theory Hartree-Fock
size vs. accuracy
quantum many-body methods quantum Monte Carlo MP2, CCSD(T), CI GW, BSE
accuracy
size
/du
rati
on
classical empirical methods pair potentials force fields shell models
quantum empirical methods tight-binding embedded atom
quantum self-consistent methods density Functional Theory Hartree-Fock
ab initio simulations
i!∂Φ(r,R; t)∂t
=(− !2
2M
∂2
∂R2− !2
2m
∂2
∂r2+ V (r,R)
)Φ(r,R; t)
MR = −∂E(R)∂R(
− !2
2m
∂2
∂r2+ V (r,R)
)Ψ(r|R) = E(R)Ψ(r|R)
ab initio simulations
The Born-Oppenheimer approximation (M≫m)
i!∂Φ(r,R; t)∂t
=(− !2
2M
∂2
∂R2− !2
2m
∂2
∂r2+ V (r,R)
)Φ(r,R; t)
density-functional theory
V (r,R) =e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | −ZIe2
|ri −RI | +e2
21
|ri − rj |
density-functional theory
V (r,R) =e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | −ZIe2
|ri −RI | +e2
21
|ri − rj |
density-functional theory
DFT
V (r,R) =e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | −ZIe2
|ri −RI | +e2
21
|ri − rj |
V (r,R)→ e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | + v[ρ](r)
ρ(r) =∑
v
|ψv(r)|2
density-functional theory
DFT
V (r,R) =e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | −ZIe2
|ri −RI | +e2
21
|ri − rj |
V (r,R)→ e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | + v[ρ](r)
ρ(r) =∑
v
|ψv(r)|2Kohn-Sham Hamiltonian
density-functional theory
DFT
V (r,R) =e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | −ZIe2
|ri −RI | +e2
21
|ri − rj |
V (r,R)→ e2
2ZIZJ
|RI −RJ | + v[ρ](r)
(− !2
2m
∂2
∂r2+ v[ρ](r)
)ψv(r) = εvψv(r)
functionals
G[f ] : f !→ R
functionals
G[f ] : f !→ Rexamples:G[f ] = f(x0)
G[f ] =∫ b
af2(x)dx
G[f ] =∫ b
a|f ′(x)|2dx
· · ·
functionals
x1
f(x)
x2 ... xi xN
f1f2
... fi
fN
G[f ] ≈ g(f1, f2, · · · , fN )G[f ] ≈ g(c1, c2, · · · , cN )
approximations:
G[f ] : f !→ Rexamples:G[f ] = f(x0)
G[f ] =∫ b
af2(x)dx
G[f ] =∫ b
a|f ′(x)|2dx
· · ·
functionals
x1
f(x)
x2 ... xi xN
f1f2
... fi
fN
f(x) ≈∑
n
cnφn(x)
G[f ] ≈ g(f1, f2, · · · , fN )G[f ] ≈ g(c1, c2, · · · , cN )
approximations:
G[f ] : f !→ Rexamples:G[f ] = f(x0)
G[f ] =∫ b
af2(x)dx
G[f ] =∫ b
a|f ′(x)|2dx
· · ·
functional derivatives
G[f0 + εf1] = G[f0] + ε
∫f1(x)
δG
δf(x)
∣∣∣∣f=f0
dx +O(ε2
)
functional derivatives
G[f0 + εf1] = G[f0] + ε
∫f1(x)
δG
δf(x)
∣∣∣∣f=f0
dx +O(ε2
)
δG
δf(x)
∣∣∣∣f=f0
≈ 1h
∂g
∂fix1
f(x)
x2 ... xi xN
f1f2
... fi
fN
functional derivatives
δG
δf(x)“ = ” lim
ε→0
G[f(•)− εδ(•− x)]−G[f(•)]ε
G[f0 + εf1] = G[f0] + ε
∫f1(x)
δG
δf(x)
∣∣∣∣f=f0
dx +O(ε2
)
δG
δf(x)
∣∣∣∣f=f0
≈ 1h
∂g
∂fix1
f(x)
x2 ... xi xN
f1f2
... fi
fN
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(R) = minΨ
(E[Ψ, R]
)
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
= 0
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(R) = minΨ
(E[Ψ, R]
)
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
= 0
g(λ) = G[x(λ), λ]
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(R) = minΨ
(E[Ψ, R]
)
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
= 0
g(λ) = G[x(λ), λ] g′(λ) = x′(λ)∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
+∂G
∂λ
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(R) = minΨ
(E[Ψ, R]
)
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
= 0
g(λ) = G[x(λ), λ] g′(λ) = x′(λ)∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
+∂G
∂λ
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(R) = minΨ
(E[Ψ, R]
)
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
the Hellmann-Feynman theorem
g(λ) = minx
G[x, λ]∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
= 0
g(λ) = G[x(λ), λ] g′(λ) = x′(λ)∂G
∂x
∣∣∣∣x=x(λ)
+∂G
∂λ
E′(λ) = 〈Ψλ|H ′(λ)|Ψλ〉
H(λ)Ψλ = E(λ)Ψλ
E(R) = minΨ
(E[Ψ, R]
)
E(λ) = minΨ
〈Ψ|H(λ)|Ψ〉
〈Ψ|Ψ〉 = 1
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
Legendre transform: H(P,X) = E + PV
properties: • E convex⇒ V ! P
• H(P,X) = maxV
(E(V,X) + PV
)
• Hellmann-Feynman:∂H
∂x=
∂E
∂x• H concave
• E(V,X) = minP
(H(P,X)− PV
)
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
Legendre transform: H(P,X) = E + PV
properties: • E convex⇒ V ! P
• H(P,X) = maxV
(E(V,X) + PV
)
• Hellmann-Feynman:∂H
∂x=
∂E
∂x• H concave
• E(V,X) = minP
(H(P,X)− PV
)
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
Legendre transform: H(P,X) = E + PV
properties: • E convex⇒ V ! P
• H(P,X) = maxV
(E(V,X) + PV
)
• Hellmann-Feynman:∂H
∂x=
∂E
∂x• H concave
• E(V,X) = minP
(H(P,X)− PV
)
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
Legendre transform: H(P,X) = E + PV
properties: • E convex⇒ V ! P
• H(P,X) = maxV
(E(V,X) + PV
)
• Hellmann-Feynman:∂H
∂x=
∂E
∂x• H concave
• E(V,X) = minP
(H(P,X)− PV
)
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
Legendre transform: H(P,X) = E + PV
properties: • E convex⇒ V ! P
• H(P,X) = maxV
(E(V,X) + PV
)
• Hellmann-Feynman:∂H
∂x=
∂E
∂x• H concave
• E(V,X) = minP
(H(P,X)− PV
)
conjugate variables & Legendre transforms
E = E(V, x)
V
P = −∂E
∂V
V
Legendre transform: H(P,X) = E + PV
Hohenberg-Kohn DFT
H = − !2
2m
∑
i
∂2
∂r2i
+12
∑
i !=j
e2
|ri − rj | +∑
i
V (ri)
Hohenberg-Kohn DFT
H = − !2
2m
∑
i
∂2
∂r2i
+12
∑
i !=j
e2
|ri − rj | +∑
i
V (ri)
E[V ] = minΨ
〈Ψ|K + W + V |Ψ〉
= minΨ
[〈Ψ|K + W |Ψ〉 +
∫ρ(r)V (r)dr
]
Hohenberg-Kohn DFT
H = − !2
2m
∑
i
∂2
∂r2i
+12
∑
i !=j
e2
|ri − rj | +∑
i
V (ri)
properties: • E[V ] is convex (requires some work to demonstrate)
• ρ(r) =δE
δV (r)(from Hellmann-Feynman)
E[V ] = minΨ
〈Ψ|K + W + V |Ψ〉
= minΨ
[〈Ψ|K + W |Ψ〉 +
∫ρ(r)V (r)dr
]
Hohenberg-Kohn DFT
H = − !2
2m
∑
i
∂2
∂r2i
+12
∑
i !=j
e2
|ri − rj | +∑
i
V (ri)
properties: • E[V ] is convex (requires some work to demonstrate)
• ρ(r) =δE
δV (r)(from Hellmann-Feynman)
E[V ] = minΨ
〈Ψ|K + W + V |Ψ〉
= minΨ
[〈Ψ|K + W |Ψ〉 +
∫ρ(r)V (r)dr
]
consequences: • V (r) ! ρ(r) (1st HK theorem)
• F [ρ] = E −∫
V (r)ρ(r)dr is the Legendre transform of E
• E[V ] = minρ
[F [ρ] +
∫V (r)ρ(r)dr
](2nd HK theorem)
Hohenberg-Kohn DFT
H = − !2
2m
∑
i
∂2
∂r2i
+12
∑
i !=j
e2
|ri − rj | +∑
i
V (ri)
properties: • E[V ] is convex (requires some work to demonstrate)
• ρ(r) =δE
δV (r)(from Hellmann-Feynman)
E[V ] = minΨ
〈Ψ|K + W + V |Ψ〉
= minΨ
[〈Ψ|K + W |Ψ〉 +
∫ρ(r)V (r)dr
]
E[V ] = minρ
[F [ρ] +
∫V (r)ρ(r)dr
]
consequences: • V (r) ! ρ(r) (1st HK theorem)
• F [ρ] = E −∫
V (r)ρ(r)dr is the Legendre transform of E
• E[V ] = minρ
[F [ρ] +
∫V (r)ρ(r)dr
](2nd HK theorem)
Kohn-Sham DFT
F [ρ] = T0[ρ] +e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
Kohn-Sham DFT
F [ρ] = T0[ρ] +e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
δT0
δρ(r)+ e2
∫ρ(r′)
|r− r′|dr′ +
δExc
δρ(r)+ V (r) = µ
Kohn-Sham DFT
F [ρ] = T0[ρ] +e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
δT0
δρ(r)+
vKS [ρ](r)︷ ︸︸ ︷
e2
∫ρ(r′)
|r− r′|dr′ +
δExc
δρ(r)+ V (r) = µ
Kohn-Sham DFT
F [ρ] = T0[ρ] +e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
(− !2
2m∇2 + vKS [ρ](r)
)ψv(r) = εvψv(r)
δT0
δρ(r)+
vKS [ρ](r)︷ ︸︸ ︷
e2
∫ρ(r′)
|r− r′|dr′ +
δExc
δρ(r)+ V (r) = µ
ρ(r) =∑
v
|ψv(r)|2θ(εv − µ)
KS equations from functional minimization
E[ψ,R] = − !2
2m
∑
v
∫ψ∗
v(r)∂2ψv(r)
∂r2dr +
∫V (r,R)ρ(r)dr+
e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
KS equations from functional minimization
E[ψ,R] = − !2
2m
∑
v
∫ψ∗
v(r)∂2ψv(r)
∂r2dr +
∫V (r,R)ρ(r)dr+
e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
E(R) = minψ
(E[ψ,R]
)
∫ψ∗
u(r)ψv(r)dr = δuv
KS equations from functional minimization
E[ψ,R] = − !2
2m
∑
v
∫ψ∗
v(r)∂2ψv(r)
∂r2dr +
∫V (r,R)ρ(r)dr+
e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
E(R) = minψ
(E[ψ,R]
)
∫ψ∗
u(r)ψv(r)dr = δuv
δEKS
δψ∗v(r)
=∑
uv
Λvuψu(r)
KS equations from functional minimization
E[ψ,R] = − !2
2m
∑
v
∫ψ∗
v(r)∂2ψv(r)
∂r2dr +
∫V (r,R)ρ(r)dr+
e2
2
∫ρ(r)ρ(r′)|r− r′| drdr′ + Exc[ρ]
E(R) = minψ
(E[ψ,R]
)
∫ψ∗
u(r)ψv(r)dr = δuv
(− !2
2m∇2 + vKS [ρ](r)
)ψv(r) = εvψv(r)
δEKS
δψ∗v(r)
=∑
uv
Λvuψu(r)
solving the Kohn-Sham equations
ψv(r) ! c(v, j)
ψv(r) =∑
j
c(j, v)ϕj(r)
solving the Kohn-Sham equations
ψv(r) ! c(v, j)
ψv(r) =∑
j
c(j, v)ϕj(r)
δEKS
δψ∗v(r)
=∑
uv
Λvuψu(r)
solving the Kohn-Sham equations
ψv(r) ! c(v, j)
∑
j
hKS [c](i, j)c(j, v) = εvc(i, v)
ψv(r) =∑
j
c(j, v)ϕj(r)
δEKS
δψ∗v(r)
=∑
uv
Λvuψu(r)
solving the Kohn-Sham equations
ψv(r) ! c(v, j)
∑
j
hKS [c](i, j)c(j, v) = εvc(i, v)
c(i, v) = −∑
j
hKS [c](i, j)c(j, v)+
∑
u
Λvuc(i, v)
ψv(r) =∑
j
c(j, v)ϕj(r)
δEKS
δψ∗v(r)
=∑
uv
Λvuψu(r)
requirements
requirements
‣ (effective) completeness easily checked and systematically improved
requirements
‣ (effective) completeness easily checked and systematically improved
‣ matrix elements easy to calculate and/or Hψ products easily calculated on the fly
requirements
‣ (effective) completeness easily checked and systematically improved
‣ matrix elements easy to calculate and/or Hψ products easily calculated on the fly
‣ Hartree and XC potentials easy to represent and calculate
requirements
‣ (effective) completeness easily checked and systematically improved
‣ matrix elements easy to calculate and/or Hψ products easily calculated on the fly
‣ Hartree and XC potentials easy to represent and calculate
‣ orthogonality is a plus
plane waves
periodic boundary conditions
ϕj(r) =1√Ω
eiqj ·r !2
2mq2
j ≤ Ecut
ϕ(x + ") = ϕ(x)→ qn =2π
"n
plane waves
periodic boundary conditions
ϕj(r) =1√Ω
eiqj ·r !2
2mq2
j ≤ Ecut
ϕ(x + ") = ϕ(x)→ qn =2π
"n
q = G
finite systems (! = a)
plane waves
periodic boundary conditions
ϕj(r) =1√Ω
eiqj ·r !2
2mq2
j ≤ Ecut
ϕ(x + ") = ϕ(x)→ qn =2π
"n
q = G
finite systems (! = a)
ψvk(r) = eik·rukv(r)k ∈ BZ u(x + a) = u(x)
infinite crystals (! = L)
using plane waves
−∇2ψ(r) #−→ |k + G|2cnk(G)
V (r)ψ(r) #−→∫
e−iG·rV (r)unk(r)dr
ρ(r) =∑
vk
|uvk(r)|2
Vxc(r) = µxc
(ρ(r)
)
VH(r) = e2
∫ρ(r′)
|r− r′|dr′
= e2∑
G"=0
eiG·r 4π
G2ρ(G)
PWs: pros & cons
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
basis set independent of nuclear positions (no Pulay forces)
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
basis set independent of nuclear positions (no Pulay forces)
matrix elements and Hψ poducts easily calculated
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
basis set independent of nuclear positions (no Pulay forces)
matrix elements and Hψ poducts easily calculated
density, Hartree, and XC potentials easily calculated
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
basis set independent of nuclear positions (no Pulay forces)
matrix elements and Hψ poducts easily calculated
density, Hartree, and XC potentials easily calculated
orthonormality
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
basis set independent of nuclear positions (no Pulay forces)
matrix elements and Hψ poducts easily calculated
density, Hartree, and XC potentials easily calculated
orthonormality
basis set depends on volume shape/size (Pulay stress)
PWs: pros & cons
approach to completeness easily and systematically checked (|k+G|2<Ecut)
basis set independent of nuclear positions (no Pulay forces)
matrix elements and Hψ poducts easily calculated
density, Hartree, and XC potentials easily calculated
orthonormality
basis set depends on volume shape/size (Pulay stress)
uniform spatial resolution (no core states!)
treating core states
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
HydrogenSemiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
BLi
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
HydrogenSemiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
BLi
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
ε1s ∼ Z2 a1s ∼1Z
Ecut ∼ Z2
treating core states
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
HydrogenSemiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
BLi
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
HydrogenSemiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
BLi
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
ε1s ∼ Z2 a1s ∼1Z
Ecut ∼ Z2
NPW =4π
3k3
cutΩ
(2π)3
∼ Z3
treating core states
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
HydrogenSemiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
BLi
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
HydrogenSemiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
BLi
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
ε1s ∼ Z2 a1s ∼1Z
Ecut ∼ Z2
NPW =4π
3k3
cutΩ
(2π)3
∼ Z3
treating core states
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Perio
d
* The systematic names and symbols for elements greater than 110 will be used until the approval of trivial names by IUPAC.
Key:6
CCarbon12.0107
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Average atomic mass
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
Group 1 Group 2
6.941
22.989 770
39.0983
85.4678
132.905 43
(223)
140.116
232.0381
140.907 65
231.035 88
144.24
238.028 91
(145)
(237)
150.36
(244)
9.012 182
24.3050
40.078
87.62
137.327
(226)
44.955 910
88.905 85
138.9055
(227)
47.867
91.224
178.49
(261)
50.9415
92.906 38
180.9479
(262)
51.9961
95.94
183.84
(266)
54.938 049
(98)
186.207
(264)
55.845
101.07
190.23
(277)
58.933 200
102.905 50
192.217
(268)
1.007 94
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
Francium
Cerium
Thorium
Praseodymium
Protactinium
Neodymium
Uranium
Promethium
Neptunium
Samarium
Plutonium
Beryllium
Magnesium
Calcium
Strontium
Barium
Radium
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Titanium
Zirconium
Hafnium
Rutherfordium
Vanadium
Niobium
Tantalum
Dubnium
Chromium
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Seaborgium
Manganese
Technetium
Rhenium
Bohrium
Iron
Ruthenium
Osmium
Hassium
Cobalt
Rhodium
Iridium
Meitnerium
Hydrogen
Li
V
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
Sc
Y
La
Ac
Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf
Nb
Ta
Db
Cr
Mo
W
Sg
Mn
Tc
Re
Bh
IrOs
Ce
Th
Pr
Pa
Nd
U
Pm
Np
Sm
Pu
Fe
Ru
Hs
Co
Rh
Mt
H
3
11
19
37
55
87
4
12
20
38
56
88
21
39
57
89
22
40
72
104
23
41
73
105
24
42
74
106
25
43
75
107
26
44
76 77
108
27
45
109
1
58
90
59
91
60
92
61
93
62
94
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
Semiconductors(also known as metalloids)
MetalsAlkali metalsAlkaline-earth metalsTransition metalsOther metals
NonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesOther nonmetals
Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Group 18
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
Group 13
151.964
(243)
157.25
(247)
158.925 34
(247)
162.500
(251)
164.930 32
(252)
167.259
(257)
168.934 21
(258)
173.04
(259)
174.967
(262)
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
4.002 602
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
195.078
(281) (272) (285) (284) (288)(289)
196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
10.811
Europium
Americium
Gadolinium
Curium
Terbium
Berkelium
Dysprosium
Californium
Holmium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Fermium
Thulium
Mendelevium
Ytterbium
Nobelium
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Helium
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Platinum
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium UnunpentiumUnunquadium
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Boron
Eu
Am
Gd
Cm
Tb
Bk
Dy
Cf
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Al Si P S Cl Ar
C N O F Ne
He
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Pt
Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uup*Uuq*
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Ho
Es
Er
Fm
Tm
Md
Yb
No
Lu
Lr
B
63
95
64
96
65
97
66
98
67
99
68
100
69
101
70
102
71
103
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
13 14 15 16 17 18
6 7 8 9 10
2
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
78
110 111 112 113 115114
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
5 ε1s ∼ Z2 a1s ∼1Z
Ecut ∼ Z2
0
10
20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
IP (e
V)
Z
IP ∼ 1 a ∼ 1
first principle of computational physics
first principle of computational physics
when two systems have similar physical and chemical properties, their simulation should
require a similar amount of computer resources
power to the imagination
power to the imagination
Chemically similar atoms have potentials with very different, possibly nasty, mathematical properties?
power to the imagination
Chemically similar atoms have potentials with very different, possibly nasty, mathematical properties?
Imagine pseudo-atoms whose chemical properties are very similar to those of real atoms, but whose pseudo-potentials are as gentle as possible.
Well ...
properties of pseudopotentials
properties of pseudopotentials
Vps does not have core states: valence states of any given angular symmetry are the lowest-lying states of that symmetry:
φpsval is nodeless and smooth
properties of pseudopotentials
Vps does not have core states: valence states of any given angular symmetry are the lowest-lying states of that symmetry:
φpsval is nodeless and smooth
φpsval(r) = φae
val(r) for r > rc
The chemical properties of the pseudo-atom are the same as those of the true atom:
εpsval = εae
val
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
Si
3s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
Si
3s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
Si0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)
3p
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
Si0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)
3p
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
Si0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)
3d
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
Si0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
r (a.u.)
3d
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8r (a.u.)
US pseudopotentials
US pseudopotentials
HUSφn = εnSφn 〈φn|S|φm〉 = δnm
using fast Fourier transforms
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
using fast Fourier transforms
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
using fast Fourier transforms
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
f(G) =1
Ω
∫
f(r)e−iG·rdr ≈
1
N3
∑
klm
f
rklm︷ ︸︸ ︷(
k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)
e−iG·rklm
f(r) =∑
pqs
f (pG1 + qG2 + sG3)︸ ︷︷ ︸
Gpqs
e−iGpqs·r
Gpqs · rklm =2π
N(pk + ql + sm)
f(klm) =∑
pqs
ei2π(pk+ql+sm)f(pqs)
f(pqs) =∑
klm
e−i2π(pk+ql+sm)f(klm)
FFT
FFT−1
f(G) f(pG1 + qG2 + sG3) f
(k
N1a1 +
l
N2a2 +
m
N3a3
)scatter
gather
FFT
FFT−1
1
Fourier analysis
Φ(x) =∑
n
ϕ(x− n")
Φ(x + !) = Φ(x)!
Φ
Fourier analysis
Φ(x) =∑
n
ϕ(x− n")
Φ(x + !) = Φ(x)!
Φ
Φ(x) =∑
q
Φ(q)eiqx qk = k2π
"
Fourier analysis
Φ(x) =∑
n
ϕ(x− n")
Φ(x + !) = Φ(x)!
Φ
Φ(x) =∑
q
Φ(q)eiqx qk = k2π
" Φ
2π/"
Φ(q) =1!
∫ !
0Φ(x)e−iqxdx
=1!
∫ ∞
−∞ϕ(x)e−iqxdx
=1!ϕ(q)
sampling theoremϕ
a
ϕ(x) = 0 for |x| >a
2
ϕ
∆q
sampling theoremϕ
a
ϕ(x) = 0 for |x| >a
2
∆q <2π
a
ϕ
∆q
Φ
2π/∆q
sampling theoremϕ
a
ϕ(x) = 0 for |x| >a
2
∆q <2π
a
ϕ
∆q
Φ
2π/∆q
sampling theoremϕ
a
ϕ(x) = 0 for |x| >a
2
ϕ
∆q
∆q <2π
a
∆q >2π
a
ϕ
∆q
Φ
2π/∆q
sampling theoremϕ
a
ϕ(x) = 0 for |x| >a
2
ϕ
∆q
∆q <2π
a
∆q >2π
a
Φ
2π/∆q
using periodic boundary conditions
finite systems
using periodic boundary conditions
ψ(x + ") = ψ(x)" = a
finite systems
ψ(x) =∑
G
c(G)eiGx
G1
G2
using periodic boundary conditions
ψ(x + ") = ψ(x)" = a
finite systems
G1
G2
using periodic boundary conditionsinfinite crystals
ψ(x + ") = ψ(x)" = L
ψ(x + a) = eikaψ(x)
ψk(x) = eikxuk(x)uk(x + a) = uk(x)
G1
G2
using periodic boundary conditionsinfinite crystals
ψ(x + ") = ψ(x)" = L
ψ(x + a) = eikaψ(x)
ψk(x) = eikxuk(x)uk(x + a) = uk(x)
uk(x) =∑
G
ck(G)eiGx
kn =2π
Ln
G1
G2
using periodic boundary conditionsinfinite crystals
ψ(x + ") = ψ(x)" = L
ψ(x + a) = eikaψ(x)
ψk(x) = eikxuk(x)uk(x + a) = uk(x)
uk(x) =∑
G
ck(G)eiGx
kn =2π
Ln
G1
G2
using periodic boundary conditionsinfinite crystals
ψ(x + ") = ψ(x)" = L
ψ(x + a) = eikaψ(x)
ψk(x) = eikxuk(x)uk(x + a) = uk(x)
uk(x) =∑
G
ck(G)eiGx
kn =2π
Ln
these slides athttp://stefano.baroni.me/presentations