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NOTE: THIS IS A COMPILATION FROM GREAT AUTHORS AND WRITERS Remedial Instruction in English Remedial English courses begin with an emphasis on fundamentals of grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, and capitalization. Once students can successfully organize their thoughts in sentence form, remedial English courses expand into organizing sentences into paragraph structure. The final stage of remedial English is organizing thought into written essay form. The student is taught to view the essay as a collection of paragraphs, with each paragraph being a collection of sentences that come together to illustrate a point. Students completing remedial English are expected to integrate into college-level English courses and eventually display college-level writing skills in all subjects. Remedial Education Some remedial education programs attempt to remedy insufficient learning in previous academic settings. These programs typically involve reteaching subjects or redesigning lessons to make the instruction clearer or more personalized for individual students. Remedial programs may also be designed to compensate for an educational disadvantage. For instance, a preschool program may provide learning opportunities designed to help children who are considered at risk of educational failure because of limited English proficiency. In higher education, a remedial math course may help some first-year college or university students compensate for inadequate preparation in math during high school. Remedial education is based on the presumption that a student underachieves because of extrinsic (environmental) factors, such as poverty or insufficient access to high-quality education. Remedial education thus differs from special education, where the 1

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NOTE: THIS IS A COMPILATION FROM GREAT AUTHORS AND WRITERS

Remedial Instruction in English

Remedial English courses begin with an emphasis on fundamentals of grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, and capitalization.Once students can successfully organize their thoughts in sentence form, remedial English courses expand into organizing sentences into paragraph structure.The final stage of remedial English is organizing thought into written essay form. The student is taught to view the essay as a collection of paragraphs, with each paragraph being a collection of sentences that come together to illustrate a point.Students completing remedial English are expected to integrate into college-level English courses and eventually display college-level writing skills in all subjects.

Remedial Education

Some remedial education programs attempt to remedy insufficient learning in previous academic settings. These programs typically involve reteaching subjects or redesigning lessons to make the instruction clearer or more personalized for individual students. Remedial programs may also be designed to compensate for an educational disadvantage. For instance, a preschool program may provide learning opportunities designed to help children who are considered at risk of educational failure because of limited English proficiency. In higher education, a remedial math course may help some first-year college or university students compensate for inadequate preparation in math during high school.

Remedial education is based on the presumption that a student underachieves because of extrinsic (environmental) factors, such as poverty or insufficient access to high-quality education. Remedial education thus differs from special education, where the source of the learning difficulty is generally viewed as intrinsic—that is, due to a disability or disorder that exists within the individual. To avoid a common misperception that students in remedial programs have an intrinsic learning difficulty, some educators in the United States prefer to use the term developmental education rather than remedial education. Most educators consider programs in English as a Second Language (ESL) to be neither remedial, developmental, nor special education but a separate category of educational support.Historically, schools allowed children to fall behind academically if they had

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difficulty matching the achievement of their peers. Most students who found learning difficult eventually dropped out of school to find work in occupations that did not require high levels of educational achievement. However, as society has changed and work has become more complex, the accepted minimum levels of educational achievement have steadily risen, especially since the 1960s. Enrollment levels in remedial education programs have likewise risen.

THE NEED FOR REMEDIAL EDUCATION

Many students need additional instructional support in a particular subject at some point in their school years. Some students need more remedial support than others.Many educators consider remedial education necessary to overcome the ill effects of poverty. Schools always have had difficulty educating children who live in economically disadvantaged households. Educational researchers note that relatively few low-income households are able to afford educational resources that could help create a rich, supportive learning environment in the home. For instance, families living in poverty are less likely to be able to afford books, computers, encyclopedias, and other learning resources. Children in such households often have difficulty matching the academic achievement of more advantaged children who live in homes and communities that provide greater access to educational resources. In addition, parents with low incomes typically have lower levels of educational attainment themselves. These parents often find it difficult to offer their children the same sort of academic advice and support that wealthier and better-educated parents can provide their own children.Schools in lower-income communities are typically funded less than schools in higher-income communities. On various measures, such as class sizes, teacher qualifications, access to curriculum materials, and library facilities, schools in lower-income communities rank below those in higher-income communities. The result is that often students in lower-income communities receive a lower-quality education. This problem produces a greater need for remedial education programs.

There are many other reasons why students may fall behind academically and need remedial instruction. Teachers differ in their expertness for teaching math, reading, and other subjects. Thus, a student might need remedial help if he had teacher A in first grade but not if he had been lucky enough to have teacher B. School systems also differ in their support for teachers. In a school district with overcrowded classrooms, the same teacher B might be overwhelmed with work and not be able to attend to individual needs as well. Finally, parent involvement plays an important role in a student’s learning. Students whose parents are highly involved in their education are less likely to need remedial help than students whose parents

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are not involved.

PLACEMENT IN REMEDIAL COURSES

Many schools administer standardized tests to determine which students would benefit from placement in a remedial course. Students whose test scores fall below a predetermined level are eligible for remedial education. Many elementary and secondary schools may also place students in remedial courses based on a teacher’s recommendation. For instance, a history teacher may suggest a remedial reading course for a student who seems to have difficulty keeping up with the required reading for the class. Some colleges and universities may place students in remedial programs based on an analysis of courses completed in high school.

Eligibility for remedial programs does not always mean that such instruction will be provided. In the United States, for instance, fewer than 20 percent of high school students eligible for remedial reading classes are offered such instruction. The eligibility levels vary from school to school, as does the likelihood of receiving remedial instruction. Often demand for remedial education exceeds supply. That is, there are more students who qualify for services than there are funds to provide the needed services. Remedial instruction is typically made mandatory only for certain students at the college and university level.

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAMS

Remedial education courses are more common in elementary and junior high schools than in high schools. Many elementary schools strive to introduce remedial education as early as possible, generally in the primary grades (kindergarten to grade 3). Educators target these grades because research indicates that overcoming difficulties in reading, writing, and math becomes more difficult as children grow older. At the secondary school level, many students require remedial support to help meet graduation standards.

In the United States, the federal Title I program, administered by the U.S. Department of Education, provides funding for remedial programs in approximately 90 percent of all school districts. A school district becomes eligible for Title I funds primarily based on the estimated number of children in the district who come from low-income families. Most school districts concentrate their Title I grants to fund remedial programs in the elementary grades. Approximately 11 percent of elementary and secondary school students in the United States attend a remedial program funded through Title I. In Canada, funding for remedial education is more decentralized. School districts receive general funds from their province or territory’s Ministry of Education, and each district decides on its own how much to fund remedial programs. Most remedial education programs in Canada do not receive

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federal funding. However, school districts with employment-preparation programs may apply for funding from Human Resources Development Canada, a federal agency.

In many respects, instruction in remedial courses is similar to instruction in regular, or mainstream, courses. However, schools typically limit the class size of remedial courses to a relatively small number of students per teacher. This class size gives teachers more opportunity to respond to the unique needs of individual students. Most remedial education classes consist of groups of fewer than ten students per teacher. In some cases, one-on-one tutoring (one instructor working with one student) can help the student make substantial gains in achievement in a relatively short period of time. One-on-one tutoring can be especially effective in remedial reading programs. However, most schools lack the resources to provide instruction on such a personal level.

Elementary and secondary schools usually offer remedial programs during normal school hours, but increasing numbers of schools offer after-school and summer-school programs. These programs appear to be the most successful ones because participating students do not have to miss regular classroom instruction while attending the remedial course and thus benefit from the additional time spent in classes.

COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY PROGRAMS

Colleges and universities in the United States first introduced remedial courses in reading, writing, and mathematics during the 19th century. As college enrollments rose during the 20th century, the number of remedial programs in American higher education also increased. Today, college remedial programs—sometimes called college prep programs—are offered in virtually all community colleges, in more than 80 percent of public four-year universities, and in more than 60 percent of private four-year institutions in the United States. About 30 percent of students entering U.S. colleges and universities take at least one remedial course, but the percentage of students enrolled in remedial courses varies widely from school to school.

In Canada, it is rare for universities to offer remedial instruction, although some offer basic-level courses for no academic credit. Students who wish to enroll in a university must meet its basic entry requirements; some students may attend summer school or adult education classes before applying to meet these requirements. Canadian community colleges serve mainly to provide vocational and technical training.

Most American colleges and universities design their remedial courses to increase academic achievement in reading, writing, or mathematics. Completion of college-level remedial courses usually does not count as

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academic credit that can be applied toward an academic degree or program. Colleges and universities may require some students to satisfactorily complete particular remedial courses before they can take other courses for credit.

Colleges and universities also offer remedial help through instructional support centers or tutoring programs. These resources provide assistance for students already enrolled in standard, for-credit courses or programs. For example, many colleges have a writing center where students can receive assistance on writing assignments. Many also have similar centers to support mathematics or other specific courses, such as chemistry and physics. Some colleges and universities provide students with access to personal tutors who offer academic support in a variety of subjects. Instructional support centers and tutoring services rarely offer academic credit to students who use these programs.Colleges and universities generally offer remedial courses during the normal school year, from fall through spring. Many also offer remedial programs during the summer. Some colleges require entering students who need remedial instruction to enroll in the summer so they can complete all necessary remedial study before their first year of college study begins.

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English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?

English for Specific Purposes - Introduction

ESP (English for Specific Purposes) has been referred to as "applied ELT" as the content and aims of any course are determined by the needs of a specific group of learners. ESP is often divided into EAP (English for Academic Purposes) and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes). Further sub-divisions of EOP are sometimes made into business English, professional English ( e.g. English for doctors, lawyers) and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, aviation, bricklaying). You will find special sections for Business English and English for Academic Purposes elsewhere on this website.

According to Dudley-Evans (2001) the absolute characteristics of ESP are:

ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialism it serves. It is centered not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also the skills, discourses and genres appropriate to those activities.

ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in intercultural communication and the development of intercultural competence.

For Dudley-Evans (2001) the defining characteristic of ESP is that teaching and materials are based on the results of a needs analysis. The key questions are:

What do students need to do with English? Which of the skills do they need to master and how well? Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or production purposes?

Traditionally ESP courses were typically designed for intermediate or advanced adult learners. Nowadays many students can start to learn academic or vocational English at an earlier age and at a lower level of proficiency.

ESP has become increasingly important as:

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There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world. With the spread of globalization has come the increasing use of English as the language of international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of occupational contexts. Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so move on to ESP at an earlier age.

An increasing number of learners are taught in English medium schools using approaches such as CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning).

In some English speaking countries governments are launching initiatives to help economic migrants obtain the practical English skills necessary to function in the workplace. For example, the new ESOL for Work Qualifications in the UK are designed to help employers and employees access courses which offer them the functional language skills demanded across a variety of employment sectors. Content includes topics such as customer care and health and safety. Some teachers are afraid of making the transition from teaching general English to teaching ESP. There is also the danger that the novice ESP teacher will only use materials that they feel comfortable with and will not stretch their learners.

Bell (2002) argues that the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires depends on a number of variables which include:

How much do the learners know about their specialism? Are the students pre-experience or post-experience learners? How specific and detailed are the language, skills and genres that the learners need to learn?

Although you perhaps don't need to be an expert in a specialist area, you do need to have some awareness and feel for a particular vocational area. Bell (2002) advocates the three Cs for helping teachers to improve their knowledge and skills in a particular area of ESP.

CuriosityThe teacher should be interested in the subject area and want to learn more.

CollaborationTeachers should seek out subject specialists, show them their work and ask for their feedback.

ConfidenceConfidence will grow as teachers explore the new subject matter, engage with subject specialists and learn from their learners.

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Harding (2007) stresses that the general skills that a general English teacher uses e.g. being communicative, using authentic materials and analyzing English in a practical way are also applicable to ESP. He also suggests that teachers should:

Think about what is needed and don't just follow an off-the-shelf course or course book.

Understand the nature of their students' subject area. Work out their language needs in relation to their specialism. Use contexts, texts, situations from their subject area. Use authentic materials. Make the tasks as authentic as possible. Motivate the students with variety, relevance and fun. Take the classroom into the real world and bring the real world into the classroom.

Like it or not, the days of the EFL generalist teacher may be numbered, so it might just be time to explore the possibility of working in ESP!

Growth of ESP

From the early 1960's, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham, and Aston University in the UK) and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking countries. There is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion, "English for Specific Purposes: An international journal", and the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their national conferences. In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombusho's decision in 1994 to largely hand over control of university curriculum to the universities themselves. This has led to a rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place of the more traditional 'General English' courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become more defined, with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT N-SIG to be formed shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together as a whole at the first Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of Aizu University, Fukushima Prefecture.

What is ESP?

As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP

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means. Strangely, however, this does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes. At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics (see below).

Definition of ESP

Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)

Absolute Characteristics 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners 2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves 3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.

Variable Characteristics 1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines 2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English 3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level 4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. 5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems

The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in contrast with 'General English'" (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics. The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or

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what Dudley-Evans describes as an 'attitude of mind'. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning".

ESP is taught in many universities of the world. Many professional associations of teachers of English (TESOL, IATEFL) have ESP sections. Much attention is devoted to ESP course design. ESP teaching has much in common with English as a Foreign or Second Language and English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Quickly developing Business English can be considered as part of a larger concept of English for Specific Purposes.

ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners.

As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation.

The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of the students' knowledge of the subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster.

The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students approach the study of English through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts.

ESP assesses needs and integrates motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of relevant skills.

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English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a sphere of teaching English language including Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters, English for tourism, English for Art Purposes, etc. Aviation English as ESP is taught to pilots, air traffic controllers and civil aviation cadets who are going to use it in radio communications.[3] ESP can be also considered as an avatar of language for specific purposes

Is ESP different to General English?

If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may ask 'What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer this quite simply, "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". When their book was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and certainly materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and ESP courses start has become very vague indeed.

Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of using English for real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an approach furthest from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists in the field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even conducting students' needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on personal experience, and unwilling to do the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to verify their contents.

The Future of ESP

If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position it has in EFL teaching today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans' definition given in this article but I suspect a more rigorous

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version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic.

LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

2.1 Exhibit clear understanding of the design, development, and dissemination of a language curriculum using the secondary BEC of DepEd

Course DescriptionThis course is designed for prospective teachers in secondary Schools who have acquired the knowledge, attitudes, values and skills in teaching as output in learning the concepts, nature of language. It is expected that these BSEd students specializing English should exhibit a clear understanding of the design, development and dissemination of a language curriculum using the secondary BEC of the Department of Education.

UNIT 1 Nature of Language and the Role of English in the 21st CenturyDesired ResultsEnglish has been viewed as neutral, because historically it is not the native language of any region of the country.The introduction of English into the Philippine educational programs gives the notion of looking into the language and literature programs in the Philippines through looking into its development as part of the curriculum for language teaching.

ELEMENTS1. The Nature of language2. Functions of Language3. Views of language and Linguistic Theories4. Teaching English as a Second Language5. Role of English in Bilingual Setting6. English in 21st Century

UNIT 2 Developments of Language Teaching and their Proponents

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Desired ResultsThe students should have traced the development of English language and language teaching together with their proponents.

ELEMENTS

1. Audio- Lingual Method (ALM)2. Silent Way3. Suggestopedia4. Total Physical Response5. Language Experience Approach6. Communicative Language Teaching7. Natural Approach8. Dartmouth Approach9. Whole Language Teaching

UNIT 3 The Management Cycle in Language and Literature ProgramsDesired ResultsDemonstrate understanding on the objectives of any language and literature program (Secondary English curriculum is integrated which means the teaching of grammar is integrated to literature) which differ considerably depending on what the program is addressed and what the learner needs his concepts, attitudes and skills.

ELEMENTSDesigning a language and literature program based on the following: 1. A cyclical systems Model2. Language and Literature Polyprogramming in the Philippine Setting3. Philippine Educational system4. Language Planning, Programming, Implementing, Evaluating.

UNIT 4 Setting Language Education and Literature GoalsDesired ResultsOne has to narrow down one’s specific goals and tailor them to the constraints of the language learning situation and the time available to the learner, based on his situation and his own self- determined goals.

ELEMENTS1. Preliminary Needs Analysis

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2. Specific, Pertinent, Attainable and Measurable Goals3. Concepts, Attitudes and Skills4. The Problem of Standards and Philippine English5. Degrees of Competence and Threshold levels6. Pedagogical Grammar and Literary CanonUNIT 5 Language and Literature Programming: Curriculum Guides and SyllabiDesired ResultsDevelop curriculum guides and syllabi in line with the BEC of DepEdELEMENTS1. Instruments of literature and language programming2. Setting Specific Objectives (Concepts, attitudes, skills by stages [criterion- referenced] )3. The curriculum Guide

LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES: AN OVERVIEWIntroductionThe field of second (or foreign) language teaching has undergone many fluctuations and shifts over the years. Different from physics or chemistry, in which progress is more or less steady until a major discovery causes a radical theoretical revision (Kuhn 1970), language teaching is a field in which fads and heroes have come and gone in a manner fairly consistent with the kinds of changes that occur in youth culture.Nine Twentieth- Century Approaches to Language Teaching1. Grammar- Translation2. Direct3. Reading4. Audiolingualism (United States)5. Oral- Situational (Britain)6. Cognitive7. Affective- Humanistic8. Comprehension- Based9. CommunicativeClarifying of some terminology that is crucial to this subject, namely, what do we mean by the terms approach, method, and technique? Are these terms synonymous? If not, how do they differ? Anthony (1963) has provided a useful set of the definitions for our purposes. An approach to language teaching is something that reflects a certain model or research paradigm- a theory. This term is the broadest of the three. A method, on the other hand, is a set of procedures, i.e., a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a second or foreign language. It is more specific than an approach but

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less specific than a technique. Methods are typically compatible with one (or sometimes two) approaches. A technique is a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest three concepts. Some techniques are widely used and found in many methods (e.g., dictation, imitation, and repetition); however, some techniques are specific to or characteristic of a given method.

Grammar- Translation Approach(an extended of the approach used to teach classical languages to the teaching of modern languages)Direct Approach(a reaction to the Grammar- Translation Approach and its failure to produce learners who could communicate in the foreign language they are studying)Reading Approach(a reaction to the problems experienced in implementing the Direct Approach; reading was viewed as the most usable skill to have in a foreign language since not many people traveled abroad at that time; also, few teachers could use their foreign language well enough to use a direct approach effectively in class) Audiolingualism(a reaction to the Reading Approach and its lack of emphasis on oral- aural skills; this approach became dominant in the United States during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s; it draws from the Reform Movement and Direct Approach but adds features from structural linguistics [Bloomfield 1933] and behavioral psychology [Skinner 1957]Oral-Situational Approach(a reaction to the Reading Approach and its lack of emphasis on oral-aural skills; this approach was dominant in Britain during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s; it draws from the Reform Movement and Direct Approach but adds features from Firthian linguistics and the merging professional field of language pedagogy)Cognitive Approach(a reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual Approach influenced by cognitive psychology [Neisse 1967] and Chomskyan linguistics [Chomsky 1959, 1965]Affective- Humanistic Approach(a reaction to the general lack of affective consideration)

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An Introduction to Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields: the study of language form, of language meaning, and of language in context. The first is the study of language structure, or grammar. This focuses on the system of rules followed by the speakers (or hearers) of a language. It encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology (sound systems). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds, non speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.

The study of language meaning is concerned with how languages employ logical structures and temporal and other real-world references to convey, process and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve ambiguity. This subfield encompasses semantics (how meaning is inferred from words and concepts) and pragmatics (how meaning is inferred from context).

Language in its broader context includes evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.

Although linguistics is the scientific study of language, a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to language and influence its study. Semiotics, for example, is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary theorists study the use of language in literature. Linguistics additionally draws on work from such diverse fields as psychology, speech-language pathology, informatics, computer science, philosophy, biology, human anatomy, neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and acoustics.

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In linguistics, meaning is what is expressed by the writer or speaker, and what is conveyed to the reader or listener. Meaning is inferred from objects or concepts expressed by words, phrases or sentences in semantics. Meaning is inferred from the current context as intended by the writer or speaker in pragmatics. Ambiguity in meaning may cause confusion in what is conveyed, and lead to different interpretations of the current context. Linguistics, Study of the nature and structure of language.

Theoretical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that is most concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. The fields that are generally considered the core of theoretical linguistics are syntax, phonology, morphology, and semantics. Although phonetics often informs phonology, it is often excluded from the purview of theoretical linguistics, along with psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Theoretical linguistics also involves the search for an explanation of linguistic universals, that is, properties all languages have in common.

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds with concentration on three main points :

Articulation  : the production of speech sounds in human speech organs.

Perception  : the way human ears respond to speech signals, how the human brain analyses them.

Acoustic features : physical characteristics of speech sounds such as color, loudness, amplitude, frequency etc.

According to this definition, phonetics can also be called linguistic analysis of human speech at the surface level. That is one obvious difference from phonology, which concerns the structure and organisation of speech sounds in natural languages, and furthermore has a theoretical and abstract nature. One example can be made to illustrate this distinction: In English, the suffix -s can represent either /s/, /z/, or can be silent (written Ø) depending on context.

Orthographic representation : S, sPhonetic features:  Phonetic representations: [s], [z], Ø  Perception through the ear: high frequency sounds accompanied by a hissing noise.  Acoustic features:    Frequency : 8000 – 11000 Hz    Color : similar to the hissing noise made by snakes.

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Phonological characteristics :  Occurrence : beginning, middle or end of words.  Accompanied by vowels or consonants.  Distinguishes meanings of words depending on context: s''low ≠ g''low

Articulatory phonetics

The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians attempt to document how humans produce speech sounds (vowels and consonants). That is, articulatory phoneticians are interested in how the different structures of the vocal tract, called the articulators (tongue, lips, jaw, palate, teeth etc.), interact to create the specific sounds.

Auditory phonetics

Auditory phonetics is a branch of phonetics concerned with the hearing, acquisition and comprehension of phonetic sounds of words of a language. As articulatory phonetics explores the methods of sound production, auditory phonetics explores the methods of reception—the ear to the brain, and those processes.

Acoustic phonetics

Acoustic phonetics is a subfield of phonetics which deals with acoustic aspects of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics investigates properties like the mean squared amplitude of a waveform, its duration, its fundamental frequency, or other properties of its frequency spectrum, and the relationship of these properties to other branches of phonetics (e.g. articulatory or auditory phonetics), and to abstract linguistic concepts like phones, phrases, or utterances.

Phonology

Phonology is the study of language sounds. Phonology is divided into two separate studies, phonetics and phonemics. Phonetics is what depicts the sounds we hear. It calls attention to the smallest details in language sounds. There are three kinds of phonetics: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics. Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of sound, what sounds exactly are coming from the person speaking. Auditory phonetics deals with how the sounds are perceived, exactly what the person hearing the sounds is perceiving. Finally, articulatory phonetics studies how the speech sounds are produced. This is what describes the actual sounds in detail. It is also known as descriptive phonetics. Phonemics studies how the sounds are used. It analyzes the way

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sounds are arranged in languages and helps you to hear what sounds are important in a language. The unit of analysis for phonemics is called phonemes. "A phoneme is a sound that functions to distinguish one word from another in a language." For example, how we distinguish the English word tie from the word die. The sounds that differentiates two words are [t] and [d].

Morphology

Morphology is the study of word structure. For example, in the sentences The dog runs and The dogs run, the word forms runs and dogs have an affix -s added, distinguishing them from the base forms dog and run. Adding this suffix to a nominal stem gives plural forms, adding it to verbal stems restricts the subject to third person singular. Some morphological theories operate with two distinct suffixes -s, called allomorphs of the morphemes Plural and Third person singular, respectively. Languages differ with respect to their morphological structure. Along one axis, we may distinguish analytic languages, with few or no affixes or other morphological processes from synthetic languages with many affixes. Along another axis, we may distinguish agglutinative languages, where affixes express one grammatical property each, and are added neatly one after another, from fusional languages, with non-concatenative morphological processes (infixation, umlaut, ablaut, etc.) and/or with less clear-cut affix boundaries.

Syntax

Syntax is the study of language structure and phrasal hierarchies, depicted in parse tree format. It is concerned with the relationship between units at the level of words or morphology. Syntax seeks to delineate exactly all and only those sentences which make up a given language, using native speaker intuition. Syntax seeks to describe formally exactly how structural relations between elements (lexical items/words and operators) in a sentence contribute to its interpretation. Syntax uses principles of formal logic and Set Theory to formalize and represent accurately the hierarchical relationship between elements in a sentence. Abstract syntax trees are often used to illustrate the hierarchical structures that are posited. Thus, in active declarative sentences in English the subject is followed by the main verb which in turn is followed by the object (SVO). This order of elements is crucial to its correct interpretation and it is exactly this which syntacticians try to capture. They argue that there must be such a formal computational component contained within the language faculty of normal speakers of a language and seek to describe it.

Semantics

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Semantics is the study of intension, that is, the intrinsic meanings of words and phrases. Much of the work in the field of philosophy of language is concerned with the relation between meanings and the world, and this concern cross-cuts formal semantics in several ways. For example, both philosophers of language and semanticists make use of propositional, predicate and modal logics to express their ideas about word meaning; what Frege termed 'sense'.

1. Pragmatics The study of language as it is used in a social context, including its effect on the interlocutors.

2. The branch of semiotics that deals with the relationship between signs, especially words and other elements of language, and their users.

Descriptive linguistics

In the study of language, description, or descriptive linguistics, is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is spoken (or how it was spoken in the past) by a group of people in a speech community. All scholarly research in linguistics is descriptive; like all other sciences, its aim is to observe the linguistic world as it is, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be. Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Leonard Bloomfield and others. Descriptivism is the belief that description is more significant or important to teach, study, and practice than prescription. Linguistic description is often contrasted with linguistic prescription, which is found especially in education and in publishing. Prescription seeks to define standard language forms and give advice on effective language use, and can be thought of as a presentation of the fruits of descriptive research in a learnable form, though it also draws on more subjective aspects of language aesthetics. Prescription and description are complementary, but have different priorities and sometimes are seen to be in conflict. Accurate description of real speech is a difficult problem, and linguists have often been reduced to approximations. Almost all linguistic theory has its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. Phonology (and its theoretical developments, such as the phoneme) deals with the function and interpretation of sound in language. Syntax has developed to describe the rules concerning how words relate to each other in order to form sentences. Lexicology collects "words" and their derivations and transformations: it has not given rise to much generalized theory. An extreme "mentalist" viewpoint denies that the linguistic description of a language can be done by anyone but a competent speaker. Such speakers have internalized something called "linguistic competence", which gives them the ability to extrapolate correctly from their experience new but correct expressions, and to reject unacceptable expressions.There are tens of thousands of linguistic descriptions of thousands of languages that were prepared by people without adequate linguistic training. A linguistic

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description is considered descriptively adequate if it achieves one or more of the following goals of descriptive linguistics:

1. A description of the phonology of the language in question.

2. A description of the morphology of words belonging to that language.

3. A description of the syntax of well-formed sentences of that language.

4. A description of lexical derivations.

5. A documentation of the vocabulary, including at least one thousand entries.

6. A reproduction of a few genuine texts.

 Applied linguistics 

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology. Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography, language planning and policies, pragmatics, forensic linguistics, and translation.

Linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages, and has grown over the past 100 years to encompass almost any aspect of language structure and use.[1]Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[2]

"Linguistic anthropology"

Dell Hymes was largely responsible for launching the second paradigm that fixed the name "linguistic anthropology" in the 1960s, though he also coined the term "ethnography of speaking" (or "ethnography of communication") to describe the agenda he envisioned for the field. It would

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involve taking advantage of new developments in technology, including new forms of mechanical recording.A new unit of analysis was also introduced by Hymes. Whereas the first paradigm focused on ostensibly distinct "languages" (scare quotes indicate that contemporary linguistic anthropologists treat the concept of "a language" as an ideal construction covering up complexities within and "across" so-called linguistic boundaries), the unit of analysis in the second paradigm was new—the "speech event." (The speech event is an event defined by the speech occurring in it—a lecture, for example—so that a dinner is not a speech event, but a speech situation, a situation in which speech may or may not occur.) Much attention was devoted to speech events in which performers were held accountable for the form of their linguistic performance as such.[5][6]Hymes also pioneered a linguistic anthropological approach to ethnopoetics.Hymes had hoped to link linguistic anthropology more closely with the mother discipline. The name certainly stresses that the primary identity is with anthropology, whereas "anthropological linguistics" conveys a sense that the primary identity of its practitioners was with linguistics, which is a separate academic discipline on most university campuses today (not in the days of Boas and Sapir). However, Hymes' ambition in a sense backfired; the second paradigm in fact marked a further distancing of the subdiscipline from the rest of anthropology.

"Anthropological linguistics"

The first paradigm was originally referred to as "linguistics", although as it and its surrounding fields of study matured it came to be known as "anthropological linguistics". The field was devoted to themes unique to the subdiscipline—linguistic documentation of languages then seen as doomed to extinction (these were the languages of native North America on which the first members of the subdiscipline focused) such as:

Grammatical description,

Typological classification (see typology), and

The unresolved issue of linguistic relativity (associated with Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf but actually brought to American linguistics by Franz Boas working within a theoretical framework going back to European thinkers from Vico to Herder to Humboldt). The so-called Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis is perhaps a misnomer insofar as the approach to science taken by these two differs from the positivist, hypothesis-driven model of science. In any case, it was Harry Hoijer (Sapir's student) who coined the term.

Neurolinguistics

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A branch of linguistics concerned with the biological basis of language development. Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methodology and theory from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive science, neurobiology, communication disorders, neuropsychology, and computer science. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.

Psycholinguistics

An area of study which draws from linguistics and psychology and focuses upon the comprehension and production of language. Although psychologists have long been interested in language, and the field of linguistics is an older science than psychology, scientists in the two fields have had little contact until the work of Noam Chomsky was published in the late 1950s. Chomsky's writing had the effect of making psychologists acutely aware of their lack of knowledge about the structure of language, and the futility of focusing attention exclusively upon the surface structure of language. As a result, psycholinguists, who have a background of training in both linguistics and psychology, have been attempting since the early 1960s to gain a better understanding of how the abstract rules which determine human language are acquired and used to communicate appropriately created meaningful messages from one person to another via the vocal-auditory medium. Research has been directed to the evolutionary development of language, the biological bases of language, the nature of the sound system, the rules of syntax, the nature of meaning, and the process of language acquisition. psycholinguistics, the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious application of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguists investigate the relationship between language and thought, a perennial subject of debate being whether language is a function of thinking or thought a function of the use of language. However, most

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problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of linguistic performance and language acquisition, especially in children. The work of Noam Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar have had a marked influence on the field. Neurolinguists study the brain activity involved in language use, obtaining much of their data from people whose ability to use language has been impaired due to brain damage.

Stucture of EnglishWe can study the structure of English language in a variety of ways. For example, we can study

classes of words (parts of speech), meanings of words (semantics), with or without considering changes of

meaning,

how words are organized in relation to each other (syntax),

how words are formed (morphology),

the sounds of words (phonology) and

how written forms represent these (lexicography).

The most basic units of meaning are simple words (e.g.: dog, yes and swim) or the elements of complex words (e.g.: un- -happy- and -ness in unhappiness). These basic elements are called morphemes, and the study of how they are combined in words is morphology.

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The study of how words are organized into phrases, clauses and sentences is usually referred to as syntax.

A longer stretch of language is known as discourse, the study of its structure as discourse analysis.

This hierarchy is partly explained by the table below, from David Crystal's The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. The right hand column should be read upwards, in the direction of the arrow.

Outline structure of English

sentencesare analyzed into

clausesare analyzed into

phrasesare analyzed into

wordsare analyzed into

morphemes

↓ ↑

sentencesare used to build

clausesare used to build

phrasesare used to build

wordsare used to build

morphemes

The following table shows a three-part model of the structure of English.

Three-part model of English

Morphology Syntax Discourse

morphemes

words

phrases

clauses

sentences

relationships between sentences in longer stretches of language

MORPHOLOGY

This is the study of the structure of words. The name comes from Greek morphos (=shape or form). The smallest units of meaning may be whole simple words (e.g. man, run, big) or parts of complex words (e.g.un-, -faith- and -ful in unfaithful) which are called morphemes.

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Some morphemes, such as faith in un-faith-ful or dream in dream-ing can stand alone as words which make sense. These are known as free morphemes. You will see how very many simple words are free morphemes, but can combine with other morphemes, both free and bound (see below) to form complex words.

Where two simple words are joined together to form a new complete word, this is called a compound word. Examples include teapot, starlight and careworn. When these terms are first coined, they are shown in some dictionaries with a hyphen, as light-house or fish-finger.

Other morphemes, such as prefixes and suffixes (collectively called affixes), cannot stand alone - they need to be part of a complex word to make sense. Examples are

dis- in dis-miss, dis-pute or dis-grace, -ing in dream-ing,

-ness in happy -ness or sad-ness and even

-s used to form plurals, as in boy-s or horse-s.

These morphemes are said to be bound morphemes.

Inflection and derivation

Bound morphemes are traditionally divided into two further classes. Sometimes a word is changed in its form to show the internal grammar of a sentence (“agreement”). Examples would be plural forms of nouns (dog + s → dog-s) or past (imperfect) tenses of regular verbs (want + ed → want-ed). The study of such changes is inflectional morphology (because the words in question are inflected - altered, in this case by adding a suffix).

Other compound or complex words are made by adding together elements without reference to the internal grammar of a sentence. For example, the verb infect suggests a new verb disinfect (=to undo the action of infecting). New words are often formed by noun + -ize, noun + ism, or verb + able (scandalize, Thatcherism, disposable). The study of such words, “derived” from existing words or morphemes is derivational morphology. The elements of which the word is made may have a grammatical relationship within the word(you may find this idea difficult), but their formation is independent of the syntax of the clause or sentence in which they occur. If you find this puzzling, two things may help:

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Inflectional morphology is much easier to recognize. A relatively small number of types of inflection (showing number or tense, say) covers most cases.

All compound and most complex words show derivational morphology. If a complex word does notshow inflection it will show derivation.

But note: a complex word may show both inflection and derivation! A derived word may be inflected to show, for example, tense or number: deported or disposables (as in nappies).

This table shows how the most common kinds of inflection are found in three word classes:

Inflection of nouns, verbs and qualifiers

Nouns Verbs Adjectives and adverbs

Addition of terminal s to show plural (one cat; two cats);

addition of 's to show possession (Henry's cat).

Ending shows tense (wanted) or person ([she]wants).

Addition of -er → comparative (hotter; likelier);

addition of -est → superlative (coldest; soonest).

This table illustrates how derivation can occur:

Derivational morphology in complex words

Prefix Base of Word Suffix Complex Word

Bi cycl(e) ing Bicycling

Dis grace ful Disgraceful

In tolera(te) able Intolerable

Re vision ist Revisionist

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Un, co operat(e) ive, ly Uncooperatively

Un likely (y becomes i)

hood Unlikelihood

Remember that morphology is the study of the structure of words. The structure of words can also be studied to show how the meaning of a given morpheme, or its relation to the rest of the word, varies from one complex word to another. Consider how sun works in the following words: sunbeam, sunburnt, sundial, sunflower, sunglasses, sunlight, sunrise, sun-spot (scientific sense), sun-spot (tourist sense), suntan. 

Inflection does not really yield “new” words, but alters the form of existing ones for specific reasons of grammar. Derivation, on the other hand, does lead to the creation of new words. There are at least four normal processes of word-formation, of which three are examples of derivation:

Four kinds of word-formation

Prefixation(derivational)

Suffixation(derivational)

Compounding(derivational)

Conversion(not derivational)

Affix placed before base of word, e.g. disobey

Affix placed after base of word, e.g. kindness

Two base forms are added together, e.g.blackbird

Word changes class, without any change of form, e.g. (the) pet (n) becomes (to) pet (vb.)

Words considered as wholes can be categorized according to how they work within phrases, clauses or sentences. These categories, traditionally called parts of speech are now more usually known as word classes. Parts of speech are labels for categories in which words are usually placed. But in a given sentence a word from one category may behave as if it were in another. A dictionary will only record established or standard usage.

The traditional parts of speech were of eight kinds, excluding the two articles (a/an, the). These were nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, and interjections. Modern linguists prefer to list words in classes that are coherent - all the words in them should behave in the same way. But if this principle were applied rigidly, we would have hundreds of classes, so irregularities are tolerated!

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We put words into categories or logical groups, according to how they work within phrases, clauses orsentences. These categories, traditionally called parts of speech are now more usually known as word classes. Parts of speech are labels for categories in which we usually place words. But in a given sentence a word from one category may behave as if it were in another. A dictionary will only record established or standard usage.

The traditional parts of speech were of eight kinds, excluding the two articles (a/an, the). These were

nouns, pronouns,

adjectives,

verbs,

prepositions,

conjunctions,

adverbs, and

interjections.

Modern linguists prefer to list words in classes that are coherent - all the words in them should behave in the same way. But if this principle were applied rigidly, we would have hundreds of classes, so we allow irregularities!

Closed and Open Word Classes

Some classes of words are called closed because they contain a relatively small number of items to which no new words can normally be added. These are the structural words, which include:

words (prepositions and conjunctions) which make connections (connectives or connectors),

pronouns and

words (including articles) like the, some, each that co-occur with nouns - these are calleddeterminers.

Other classes of word are constantly being added to. Each contains a vast number of terms already. They are open to new words being introduced. The open classes are

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nouns, verbs and

the words which qualify them, adjectives and adverbs.

These form the bulk of a language's vocabulary or lexis (also lexicon, though this sometimes refers to a published version). These classes may be called lexical whereas the closed-class words are structural orfunctional. These tables illustrate the two kinds of word class.

Closed Word Classes

Determiner Pronoun Preposition Conjunction

A, the, any, my, those, which

She, them, who, that, himself

In, across, at, by, near, within

And, but, if, or, while, unless

Open Word Classes

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

Abstract: fear, joy

Concrete: chair, mud

Common: boy, town

Proper: Fred, Hull

Transitive: bite, steal

Intransitive: live, cry

Modal: can, will, may

Auxiliary: be, have, do

Descriptive: lazy, tall

Comparative: lazier

Superlative: tallest

Manner: reluctantly, keenly, easily, softly

Time: soon, often

Place: here, there

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Problems of classification

Some words are difficult to classify. Not all grammatical descriptions will place them in the same word class. This, these or those are sometimes classified as demonstrative (or distinctive) adjectives or pronouns. Possessives, like my, his, their, are sometimes classified as pronouns (showing the word from which they are formed), sometimes as adjectives, showing their grammatical function of qualifying nouns: usually they are pronouns when alone (I like that) and adjectives when they precede a noun (I like this cupof tea). Traditional lists of adverbs contain words like very which qualify other adverbs or adjectives. This word class is sometimes called a “dustbin class”, because any word for which there is no obvious class will be put in it! Among words which have sometimes been classified as adverbs are the following: however, just, no, not, quickly, tomorrow and when.

This incoherence has long been recognized by grammarians who subdivide adverbs into further categories, such as adverbs of time, place or manner.

In trying to organize words into coherent classes, linguists will consider any or all of the following:

what they mean (semantics), their form (morphology),

provenance (historical origin or derivation) and

function in a phrase, clause or sentence (syntax).

Some words, such as numbers, do not fit in any of the word classes given above. They can behave as adjectives (one loaf or two?) or pronouns (I want one now!). And no one description of word classes is regarded as finally authoritative. Some classes (such as verbs or conjunctions) are fairly coherent. You should be able to discuss the problems of how or where to classify words which seem not to “fit”.

Also note that a dictionary does not (or should not) prescribe, but indicates the word class or part of speech where a word is usually placed. But in a given sentence, if the speaker or writer has used it as if it were in a different class, then this is where it should be placed.

For example, toilet is usually classified as a noun. But UK primary school teachers often speak of toiletingchildren (I had to toilet John twice today). In describing such a sentence, you should be guided by the internal grammar of the sentence (syntax) rather than the dictionary. Here toilet is a transitive verb. If this usage becomes standard, lexicographers will record it. This kind of word formation is called conversion, a self-explanatory name.

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Every statement is a combination of words, and every statement says something to communicate information. The simplest possible kind of statement - for example, Dogs bark - has two kinds of words in it. It has a what word, dogs, and a what happens word, bark. These kinds of words are the most basic parts of any statement. If a person only says dog, no statement is made, and no information is conveyed. A sound is made that calls to mind a common, four-footed animal, but nothing regarding it is learned.

The what words are called nouns. They tell what is being talked about. They are identifying words, or names. Nouns identify persons, places, or things. They may be particular persons, places, or things:Michael Jackson, Reykjavik, World Trade Center. Or they may be general nouns: singer, town, building.Concrete nouns indicate things that can be seen such as car, teapot, and potato. Abstract nouns denote concepts such as love, honesty,and beauty.

The what happens words are called verbs. They are the action words in a statement. Without them it is impossible to put sentences together. It is the verb that says something about the noun: dogs bark, birds fly, fish swim. Verbs are the important words that create information in statements. Although nouns alone make no statement, verbs can occasionally do so. Help! gives the information that someone is in trouble, and Go away! tells someone or something emphatically to leave.

Besides nouns and verbs there are other kinds of words that have different functions in statements. They arepronouns, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, and a very few words that can be calledfunction words because they fit into none of the other categories. All of these kinds of words together are called parts of speech. They can just as well be called parts of writing because they apply to written as well as to spoken language.

NOUNS AND ARTICLES

Nouns can be particular or general: the house, a house. The words the and a are articles, or, in more technical terms, determiners. A house can be any house, but the house is a quite definite building. When a noun begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u, and, occasionally, y) the indefinite article a becomes an for the sake of easier pronunciation - an apple, an elephant, an orange. Sometimes an is used before words that start with h, especially if the h is silent: an honorary degree. If the h is sounded a is the standard form: an ’otel, ahat.

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Nouns can be singular or plural in number: cat, cats. In some cases es is added to make nouns plural:dress, dresses. Some nouns change their forms in the plural, without adding an s: foot, feet; man, men; mouse, mice; goose, geese Some nouns do not change at all in the plural: sheep, fowl.

There are also group nouns, called noun phrases. This means that two or more nouns, or a noun and an adjective, are put together to form what amounts to, or works like, one noun: football stadium, rock concert, orange tree. In each case certain nouns - football, rock, orange - are attached to other nouns, and each modifies or describes the second noun in some way to convey a different kind of object. A football and a football stadium are two entirely different things, though they both have to do with the same game.

Some nouns are one-of-a-kind names: Suez Canal, Elvis Presley, Empire State Building. Also called proper nouns, they are capitalized to set them off from general nouns. Sometimes adjectives (words that describe nouns) are also capitalized. This normally happens when the adjective is made from a proper noun, especially a place or person: American literature, English countryside, Elizabethan theatre.

Nouns are used in different ways: The dog barks. The man bit the dog. In the first case, dog is the actor, or the one that initiates the action of the verb. In the second case, dog is acted upon. In The dog barks, dog is the subject of the verb. In “The man bit the dog”, dog is the object of the verb.

Sometimes a noun is the indirect object of a verb: He gave the dog a bone. Bone is the direct object; it is what was given. Because it was given to the dog, dog is considered the indirect object of the action.

Nouns can also be objects of prepositions - words like to, in, for, and by - so the above sentence could read: He gave a bone to the dog. The words to the dog are called a prepositional phrase.

Some verb forms take nouns as objects: Drinking milk is good for you. In this sentence, milk is the object of the verbal form drinking. Such a combination of verb and noun is called a verbal phrase.

Nouns can show possession: The dog's collar is on the table. The collar is possessed, or owned, by the dog. All possession does not indicate ownership, however. In The building's roof is black, the roof is on, but not owned by, the building. Adding an apostrophe [ ' ] and an s to a noun shows possession: the cat's tongue, the woman's purse. If the noun is plural (stands for more than one thing) or already has an s, then often only an apostrophe need be added: the mothers' union (that is, a union of many mothers). The word of may also be used to show possession: the top of the house, the light of the candle, the Duke of Wellington.

PRONOUNS

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There are several words that are used to replace nouns. They are called pronouns. Pro in Greek means "for" or "in place of". Some are called personal pronouns because they take the place of specific names of persons, places, or thing, as in: Has Fred arrived? Yes, he is here. Here he is the personal pronoun that replaces Fred. As indicated in the table, there are both subject and object personal pronouns as well as those that show possession. In His house is the white and green one, his is a personal possessive pronoun.

Personal pronouns: subjects, objects and possessives

Singular Subject Object Possessive

First person I me my, mine

Second person you you your, yours

Third person he, she, it (one) him, her, it (one)

his, her, hers, its (one's)

Plural Subject Object Possessive

First person we us our, ours

Second person you you your, yours

Third person they them their, theirs*

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*Some authorities give my, your, his, her, our, your and their as possessive adjectives or pronominaladjectives, as they qualify nouns.

Some personal pronouns are formed by the addition of -self or -selves as a suffix: myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.

Demonstrative pronouns - this, that, these, those - refer to particular people or things. This is mine, and thatis yours. The demonstrative words can also

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be used as adjectives: this house, those cars.

Pronouns that refer to people or things in general are called indefinite pronouns. Like the demonstrative pronouns, they can be used as adjectives: another day, both animals, many weeks.

The words who, whose, whom, that, which, and what are called relative pronouns. (The word that can be a demonstrative or a relative pronoun.) They create relative clauses in a sentence: The committee, which met last night, discussed your report. The words which met last night form a relative clause that describes the subject of the main clause, the committee.

When a relative pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence such as Who ate the pizza?, it is classed as an interrogative pronoun. Interrogate means “ask” (questions).

VERBS

Verbs are the action words in a statement. They tell what is happening - what a noun is doing or what is being done to it, or the state of being, becoming, thinking or feeling. A verb with a subject, which will be in a particular tense is a finite verb. Without a subject it will be the infinitive form (for example, to think, to dream) or a gerund (the present participle, used as a noun: smoking is bad for you).

When a verb denotes what a noun is doing, the noun is said to be the subject of the verb: The man speaks.(Here man is the subject of the verb.) When the verb denotes what is being done to a noun, the noun is theobject of the verb: The man eats jelly. Here the noun jelly is the direct object of the verb. Verbs can also take indirect objects: Parents give children toys. In this sentence, toys is the direct object, (what is given) and children is the indirect object. The parents do not give children; they give toys.

Verbs that take objects are called transitive verbs, and those that normally do not take an object areintransitive verbs (but note that an intransitive verb may be used transitively in non-standard speech or writing). Some common transitive verbs are: tell, give, show, eat, buy, take, and see. Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive: Tell a story (transitive), and Time will tell (intransitive). Verbs like sleep, walk, rest, come, and go are nearly always intransitive. The most common verb of all, to be, is intransitive in all of its forms: am, are, is, was, were, and been.

Tenses (time signals): Verb tenses tell the time when an action takes place. Any action or condition may be in the past, present, or future: he was, he is, he will be. Most common verbs simply add an -ed to show the past time, or form the past tense, as it is normally called. Thus walk becomes walked. Other verbs, sometimes

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called irregular (or strong) verbs, do not add -ed. Instead they undergo an internal change: sing, sang, sung; fly, flew, flown; go, went, gone.

Auxiliary verbs: In the sentence She will sing even though he cannot stay, the verbs will and cannot are called auxiliary, or helper, verbs. Other auxiliary verbs are the incomplete or modal verbs: can, could, may, might, shall, should, and would.

The various forms of the verb to be can also be used as auxiliaries: I am going. He was singing. They have been shopping. The verb have - and its other forms has and had - are also common auxiliaries to indicate past action.

Participles: The verb form used with auxiliaries is the participle. There is a present participle, talking, and a past participle, talked. Thus, a person can say either I talk (present tense) or I am talking (present continuous) to show present action and I talked (imperfect), I have talked (perfect), or I had talked(pluperfect) to show past action. When a present participle is used with an auxiliary verb, the purpose is to show continuing or ongoing action. She is doing the laundry. He was speaking when someone interrupted him. Note that this uses a present participle with a past tense auxiliary verb (was) to indicate continuouspast action.

Verb flexibility: Verbs and verb forms can be used in a number of ways in sentences. A verb can be the subject of a statement (To walk is good exercise) or its object (I like to walk). In each case, the infinitive form to walk is used as a noun. Participles can be used in the same way: He likes swimming. Flying is great sport. In the first sentence, swimming is the object of the verb, and in the second, flying is the subject.

Verb forms can also be used as adjectives, or words that describe nouns. In a wrecked car, the wordwrecked is a past participle used as an adjective.

Occasionally a verb form or verb phrase can be used as an adverb: He was pleased to meet her. The phrase to meet her modifies the adjective pleased.

 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words, sometimes called modifiers because they restrict meaning. They add detail to statements. The difference between the two is that

adjectives modify only nouns, pronouns, and verb forms used as nouns;

adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

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Adjective function: An adjective may be a single word: blue, tall, funny, warm. As a single word, it may come before the noun - the blue sky - or after the verb - the sky is blue. Adjectives may be positive (tall), comparative (taller) or superlative (tallest). Adjective phrases usually follow the noun they describe: the girlwith blond hair. The phrase with blond hair describes girl. Adjective clauses also usually follow the noun: The child who finds the most Easter eggs wins. The clause who finds the most Easter eggs modifies child.

Adverb function: The most common use of an adverb, of course, is to describe verbs: He ran quickly. Actually, however, adverbs can modify anything but nouns (or verb forms used as nouns). Typically adverbs express:

time (now, then) manner (happily, easily)

degree (less, more, very)

direction and place (there, up, down)

affirmation or negation (certainly, not)

cause and result (thus, consequently), and

qualification or doubt (however, probably).

Although many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives (quick, quickly; happy, happily), adverbs have no characteristic form. They must be identified by the function they perform in a sentence. In the sentenceThat is a fast car, fast is an adjective. But in He ran fast, it is an adverb.

Certain adverbs (how, when, where, why, whenever, and wherever) are called relative adverbs because they introduce relative clauses in a sentence: The keys are upstairs where you left them. The clause where you left them modifies the adverb upstairs.

Other adverbs are called conjunctive adverbs because they join one clause with another. Some of these adverbs are: therefore, accordingly, besides, furthermore, instead, meanwhile, and nevertheless. In the sentence He was tired; therefore he stayed home, the word therefore modifies the clause of which it is a part and connects that clause to the previous part of the sentence. Note that therefore is not to be used as a conjunction, hence the semi-colon.

CONJUCTIONS

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Conjunctions are joining words: they connect words, phrases, or entire clauses. There are two general kinds of conjunctive words: coordinate and subordinate.

Coordinate conjunctions join elements that are grammatically the same: two or more words, two equivalent phrases, or two equivalent clauses. The most common coordinate conjunctions are: and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet.

Red and white (two equal words joined in a phrase). Taking walks and looking at nature (two equal phrases in a relative

clause).

She ran to the corner, but she missed the bus (two equal clauses in a complete sentence).

A correlative conjunction is a special kind of coordinate conjunction. It connects equivalent elements, but it works in pairs of words: both, and; either, or; neither, nor; whether, or; not only, but also.

He wants both money and power. Neither money nor power matters.

Either she will go, or she will stay.

Subordinate conjunctions. While coordinate conjunctions connect equal grammatical elements, subordinate conjunctions introduce dependent or conditional clauses.

Although she has money, she buys few luxuries. Because he was late, he missed the train.

After the movie is over, we shall have dinner.

Other word uses. Words that normally operate as conjunctions can often be used in other ways: as adverbs, prepositions, adjectives, or even pronouns.

We have met before. (Here before is an adverb). Before they leave, let us have dinner. (Here before is a conjunction).

There are other words besides conjunctions that serve as connectors (or connectives) in sentences. The relative pronouns who and which are often so used.

That is the man who was speaking to her. The dessert is strawberries, which give him a rash.

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Some of the conjunctions work both as adverbs and conjunctions in the same sentence. This is often true ofconsequently, however, therefore, and nevertheless.

He was ill; nevertheless he went to work. She disliked work; consequently she lost her job.

Note the semi-colon [ ; ]. This is standard here but is non-standard before but or and. (This appears to be changing, as speakers and writers treat words like nevertheless as conjunctions.)

It is possible to make clauses with conjunctions into separate sentences, especially when writing for literary effect.

He did it. And he was glad. Stay away from here. Unless you want trouble.

In the second case the clause is so obviously dependent that it would not stand alone as a sentence and make sense. It can only be written that way for emphasis or some other effect.

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words or groups of words, that introduce phrases; and these phrases modify some element in a sentence. What follows a preposition is normally a noun, pronoun, or noun clause. A word that follows a preposition is its object, and, in the case of pronouns especially, this affects the form of the word.

He walked near her (never He walked near she). He gave them to her and me (never He gave them to she and I or He

gave them to her and I).

One of the problems in spotting prepositions in a sentence is that many of the words that are usually prepositions can also be used as adverbs.

He never saw them before. (Here before is an adverb). They sat before the counter. (Here before is a preposition,and the

whole prepositional phrase serves as an adverb, modifying sat).

SYNTAX

Parts of speech, or word categories, indicate what words usually do, or may be expected to do. Some of these categories - such as nouns and pronouns - make sense when we consider words in isolation. Others - such as

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conjunctions or prepositions - only make sense within a longer structure, a phrase, clause orsentence.

Note that these three terms are traditional, and do not easily describe how strings of language work. All are broad categories. The sentence, especially, is much more characteristic of written than of spoken English, and of formal rather than informal usage. Alternatively, we may say that spoken English contains sentence types not usually found in writing.

The internal grammar of phrases, clauses and sentences refers to the principles (sometimes mistakenly called “rules”) of structure and organization. Be aware of the tension between model structures devised for textbooks and guides for learners of the language, and the syntax of real sentences (those you have found in speech or writing), which you are subjecting to analysis.

A phrase is a useful all-purpose name for any short sequence of words (or even a single word, considered as an element in the structure of a clause or sentence), especially a grouping which could be replaced by a single word. A phrase which works like, or equates to, a noun is a noun phrase, one which qualifies a verb is an adverb phrase and so on.

A clause may be short or long, but must contain at least one main, finite verb. A short clause may in fact be identical with a verb phrase: the two terms reflect differences of emphasis or analysis in regard to the language string in question.

If you are analysing a sentence, you will look first for clauses; if you wish to see how words have been combined in simple

sequences, you will look for phrases.

Phrases are especially important for analysing spoken data, and some kinds of written text (such as advertisements or information leaflets) where (written) sentence forms are not considered essential.

PHRASES

Noun phrases

The noun phrase (NP) is the main construction which can be the object, subject or complement of a clause. It must contain a noun or noun-like word (such as a pronoun) which is the main element, and which is called the head. It may contain other elements, either before or after the head. These could includepredeterminers, determiners, postdeterminers, premodifiers and postmodifiers. The examples in the table below show how noun phrases can grow in length, while their structure remains fairly clear.

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Noun Phrases

Noun phrase structureVerb

phrase

Predeterminer

Determiner

Postdeterminer

PremodifierHea

dPostmodifie

r

(not part of noun

phrase)

        Buns  are for sale.

  The     buns  are for sale.

All the   currant buns  are for sale.

Not quite all the   currant buns  are for sale.

Not quite all the  hot tasty currant

buns  are for sale.

Not quite all the  hot tasty currant

buns on the tableare for sale.

Not quite all the manyhot tasty currant

bunson show on the table

are for sale.

Not quite all the very manyfine hot tasty currant

bunswhich I cooked

are for sale.

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Adjective phrases

These are usually formed from an intensifier, followed by the head (an adjective, shown underlined below). Examples include very happy, not too awkward, and cold enough. They may also be formed from an adjective and a verb construction, such as easy to please, loath to do it.

Adverb phrases

These are intensifying expressions formed from an intensifier (optional), followed by the head (an adverb, shown underlined below), followed by a postmodifier (optional). Examples would be: terribly slowly, veryhappily indeed, exceptionally carefully, completely utterly dangerously, quite often and very soon.

Prepositional phrases (adverbials/adjectivals)

These are formed from the head (a preposition, shown underlined in the examples), followed by a noun phrase. Examples of prepositional phrases are in the teapot, on the toilet, and round the bend.

They may be called adverbials since their usual function is to qualify a verb in the same way as an adverb does. You can test this by replacing a given prepositional phrase with an adverb - for example: Fred swam in the river and Fred swam swiftly. Both of these are grammatically standard forms.

They may also function as adjectives: the pirate with the wooden leg.

Pronoun phrases

These are restricted to a small number of constructions, and are sometimes regarded as a minor type of noun phrase. They are formed from a head (a pronoun, shown in bold below) with a pre- or postmodifier. Examples would be: Silly me! You there! she herself, we all, nearly everyone, and such relative clause types as those who knew Fred.

Verb phrases

These are quite simple syntactically, although the verb in them may contain important grammatical information, such as tense, number, active or passive voice and so on. (All of these are explained above in the section on word categories). One or more auxiliaries may precede the head (a verb participle, shown in bold below). Examples would be: has died, may have gone, might

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have been listening. You may be puzzled by the simplicity of these models. Don't be. In order to explain the more complex function of verbs in the predicates of sentences (what they say about their subject), we use the structural model of the clause.

Sentences and clauses

In the syntax of English and other modern European languages, such as Dutch, French, German or Italian, the two most important structures are almost certainly clauses and sentences. Please note that:

the sentence as we know it, is not found in all languages the sentence is not a necessary structure in natural language

many written texts and most spoken data are not organized into regular sentence forms

Before you look at descriptions of either structure, you may wonder why they appear together in the heading above. This is because neither makes sense without the other. Writers of language textbooks may put either of them ahead of the other, depending upon whether their structural model builds (or synthesises) smaller structures into larger ones (“bottom up”) or analyses larger structures into smaller ones (“top down”). This is explained at the start of this guide, and briefly again below, under the heading Building or analysing? This guide places clauses before sentences, in keeping with its "bottom up" or synthetic approach. You should try to explain the subject with both synthetic and analytic models.

Clauses

We can understand a clause in several ways. Simply it can be seen as a verb and the words or phrases which cluster round it. One linguist describes it as "a structural unit smaller than a sentence but larger than phrases or words". The problem here is that in some cases a clause may appear identical with a sentence or phrase, but the term we use tells us about a different structural feature. A more difficult explanation to follow is that a clause is a syntactic unit consisting of a verb, together with its associated subject, objects or complements and adverbials. Note that the only obligatory (“must have”) elements are the subject and the verb (usually, but not always, in this order). So before you can go further, you need to know about these different clause elements (parts of the clause).

Clauses and clauses

You may have met the term clause in other contexts - it is used to identify short passages within longer ones (such as paragraphs) in such texts as legal

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or parliamentary documents. The writers of these will often construct artificial sentences which are broken into a series of clauses, so that these can be named. This allows us to write such things as "Paragraph x , clause y of the Sale of Goods Act, 1979 protects consumers." Here clause identifies the unit of syntax (and its meaning or semantic content) but may not in every case exactly match the models explained here or in grammatical reference works.

CLAUSE ELEMENTS

These are well worth learning about, as you will certainly want to use them to explain the syntax of language data you are studying in exams or investigations. If you are not able to describe or identify clause types, it is usually acceptable and always helpful to consider how these elements work together. You may use them to explain how sentences work, also. They are:

subject (S), object (O), verb (V), complement (C), adverbial (A)

Subject

The subject is a noun or noun phrase, pronoun or subordinate clause.o The dog was sick. Fred felt funny. (noun)

o Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun. (noun phrase)

o I am happy. They are jealous. (pronoun.)

o What she said is untrue. (subordinate clause)

In this kind of analysis a series of noun phrases is a single clause element.

Pronouns used as subject are in the subject case (I, she, they not me, her, them)

The subject controls singular-plural verb agreement (You go; she goes) and agreement of reflexive pronoun objects (I injured myself; they amused themselves)

A subject is usually present in a clause, but it may be omitted in non-standard (especially spoken) structures (Drinks like a fish. Gets here when?) or imperatives (Listen to this).

Object

These usually follow the verb. They may be direct or indirect.

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o Direct object: Fred bit his thumb. The chimpanzees groomed each other.

o Indirect object: Jane gave the gorilla a kiss. Jane gave a kiss to the gorilla. (Note that here there is also a direct object = a kiss)

Just as with subjects, they may be nouns, noun phrases, pronouns or subordinate clauses.

Just as subjects are, pronouns are in the appropriate (object) case (me, her, them).

As above, reflexive pronoun objects agree with their subjects (They amused themselves).

But unlike subject, the object has no effect on agreement of verb.

Verb

This is the central and obligatory element. A clause must contain at least one verb phrase, whichmay be a single verb: Jesus wept. They are drowning. The cow jumped over the moon.

The choice of verb will largely determine what other elements are in the clause.

The verb usually has a subject. A transitive verb is one which takes a direct object. (Strictly this is a tautology since transitive = “taking a direct object”)

Complement

Complement (verb) means “go with”. (Do not confuse with compliment). In clause syntax, thecomplement is anything which adds to the meaning of the subject (subject complement) or object (object complement).

Subject complement usually follows the verb. The most common verb for a subject complement is the verb to be, but some other verb may be substituted where the meaning of be is expressed. These are called copular (= linking) verbs or simply copulas. In the examples complements are in red type, copular verbs underlined: She is a doctor. That smells heavenly. The students are feeling dazed and confused.

Object complement usually follows the direct object: Sunshine makes me very happy. The voters elected Clinton president of the USA.

Adverbials

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These clause elements add to or complete the meaning of the verb element. They may be single adverbs. But they also include nouns, noun or verb phrases and subordinate clauses: They ranquickly. He went home twice nightly. We walked on the playground. My friend phoned me this morning. I was happy when I saw her again.

Adverbials may appear in several positions in the clause, but are most common at the end: Often I dream. I often dream. I dream often.

Adverbials may perform different functions:

o Adding information: I walked quietly.

o Linking clauses: The bus was full. However, Fred found a seat.

o Adding a comment on what is expressed: Quite frankly we disapprove of violence.

Some verbs (like put) must have an adverbial to complete their meaning: Please put the gun down. The path runs around the field.

Vocatives

These are optional elements used to show the person to whom a sentence is addressed. They may occur in various positions in the clause. They include names, titles, evaluative labels, the pronounyou and certain kinds of clause:

o John, it's me.

o It's me, darling.

o Hello, Susan, how are you?

o You silly person, what do you mean?

o Honey, I shrank the kids.

o Come out, whoever you are.

o Come in, ladies, and sit down.

o Madam Speaker, I will give way.

CLAUSE FUNCTIONS

Coordinate clauses

The simplest sentences may contain a single clause. (Simple is a standard description of one kind of sentence.) Where a sentence contains more than

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one clause, these may be considered of equal grammatical importance. If this is so, these are coordinate clauses. They are joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as and or but. (Some grammarians call the first clause of the sentence the main clause, and the others coordinate clauses). Here are some examples. Apart from the conjunctions (or, so and and, everything else is a main/coordinate clause):

You can travel by tube, you can drive or you can take the train. The weather was hot, so I went on my bike.

Lucy opened her window, and in came Count Dracula.

Subordinate clauses

Sometimes the clauses are placed in a hierarchy: the more important ones are main clauses, while the less important are subordinate clauses. A main or coordinate clause could stand on its own as a sentence, but a subordinate clause works only within a sentence. A subordinate clause can do the job of other clause elements. It can work as subject, object, complement and adverbial, as in these examples:

Subordinate subject clause: What you say is stupid.

Clause as subject = What you say; main clause = X is stupid, verb = is

Subordinate object clause: I did not know that you were here.

Clause as object = that you were here; main clause = I did not know X; verb = did not know

Subordinate complement clause: Your first job is learning this grammar.

Clause as complement = learning this grammar; main clause = Your first job is X; verb = is

Subordinate adverbial clause: Come round when you're ready.

Clause as adverbial = when you're ready; main clause = Come round (X); verb = Come

Clauses that function as subject, object or complement replace noun phrases, so they are called nominal clauses. Those that function as adverbs/adjectives are adverbial/adjectival clauses.

Some other kinds of nominal clauses are shown below. For clarity, they are all shown in object position. This is not the only place where they may occur, but is the most common.

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That clause: I think (that) you know each other. (That may be omitted if understood.)

Wh- clause: I know what you did last summer. (Clause introduced by who, when, what, why, whether.)

-ing clause: I don't recall seeing her there. (Clause introduced by present participle.)

inf. clause: I wish to confess to my crimes. (Clause introduced by to + infinitive.)

Adverbial clauses

These are introduced by a subordinating conjunction, which explains the adverbial meaning of the clause. These include when/before/after/while (time); because/since (reason); if/unless/lest (condition), as in these examples:

When the bell sounds, you may leave the room. We cannot send you the goods, because we are out of stock.

Unless you are good, Father Christmas will bring you nothing.

Two minor types of adverbial clause are inf. and -ing clauses.

Inf. clause: I went to the shop to buy some presents. (Clause introduced by to + infinitive.)

-ing clause: Jane broke her arm while fighting. (Clause introduced by present participle.)

Adjectival clauses

A familiar type is the relative clause, introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, which), as in these examples:

Here is the woman (whom) I married. This is the book (which) I am reading.

The drink (that) I most like is orange-juice.

The relative pronouns are in brackets, as they may be omitted if understood.

Two minor types of adjectival clause are -ing and -ed clauses.

-ing clause: The train now standing at platform four is the 5.30 to Leeds.

-ed clause: She is the celebrity pursued by the press.

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Since past participles do not all end in -ed we may find other verb forms in such clauses: The tea drunk by the students or the exam taken by the pupils.

Clause elements may be single words of the appropriate category, they may be phrases or even some kinds of subordinate clause. Explaining even simple structures is difficult. Verbal explanations are less easy to make than diagrams. These work best when there is a hierarchical level, as sentences are analysed intoclauses, which are further analysed into (more clauses and) phrases, which are analysed into words, which are analysed into morphemes.

In an exam, you are very unlikely to be required to analyse long sequences. Use clause analysis (or phrase analysis) selectively, to establish some point about language acquisition (learning to make or understand structures), about language and society (how structures embody social attitudes to language), language change (how structures or paradigms change over time) or stylistics (how structures embody style).

SENTENCE MODEL

In many respects, sentences can be analysed in the same terms as clauses, that is separating the elements into the categories of subject, object, verb, complement and adverbial.

However, sentences are also described in terms of:

how clauses are arranged functions of the sentence

traditional patterns which are used for particular effects in speech and writing

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Simple sentences

The most basic sentence form contains a single clause. This is known as a simple sentence:

Mary had a little lamb. Coffee is intoxicating.

Down fell the rain.

Compound sentences

A compound sentence joins two coordinate clauses together:

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Mary had a little lamb and took it to school. I drank some coffee and could not sleep.

Here is a wug and here are two wugs.

Multiple sentences

A multiple sentence links clauses of essentially similar type, with coordinating conjunctions.

I came home, sat down, put the kettle on, lit the fire and sat down with a book.

Complex sentences

A complex sentence uses subordination to link clauses. It is not necessarily very "complex" in the everyday sense (that is, difficult to analyse), but it may be:

I hope that she will come. Lest you forget, here is my address.

Having played football and cycled home, I sat in the bath, thinking of how to spend the evening, which loomed before me promisingly, while downstairs in the kitchen the kettle boiled vigorously.

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Introduction to Stylistics

is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. As a discipline it links literary criticism and linguistics, but has no autonomous domain of its own.[1][2] The preferred object of stylistic studies is literature, but not exclusively "high literature" but also other forms of written texts such as text from the domains of advertising, pop culture, politics or religion.[3]

also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception ofmeaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.

•  in linguistics refers to the identification of patterns of usage in speech and writing.

•  in literary studies is usually made for the purpose of commenting on quality and meaning in a text

Stylistics can be by and large described as the study of style of language usage in different contexts, either linguistic, or situational. Yet, it seems that due to the complex history and variety of investigated issues of this study it is difficult to state precisely what stylistics is, and to mark clear boundaries between it and other branches of linguistics which deal with text analysis. What has been the primary interest of stylistics for years is the analysis of the type, fluctuation, or the reason for choosing a given style as in any language a single thought can be expressed in a number of ways depending on connotations, or desired result that the message is to produce. Therefore, stylistics is concerned with the examination of grammar, lexis, semantics, as well as phonological properties and discursive devices. It might seem that the same issues are investigated by sociolinguistics, and indeed that is the case, however sociolinguistics analyses the above mentioned issues seen as

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dependant on the social class, gender, age, etc, while stylistics is more interested in the significance of function that the style fulfills. Moreover, stylistics examines oral and written texts in order to determine crucial characteristic linguistic properties, structures and patterns influencing perception of the texts. Thus, it can be said that this branch of linguistics is related to discourse analysis, in particular critical discourse analysis, and pragmatics. Owing to the fact that at the beginning of the development of this study the major part of the stylistic investigation was concerned with the analysis of literary texts it is sometimes called literary linguistics, or literary stylistics. Nowadays, however, linguists study various kinds of texts, such as manuals, recipes, as well as novels and advertisements. It is vital to add here that none of the text types is discriminated and thought to be more important than others. In addition to that, in the recent years so called ‘media-discourses’ such as films, news reports, song lyrics and political speeches have all been within the scope of interest of stylistics. Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people’s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution ofsentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals.

Each text scrutinized by stylistics can be viewed from different angles and as fulfilling at least a few functions. Thus, it is said that texts have interpersonal function, ideational function and textual function. When describing a function several issues are taken into consideration. Therefore, interpersonal function is all about the relationship that the text is establishing with its recipients, the use of either personal or impersonal pronouns is analyzed, as well as the use of speech acts, together with the tone and mood of the statement.

When describing the ideational function linguists are concerned with the means of representing the reality by the text, the way the participants are represented, as well as the arrangement of information in clauses and sentences.

The textual function is the reference of sentences forwards and backwards which makes the text cohesive and coherent, but also other discursive devices such as ellipsis, repetition, anaphora are studied. In addition to that the effectiveness of chosen stylistic properties of the texts are analyzed in order to determine their suitability to the perceived function, or contribution to overall interpretation.

Linguists dealing with a sub-branch of stylistics called pedagogical stylistics

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support the view that this field of study helps learners to develop better foreign language competence. What is more, it is thought that being acquainted with stylistics makes student more aware of certain features of language and to implement the knowledge in their language production on all levels: phonological, grammatical, lexical and discursive. Also empirical findings support the view that stylistics helps students improve their reading and writing skills.

Stylistics is an area of study where the linguist combines with the critic so as

to achieve a better or fuller understanding and appreciation of literature.

Stylistics also exploits one's knowledge of the variety of linguistic features

present in the literature to deepen one's awareness of the literature.

According to Mick Short, stylistics is a linguistic approach to the study of

literary texts (Short, 1996:334). In other words, stylistics is a tool that

analyses literary texts using linguistic descriptions. In his book, Exploring the

Language of Poems,Plays and Prose 1996, Mick Short suggests the following

language features to be examined for a stylistic analysis:

i)  foregrounded features, including figures of speech

ii) whether any patterns of style variation can be discerned

iii) discoursal patterning of various kinds, like turn-taking or patterns of inferencing

iv) patterns of viewpoint manipulation, including speech and thought presentation

v) patterns of lexis (vocabulary)

vi) patterns of grammatical organisation

vii) patterns of textual organisation (how the units of textual organisation, from sentences to paragraphs and beyond are arranged).

Stylistics, predominantly, has been geared towards literary text description.  It uses linguistic descriptions to analyse a literary text.  When one reads, one wants to understand and respond to the literary text through the language of the literary text.  A stylistic analysis helps one to examine the language of the literary text.  In the academic setting, as linguists work with literary texts by applying the principles of linguistic theory, more and more about literary language can be learnt.

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Understanding Literature

The term literature is familiar to most of us because of years of schooling. Stop for a moment and think about what you associate with that word:

The Common Experience

books with formal language  studying and finding themes

English classes, reading, tests 

plot, setting, theme, character, and style

stories, novels, poetry metaphors

Writing that is "not true"just for entertainmenta requirement to graduate

The American "school kid" might find it strange that every culture all over the world and throughout time has produced literature and seems to value it very highly--so highly in fact, that each culture consideres the transmission of its literature as somehow necessary to its survival!

Even in our pluralist, affluent, mass society, literature is big business. Perhaps we view it mainly as just another form of amusement, as a way to spend time we can't think of anything else to do. Whatever the motive, more books are being sold than ever before, and more people are writing them.

In the middle of this mass interest in stories for escape and pleasure, we keep requiring our children to take literature classes as part of the core of their education that will lead to COLLEGE. And once in COLLEGE, people have a variety of literature classes they may take to fulfill even more requirements to get that next degree.

WHY?

This will be one of the questions I will ask you to probe during this quarter's study in World Literature.

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As a start, consider that literature might bring to mind...

delight long rainy afternoons with a warm blanket and a good book

engagement identifying with people and places outside my usual experience

 imagination  reflection, pondering, enlarging my awareness of life and living

The Topics and the Tools:

What's WhatAbout Writers--an aside

Levels of Understanding and Analysis

The Tools for Understanding:The Principles

The Elements

PlotCharacterSettingStyleTheme

 WHAT''S WHAT

First, how may we define the term literature? We cannot simply call it writing because long before writing came about, people told stories and commemorated events and ideas with language and passed them down to their children and to their children's children. Also, certainly not all writing is intended as or is "worthy" to be designated as literature. However, literature is made up of language - language of the highest and often the most moving sort. Highest because it is precise. But precision is not enough; expression is

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everything. The greatest, most enduring writing expresses deeply the human soul, sometimes within narrowest limits, often in broad complexities, but always with the piercing to some essence of human response to life.

In this sense of response to life, literature is imaginative. In fact, the literature studied in classes of that name is often designated imaginative literature. Why imaginative?

Perhaps because it is with the imagination that we may envision, ponder, and even construct and reconstruct what is not literally before our eyes. It is through the imagination that we can select detail to compose a picture for ourselves of an event, a person, a place. The picture we create becomes the vehicle for our discovering meaning -- or creating it.That very picture is what the "literary" writer attempts to paint with words.

Literature becomes, then, a vision of reality. A vision that you, the reader, may enter, explore, understand, and then accept, adapt, or discard. The greater the literature, however, the more difficult to discard its vision totally, no matter how much we may wish because literature of this sort, though perhaps not factual in the usual sense, becomes true indeed.

About Writers: An Aside

At this point, you may be tempted to respond in some such way: Come on. Get real. You can't tell me that writers have all that deep stuff in their brains when they sit down to write. Well, yes and no.

Some writers are quite aware of the issues they wish to present. When this is the case, it's tough to do so in a believable way because "works of art" have an uncanny life of their own, as any artist -- literary, visual, physical, musical -- may confess, often in frustration. Other writers start with only a part of the puzzle -- a character, a situation, a setting, perhaps even some technique -- and start experimenting to see what works. For these writers, writing is partly manipulation, mostly discovery.

At every point, however, there are choices to be made that in turn create new challenges, new discoveries. Because a writer is first a person who writes about some aspect of existence by selecting all along the way certain details to include or omit, a coherent picture emerges -- one whose details may be selected from reality, but because of the very process of selecting, one whose product is not itself real in any objective sense other than words on a page. Hence, that picture becomes a vision of what life is like or may be like.

LEVELS OF UNDERSTANDING AND ANALYSIS

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Because a work of literature is a human expression of a vision of some aspect of life (some creation of order out of the chaos of existence, to use more philosophical language), literature qualifies as an art form that may be approached on several levels. We will identify three levels for our class purposes:

a. the superficial level -- the most obvious level of what we can all agree to (characters, events, physical setting, style, elements, etc.). All understanding at this level arises from the grasping of the specific and particular information actually contained in the work.b. the motivational, or psychological level -- a less obvious level that involves perceiving why elements occur as they do (why characters act in certain ways, why the author made certain choices). At this level, motives may be stated either directly or indirectly in the work, and the reader often must interpret from the context as a whole.c. the meaning, or philosophical level -- this is the level that gets at the artistic vision first, then the significance of it all to the reader. This is the level that addresses the question of so what.

As an art form, literature can be grouped into various genre, or types: short story, novel, poetry, drama, essay -- to name the broadest categories. Each has sub-categories of its own, also referred to as "genre" (science fiction, detective, initiation, fantasy, etc). Although drama is a mixed media form, it and the other genre use the common medium of language and use it in particular ways.

As in other art forms, we may talk about the basic elements that are the author's building blocks for expression and the reader's first "handles" to grasp for analysis and understanding. However, before we describe the various elements, it will be helpful to review the main principles that govern their use (again, as in other art forms).

PRINCIPLES

The chief principles guiding the use of the elements are those guiding most writing: unity, coherence, and development.

By unity, we mean that all parts -- words and elements -- are related to some central purpose that governs their inclusion and use. All relates to the whole and is necessary to it; without any part, the whole would somehow change and become something else. Since most of the selections for college literature courses are works that are generally considered "good" or "quality" or "worthy" because they have been published in widely acclaimed anthologies or periodicals and have received critical recognition, you as a

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student may assume unity with some degree of confidence. This is an advantage to you because when something appears at first glance not to "fit" or to be relevant, you can proceed positively and start to discover some of the threads that connect that element to the whole; that is, you can begin to experiment with interpretation.

Coherence relates to the smoothness of flow between parts of the work. Often structure is plain, and one section moves clearly and logically into the next. Sometimes, however, on the surface of things, you may have no idea where you are going and only in retrospect will be able to detect the pattern that governs movement. Once again, because of the nature of the selections, you are fairly safe to assume coherence and to attempt to discover it.

Development refers to all the detail that "fleshes out" the concepts into a clear picture. It will include descriptive details, characterization detail, elaboration on idea, thoughts, sensory information, and event and their explanations. Some writers give more than you ever thought you needed; others paint mere bare bones. Development in literature that "works" is largely a matter of individual author's consistent style and sometimes reader expectation and demands.

ELEMENTS

The chief elements that we will consider are the traditional ones for fiction: plot, character, setting, style, and theme. These elements are basic to most fiction because the form is narrative whether it be story told in short form, long (novel), drama/film, or even narrative verse.

Fiction refers to narratives whose subjects, events, characters, etc. are largely imaginative and non-factual. This does not mean that all details exist only in the story and not in reality, but that the whole is not to be taken as "literally true." Hence, there are historical fiction and other similar forms.

 Narratives are stories: a character or characters involve themselves in some conflict at which a resolution is intended.

It is the conflict that provides the sine qua non (the without-which-there-is-nothing) of a story. No conflict, no story. No matter how fascinating the characters, how rich the setting, how magnificent the style, how deep the intended theme.

No conflict, no story.  

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Since conflict is central and conflict is the heart of plot, then plot is one place to begin.

PLOT

What is plot? Your immediate response may be something like Plot is what happens in a story. You know, the events -- rising action, climax, falling action -- stuff like that. That is certainly part of it. A German writer, Gustav Freytag, suggested a sort of pyramid structure to classical five-act drama that has been applied often and profitably to all fiction:

1) introduction2) complications and development3) climax4) falling action 5) denouement (a resolution that involves tying together all the threads of the story and in tragedy also involves final catastrophe.

All this is based upon conflict. Basic character and setting exist. Enter problem. The characters, who have certain interests and goals, confront obstacles whether human, societal, natural, or divine (sounds like real life, doesn't it?). Of course, conflict results. The story is created by the sequence of decisions and events that attempt to deal with the obstacles and resolve the dilemmas. If the obstacles are overcome and the goals are reached, we have a happy ending (for the protagonist, at least) and the "stuff" of comedy; if the goals are not reached, we have an unhappy ending for the protagonist and the "stuff" of tragedy.

On the superficial level, we may ask the following questions:

1. Can you identify the sequence of events?2. Can you identify the goals that set these events in motion?3. Can you identify the obstacles that influenced the course of the events?4. Can you identify the plot's resolution by the end of the story and determine if goals have or have not been met?

On the motivational level, the plot involves all the forces acting to create events:

1. What internal forces in the characters influence the events and/or are in conflict? (Internal forces may be values, dreams, personality, instincts, goals, passions, and characteristic traits.)2. What external forces exert influence or are in conflict? (External forces may be historical events, economic conditions, social structure, culture,

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nature, God, Fate, and even other people or groups.)

On the thematic, or philosophical, level, the plot analysis and interpretation involves identification of the central conflict, the classic categories being the following:

a) the person and the self, b) the person and others, c) the person and the environment (physical or social, natural or human-made), and d) the person and the supernatural or the spiritual, traditionally in western literature in the form of God or the gods.

Any or all of the conflicts may be present in a story, but usually one can be defended as the basic (or main) conflict, sometimes unequivocally, sometimes only as a matter of interpretation.

Character

The first thing most students think of when we mention character is character traits. Traits we most commonly think of in terms of adjectives descriptive of personality: aggressive, kind, garrulous, loving, weak, strong, ambitious, proud, etc. The superficial level of analysis involves identification of these along with reference to details from the story that support our labels.

To do this, we must recognize how an author delineates character in a number of ways:

a. through direct exposition -- the author simply tells us what he or she wants us to know;

b. through what other characters say about the character (these comments may be suspect, depending upon the character speaking and the author's

use of that character;c. through the character's actions and choices;

d. through the character's thoughts, if we have access to them;e. through the character's speech;

f. through the character's physical appearance.

A typical plot diagram on the superficial level representing the main plot as the solid line and the sub-plot as the broken line. Each has the same parts:

a = expositionb = rising actionc = climaxd = falling action

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e = denouement, or conclusion

On the psychological level, we may examine causes and effects of traits, whether the character changes or develops, effects of characters upon each other, motivations for choices -- the whys of choice and behavior and relationships -- the what-makes-him-tick aspect that is of far greater interest than mere labels.

On the philosophical level, we may see implications of perspectives, choices, behaviors, and relationships, and we may relate these to our own time, world, and life.

SETTING

To most people, the word setting refers to geographical location and historical period, or to put it more simply, it refers to place and time.

1) Rather than thinking of place as geographical location, I would like to expand -- or contract -- the concept to physical setting that includes all physical characteristics: geographical place, of course, but also other physical surroundings - a neighborhood, a street, a house, a room, colors on the wall, furniture, temperature, etc. -- all the physical features. Why? Because the author selected each detail either consciously or not, so that it all creates the coherent, unified picture. The superficial level identifies these; the motivational level explores the reasons for the choices.

2) Second to physical placement of characters and action is the temporal placement. Historical period plus the year, the season, the month, day, time of day, and even the hour. All of these if they are given. Each detail of placement in time contributes to the psychological effect on both characters and reader (for instance, an aging woman or man alone at dusk in autumn). In addition to these two well-known aspects of setting, we might also consider others because of their contribution to the whole atmosphere of the story.

3) The third aspect of setting to identify is the combination of the lifestyle of the character(s), which is heavily influenced and represented by occupation(s). For instance, the setting of a Washington attorney will be very different than the setting for a Washington street person (although their worlds might be made to overlap interestingly in a larger context of a story).

4) The fourth and last aspect of setting we will identify is the general environment created by the psychological and philosophical atmosphere of the story. This part of setting may be heavily connected to history or character, but it becomes an aspect of setting when it is drawn as a backdrop of choice and action.

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STYLE

Style is often dispensed with as "the way the author writes - the word choice." This may sound simple, but when requested to analyze it, many students will find themselves asking what on earth the definition means!

Style may be anything from choice of a word such as tintinnabulation as opposed to sound to choice of a whole characteristic vocabulary such as that of a "kid from the Bronx." This is why style may seem to make a story easy or difficult to access. Think of your first experience with Shakespeare. I can guarantee that it wasn't plot, character, or setting that most got in your way!

Style also includes sentence structure from Faulkner's 25-line long, complex sentences to Hemingway's 5-word ones. It includes level of language from scholarly to conversational. Because of this, style is often the most characteristic earmark of an author. Experienced readers can spot a particular writer at a glance.

Style relates to the author's use of imagery and symbol. Imagery is often considered most effective when rooted firmly in the reality of the story. For instance, in Hemingway's "Snows of Kilimanjaro," animal references are a significant part of the African setting. However, Hemingway also focuses upon those animals closely associated with naturalistic death -- vultures and a particularly ghostly hyena all drawn by the smell of the protagonist's progressing gangrene infection. Their use in the story emphasizes the inevitability and naturalness of death, the dispassionate unconcern of nature so characteristic of naturalism as a literary philosophy, as well as a human being's quite passionate distaste for his own end. Even the choice of hyena, which is suitable for the real setting, arouses the association of the un-funny, misplaced, and terrifying cry that sounds like laughter. As the hyena's invisible presence recurs, its imagery becomes a symbol of death and a certain statement about death because the image actually represents more than what it literally is.

As you may begin to see, imagery can be extremely powerful because of its capacity to evoke associations in the reader's imagination. Some images call forth universal responses because they are grounded in experiences common to people everywhere. These are images of family, of birth, death, stages in life. They may be images that evoke responses to war. Weapons, uniforms, drumbeats, insignia, flags -- these all may emphasize the glory of war. These same details can evoke the brutality and destructiveness, especially when combined with the blood-color red, torn uniforms and flags and men, or children's cries.

Other images may be culturally based and so able to appeal only to those who understand. "Mother, apple pie, and ice cream" are typically American.

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Colors of mourning change in different cultures -- traditionally black in the West, white in parts of the Orient. Uncle Sam is a familiar figure the world over, yet probably calls up vastly different responses, not only based upon one's nationality, but even among Americans.

Some common types of images are called by specific names:

a) simile - a comparison that announces itself usually with such words as "like" or "as". Example: "as soft as a cloud"

b) metaphor - a comparison that is implied and that assumes the reader will grasp the intent: "green-eyed jealousy."

1) personification - a metaphor that gives human characteristics to non-human things, beings, or ideas: "the arms of death"

2) anthropomorphism - like personification, but here the comparison gives human characteristics to God or to the gods.

3) synechdoche - a comparison that represents something by a significant part of it: "I need a strong arm to help me." "Here comes the mouth!"

Usually people identify the author's tone, language level, use of imagery, and let it go at that. On a deeper level,however, we can see that these style choices relate to character, setting, theme, and overall pacing of our reading. If language is "out of sync" with these elements, the story does not "feel" right. Because language is the vehicle of literature, style most directly affects our encounter with the piece as a whole and with each part of it.

A final aspect of style that warrants special consideration is the author's choice of point of view. By that term, we mean from whose perspective the story is told, or through whose eyes we experience the people and events. Selecting point of view is one of the most important decisions the author must make because a story changes drastically depending upon who does the telling (as most of us have painfully learned)!

The first of the three major categories of point of view is the first person narrator, one of the characters who is him- or herself telling the story. This character may be the protagonist, but may also be another character in the story -- someone involved with the protagonist, a minor character/observer, or even the antagonist. Since the first person pronoun is used by the

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character/narrator, this perspective lends great immediacy to a narrative, but also severely limits the reader's knowledge to just what that character knows, observes, and thinks -- all of which results in a highly slanted telling.

The third person point of view may be divided into two main types: the limited and the omniscient. The limited view is restricts itself to the reference point of only one of the characters in a sort of "over the shoulder" perspective. The author uses the third person pronoun in referring to the character, but the reader has the same limitations as with the first person -- we see only what that character sees, know what s/he knows, etc. The use of third person pronoun lends greater subtlety to the narration, but also a bit more detachment for the reader than the first person does.

The third person omniscient point of view allows the author greater freedom to provide exposition and to enter into any of the characters' thoughts. When we learn of any background apart from character or see what more than one character is thinking, we are reading a third person omniscient point of view.

The third major category of point of view is the dramatic, or objective, perspective. It is called "dramatic" because the author allows the reader to see only what s/he would see if the events were performed on a stage -- that is, we could only be fairly detached observers, learning about the characters and events much as we do in real life through our own observations, never entering into the inner sanctum of a character's thoughts unless s/he "wishes" to divulge them in speech or action. The main difference, of course, is that the author controls the details we can observe and so also controls the vision we see of the world.

THEME:

The final element to be considered is theme. Some people think of a theme as a moral, others as the main idea (sort of like an essay's thesis). And theme can be these, depending on the piece. There was a time when people expected to be able to assign a moral such as "crime doesn't pay," "love of money is the root of all evil," "to thine own self be true," etc. Some stories fit this demand. However, with the advent of realism in literature at some point around the Civil War in this country, writers began simply to portray life as they saw it and let the lessons fall where they may. Themes as morals became difficult to assign. On a superficial level, it may be possible to assign such theme statements, but they may be far from author intent and barely graze the surface of meaning. When speaking of most modern literature, and retrospectively of much of the great literature of the past, it is more appropriate to the author and more workable for the reader to talk about patterns of meaning -- threads of ideas, motifs that recur in a work and together weave that vision of life, or some aspect of it, to which I have previously referred.

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Questions a reader might ask could be framed as follows:

What characteristics of life emerge as you read the story? What does life seem like: does it make sense? is there justice in the world? do we have any control over our own lives? is there anything worth living for, much less worth dying for? what makes it all worthwhile? is there meaning, or do you create it yourself?

At this point, we need to address the problem of interpretation. I often hear someone state an opinion about a character or a theme and then hear the response, "that's your interpretation." It appears that some students, or just people in general, think that whatever they feel is true about a work is true because it is "their interpretation." We need to discuss just what interpretation is and what is isn't. Whatever a story makes you think of is not interpretation; it is just whatever the story makes you think of.

 An interpretation is an effort to make some sort of sense of what you have read.

It first involves the superficial level of reading: a character does or does not do something or say something. If it is directly in the text, it is not a matter of interpretation. Interpretation occurs when we infer relationships and statements of motivation and theme that are not stated explicitly in the text. However, anything does not legitimately go! An interpretation is more or less valid depending on the evidence for it in the text and upon its relevance to the story as a whole, its unity.

We need to separate our subjective response to a story from our objective analysis and evaluation. Why? Because one of the main aims/effects of literature is one of the chief aims/effects of education: to get us out of ourselves and to experience the world through the eyes of another. To get us to "try on" various perspectives and attitudes to see what "fits" for us and to see other people's way of looking at things. We are each prisoners of our own self-hood, our own identity. Literature affords an escape from that in a way nothing else can because it communicates imagination to imagination.

Therefore, the most appropriate attitude for reading is one we call temporary, willing suspension of disbelief. That is, for the duration of the reading, we allow the author to shape our imaginations so that we experience the world s/he has created in as real a way as is humanly possible. Once we do this, the we can step back and make sure we have understood by analysis based on what has been described in this essay. Then we can attempt to interpret -- still sympathetic to the piece -- to discover meanings and implications. Finally, we can evaluate in one or both of two ways.

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Objective evaluation involves the work's success in achieving what it set out to do. The success in manipulating the elements of fiction and success within each element (such as, are the characters believable, given the parameters set by the story?). Once we have made every effort to understand and evaluate the author on his or her terms, then and only then is it fair (and safe) to evaluate the piece based upon our agreement or disagreement with, or our like or dislike of the vision.

Even if we discover that we disagree with the author's view, there is still much that can be discovered and applied because we have, through the encounter with the story, broadened our own experience of other human beings and their response to life.

STYLISTICS AND THE STUDY AND THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

Literary language

a register of a language that is used in literary writing. This

may also include liturgical writing. The difference between

literary and non-literary (vernacular) forms is more marked in

some languages than in others. Where there is a strong

divergence, the language is said to exhibit diglossia.

Many students enjoy literature.  To make any learning process reach an optimal level, enjoyment is a must.  Thus, literary texts, if well-selected, can be a potentially useful aid to the language teacher.

Since stylistics is a linguistic approach to the study of literary texts, it actually combines language and literature.  If a student is taught literature, literary texts or extracts from them can be used to break up language classes.  Class discussions can be held to identify difficulties the students have in general and in reading the literary text.In the academic setting, a reading class would have several aspects to consider.  The first would be to select the text, then to develop interesting strategies for the reading process, after which the teacher has the task of dealing with the difficulties experienced by the students.  As a whole, these steps are concerned with making a point of using literary texts for a discussion whenever possible during the reading process.  There is a definite link between stylistics and the reading process when the language of the literary text is examined in detail.

Reading is an important skill to the study of literature. When the student

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enters a tertiary institution, there is an emphasis on learning the four language skills--reading, writing, listening and speaking--through instruction in language studies and students are encouraged to participate in activities designed to improve these skills.

Stylistics links language and literature studies.  Literary texts often contain a number of different varieties of English.  They can be extremely useful in sensitising more advanced learners of English to linguistic variation.  The study of stylistics would be of particular interest to undergraduate students interested in stylistic analysis and also be relevant to advanced students and researchers such as this writer.

Stylistics has its place in the study and the teaching of literature.  This paper also deals with the stylistics approach to the study of literature and its relevance to the teaching of literature. Mick Short states “the practice of stylistics comes about at any point of intersection of the language of a text with the elements which constitute the literalness of the text” (Short, 1988:162).

From a teaching or classroom viewpoint, there is much that can be done.  The teacher can use the literary text to introduce and form the basis of teaching some structural features of the English language.  The teacher can teach grammar in action and through a stylistics approach of analysis, its communicative features can be illustrated.  This can be very beneficial when teaching both native and non-native learners of English.

Where lexis is concerned, stylistics is a way of exploring the literary meanings from a text.  Through stylistics and the teaching of literature, the rules of language are exploited.  After observation, linguistic patterns and changes to those patterns are recognised.

From a linguistic point of view in the classroom, the teacher can introduce through a stylistic analysis, the appreciation of different levels of language organisation in the literary text.  Teachers can also point out how words work and the nature of figurative language.

Stylistic interpretation involves a process of making equations or inferences about the linguistic forms and meanings in a literary context.  Literary texts can also be compared on the basis of related or contrasting themes.  Features of a text can also be compared through stylistics.

Mick Short states “that a stylistic examination of a text can provide a systematic and principled basis for grading texts for comparison or for further analysis. These texts can be progressively introduced to students on the basis of their linguistic accessibility” (Short,1988:172).

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Widdowson writes that if stylistics is to make any valuable contribution to criticism, literature must be studied as a mode of communication, and in such a study, means and ends must be given equal attention and shown to be independent (Widdowson,1975:235). In teaching literature in the area of stylistics, the invitation for the recognition of how a text works as a whole is explored and probed into.

STYLISTICS AND TRANSLATIONS

The use of translated materials can be introduced purposefully and imaginatively, into the language and literature classroom. In the classroom, using translated materials can help the teacher achieve optimal results if these materials are applied to relevant and suitable approaches, activities and exercises.

Our mother tongue shapes our way of thinking and to some extent our use of the other language (whether second or foreign language). The pronunciation, choice of words, tone, word order, etc. is influenced by one language on the other. When this influence is understood, the teacher can correct errors of habit or common errors that usually creeps in unconsciously.

An appropriate material of translation is authentic and wide-ranging in scope. The learner can be brought in touch with the whole language of the target language to maximise the learner’s power and range of expressions. This will in turn add to the learner’s vocabulary.

Using translated material can invite speculation and discussion. Because there is rarely a “right answer”, the atmosphere of the classroom can be more relaxed. The text given by the teacher can be very short and yet this text can be exploited to serve both reading and discussion to cover the whole class period.According to Alan Duff, using translated materials develops three qualities in learners (Duff, 1989:7):

i)        Flexibility - It trains the learner to search for, explore and choose words.

ii)       Accuracy - In the search for the most appropriate words, the learner strives with the best choice of words.

iii)      Clarity - In his choice for words, the learner tries to convey what is meant.The teacher can select materials to illustrate particular areas or aspects and structure of the English language with which the learners have difficulty. Thus, the materials could be used to cater for the learner’s needs and to cover the required syllabus. The materials could have illustrations of

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prepositions, articles, if-clauses, etc. These difficulties could be worked out while the learners come to see the link between language and usage in the target language through practice.

Practice in language learning must not mean giving assignments, marking all the errors in red and returning the marked assignments back to the learners. This way, the teacher will eventually demotivate the learners. Practice in language learning should mean giving the learners regular opportunities to compare and discuss their work with others and to respond to suggestions and tasks with an eagerness to learn and not fear of making flaws.

The teacher must be competent enough in the target language to deal with and handle the different classroom situations. Simple but interesting tasks can be given to the learners before actually working on the texts. This is designed to set the students thinking along specific lines and issues. For example, as a warm-up exercise, after a general reading of the text, the learners could be asked to suggest suitable titles for the text.

Activities involving the use of translated materials constantly means making choices. The longer the learner stays neutral or undecided and without making a choice, the harder the learner finds it to make up his mind. The teacher realizes that the best responses, answers or solutions occur in the classroom after thinking is done and choices are made. Then, the discussions will function well in order to give the learners time for deeper and further reflection and a chance to change their minds to make even better choices.

Teachers are encouraged to look at the following items when evaluating and analysing a piece of translated text through stylistics. The uppermost question in this writer’s mind is: If I were a language teacher with learners whose mother tongue was not English, meaning teaching learners with English as their second language (ESL) or as their foreign language (EFL), which type of translated material would I choose? This writer would want to have the following in mind when making her selection.

i)        The materials must reliably reflect aspects of the English language (eg.  prepositions, conjunctions, etc.).

ii)        The materials which put across the meaning of the original text clearly and if not, that the teacher would be able to tell where the uncertainty lies and devise tasks and exercises to test whether the learners can detect it as well.

iii)        Whether any words used have underlying implications and that they

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are loaded with more meaning. These words can appear in the form of figures of speech.

iv)        Whether the dictionary meaning of a particular word would serve a suitable explanation as to whether the word is appropriately used.

v)        Whether the words used sound natural and smooth flowing. One of the most frequent criticisms of translated material is that it doesn’t sound natural. This is because the translator’s thoughts and choice of words are too strongly moulded by the original text. This is termed as source language influence (Duff,1989:11).  A good way of shaking off the source language influence is to set aside the original text and exploit or work with the translated material on its own with the learners.

vi)        Whether in terms of form, the ordering of words and ideas match as closely to the original text as possible. Here, differences in the language structure often goes through changes in the form and order of words. When there is doubt in the understanding of the text, words and phrases should be taken out and looked at closely with an expert to clear the doubts.

vii)        Whether the context of the text is clearly discernible. What is meant by context is the what, where and to whom. What one is writing and speaking about, where the situation occurs and to whom it is addressed.viii)        Whether the register is discernible. What is meant by register is how. Whether tones can be detected or distinguished to be having formal or informal expressions, cold or warm, personal or impersonal. The intention of the speaker must be clearly understood through the register in terms of the tone of the speaker. Whether it is the intention of the speaker to persuade or dissuade, apologise or criticise.

ix)        The style and clarity of the translated material should not attempt to change the style of the original text. It must, however, attempt to put across the meaning as clearly as possible with the choice of words.

x)        Figures of speech and idiomatic expressions include similes, metaphors, symbols, proverbs and saying, jargon, slang and colloquialisms. The explanation of these expressions carries these questions: Is the original word retained in inverted commas? Can the original expression be explained better by a close equivalent?  Is it clearer to use non-idiomatic language or plain prose in terms of understanding?

Literary Stylistics

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In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Crystal observes that, in practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex and ‘valued’ language within literature, i.e. ‘literary stylistics’. He goes on to say that in such examination the scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays and novels. (Crystal. 1987, 71).

Poetry

As well as conventional styles of language there are the unconventional – the most obvious of which ispoetry. In Practical Stylistics, HG Widdowson examines the traditional form of the epitaph, as found on headstones in a cemetery. For example:

His memory is dear todayAs in the hour he passed away.(Ernest C. Draper ‘Ern’. Died 4.1.38)(Widdowson. 1992, 6)

Widdowson makes the point that such sentiments are usually not very interesting and suggests that they may even be dismissed as ‘crude verbal carvings’and crude verbal disturbance (Widdowson, 3). Nevertheless, Widdowson recognises that they are a very real attempt to convey feelings of human loss and preserve affectionate recollections of a beloved friend or family member. However, what may be seen as poetic in this language is not so much in the formulaic phraseology but in where it appears. The verse may be given undue reverence precisely because of the sombre situation in which it is placed. Widdowson suggests that, unlike words set in stone in a graveyard, poetry is unorthodox language that vibrates with inter-textual implications. (Widdowson. 1992, 4)

Two problems with a stylistic analysis of poetry are noted by PM Wetherill in Literary Text: An Examination of Critical Methods. The first is that there may be an over-preoccupation with one particular feature that may well minimise the significance of others that are equally important. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) The second is that any attempt to see a text as simply a collection of stylistic elements will tend to ignore other ways whereby meaning is produced. (Wetherill. 1974, 133)

Implicature

In ‘Poetic Effects’ from Literary Pragmatics, the linguist Adrian Pilkington analyses the idea of ‘implicature’, as instigated in the previous work of Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. Implicature may be divided into two

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categories: ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ implicature, yet between the two extremes there are a variety of other alternatives. The strongest implicature is what is emphatically implied by the speaker or writer, while weaker implicatures are the wider possibilities of meaning that the hearer or reader may conclude.

Pilkington’s ‘poetic effects’, as he terms the concept, are those that achieve most relevance through a wide array of weak implicatures and not those meanings that are simply ‘read in’ by the hearer or reader. Yet the distinguishing instant at which weak implicatures and the hearer or reader’s conjecture of meaning diverge remains highly subjective. As Pilkington says: ‘there is no clear cut-off point between assumptions which the speaker certainly endorses and assumptions derived purely on the hearer’s responsibility.’ (Pilkington. 1991, 53) In addition, the stylistic qualities of poetry can be seen as an accompaniment to Pilkington’s poetic effects in understanding a poem's meaning.

Tense

Widdowson points out that in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ (1798), the mystery of the Mariner’s abrupt appearance is sustained by an idiosyncratic use of tense. (Widdowson. 1992, 40) For instance, the Mariner ‘holds’ the wedding-guest with his ‘skinny hand’ in the present tense, but releases it in the past tense ('...his hands dropt he.'); only to hold him again, this time with his ‘glittering eye’, in the present. (Widdowson. 1992, 41)

The point of poetry

Widdowson notices that when the content of poetry is summarised it often refers to very general and unimpressive observations, such as ‘nature is beautiful; love is great; life is lonely; time passes’, and so on. (Widdowson. 1992, 9) But to say:

Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore,So do our minutes hasten to their end ...William Shakespeare, ‘60’.

Or, indeed:Love, all alike, no season knows nor clime,Nor hours, days months, which are the rags of time ...John Donne, ‘The Sun Rising’, Poems (1633)

This language gives us a new perspective on familiar themes and allows us to look at them without the personal or social conditioning that we unconsciously associate with them. (Widdowson. 1992, 9) So, although we may still use the same exhausted words and vague terms like ‘love’, ‘heart’ and ‘soul’ to refer to human experience, to place these words in a new and refreshing context allows the poet the ability to represent humanity and

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communicate honestly. This, in part, is stylistics, and this, according to Widdowson, is the point of poetry (Widdowson. 1992, 76).

The Scarlet Letter is an 1850 romantic work of fiction in a historical setting, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne. It is considered to be his magnum opus.[1] Set in 17th-century Puritan Boston during the years 1642 to 1649, it tells the story of Hester Prynne, who conceives through an adulterous affair and struggles to create a new life of repentance and dignity. Throughout the book, Hawthorne explores themes oflegalism, sin, and guilt.

Plot summary

The story starts during the summer of 1642, near Boston, Massachusetts, in a Puritan village. A young woman, named Hester Prynne, has been led from the town prison with her infant daughter in her arms, and on the breast of her gown "a rag of scarlet cloth" that "assumed the shape of a letter." It is the uppercase letter "A." The Scarlet Letter "A" represents the act of adultery that she has committed and it is to be a symbol of her sin—a badge of shame—for all to see. A man, who is elderly and a stranger to the town, enters the crowd and asks another onlooker what's happening. The second man responds by explaining that Hester is being punished for adultery. Hester's husband, who is much older than she, and whose real name is unknown, has sent her ahead to America whilst settling affairs in Europe. However, her husband does not arrive in Boston and the consensus is that he has been lost at sea. It is apparent that, while waiting for her husband, Hester has had an affair, leading to the birth of her daughter. She will not reveal her lover's identity, however, and the scarlet letter, along with her subsequent public shaming, is the punishment for her sin and secrecy. On this day, Hester is led to the town scaffold and harangued by the town fathers, but she again refuses to identify her child's father.[2]

The elderly onlooker is Hester's missing husband, who is now practicing medicine and calling himself Roger Chillingworth. He reveals his true identity to Hester and medicates her daughter. They have a frank discussion where Chillingworth states that it was foolish and wrong for a cold, old intellectual like him to marry a young lively woman like Hester. He expressly states that he thinks that they have wronged each other and that he is even with her — her lover is a completely different matter. Hester refuses to divulge the name of her lover and Chillingworth does not press her stating that he will find out anyway. He does elicit a promise from her to keep his true identity as Hester's husband secret, though. He settles in Boston to practice medicine there. Several years pass. Hester supports herself by working as a seamstress, and her daughter, Pearl, grows into a willful, impish child, and is said to be the scarlet letter come to life as both Hester's love and her punishment. Shunned by the community, they live in a small cottage on the outskirts of Boston. Community officials attempt to take Pearl away from

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Hester, but with the help of Arthur Dimmesdale, an eloquent minister, the mother and daughter manage to stay together. Dimmesdale, however, appears to be wasting away and suffers from mysterious heart trouble, seemingly caused by psychological distress. Chillingworth attaches himself to the ailing minister and eventually moves in with him so that he can provide his patient with round-the-clock care. Chillingworth also suspects that there may be a connection between the minister's torments and Hester's secret, and he begins to test Dimmesdale to see what he can learn. One afternoon, while the minister sleeps, Chillingworth discovers something undescribed to the reader, supposedly an "A" burned into Dimmesdale's chest, which convinces him that his suspicions are correct.[2]

The Scarlet Letter. Painting by T. H. Matteson. This 1860 oil-on-canvas may have been made with Hawthorne's advice.[2]

Dimmesdale's psychological anguish deepens, and he invents new tortures for himself. In the meantime, Hester's charitable deeds and quiet humility have earned her a reprieve from the scorn of the community. One night, when Pearl is about seven years old, she and her mother are returning home from a visit to the deathbed of John Winthrop when they encounter Dimmesdale atop the town scaffold, trying to punish himself for his sins. Hester and Pearl join him, and the three link hands. Dimmesdale refuses Pearl's request that he acknowledge her publicly the next day, and a meteor marks a dull red "A" in the night sky. It is interpreted by the townsfolk to mean Angel, as a prominent figure in the community had died that night, but Dimmesdale sees it as meaning adultery. Hester can see that the minister's condition is worsening, and she resolves to intervene. She goes to Chillingworth and asks him to stop adding to Dimmesdale's self-torment. Chillingworth refuses. She suggests that she may reveal his true identity to Dimmesdale.[2]

As Hester walks through the forest, she is unable to feel the sunshine. Pearl, on the other hand, basks in it. They coincide with Dimmesdale, also on a stroll through the woods. Hester informs him of the true identity of Chillingworth. The former lovers decide to flee to Europe, where they can live with Pearl as a family. They will take a ship sailing from Boston in four days. Both feel a sense of release, and Hester removes her scarlet letter and lets down her hair. The sun immediately breaks through the clouds and trees to illuminate her release and joy. Pearl, playing nearby, does not recognize her mother without the letter. She is unnerved and expels a shriek until her mother points out the letter on the ground. Hester beckons Pearl to come to her, but Pearl will not go to her mother until Hester buttons the letter back onto her dress. Pearl then goes to her mother. Dimmesdale gives Pearl a kiss on the forehead, which Pearl immediately tries to wash off in the brook, because he again refuses to make known publicly their relationship. However, he too clearly feels a release from the pretense of his former life, and the laws and sins he has lived with.

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The day before the ship is to sail, the townspeople gather for a holiday put on in honor of an election and Dimmesdale preaches his most eloquent sermon ever. Meanwhile, Hester has learned that Chillingworth knows of their plan and has booked passage on the same ship. Dimmesdale, leaving the church after his sermon, sees Hester and Pearl standing before the town scaffold. He impulsively mounts the scaffold with his lover and his daughter, and confesses publicly, exposing the mark supposedly seared into the flesh of his chest. He falls dead just after Pearl kisses him.[2]

Frustrated in his revenge, Chillingworth dies a year later. Hester and Pearl leave Boston, and no one knows what has happened to them. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wearing the scarlet letter, to live in her old cottage and resumes her charitable work. She receives occasional letters from Pearl, who was rumored to have married a European aristocrat and established a family of her own. Pearl also inherits all of Chillingworth's money even though he knows she is not his daughter. There is a sense of liberation in her and the townspeople, especially the women, who had finally begun to forgive Hester of her tragic indiscretion. When Hester dies, she is buried in "a new grave near an old and sunken one, in that burial ground beside which King's Chapel has since been built. It was near that old and sunken grave, yet with a space between, as if the dust of the two sleepers had no right to mingle. Yet one tombstone served for both." The tombstone was decorated with a letter "A", for Hester and Dimmesdale.

Major themes

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Sin

The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam and Eve because, in both cases, sin results in expulsion and suffering. But it also results in knowledge—specifically, in knowledge of what it means to be immortal. For Hester, the scarlet letter functions as "her passport into regions where other women dared not tread", leading her to "speculate" about her society and herself more "boldly" than anyone else in New England.[3]

As for Dimmesdale, the "cheating minister" of his sin gives him "sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind, so that his chest vibrate[s] in unison with theirs." His eloquent and powerful sermons derive from this sense of empathy.[3] The narrative of the Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale is quite in keeping with the oldest and most fully authorized principles in Christian thought. His "Fall" is a descent from apparent grace to his own damnation; he appears to begin in purity but he ends in corruption. The subtlety is that the minister's belief is his own cheating, convincing himself at every stage of his spiritual pilgrimagethat he is saved.[4]

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The rosebush, its beauty a striking contrast to all that surrounds it—as later the beautifully embroidered scarlet A will be–is held out in part as an invitation to find "some sweet moral blossom" in the ensuing, tragic tale and in part as an image that "the deep heart of nature" (perhaps God) may look more kind on the errant Hester and her child than her Puritan neighbors do. Throughout the work, the nature images contrast with the stark darkness of the Puritans and their systems.[5]

Chillingworth's misshapen body reflects (or symbolizes) the anger in his soul, which builds as the novel progresses, similar to the way Dimmesdale's illness reveals his inner turmoil. The outward man reflects the condition of the heart; an observation thought to be inspired by the deterioration of Edgar Allan Poe, whom Hawthorne "much admired".[5]

Although Pearl is a complex character, her primary function within the novel is as a symbol. Pearl herself is the embodiment of the scarlet letter, and Hester rightly clothes her in a beautiful dress of scarlet, embroidered with gold thread, just like the scarlet letter upon Hester's bosom.[3] Parallels can be drawn between Pearl and the character Beatrice in Rappaccini's Daughter. Beatrice is nourished upon poisonous plants, until she herself becomes poisonous. Pearl, in the mysterious prenatal world, imbibes the poison of her parents' guilt.

Past and present

The clash of past and present is explored in various ways. For example, the character of the old General, whose heroic qualities include a distinguished name, perseverance, integrity, compassion, and moral inner strength, is said to be "the soul and spirit of New England hardihood". Sometimes he presides over the Custom House run by corrupt public servants, who skip work to sleep, allow or overlook smuggling, and are supervised by an inspector with "no power of thought, nor depth of feeling, no troublesome sensibilities", who is honest enough but without a spiritual compass.[5]

Hawthorne himself had ambivalent feelings about the role of his ancestors in his life. In his autobiographical sketch, Hawthorne described his ancestors as "dim and dusky", "grave, bearded, sable-cloaked, and steel crowned", "bitter persecutors" whose "better deeds" would be diminished by their bad ones. There can be little doubt of Hawthorne's disdain for the stern morality and rigidity of the Puritans, and he imagined his predecessors' disdainful view of him: unsuccessful in their eyes, worthless and disgraceful. "A writer of story books!" But even as he disagrees with his ancestors' viewpoint, he also feels an instinctual connection to them and, more importantly, a "sense of place" in Salem. Their blood remains in his veins, but their intolerance and lack of humanity becomes the subject of his novel.[5]

Publication history

Engraved illustration from an 1878 edition.

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It was long thought that Hawthorne originally planned The Scarlet Letter to be a shorter novelette which was part of a collection to be named Old Time Legends and that his publisher, James Thomas Fields, convinced him to expand the work to a full-length novel.[6] This is not true: Fields persuaded Hawthorne to publish "The Scarlet Letter" alone (along with the earlier-completed Custom House essay) but he had nothing to do with the length of the story.[7] Hawthorne's wife Sophia later challenged Fields' claims a little inexactly: "he has made the absurd boast that he was the sole cause of the Scarlet Letter being published!" She noted that her husband's friend Edwin Percy Whipple, a critic, approached Fields to consider its publication.[8] The manuscript was written at the Peter Edgerley House in Salem, Massachusetts, still standing as a private residence at 14 Mall Street. It was the last Salem home where the Hawthorne family lived.[9]

The Scarlet Letter was published as a novel in the spring of 1850 by Ticknor & Fields, beginning Hawthorne's most lucrative period.[10] When he delivered the final pages to Fields in February 1850, Hawthorne said that "some portions of the book are powerfully written" but doubted it would be popular.[11] In fact, the book was an instant best-seller[12] though, over fourteen years, it brought its author only $1,500.[10] Its initial publication brought wide protest from natives of Salem, who did not approve of how Hawthorne had depicted them in his introduction "The Custom-House". A 2,500-copy second edition of The Scarlet Letter included a preface by Hawthorne dated March 30, 1850, that stated he had decided to reprint his introduction "without the change of a word... The only remarkable features of the sketch are its frank and genuine good-humor... As to enmity, or ill-feeling of any kind, personal or political, he utterly disclaims such motives".[13]

The Scarlet Letter was also one of the first mass-produced books in America. Into the mid-nineteenth century, bookbinders of home-grown literature typically hand-made their books and sold them in small quantities. The first mechanized printing of The Scarlet Letter, 2,500 volumes, sold out within ten days,[10]and was widely read and discussed to an extent not much experienced in the young country up until that time. Copies of the first edition are often sought by collectors as rare books, and may fetch up to around $18,000 USD.Critical responseOn its publication, critic Evert Augustus Duyckinck, a friend of Hawthorne's, said he preferred the author'sWashington Irving-like tales. Another friend, critic Edwin Percy Whipple, objected to the novel's "morbid intensity" with dense psychological details, writing that the book "is therefore apt to become, like Hawthorne, too painfully anatomical in his exhibition of them".[14] Most literary critics praised the book but religious leaders took issue with the novel's subject matter.[15] Orestes Brownson complained that Hawthorne did not understand Christianity, confession, and remorse. A review in The Church Review and Ecclesiastical Register concluded the author "perpetrates bad morals."[16] On the other hand, 20th century writer D. H. Lawrence said that there could be no more perfect work of the American imagination

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than The Scarlet Letter.[17] Henry James once said of the novel, "It is beautiful, admirable, extraordinary; it has in the highest degree that merit which I have spoken of as the mark of Hawthorne's best things--an indefinable purity and lightness of conception...One can often return to it; it supports familiarity and has the inexhaustible charm and mystery of great works of art."[18] The book's immediate and lasting success are due to the way it addresses spiritual and moral issues from a uniquely American standpoint. In 1850, adultery was an extremely risqué subject, but because Hawthorne had the support of the New England literary establishment, it passed easily into the realm of appropriate reading. It has been said that this work represents the height of Hawthorne's literary genius; dense with terse descriptions. It remains relevant for its philosophical and psychological depth, and continues to be read as a classic tale on a universal theme.[19]

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Literary criticism is the evaluation, analysis and interpretation of a piece of literature. That is the technical, academic explanation. Essentially, it is a means of describing how a piece of literature moves the reader. It is simply the attempt to explain a literary work. A literary critic is one who explains or interprets a literary work--its meaning, production, aestheticism, and historical value.

Critical Theory

Critical theory refers to the study of the principles of literature; its categories, criteria and the like. It deals on how literary works are being analyzed or criticized.

Critical reading of literature involves the following:a. Meaning vs. Significanceb. Meaning spotting vs. Meaning makingc. Reading vs. Genres

Critical theory presents an opportunity not only, therefore, to learn about the theoretical and critical approaches of what might often at least initially seem like an elite caste of distant and specialized others -- specific, and frequently famous, named "theorists" and "critics" -- but also, and more importantly, to reflect upon how and why all of us work with the kinds of theoretical and critical approaches we do; where these come from and what gives rise to them; where they lead and what follows from them; which such approaches predominate in what areas of everyday life today, in what places within what societies and cultures, with what uses and effects, toward the advancement of what ends and toward the service of what interests; and what alternative approaches are possible, what alternatives are desirable, what alternatives are necessary, and how do we get from here to there.  

Four basic categories of literary criticism

1. Mimetic Theory (universe)- studies how writers portray realityPlato’s View on Mimetic Theory

Plato, an idealist, moralist and a rationalist, locates reality in what he calls ideas or forms rather than the world of appearance that we locate with our senses. Plato believes in the idea that is form which itself is formless but it is fixed. Idea is archetype and always remains the same. Reality can’t be found in the world of appearance but in the ideal world. The world that

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we perceive around us is the world of imitation or shadow of the idea or ideal world. When a poet imitates this world, his creation, obviously is twice removed from reality. For Plato, poets are away from using their reason whereas philosophers use their reason to get the truth so they are closer to reality. For Plato, art is an imitation of the world of phenomena which itself is an imitation of the world of Idea. Thus, it is an imitation of an imitation of what is already a photocopy. As he locates reality in the world of idea Plato says that art/ artist is twice removed from reality.

Aristotle’s View on Mimetic Theory

Aristotle believes that it is nature that contains truth. He defines art is perfecting the imperfect nature. For him art is an imitation with beautification. Art is the imitation of object beautifying nature. Aristotle avoids the idea that the world of appearance is merely an ephemeral copy of the changeless ideas. He holds the idea that change is the fundamental process of nature, which he takes as a creative force with a direction.

For Aristotle, art is a sort of improvement on nature in that the poet has brought to completion what nature is still trying to complete. Aristotle holds the belief that art is the imitation of human actions. Nature is incomplete but artists imitate and change to make it a complete by reshaping and something using novelty.

Aristotle differs in the subject of reality form Plato. For Plato, reality is the idea whereas Aristotle believes reality is always in process; it is changeable. Imitation is related to human instinct. By birth we are imitative and we imitate things because they give pleasure. Imitation is very important to understand the world. It is the source to built and extend the horizon of thought.

2. Expressive Theory (artist/author)

- scrutinizes the ways authors express their ideas and motives

The Expressive theory states that art is seen as the means of portraying the unique, individual feelings and emotions of the artist and good art should successfully communicate the feelings and emotions which the artist intended to express. In other words, it is viewed as a representation or manifestation of the inner state of the artist.

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3. Formalistic or Objective Theory (text)

-  analyzes the form and structure of works (textuality)

The work of art is viewed as an organic unity; i.e., a self-contained, self-justifying entity. This theory is independent on the author’s motive. It only focuses on the text and its form.

4. Affective or Rhetorical or Pragmatic Theory (audience)- examines the techniques that affect an audience

The literary work of art is seen in its relationship with the reader. It is also known as reader-response theory.

Art conceptualized in terms of its effects on its audience, to accomplish purposes such as the creation of specific shared experiences.

As a means of enhancing experience and thought As a means of escape from, or consolation for, reality

As a means of perceiving a higher, more perfect, or ideal reality

As a source of pleasure or delight

As a means of promoting cultural and historical community or continuity

As instructive, didactic, or propagandistic

As therapeutic; i.e., as healing or purgative

As a means of communication

Different Approaches of Literary Criticism

1. Reader-Response CriticismReader-Response Criticism is about interpreting a piece of

literature not solely on the merits of the piece of literature but rather as an interaction between the reader and the piece of literature. The reader's reaction, how the piece affects the reader, is taken into consideration when interpreting a piece. Essentially what this theory means is that the text itself has meaning and the interaction between the reader and the text also carries meaning. The interpretation in Reader-Response Criticism lies between the intersection of these two sets of meaning when evaluating a text.

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Tyson explains that "...reader-response theorists share two beliefs: 1) that the role of the reader cannot be omitted from our understanding of literature and 2) that readers do not passively consume the meaning presented to them by an objective literary text; rather they actively make the meaning they find in literature" (154). In this way, reader-response theory shares common ground with some of the deconstructionists discussed in the Post-structural area when they talk about "the death of the author," or her displacement as the authoritarian figure in the text.

2. Post-Colonial CriticismPost-Colonial Criticism examines works written by colonial

powers and its subjects. Post-Colonial Criticism considers many lenses through which to evaluate a piece---including politics, power, culture, language and religion. A seminal piece often used in teaching this theory is Chinua Achebe's "Things Fall Apart," about his native Nigeria's experience of colonialism. This theory fleshes out what it means to be colonized on a social level, and even more closely, on an individual level, exploring how colonialism shapes and affects identity.

Key Terms:

o Eurocentrism - "the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing emphasis on European (and, generally, Western) concerns, cul-ture and values at the expense of those of other cultures. It is an instance of ethnocentrism, perhaps especially relevant because of its alignment with current and past real power structures in the world" (Dictionary.LaborLawTalk.com)

o Hybridity - "an important concept in post-colonial theory, refer-ring to the integration (or, mingling) of cultural signs and prac-tices from the colonizing and the colonized cultures The assimi-lation and adaptation of cultural practices, the cross-fertilization of cultures, can be seen as positive, enriching, and dynamic, as well as oppressive"

o Imperialism - "the policy of extending the control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or mainte-nance of empires, either through direct territorial control or through indirect methods of exerting control on the politics and/or economy of other countries. (Dictionary.LaborLawTalk.com).

3. New Historicism

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For New Historicists, a piece of literature is shaped by the time period in which it was written and thus must be examined and interpreted in the context of that time period. This theory attempts to tie the characters, events and language in a piece of literature to events from the time period in which it was written. It also looks at mainstream and marginalized populations as well as traditional and subversive discourses of the era when interpreting a text. New Historicists also take into consideration political and cultural events that the author lived through. All of these various pieces, along with the time period the piece of literature is set in, are part of the interpretation process for New Historicists.

New Historicism (sometimes referred to as Cultural Poetics) emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, largely in reaction to the lingering effects of New Criticism and its historical approach. "New" Historicism's adjectival emphasis highlights its opposition to the old historical-biographical criticism prevalent before the advent of New Criticism. In the earlier historical-biographical criticism, literature was seen as a (mimetic) reflection of the historical world in which it was produced. Further, history was viewed as stable, linear, and recoverable--a narrative of fact. In contrast, New Historicism views history skeptically (historical narrative is inherently subjective), but also more broadly; history includes all of the cultural, social, political, anthropological discourses at work in any given age, and these various "texts" are unranked - any text may yield information valuable in understanding a particular milieu. Rather than forming a backdrop, the many discourses at work at any given time affect both an author and his/her text; both are inescapably part of a social construct. 

4. Feminist CriticismFeminist Criticism analyzes text through the lens of how women

have historically been portrayed in literature. It examines the political, social and economic subjugation of women in society. It further looks at how the characters, the dialogue, the events and resolution of a piece of literature can serve to either reinforce or challenge stereotypical representations of women.

Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women" (Tyson). This school of theory looks at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and "...this critique strives to

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expose the explicit and implicit misogyny in male writing about women" (Richter 1346). This misogyny, Tyson reminds us, can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling example...is found in the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes often have been tested on male subjects only" (83).

Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such as the exclusion of women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or historical point of view is feminist, there is a tendency to under-represent the contribution of women writers" (Tyson 82-83).

Common Space in Feminist Theories

Though a number of different approaches exist in feminist criticism, there exist some areas of commonality. This list is excerpted from Tyson:

1. Women are oppressed by patriarchy economically, politically, socially, and psychologically; patriarchal ideology is the primary means by which they are kept so

2. In every domain where patriarchy reigns, woman is other: she is marginalized, defined only by her difference from male norms and values

3. All of western (Anglo-European) civilization is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology, for example, in the biblical portrayal of Eve as the origin of sin and death in the world

4. While biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender (masculine or feminine)

5. All feminist activity, including feminist theory and literary criticism, has as its ultimate goal to change the world by prompting gender equality

6. Gender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience, including the production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware of these issues or not (91).

Feminist criticism has, in many ways, followed what some theorists call the three waves of feminism:

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o First Wave Feminism - late 1700s-early 1900's: writers like Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792) highlight the inequalities between the sexes. Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull contribute to the women's suffrage movement, which leads to National Universal Suffrage in 1920 with the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment

o Second Wave Feminism - early 1960s-late 1970s: building on more equal working conditions necessary in America during World War II, movements such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), formed in 1966, cohere feminist political activism. Writers like Simone de Beauvoir (Le deuxième sexe, 1972) and Elaine Showalter established the groundwork for the dissemination of feminist theories dove-tailed with the American Civil Rights movement

o Third Wave Feminism - early 1990s-present: resisting the perceived essentialist (over generalized, over simplified) ideologies and a white, heterosexual, middle class focus of second wave feminism, third wave feminism borrows from post-structural and contemporary gender and race theories (see below) to expand on marginalized populations' experiences. Writers like Alice Walker work to "...reconcile it [feminism] with the concerns of the black community...[and] the survival and wholeness of her people, men and women both, and for the promotion of dialog and community as well as for the valorization of women and of all the varieties of work women perform" (Tyson 97).

5. DeconstructionDeconstruction Theory is about shifting the center of a piece

from the author outward, to the reader and the piece's deeper meaning for society. It removes the author as the authoritative voice on a piece to those reading and interpreting the piece. In this vein, it has much in common with Reader-Response Criticism. Where this theory differs from other theories is that it looks at a very unique aspect of a text---it analyzes what was left out of a text and how that influences the piece as much as what was actually written into a piece.

6. New Criticism

A literary movement that started in the late 1920s and 1930s and originated in reaction to traditional criticism that new critics saw as largely concerned with matters extraneous to the text, e.g., with the biography or psychology of the author or the work's relationship to

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literary history. New Criticism proposed that a work of literary art should be regarded as autonomous, and so should not be judged by reference to considerations beyond itself. A poem consists less of a series of referential and verifiable statements about the 'real' world beyond it, than of the presentation and sophisticated organization of a set of complex experiences in a verbal form (Hawkes, pp. 150-151). 

Key Terms:

o Intentional Fallacy - equating the meaning of a poem with the au-thor's intentions.

o Affective Fallacy - confusing the meaning of a text with how it makes the reader feel. A reader's emotional response to a text generally does not produce a reliable interpretation.

o Heresy of Paraphrase - assuming that an interpretation of a liter-ary work could consist of a detailed summary or paraphrase.

o Close reading (from Bressler) - "a close and detailed analysis of the text itself to arrive at an interpretation without referring to historical, authorial, or cultural concerns".

7. Archetypal / Myth Criticism

Myth criticism regards literary works as expressions or embodiments of recurrent mythic patterns and structures or of timeless archetypes. Archetypes, according to Jung, are "primordial images"; the "psychic residue" of repeated types of experience in the lives of very ancient ancestors which are inherited in the "collective unconscious" of the human race and are expressed in myths, religion, dreams, and private fantasies, as well as in the works of literature (Abrams, p. 10, 112).

Some common examples of archetypes and their meaning include the following:

a. Water – mystery, fertility, growth, purityb. Sun – creative energy, female/mother principle, conscious-

ness, passage of time and life

c. Colors – red (war, blood, violence, passion, sacrifices), blue (security, truth, religious feeling), green (growth, sensation,

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fertility), black (death, evil, chaos, mystery, melancholy), white (purity, innocence, light, timelessness, terror, supernat-ural, death)

d. Circles – unity, wideness

e. Egg – forces of life

f. Serpent – betrayal, evil, corruption, sensuality, destruction, mystery, wisdom

g. Numbers – 3 (light, spiritual awareness), 4 (life cycle), 7 (per-fect order)

h. Garden – paradise, innocence, unspoiled beauty

i. Tree – life, growth, consistence

j. Desert – death, hopelessness

k. Wise old man – full knowledge and wisdom

l. Shadow - darker, sometimes hidden (deliberately or uncon-sciously), elements of a person's psyche

8. Psychoanalytic Criticism

This refers to the application of specific psychological principles (particularly those of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan to the study of literature. Psychoanalytic criticism may focus on the writer's psyche, the study of the creative process, the study of psychological types and principles present within works of literature, or the effects of literature upon its readers (Wellek and Warren, p. 81).

Key Terms:

o Unconscious - the irrational part of the psyche unavailable to a person's consciousness except through dissociated acts or dreams.

Freud's model of the psyche:

o Id - completely unconscious part of the psyche that serves as a storehouse of our desires, wishes, and fears. The id houses the libido, the source of psychosexual energy.

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o Ego - mostly to partially (<--a point of debate) conscious part of the psyche that processes experiences and operates as a referee or mediator between the id and superego.

o Superego - often thought of as one's "conscience"; the superego operates "like an internal censor [encouraging] moral judgments in light of social pressures" (123, Bressler - see General Resources below).

Lacan's model of the psyche:

o Imaginary - a preverbal/verbal stage in which a child (around 6-18 months of age) begins to develop a sense of separateness from her mother as well as other people and objects; however, the child's sense of sense is still incomplete.

o Symbolic - the stage marking a child's entrance into language (the ability to understand and generate symbols); in contrast to the imaginary stage, largely focused on the mother, the symbolic stage shifts attention to the father who, in Lacanian theory, represents cultural norms, laws, language, and power (the symbol of power is the phallus--an arguably "gender-neutral" term).

o Real - an unattainable stage representing all that a person is not and does not have. Both Lacan and his critics argue whether the real order represents the period before the imaginary order when a child is completely fulfilled--without need or lack, or if the real order follows the symbolic order and represents our "perennial lack" (because we cannot return to the state of wholeness that existed before language).

9. Marxism

This is a type of criticism in which literary works are viewed as the product of work and whose practitioners emphasized the role of class and ideology as they reflect, propagate, and challenge the prevailing social order.

Marxist literary theories interpret literary works on the basis of time, history, society or social milieu, seeking dominant social ideology within which the literary work was created, thus treating literature as a copy of the ideological/ social reality. This is often commonly known as “sociological approach” to literature.

10. Existentialism

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Existentialism is a philosophy that views each person as an isolated being who is cast into an alien universe, and conceives the world as possessing no inherent human truth, value, or meaning. A person's life, then, as it moves from the nothingness from which it came toward the nothingness where it must end, defines an existence which is both anguished and absurd (Guerin). In a world without sense, all choices are possible, a situation which Sartre viewed as human beings central dilemma: "Man [woman] is condemned to be free." In contrast to atheist existentialism, Søren Kierkegaard theorized that belief in God (given that we are provided with no proof or assurance) required a conscious choice or "leap of faith."

11. Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical method, first developed by Edmund Husserl that proposed "phenomenological reduction" so that everything not "immanent" to consciousness must be excluded; all realities must be treated as pure "phenomena" and this is the only absolute data from which we can begin. Husserl viewed consciousness always as intentional and that the act of consciousness, the thinking subject and the object it "intends," are inseparable. Art is not a means of securing pleasure, but a revelation of being. The work is the phenomenon by which we come to know the world (Eagleton, p. 54; Abrams, p. 133, Guerin, p. 263).

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics sees interpretation as a circular process whereby valid interpretation can be achieved by a sustained, mutually qualifying interplay between our progressive sense of the whole and our retrospective understanding of its component parts. Two dominant theories that emerged from Wilhelm Dilthey's original premise were that of E. D. Hirsch who, in accord with Dilthey, felt a valid interpretation was possible by uncovering the work's authorial intent (though informed by historical and cultural determinants), and in contrast, that of Martin Heidegger who argued that a reader must experience the "inner life" of a text in order to understand it at all. The reader's "being-in-the-world" or dasein is fraught with difficulties since both the reader and the text exist in a temporal and fluid state. For Heidegger or Hans Georg Gadamer, a valid interpretation may become irrecoverable and will always be relative.

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12. Linguistic Criticism

This is probably the oldest form of biblical criticism or textual criticism to develop. Linguistic criticism specifically inspects how languages affect one another in the process of translating.

These linguistic movements began in the 1920s, were suppressed by the Soviets in the 1930s, moved to Czechoslovakia and were continued by members of the Prague Linguistic Circle . The Prague Linguistic Circle viewed literature as a special class of language, and rested on the assumption that there is a fundamental opposition between literary (or poetical) language and ordinary language. Formalism views the primary function of ordinary language as communicating a message, or information, by references to the world existing outside of language. In contrast, it views literary language as self-focused: its function is not to make extrinsic references, but to draw attention to its own "formal" features--that is, to interrelationships among the linguistic signs themselves. Literature is held to be subject to critical analysis by the sciences of linguistics but also by a type of linguistics different from that adapted to ordinary discourse, because its laws produce the distinctive features of literariness (Abrams, pp. 165-166). An important contribution made by Victor Schklovsky (of the Leningrad group) was to explain how language--through a period of time--tends to become "smooth, unconscious or transparent." In contrast, the work of literature is to defamiliarize language by a process of "making strange." Dialogism refers to a theory, initiated by Mikhail Bakhtin, arguing that in a dialogic work of literature--such as in the writings of Dostoevsky--there is a "polyphonic interplay of various characters' voices ... where no worldview is given superiority over others; neither is that voice which may be identified with the author's necessarily the most engaging or persuasive of all those in the text" (Childers & Hentzi, p. 81).

13. Stylistic Criticism

This form of criticism explains the particular choice made by individuals and social groups in their use of language. It looks at what is going on within the language and the style of language used revealed.

14. Structuralism

This refers to a way of thinking about the world which is predominantly concerned with the perceptions and descriptions of

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structures. It analyzes last scale systems by examining the relations and functions of the smallest constituent elements of such systems with range from human languages and cultural practices to folk tales and literary texts.

15. Post-Structuralism

Post-Structuralism is a reaction to structuralism and works against seeing language as a stable, closed system. "It is a shift from seeing the poem or novel as a closed entity, equipped with definite meanings which it is the critic's task to decipher, to seeing literature as irreducibly plural, an endless play of signifiers which can never be finally nailed down to a single center, essence, or meaning". Jacques Derrida's paper on "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" (delivered in 1966) proved particularly influential in the creation of post-structuralism. Derrida argued against, in essence, the notion of a knowable center (the Western ideal of logo centrism), a structure that could organize the differential play of language or thought but somehow remain immune to the same "play" it depicts (Abrams, 258-9). Derrida's critique of structuralism also heralded the advent of deconstruction that--like post-structuralism--critiques the notion of "origin" built into structuralism. In negative terms, deconstruction--particularly as articulated by Derrida--has often come to be interpreted as "anything goes" since nothing has any real meaning or truth.

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Mythology and Folklore

The lore(traditional knowledge and beliefs) of cultures having no written language. It is transmitted by word of mouth and consists as does as written literature, both prose and verse narratives, poems and songs, myths, dramas, rituals, proverbs, riddles and the like. Nearly all known peoples, now or in the past, have produced it.

Folklore is a collection of fictional tales about people and or animals. Folktales describe how the main character copes with the events of everyday life, and the tale may involve crisis or conflict. Superstitions and unfounded beliefs are important elements in folklore tradition. The study of folklore is called folkloristic.

Folklore is the transmission of traditional beliefs, myths, tales and practices. These tales are unwritten literature: stories, proverbs and songs. Folklore is an essential part of every culture.

Origins and Development

Of the origins of folk literature, as the origins of human language, there is no way of knowing. None of the literature available today is primitive in any sense, and only the present-day results can be observed of practices extending over many thousands of years. Speculations therefore can only concern such human needs as may give rise to oral literature, not to its ultimate origin.

The Nature of Oral Tradition

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The beginnings of written literature in Sumer and Egypt 5,000 or 6,000 years ago took place in a world that knew only folk literature. During the millennia since then written literature has been surrounded and sometimes all but overwhelmed by the humbler activity of the unlettered. The emergence of the author and his carefully preserved manuscript came about slowly and uncertainly, and only in a few places initially --- the literary authorship that flourished in the Athens of Pericles or the Jerusalem of the Old Testament presented only a very small part of the world of their time. Nearly everywhere else the oral storyteller or epic singer was dominant, and all of what is called literary expression was carried in the memory of folk, and especially of gifted narrators.

All societies have produced some men and women of great natural endowments--- shamans, priests, rulers and warriors--- all from these has came the greatest stimulus everywhere toward producing and listening to myths, tales, and songs. To these the common man has listened to such effect that sometimes he himself has become a bard. And kings and councilors, still without benefit of writing have sat enthralled as he entertained them at their banquets.

Cultural exchange in written and oral traditions

This folk literature has affected the later written word profoundly. The Homeric hymns, undoubtedly oral in origin and retaining many of the usual characteristics of folk literature, such as long repetitions and formulaic expressions, have come so far in their development that they move ease within a uniform and difficult poetic form, have constructed elaborate and fairly consistent plots and successfully carried them through, and have preserved in definitive form a conception of the Olympic pantheon with its gods and heroes, which became a part of Ancient Greek thinking.

As the Middle Ages lead into the Renaissance, the influence of folk literature on the work of writes increases in importance, so that it is sometimes difficult to draw a sharp line of distinction between them. In literary forms such as the fabliau, many anecdotes may have ultimately from tales current among unlettered storytellers, but these have usually been reworked by writers, some of them belonging in the main streams of literature, like Boccaccio or Chaucer. Only later, in the 16th and 17th

centuries, in such works as those of Gianfrancesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile did writers go directly to folk literature itself for much of their material.

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Since Classical times composers of written literature have borrowed tales and motifs from oral narratives and their folk origin has been forgotten. Examples abound in Homer and Beowulf. In their literary form, storytellers have lived on these stories side by side with telling and retellings. Modern examples of traditions used found in Ibsen’s Peer Gynt and Gerharrt Hauptman’s The Sunken Bell. Particularly frequent in all literature are proverbs, many of them certainly of folk origin.

In Finland, a good example of the direct use of folk literature in the construction of a literary epic seen in the Kalevala, composed by Elias Lonrot in the 1830’s, primarily by fusing epic songs that he had recorded from Finnish singers. The Kalevala itself is a national literary monument, but the songs Lonrot heard a part of folk literature.

Characteristics of Folk Literature

The most obvious characteristic of folk literature is its orality. In spite of certain borderline cases, it normally stands in direct contrast to written literature. The latter exists in manuscripts and books and may be preserve exactly as the author or authors left it, even though this may have happened centuries or even millennia ago. Through these manuscripts and books, the thoughts and emotions and observations and even the fine nuances of style can be experience without regard to time or distance. With oral literature, this is not possible. It is concerned only with speaking and singing with listening, thus depending upon the existence of a living culture to carry a tradition. If any item of folk literature ceases to exist with human memory it is complete lost.

The ritual specialists: priests, shamans, and others who perform religious ceremonies and healing rites preserve a different kind of oral tradition. Frequently, these rituals must be remember word for word and are not believed to be effective unless they are correctly performed. The ideal of such priestly transmitters of oral tradition is complete faithfulness to that which has been passed down to them.

Folk literature is but a part of what generally known as folklore: customs and beliefs, ritualistic behaviors, dances, folk music and other nonliterary manifestations. These are often considered a part of the larger study of ethnology, but they are also the business of the folklorist.

Of special importance is the relation of all kinds of folk literature to mythology. The stories of Maui and his conferrers in the Pacific and of gods

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and heroes of African or American Indian groups have behind them a long and perhaps complicated history. This is especially true of the highly developed mythologies of India and the Greek, Irish and Germanic pantheons. All are the results of an indefinitely long past, of growth and outside influences, or religious cults and practices, and of the glorification of heroes. However, whatever the historical, psychological, or religious motivations, the mythologies are a part of folk literature and, though traditional, have been subject to continual changes at the hands of the taletellers, singers of stories, or priestly conductors of cults. Eventually singers or storytellers of philosophical tendencies have systematized their mythologies and have created with fine imagination the figures of Zeus and his Olympic family and his semi divine heroic descendants.

Techniques of Folk Literature

Since the tales, legends, and epic and lyric songs discussed here are a part of the experience of a preliterate group or at least of the essentially unlettered, they differ in many ways from literary works addressed to a reading public. Long forgotten are the people originally responsible for the tradition that has resulted in examples of folk literature. Only the tale or song remains repeated and often changed by subsequent storytellers, singers or bards. In the course of history it is listened to by generations of the unlettered, and its success and its very survival depend on how well it satisfies their emotional needs and intellectual interests.

Since in essence all folk literature is oral and subject to it survival in the human mind. It is full of devices to aid memory. Perhaps most common of all is mere repetition. Especially in folktales and epics it is common to hear the same episode repeated with little or no verbal change. As the hero encounters his successive adversaries the description changes only enough to indicate increasing terror of the enemy, always leading to a climax and usually to the hero’s success. These long repeated passages often enable the teller of the tales or the singer of an epic to extend his performance as much as he desires.

Aside from repetition of entire episodes, folk literature of all kinds is filled with formulaic expressions. It may be the beginning of a folktale--- the “once upon a time” or the “married and happily lived ever after” or sometimes quite meaningless expressions --- or standard epithets attached to certain persons or places. These formulas are so characteristic of oral literature that

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an abundance of such common places seems to be a guarantee of authentic oral origins of events of a great epic.

Repetition, formulas both in words and in structure, realism enough to support the marvelous in tale or song, violent actions and simple strong emotions--- these qualities are generally found in all folk literature. The varying demands of the listeners are all important influences. In some cultures this implies that actions should be well motivated so that listeners may identify themselves with certain characters. But in others, such as in many parts of India and in many preliterate cultures, motivation is often weak or entirely lacking.

For lyric songs, proverbs, riddles and charms (and often legends), the relation of artist and audiences is of little importance.

Regional and ethnic manifestations

In many particular s of form and substance there will be found great variations in the ways folk literature is manifested. The interests of the people in one culture may differ profoundly from those of people in another. One group may enjoy singing folk songs, another listening to romantic folktales, and a neighboring group may even be concerned only with legends and traditions. This difference is often geographic; so that the students of folk literature in the Pacific Islands who may alter investigate a Central African tribe will find completely different emphasis in two areas. These differences may well depend upon the varieties of religious concepts held by the group or its natural environment, whether islands or jungle or cultivated farm lands, or its stability or mobility. These characteristics are likely to become especially deep-seated in groups that have been settled in one place over a long period of history. Frequently they may correspond to national frontiers, but more often they are aspects of the general culture of an area and may well be quite independent of political or linguistic boundaries.

Tales and origin legends have been collected in great numbers from various parts of Oceania, where there is common mythological background extending over enormous distances. Except for probable early contact by way of Indonesia, these folktales seem to show little Eurasian influence. In many parts of South America the merging of Iberian, Indian, and African materials seems almost complete.

The folk literature of the African Americans is in a state of continual change, reflecting their history. Much certainly goes back to Africa, usually by way of

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the West Indies, and much was borrowed long ago. But African Americans have themselves in a truly oral fashion developed songs, and stories, and particular music styles. Of very special character is the folklore of modern Israel. Jews from various lands have brought together folk literature from all these countries. Assimilation of this a long task, and since divergent language backgrounds are unimportant for folktales, the problem is to absorb the great variety of forms.

Major forms of folk literature

Folk song

Singing of some kind is almost universal, and it is probable that where there are no reports of it the information is simply missing. Folk song implies the use of music, and the musical tradition varies greatly from one area to another. In some places the words of songs are of little importance and seem to be used primarily as support for the music. Frequently there are meaningless monosyllables and much repetition to accompany the voice or the musical instrument. In much of the world, drums and rattles, beating time by hands or feet of the stroking of a harp give a strong rhythmic effect to folk singing,. In other parts of the world, flutelike wind instruments or bowed fiddles of one kind or another affect the nature of folk song texts.

Many folk songs have been around so long that nobody is entirely sure who their composers were. Often these songs are passed down within a community, and they evolve over time to address the issues of the day. Such songs include "We Shall Overcome," and "I Shall Not be Moved," as well as other spirituals. Other timeless folk songs have definite origins, such as Woody Guthrie's "This Land is Your Land," or Pete Seeger's "If I Had A Hammer." These songs are often so poignant, honest, and timeless, that they become enmeshed into the culture, and are known by just about everyone. Folk songs are typically about a community of people, and the issues they feel are important to them. Contemporary folk songs cover topics from love and relationships to racism, terrorism, war, voting, education, and religion, among other things.

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Ballad

A special tradition of tales told in song has arisen in Europe since the Middle Ages and has been carried to wherever Europeans have settled. These ballads, in characteristic local metrical forms and frequently with archaic musical modes, are usually concerned with domestic or warlike conflict, with disasters by land or sea, with crime and punishment, with heroes and outlaws, and sometimes, though rarely, with humour. Despite a folk culture fast being overwhelmed by the modern world, these ballads are still sung and enjoyed.

Folk drama

Belonging only remotely to oral literature is folk drama. Dances, many of them elaborate, with masks portraying animal or human characters, and sometimes containing speeches or songs, are to be found in many parts of the preliterate world. Though the action and the dramatic imitation is always the most prominent part of such performances, these may be part of a ritual and involve speaking or chanting of sacred texts learned and passed on by word of mouth.

The ancient Greek mysteries, as well as secret societies even down to the present, have retained this method of transmitting dramatically their traditions and their teachings and commentary. Some dramatic rituals indeed were not secret but part of a public cult. Thus, an ancient Greece the feast of Dionysus led eventually to Classical Greek drama, and Middle Ages the dramatic celebrations of the Christian church developed into the medieval folk drama and at long last into the literary drama of the Renaissance and later.

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Fable

Fables, whether of the well-known Aesop cycle, with animals acting according to their real natures, or those from India, where animals simply act as men and women, are literary in origin. But they have had an important influence on folk literature. In addition to appearing in written collections, a number of these are told by storytellers in many parts of the world. Such fables as “The Ant and the Grasshopper,” with appropriate morals, have been frequently recorded along with oral tales and have undoubtedly served as models for new animal stories. Sometimes these new tales have eventually received literary treatment, as in the medieval “Reynard the Zox”, and then been carried back around the world by storytellers. In such narratives the borderline between the folk literature and other literary expression is impossible to draw.

Folktale

The oral fictional tale, from whatever ultimate origin, is practically universal both in time and place. Certain peoples tell very simple stories and others tales of great complexity, but the basic pattern of taleteller and his audience is found everywhere and as far back as can be learned. Differing from legend or tradition, which is usually believed, the oral fictional tale gives the storyteller absolute freedom as to credibility so long as he stays within the limits of local taboos and tells tales that please.

A folktale travels with great ease from one storyteller to another. Since a particular story is characterized by its basic pattern and by narrative motifs rather than by its verbal form, it passes language boundaries without difficulty. The spread of a folktale is determined rather by large culture areas, such as North American Indian,

Eurasian, Central and South African, Oceanic, or South American. And with recent increasing human mobility many tales, especially of Eurasian origin, have disregarded even these culture boundaries and have gone with new settlers to other continents.

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In many preliterate cultures folktales are hardly to be distinguished from myths, since, especially in tales of tricksters and heroes, they presuppose a background of belief about tribal origins and the relation of men and gods. Conscious fictions, however, enter even into such stories. Animals abound here whether in their natural form or anthropomorphized so that they seem sometimes men and sometimes beasts. Adventure stories, exaggerations, marvels of all kinds such as other world journeys, and narratives of marriage or sexual adventure, usually between human beings and animals, are common. Much rarer, contrary to the views of earlier students, are explanatory stories. Tales of this description are especially characteristic of Africa, Oceania, and the South American Indians.

In much of the world, especially Europe and Asia, the folktale deals with a greater variety of incidents than just described. In the course of time folktale scholars have given most attention to this area and have classified these stories so that the vast collections of them in manuscripts or books can be referred to with exactness.

All readers of such collections as those of Grimm will easily recall examples of tales of speaking animals. These may be old Aesop fables or parts of the medieval Reynard epic, but most of them are based on some ancient oral tradition. Such animal stories are especially numerous in eastern Europe. But better known perhaps are the ordinary folktales that deal with human beings and their adventures. For these tales, usually laid in a highly imaginative time and place--a never-never land--and filled with unrealistic and often supernatural creatures, there exists no good English word, so that usually scholars use the German term Märchen. Here belong "The Dragon Slayer," "The Danced-Out Shoes," the "Swan-Maiden" tales, "Cupid and Psyche," "Snow White," "Cinderella," "Faithful John," "Hansel and Gretel," and their like. Here also belong certain stories with religious or romantic motivation and tales of robbers and thieves--"Peter at the Gate of Heaven," "The Clever Peasant Daughter," "Rhampsinitus."

A major division of this classification of tales deals with jests and anecdotes. Examples are the many stories of numskulls, of clever rascals, and tall tales filled with exaggerations or lies. Finally come formula tales like "The House that Jack Built."

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Among jokes and anecdotes a number are risqué or actually obscene. The indexes of the classification have included only those occurring in the published regional surveys. These surveys, and the books and manuscripts on which they have been based, have been subject to severe editing in order to avoid social or even legal offense. Some of the older anthropologists thought to avoid the eyes of the nonscholar by writing such tales in Latin, but a newer generation is much less squeamish. Folk stories now appear in print covering the gamut of the erotic--tales of seduction, realistic descriptions of normal or abnormal sexual activity, and scatological stories of great indecency.

This index of tale types fits the region for which it was planned and is constantly being improved and expanded, but it was never designed to cover the world. The Eurasian types are usually recognizable in any part of the globe and for them this type index is valuable. But for use with stories on a worldwide basis something less formal is needed, a classification of the possible or likely narrative motifs, minute or extended, and wherever found. Such a motif index has in fact proved useful outside of the Eurasian area, wherever comparative studies are undertaken, for parallels or analogues in simple motifs occur even in far distant places, often presenting extremely puzzling problems.

By use of such indexes and from the labours of many scholars, much material for examination of the folktale is available. These studies have been pursued since the 18th century, though until about 1900 most of them were premature attempts to answer the general question of where folktales come from. Eventually it became clear that no satisfactory solution is available, but that every tale has its own history and can be studied only with laborious attention to detail.

In contrast to a literary story, with its standard text and author living in a definite time and place, the folktale is anonymous. Its originators have long been forgotten and it exists in many versions, all equally valid. Instead of being fixed like a literary document, it is in continual flux. But with hundreds of versions of a particular tale available for study it is possible to establish certain norms of plot structure and to point with some assurance to the varieties of subtypes that give clues to its life history. Such an analytical study of these hundreds of versions usually results in some hypothesis about the original form of the plot and the passage the tale has taken through time and space. In this way some 30 or 40 of the more complicated stories have been studied.

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These geographical and historical investigations depend on the fact that the plot of the tale is complex enough to admit of really analytical study. For simpler stories and anecdotes scholars have had to be content with less exact methods, usually resulting in nothing more than accounts of their distribution and the known facts of their history.

Most of the attention of students of folktales during the 20th century has been given to historical questions and to preparing the apparatus for studying them--collecting, with ever improved techniques, arranging and archiving materials from manuscripts or books, and indexing types and motifs, so as to make collections even in remote or difficult idioms available to the serious investigator. But the folktale also has given rise to studies that are not strictly historical.

The attempts during the 19th century to find hidden meanings in tales were generally based upon the theory that they were broken-down myths and had lost their original meanings through linguistic misunderstanding. The result was that this "original meaning" was always found to be some conflict between weather or seasonal phenomena (winter: summer; clouds: sunshine; etc.). This type of interpretation has now generally gone out of fashion and has given place sometimes to explanations based upon ancient rituals or to some variety of psychoanalytic treatment. Though both of these possible sources of folk literature merit examination, the resultant interpretations have usually been merely astonishing to those acquainted with the actual history of the tales studied.

A much more fruitful approach to an investigation of folktales has been the studies of the tellers of stories and their audiences. From these has come an appreciation of the way in which folk literature is carried on in a tradition. A great deal more may be expected from such investigations, usually based on an intimate knowledge of the living lore of a single people.

Structural studies, especially of the folktale, have been engaging the attention of more and more scholars. Though particular plots may occur over large parts of the world, the form and literary style of the narrative is likely to be traditional within certain historical or geographic limits. The direction and strategy of these studies of structure are still unclear, but progress is being made.

Proverbs, riddles, and charms

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Three of the shorter forms of folk literature--proverbs, riddles, and charms--are not confined to oral expression but have appeared in written literature for a very long time. The proverb that expresses in terse form a statement embodying observations about the nature of life or about wise or unwise conduct may be so much an oral tradition as to serve in some preliterate societies as a sanction for decisions and may even be employed as lawyers employ court precedents. In literature it dominates certain books of the Old Testament and is found even earlier in the writings from Sumer. There has been a continual give and take between oral and written proverbs so that the history of each item demands a special investigation. While the proverb makes a clear and distinct statement, the purpose of the riddle is usually to deceive the listener about its meaning. A description is given and then the answer is demanded as to what has been meant. Among examples in literature are the riddle of the sphinx in Sophocles and the Anglo-Saxon riddles, based on earlier Latin forms. In oral literature the riddle may be part of a contest of wits. But even if the answer is known, the listeners enjoy hearing them over and over. In Western culture the riddle is especially cultivated by children.nCharms, whether for producing magic effects or for divining the future, also exist in folk literature as well as in the well-known Anglo-Saxon written form. The study of these extends over all parts of the world and back to the earliest records.

Children’s use of folk literature

As abundant as folk literature is and has been, its investigation has been seriously undertaken only within the past two or three centuries. The principal difficulty has been the assembling of material on which to base such studies. Its very oral nature makes it impossible for one person to be acquainted firsthand with more than an extremely small part of this activity. It is only when some sort of written record has been made of the oral material that any general studies are possible. For the still unlettered peoples, the reports of ethnologists and anthropologists, as a part of their general studies of the cultures of widely distributed groups, have often given good accounts of folk literature and have frequently furnished texts of material they heard. Though these reports are extremely uneven and often fragmentary, they do give a sampling of the literary expression of many and diverse parts of the world.

Mythology

When you think of myth, you may think of stories about heroes who are sons of gods (making them demigods) with either incredible strength or a god on

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hand to help the demigods in amazing adventures against the evils of the world. There is much more to myth than the heroic legends. Myth serves as explanation accepted by the people who share the myth. Very basic aspects of the world around us that myth explains are the course of the day and night or seasons, the mysteries of life and death, and the creation of everything. Here we're looking at creation.

Mythology can refer to either the study of myths, or to a body of myths. For example, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece. The term "myth" is often used colloquially to refer to a false story, but academic use of the term generally does not pass judgment on truth or falsity. In the study of folklore, a myth is a sacred narrative explaining

how the world and humankind came to be in their present form. Many scholars in other fields use the term "myth" in somewhat different ways. In a very broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story.

Typical characteristics

The main characters in myths are usually gods or supernatural heroes. As sacred stories, myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and closely linked to religion. In the society in which it is told, a myth is usually regarded as a true account of the remote past. In fact, many societies have two categories of traditional narrative, "true stories" or myths, and "false stories" or fables. Myths generally take place in a primordial age, when the world had not yet achieved its current form, and explain how the world gained its current form and how customs, institutions and taboos were established. A myth is a traditional story, which may describe the origins of the world and/or of a people. A myth is an attempt to explain mysteries, supernatural events, and cultural traditions. Sometimes sacred in nature, a myth can involve gods or other creatures.And, a myth represents reality in dramatic ways. Many cultures have their own versions of common myths, which contain archetypal images and themes. Myth criticism is used to analyze these threads in literature. A prominent name in myth criticism is Northrop Frye.

Closely related to myth are legend and folktale. Myths, legends, and folktales are different types of traditional story.[ Unlike myths, folktales can take place at any time and any place, and they are not considered true or sacred by the societies that tell them. Like myths, legends are stories that are traditionally considered true, but are set in a more recent time, when the world was much as it is today. Legends generally feature humans as their main characters, whereas myths generally focus on superhuman characters. The distinction

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between myth, legend, and folktale is meant simply as a useful tool for grouping traditional stories. In many cultures, it is hard to draw a sharp line between myths and legends. Instead of dividing their traditional stories into myths, legends, and folktales, some cultures divide them into two categories, one that roughly corresponds to folktales, and one that combines myths and legends. Even myths and folktales are not completely distinct. A story may be considered true (and therefore a myth) in one society, but considered fictional (and therefore a folktale) in another society. In fact, when a myth loses its status as part of a religious system, it often takes on traits more typical of folktales, with its formerly divine characters reinterpreted as human heroes, giants, or fairies. Myth, legend, saga, fable, folktale, or marchens are only a few of the categories of traditional stories. Other categories include anecdotes and some kinds of jokes. Traditional stories, in turn, are only one category within folklore, which also includes items such as gestures, costumes, and music.

Origins of myth

Euhemerism

One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of real historical events. According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborated upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gained the status of gods. For example, one might argue that the myth of the wind-god Aeolus evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds. Herodotus (5th century BC) and Prodicus made claims of this kind. This theory is named "euhemerism" after the mythologist Euhemerus (c.320 BC), who suggested that the Greek gods developed from legends about human beings.

Allegory

Some theories propose that myths began as allegories. According to one theory, myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: Apollo represents fire, Poseidon represents water, and so on. According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: Athena represents wise judgment, Aphrodite represents desire, etc. The 19th century Sanskritist Max Müller supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed that myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature, but gradually came to be interpreted literally: for example, a poetic description of the sea as "raging" was eventually taken literally, and the sea was then thought of as a

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raging god.

Personification

Some thinkers believe that myths resulted from the personification of inanimate objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshipped natural phenomena such as fire and air, gradually coming to describe them as gods. For example, according to the theory of mythopoeic thought, the ancients tended to view things as persons, not as mere objects;thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, thus giving rise to myths.

The myth-ritual theory

According to the myth-ritual theory, the existence of myth is tied to ritual. In its most extreme form, this theory claims that myths arose to explain rituals. This claim was first put forward by the biblical scholar William Robertson Smith. According to Smith, people begin performing rituals for some reason that is not related to myth; later, after they have forgotten the original reason for a ritual, they try to account for the ritual by inventing a myth and claiming that the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth. The anthropologist James Frazer had a similar theory. Frazer believed that primitive man starts out with a belief in magical laws; later, when man begins to lose faith in magic, he invents myths about gods and claims that his formerly magical rituals are religious rituals.

The study of mythology: a historical overview

Historically, the important approaches to the study of mythology have been those of Vico, Schelling, Schiller, Jung, Freud, Lévy-Bruhl, Lévi-Strauss, Frye, the Soviet school, and the Myth and Ritual School.

Pre-modern theories

The critical interpretation of myth goes back as far as the Presocratics. Euhemerus was one of the most important pre-modern mythologists. He interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events, distorted over many retellings. This view of myths and their origin is criticised by Plato in the Phaedrus (229d), in which Socrates says that this approach is the province of one who is "vehemently curious and laborious, and not entirely happy . . ." The Platonists generally had a more profound and comprehensive view of the subject. Sallustius, for example, divides myths into five categories – theological, physical (or concerning natural laws), animastic (or concerning soul), material and mixed. This last being those myths which show the interaction between two or more of the previous categories and

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which, he says, are particularly used in initiations.

Although Plato famously condemned poetic myth when discussing the education of the young in the Republic, primarily on the grounds that there was a danger that the young and uneducated might take the stories of Gods and heroes literally, nevertheless he constantly refers to myths of all kinds throughout his writings. As Platonism developed in the phases commonly called 'middle Platonism' and neoplatonism, such writers as Plutarch, Porphyry, Proclus, Olympiodorus and Damascius wrote explicitly about the symbolic interpretation of traditional and Orphic myths.

Interest in polytheistic mythology revived in the Renaissance, with early works on mythography appearing in the 16th century, such as the Theologia mythologica (1532).

19th-century theories

The first scholarly theories of myth appeared during the second half of the 19th century. In general, these 19th-century theories framed myth as a failed or obsolete mode of thought, often by interpreting myth as the primitive counterpart of modern science.

For example, E. B. Tylor interpreted myth as an attempt at a literal explanation for natural phenomena: unable to conceive of impersonal natural laws, early man tried to explain natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, giving rise to animism. According to Tylor, human thought evolves through various stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas. Not all scholars — not even all 19th century scholars — have agreed with this view. For example, Lucien Lévy-Bruhl claimed that "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind, and not a stage in its historical development."

Max Müller called myth a "disease of language". He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages: anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were eventually taken literally, leading to the idea that natural phenomena were conscious beings, gods. The anthropologist James Frazer saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law. According to Frazer, man begins with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When he realizes that his applications of these laws don't work, he gives up his belief in natural law, in favor of a belief in personal gods controlling nature — thus giving rise to religious myths. Meanwhile, man continues practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally, Frazer contends, man realizes that nature does follow natural laws, but now he discovers their true nature through science.

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Here, again, science makes myth obsolete: as Frazer puts it, man progresses "from magic through religion to science". Robert Segal asserts that by pitting mythical thought against modern scientific thought, such theories implied that modern man must abandon myth.

20th Century theories

Many 20th century theories of myth rejected the 19th-century theories' opposition of myth and science. In general, "twentieth-century theories have tended to see myth as almost anything but an outdated counterpart to science. Consequently, moderns are not obliged to abandon myth for science." Swiss psychologist Carl Jung (1873–1961) tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung asserted that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he called archetypes. Jung believed that the similarities between the myths from different cultures reveal the existence of these universal archetypes. Joseph Campbell believed that there were two different orders of mythology: that there are myths that, "are metaphorical of spiritual potentiality in the human being", and that there are myths, "that have to do with specific societies". Claude Lévi-Strauss believed that myths reflect patterns in the mind and interpreted those patterns more as fixed mental structures — specifically, pairs of opposites (i.e. good/evil, compassionate/callous) — than as unconscious feelings or urges. In his appendix to Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, and in The Myth of the Eternal Return, Mircea Eliade attributed modern man’s anxieties to his rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred. In the 1950s, Roland Barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book Mythologies.

Differences between Mythology and Legends

Folklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales and customs that are the traditions of that culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristics. The word 'folklore' was first used by the English antiquarian William Thoms in a letter published by the London Journal in 1846. In usage, there is a continuum between folklore and mythology. Stith Thompson made a major attempt to index the motifs of both folklore and mythology, providing an outline into which new motifs can be placed, and scholars can keep track of all older motifs.

Folklore can be divided into four areas of study: artifact (such as voodoo dolls), describable and transmissible entity (oral tradition), culture, and behavior (rituals). These areas do not stand alone, however, as often a particular item or element may fit into more than one of these areas.

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Oral tradition

Folklore can contain religious or mythic elements; it equally concerns itself with the sometimes mundane traditions of everyday life. Folklore frequently ties the practical and the esoteric into one narrative package. It has often been conflated with mythology, and vice versa, because it has been assumed that any figurative story that does not pertain to the dominant beliefs of the time is not of the same status as those dominant beliefs. Thus, Roman religion is called "myth" by today's dominant religions. In that way, both "myth" and "folklore" have become catch-all terms for all figurative narratives which do not correspond with the dominant belief structure.

Sometimes "folklore" is religious in nature, like the tales of the Welsh Mabinogion or those found in Icelandic skaldic poetry. Many of the tales in the Golden Legend of Jacob de Voragine also embody folklore elements in a Christian context, as well as the tales of Old Mr. Brennan. Examples of such Christian mythology are the themes woven round Saint George or Saint Christopher. In this case, the term "folklore" is being used in a pejorative sense. That is, while the tales of Odin the Wanderer have a religious value to the Norse who composed the stories, because it does not fit into a Christian configuration it is not considered "religious" by Christians who may instead refer to it as "folklore."

"Folktales" is a general term for different varieties of traditional narrative. The telling of stories appears to be a cultural universal, common to basic and complex societies alike. Even the forms folktales take are certainly similar from culture to culture, and comparative studies of themes and narrative ways have been successful in showing these relationships. Also it is considered to be an oral tale to be told for everybody.

On the other hand, folklore can be used to accurately describe a figurative narrative, which has no sacred or religious content. In the Jungian view, which is but one method of analysis, it may instead pertain to unconscious psychological patterns, instincts or archetypes of the mind. This may or may not have components of the fantastic (such as magic, ethereal beings or the personification of inanimate objects). These folktales may or may not emerge from a religious tradition, but nevertheless speak to deep psychological issues. The familiar folktale, "Hansel and Gretel", is an example of this fine line. The manifest purpose of the tale may primarily be one of mundane instruction regarding forest safety or secondarily a cautionary tale about the dangers of famine to large families, but its latent meaning may evoke a strong emotional response due to the widely understood themes and motifs such as “The Terrible Mother”, “Death,” and “Atonement with the Father.”

There can be both a moral and psychological scope to the work, as well as

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entertainment value, depending upon the nature of the teller, the style of the telling, the ages of the audience members, and the overall context of the performance. Folklorists generally resist universal interpretations of narratives and, wherever possible, analyze oral versions of telling in specific contexts, rather than print sources, which often show the work or bias of the writer or editor.

Contemporary narratives common in the Western world include the urban legend. There are many forms of folklore that are so common, however, that most people do not realize they are folklore, such as riddles, children's rhymes and ghost stories, rumors (including conspiracy theories), gossip, ethnic stereotypes, and holiday customs and life-cycle rituals. UFO abduction narratives can be seen, in some sense, to refigure the tales of pre-Christian Europe, or even such tales in the Bible as the Ascent of Elijah to heaven. Adrienne Mayor, in introducing a bibliography on the topic, noted that most modern folklorists are largely unaware of classical parallels and precedents, in materials that are only partly represented by the familiar designation Aesopica: "Ancient Greek and Roman literature contains rich troves of folklore and popular beliefs, many of which have counterparts in modern contemporary legends" (Such as Mayor, 2000).

Vladimir Propp's classic study Morphology of the Folktale (1928) became the basis of research into the structure of folklore texts. Propp discovered a uniform structure in Russian fairy tales. His book has been translated into English, Italian, Polish and other languages. The English translation was issued in USA in 1958, some 30 years after the publication of the original. It was met by approving reviews and significantly influenced later research on folklore and, more generally, structural semantics. Though his work was based on syntagmatic structure, it gave the scope to understand the structure of folktales, of which he discovered thirty one functions.

Cultural

Folklorist William Bascom states that folklore has many cultural aspects, such as allowing for escape from societal consequences. In addition, folklore can also serve to validate a culture (romantic nationalism), as well as transmit a culture's morals and values. Folklore can also be the root of many cultural types of music. Country, blues, and bluegrass all originate from American folklore. Examples of artists which have used folkloric themes in their music would be: Bill Monroe, Flatt and Scruggs, Old Crow Medicine Show, Jim Croce, and many others. Folklore can also be used to assert social pressures, or relieve them, for example in the case of humor and carnival. In addition, folklorists study medical, supernatural, religious, and political belief systems as an essential, often unspoken, part of expressive culture.

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Afro – Asian Literature

I. Part 1 - AfricaAfrica is the second largest continent after Asia. It is separated from Asia by the Suez Canal, the Gulf of Suez, and the Red Sea,

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and it is separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean on the West and the Indian Ocean on the East.

The earliest known protohuman fossils have been found in Africa, primarily in Kenya and Tanzania and Ethiopia. The continent was also the home of one of the world’s oldest civilizations, that of ancient Egypt. Egyptian influence spread south from up the Nile into present Sudan by the 1st millennium B.C. Beginning the 7th

century, Arab culture and the Muslim faith spread across the Sahara following trade routes between the north coast and towns along the Sahara’s southern border region.

The modern European colonization of Africa began with the Portuguese, who established trading stations on the coast in the 15th and 16th centuries, but the interior of what Europeans called “the Dark Continent” was not explored or colonized until the 19 th

century.

The Republic of South Africa, though independent, was long controlled by the descendants of European settlers; its black African majority did not participate in national elections until 1994. Africa’s peoples remain divided by race, language, religion, and politics in a complex cultural mosaic. In 1995, Africa contained about 13 percent of the world’s population and was the second most populous continent after Asia.

PEOPLEAfrica contains a complex mosaic of peoples, languages,

and cultures. Few of its states are ethnically homogenous, and few have developed a strong sense of national unity. For centuries, traditional values prevailed. Africans identified first and foremost with members of their own tribe or nation and avoided or competed with those who spoke a different language and were of different culture.

LANGUAGESThe number of languages spoken in Africa has been

variously estimated at between 800 and 1700. Five major stocks are generally recognized. 1. Afrosiatic languages – dominant in North Africa and the Horn,

include Berber, Kushitic, Semitic, Chad, and Coptic languages.2. Click languages – so named because of their characteristic

implosive “click” sounds include Khoisan which is spoken by the Khoikhoi of southern Africa.

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3. Niger-Congo languages – cover almost all of West Africa south of the Sahara and most of the Congo Basin and southern Africa.

4. Austronesian languages – language of Madagascar, were introduced from Southeast Asia about 2,000 years ago.

RELIGIONIslam is the dominant religion of northern Africa which

replaced Christianity in the 7th century and spread West and South across the Sahara and into the equatorial zones. With an estimated 155 million believers, Islam is the fastest-growing faith in Africa.

EDUCATIONOnly a small fraction of Africa’s young people attend

universities. Adult literacy rates range from 11 percent in Niger and 19 percent in Mali to 94 percent in Tanzania and 84 percent in Saychelles. Due to the lack of prestigious universities in many African countries, qualified students often attend U.S and European universities.

A. AFRICAN LITERATURE

African literature comprises the oral and written works of the continent, composed in either African languages or foreign ones.

Most formal African Literature is still developing distinctive styles.

The widespread African oral tradition, however, is rich in folktales, myths, riddles, and proverbs not only convey an imaginative view of the world but also serve a religious, social, and educational function.

Majority of African literary works have only been produced in the 20th century, most of them after World War II.

Black Africa has no ancient traditions of oral literature. Little African literature has existed for more than a

hundred years.

AFRICAN LANGUAGES

Linguists estimate that more than a thousand languages are spoken in Africa.

Written, creative literature novels, short stories, plays, and poetry – have been produced in about 50 of these languages.

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Literary works are heavily imbued with Christian didactism because most of them were published by missionary presses.

Later, as more of the population became literate and government agencies began to publish books etc., a secular literature emerged, much of it focusing on problems of personal adjustment to Western ways or modern institutions.

AFRICAN WRITERS AND POETS SOYINKA, WOLE

-is perhaps the foremost English –language poet and certainly the most celebrated playwright of black Africa. His work earned him the 1986 Nobel Prize for literature. Combining Western dramatic forms with music, dance, and mime of Africa, his plays achieve a ritualistic power and demonstrate the fundamental African concern with numinous boundaries: those between the human and the divine, between life and death.

-his first play was THE SWAMP DWELLERS which was produced in London in 1958. Most of his theatrical works have been seen on English and American as well as Nigerian stages.

-the first black African writer who won the Noble Prize, in fact it was the first international honor in literature ever won by a black African.

ACHEBE, CHINUA-Nigerian novelist and poet whose first novel, Thing Fall Apart”, set the theme for his subsequent work

-his other works include “The Arrow of God” (1964), and “A Man of People” (1966).

-his works were often unsentimental, often ironic, they vividly portray tribal culture and the very speech of Ibo people.

-since 1971, he has been co editor of OKIKE, one of Africa’s

most influential literary magazine.

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CLARK, JOHN PEER-Nigerian poet, dramatist, and literary critic. He contributed significantly to the Nigerian renaissance of the late 50’s and 60’s.

-his interest in collecting traditional African oral literature has resulted in such plays as OZIDE (1966), based on the Ijaw epic, and SONG OF A GOAT (1961).

-representative of his poetry is the volume, A DECADE OF TONGUES.

NGUGI WA THIONG’O, JAMES-considered as the most important East African novelist.

-he was educated in both Kenya and England, he taught literature for many years.

-his first 2 novels were WEEP NOT CHILD (1964) and THE RIVER BETWEEN (1965), concern the impact of colonialism, Christianity, and rebellion of the East African people. Bothe novels were influenced by the realism of West African writer, Chinua Achebe.

B. EGYPTIAN LITERATURE

Official Name: Arab Republic of Egypt Capital : Cairo Population : 54.6 million Official Language: Arabic

Ancient Egyptian Literature is characterized by a wide diversity of types and subject matter. It dates from Old Kingdom into the Greco-Roman period.

Range of Literary Forms:the religious literature of ancient Egypt include hymns to the gods, mythological, and magical texts, and an extensive collection of mortuary texts.

The range of secular literature includes stories; instructive literature, known as wisdom text; poems; biographical and historical texts; and scientific treaties, including mathematical and medical texts.

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The individual authors of several compositions dating from Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom were revered in later periods. They came from the educated class of upper-level government officials, and their audience was largely educated people like themselves.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Old Kingdom

Very few literary texts survived from the Old Kingdom. Among the most important works of the period were: Pyramid Texts which include nonliterary and highly poetic spells; Cannibal Texts, a vivid bits of poetry representing the dead kings attaining power in the afterlife by devouring the gods; and the Proverbs of Ptahotep, a book of sound but worldly advice.

Middle KingdomThis is the classic age of Egyptian literature which saw the flourishing of works which became popular for hundreds of years. Among these are: Tale of Sinuhe, which relates the flight of a refugee courtier, Sinuhe, from Egypt to Syria for political reasons, his life in exile and his homecoming; the Shipwrecked Sailor, a simple folk tale of a sailor who meets an old fatherly serpent on an island; and King Cheops and the Magicians, several folk tales given in a frame work story.

New KingdomDuring this period, the style of writing changed and the language of the day was used, which brought forth a natural manner of writing, replacing the artificialities of the Middle Kingdom. Among the famous writings of this period were: The story of King Apohis and Sekenenre, which concerns war expelling the Hykos; Voyage of Wenamon, a tale of an official sent to Lebanon for cedar wood; The Tale of the Two Brothers; The Enchanted Prince; Hymn to the Sun, Contending of Horus and Seth, etc. the New Kingdom saw increased concern over the dangers after death and many spells and rituals were composed for use of the dead.

Late Period

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The literature of the late period differs greatly from that of the earlier times because it was written in demotic, the simplified Egyptian language of that time. Works like The Lamentations if Isis and Nephytes and Setna and The Magic Book were popular during this period.

TYPES OF EGYPTIAN LITERATURE Wisdom literature

-the so-called Maxims and Instructions belong to the genre of didactic or wisdom literature, a popular form of expression throughout ancient Egypt.-The Teaching of Amenomopet and others may be learned by heart as part of a young man’s education. These are widely quoted in conversation, and contain many parallels of Hebrew literature.

Religious literature-predominates in Egypt-this is always the case when priests are the only persons who can write and make records and it is rare that any secular literature survives from an early period. -the Pyramid Texts consists of hymns and spells for the benefit of the dead, and as they are the earliest literary liturgy and exposition of religion in the world, they throw a great light on the primitive beliefs and official creeds. -the Book of the Dead is a series of chapters written on papyrus and often illustrated with miniature paintings, found in graves. The chapters are not necessarily connected with one another or they are not consecutive and there is no reason why they should be regarded as part of a book. This book was intended for the exercise of magic for private individual hereafter.-Hymns to the Sun God was another literary work prepared by Amenhotep IV because he believed he was the manifestation of the Egyptian ruler who tried to make his people believe in one god, the sun god Ra, the powerful, and the king creator.

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Tales-during the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian short stories were in bloom. Among them the tale of Sinuhe is the famous. Other stories are THE STORY OF THE DOOMED PRINCE, MISADVENTURES OF WEN-AMON and others.-The Story of King Khufu and the Magicians tells a lively story of a miraculously happening at the court of the monarch as a prelude to the no less miraculous birth of triples to the priestess, destined by prophecy to become kings. The story is probably political propaganda but it contains the essential ingredients of a fairy story.-The Tale of Two Brothers is another story which is similar to the Biblical Story of Joseph and his brothers.-The Shipwrecked Sailors is another fine example which relates how a sailor was thrown on a desert island where he conversed with a gigantic serpent.-The Story of the Eloquent Peasant tells the bad and tedious complaints of a peasant who had robbed of his merchandise.

Love lyrics-bridal songs were sung as they still are in the village of Egypt, the theme always being the surpassing beauty of the bride. One of the most charming is the bridal songs of the Princess Mutardis.

Pessimistic literature-One of the many forms of literature that blossomed during the Middle Kingdom is the Pessimistic Literature-this is poor stuff from the literary point of view but it is interesting early evidence of their cyclic recurrence of revolutionary reversals of fortunes.

II. Part 2 - ASIAAsia has an area of 44,444,100 sq. km. or 33% of the world’s land area. Mount Everest which stands 8,848 m is the world’s highest mountain, could be found in Asia.

PEOPLEAsia’s population is approximately 3,392,300,000 which

already includes European Turkey but excludes Asian Russian. It

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is said that 60% of the total world population came from Asia. The largest city in Asia is Tokyo, while the most populous country is the People’s Republic of China.

RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS Two-thirds of all Asian people belong to the Mongoloid

group The largest ethnic group is the Han Chinese The second largest Asian group are the Japanese Dark-skinned Dravidian-speaking people are characteristic

of the south India, is ethnically complex Lighter-skinned people of Aryan origins are characteristic

in the North

LANGUAGES Chinese is the language most widely spoken in Asia which

includes Mandarin, Cantonese, Min, and Hakka. Hindi is the second most widely used language spoken

mainly in northern India and Pakistan Arabic is the third major language which is spoken in the

Southwest Asia

RELIGIONS Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism are the principal religions

in Asia

A. Arabian Literature

Arabia is a large peninsula separated from Africa by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden

More than 80% of the peninsula is occupied by Saudi Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula was occupied by the wealthy Sabaean civilization

Mecca and Medina are the holiest cities of Islam

Arabian Literature Written Arabic literature began to be known with the

collection of the Koran, the sacred book of Islam With the spread of the Islamic faith, the Arabian language

soon became a major world language Arabs possessed a highly developed poetry, composed of

recitation and transmitted orally from generation to generation

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The most famous examples are the elaborate odes, these poems reflected and praised the customs and values of the desert environment in which they arose

Arabic Prose Saj or rhymed prose is the most striking characteristic

feature or Arab prose. It consists of a succession of pairs of short rhyming expression where there is rhetorical and antithetical balance of sense.

Khutbah or formal written in rhymed prose style is of great antiquity. It turned to religious verses in the earliest time of Islam.

One of the famous later exponents of the Khutbah style was Ibn Nubatah at-Farigi.

Arabuc prose began in the latter days of the Umayyad caliphate. It exhibit the use of the Khutbah style and a more sophisticated and fluent style derived from the literary tradition of Sasanian Persia.

Kalila wa Dimna is the most celebrated work of Ibn Maquffa which is a translation from a Pahlavi version of the Indian fable, the Panchantantra.

Mora, instructive and assuring anecdotes, became popular The most outstanding compiler of anecdotes is Tanukhi

who was responsible for three compilations like Niswar al-Muhadarah (The Table of a Mesopotamian Judge), Mustajad (Anecdotes of Generosity), and Faraj Ba’d at Shiddah (Deliverance after Anguish).

Maqamat (Assemblies) is a collection of short stories, mainly picaresque, woven round the names of two fictitious protagonists; this was initiated by al-Hamadhani.

Arabic Poetry Oral traditions, the poetry of the North Arabs, particularly

the Bedouin Tribes are the most outstanding in artistry and sensuousness of feelings.

Poetry was constructed in elaborate meters of which sixteen are universally recognized.

All verses are divided into two types:1. Occasional poems consisting of two to twenty lines

whose themes are usually war and revenge and praise of one’s own tribe. Various genre fall under this:a. Elegies – the most famous of this type was the kansab. The Ode or Quasida was an elaborate ode usually of

sixty to one hundred lines. The theme is usually about the exploits of the narrator, his old passion, and descriptions of camp life in honor of his patron.

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2. Collections or Anthologies – Al-Mu’allgqat, a group of Islamic des which means suspended because these poems were supposed to have been displayed by the Arabs on the Kaaba to Mecca. It is a representative of every type of Arabic poetry; its merits and demerit, and projects faithfully the Bedoins’ nomadic life.-Al-Hamasa is an anthology compiled by the poet ABRETAMMAN about 86 A.D. The anthology derives its name from the poems were constancy and valor in battle, patience when confronted with reality, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, fortitude under adverse circumstances and temptations and all.-Mujaddiyat is collection of poems named after MUFADDAL IBN YA’LA who compiled them for the future caliph. It projects the ancient traits of the Arabs, especially hospitality, charity, valor, faithfulness, lavish entertainment, and love for wine, and for games of chance.

Poets became more original in their craft during the Silver Age.

Poets were also influenced by Hellenistic and Persian art. The outstanding literary men in of the said period were IBN

ISHAQ, author of life of Mohammed, RABJA of Bastra, and the Sufi poetess, ABU NUEVAS, greatest Arab lyricist

The famous Mokamat is attributed to Hariri. Of the popular prose romances, the most familiar are The Thousand and One Arabian Nights, The Voyages of Sinbad, and a collection of fables related to the Greek Aesop, ascribed to Luqman.

After the fall of Baghdad, poetry was at its ebb but considerable historical and biographical writings existed, like Romance of Anta, about a popular Islamic hero.

In America, the greatest poets among the Arab immigrants are AMINAL RAYHANI and the celebrated poet, short story writer, artist and philosopher KAHLIL JIBRAN.

THE KORAN The Koran or Qur’an is the sacred Scripture of Islam.

Muslims acknowledge it as the actual words of God revealed to the prophet, MUHAMMAD.

The text contains 114 chapters (suras), arranged, except for the opening, approximately according to length, beginning with the longer chapters.

The Koran, termed glorious and wonderful, describes itself as a healing mercy, as light and guidance from God.

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It is generally believed that the standard text of the Koran, is based on the compilation of one of MUHAMMAD’s secretaries, ZAYD IBN THABIT.

By calligraphic copying of its verses and in many other ways as well, Muslims express their devotion to this Scripture over which, they trust, God himself watches.

THE ARABIAN NIGHTSThe Arabian Nights, also called THE THOUSAND AND

ONE NIGHTS, is a large collection of stories, mostly of Arabian, Indian, or Persian origin, written in Arabic between the 14th and 16th centuries. The best-known English version is by the explorer SIR RICHARD BURTON, who published a complete version.

The frame story, Persian in origin, turns on the woman-hating King Schahriah who, after his queen’s blatant infidelity, marries a different woman each night and then slays her the next morning, thus ensuring her faithfulness. The bride Scheherazade, however, beguiles the king with a series of stories for a thousand and one nights, withholding the ending of each story until the next night. In this way, she saves her life.

The elaborately plotted stories, filled with intrigue, are folkloric in origin. Three of the best known are The History of Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp, The History of Sinbad, the Sailor, and The History of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.

WELL-KNOWN AUTHOR KHALIL GIBRAN

o was a Lebanese poet who emigrated to the United Stated. He is best known for his poetic parables and aphorisms, contained in such works as The Prophet (1923) and Sand and Foam (1926). Gibran was influenced by Nietszche but was also highly religious and dealt with such abstractions as God, love, and woman.

o The very scope of his subject and the sentimentality with which he presents them are serious problems in his work but these characteristics may well be the source of his popularity.

B. CHINESE LITERATURE

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extends thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature fictional novels that arose during the Ming Dynasty to entertain the masses of literate Chinese.

The introduction of widespread woodblock printing during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and the invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song Dynasty (960–1279) rapidly spread written knowledge throughout China.

In more modern times, the author Lu Xun (1881–1936) is considered the founder of baihua literature in China.

PEOPLE People in China began writing about 1500 BC, more than a

thousand years later than people in West Asia or Egypt, but earlier than anyone in Europe, Africa, orCentral America.

The earliest writing that we know of from China was on animal bones, which are called "oracle bones" because priests used them to tell the future. The writing on these oracle bones is the same writing that people use in modern China, just in an earlier version.

The signs they used came from pictures, like earlier Egyptian hieroglyphs or Sumerian cuneiform.

People in early China also wrote on strips of bamboo wood. Later on, people also wrote on silk cloth.

The earliest Chinese literature that we know of probably comes from the later part of the Western Chou Dynasty about 800 BC (the same time as Hesiod in Greece) and was written on silk. This is the I Ching, a fortune-telling book, like the earlier oracle bones.

Sometime around 300 BC, in the Warring States period, a

general called Sun Tzu wrote a book called the Art of War,

about the best ways to organize armies and battles.

Around 100 BC, people in China invented paper to write on.

Paper was cheaper to write on than silk, so more people

wrote and copied books during the Han Dynasty.

DYNASTIES During the Tang Dynasty, about 700 AD, people in China

invented wood-block printing, which was easier than copying out books by hand and made books much cheaper than they had been before. Many more people learned to read,

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and many more people wrote books. The poet Bai Juyi wrote a famous poem, the Song of Everlasting Sorrow.

Soon afterward, during the Sung Dynasty, about 1000 AD,

people inventedmovable clay type, and this made books

even cheaper and more popular than before. In 1103 AD,

Lie Jie published a book setting architectural standards for all

of China.

One of the most famous novels of early China is

the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which was written

about 1330 AD, during the Yuan Dynasty, by a man named

Luo Guanzhong.

CONFUCIUS Was the Chinese sage who founded Confucianism. Throughout his life, he was best known as a teacher. When he died at the age of 72, he had taught a total of

3,000 disciples who carried on his teaching. All his teachings had been directed to the disciplines and

behavior of what he called “the superior man”. Confucius never discussed religion with his disciples,

instead he taught them ethics and in these ethical teachings his disciples and their successors kept the memory of Confucius alive among themselves.

He left them 5 books:1. The I Ching, or Book of Changes , a divination manual

attributed to the mythical emperor Fu Xi and based on eight trigrams. The I Ching is still used by adherents of folk religion.

2. The Classic of Poetry, a collection of folk songs, festival and ceremonial songs, and religious hymns and eulogies.

3. The Record of Rites (a recreation of the original Classic of Rites, which was lost in the Imperial book purge), which describes ancient rites and court ceremonies.

4. The Classic of History, a collection of documents and speeches allegedly written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It contains the best examples of early Chinese prose.

5. The Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical record of Confucius' native state, Lu, from 722 to 479 BCE.

CHINESE POETS WANG WEI

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Chinese painter and poet, a figure of legendary stature is considered the founder of the pure landscape style of painting and was one of the masters of lyric verse in the T’ang dynasty.

Some of his poems are:1. The Cold Mountain2. Departure3. Walking at Leisure

LI PO He is a Chinese poet, one of the greatest figures of Chinese literature. He lived briefly as a poet at the T’ang court in Ch’angan but left as the result of intrigue. He returned to a life of Taoist study and carefree reflective wandering, writing poems and enjoying nature and the pleasures of wine. According to legend, LI PO was drowned while drunkenly leaning from a boat to embrace the moon’s reflection on the water. The themes of LI PO’s output are the sorrows of those separated by the demands of duty, the relief found in wine, and a Taoist appreciation for the awesome tranquility of mountains and a sense of the mysterious life.

Some of his poems are:1. The Moon over the Mountain Pass2. Saying Farewell to a Friend3. Drinking alone in the Moonlight

TU FUHe is regarded by many as the greatest Chinese poet. He spent much o his youth travelling around China. For a while, he was influenced by Taoist philosophy and the poet LI PO, but eventually he reembraced Confucianism and returned to life in the imperial capital. He travelled about in poverty until his death. TU FU’s early poetry is marked by lyrical praise of the beauties of the natural world, but as his own life became more difficult, elements pf satire and expressions of somber feeling about the suffering of human kind entered his verse.Some of his poems are:1. The empty Purse2. Summer Nights

PO CHU

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He is a Chinese poet and government official, held various posts, starting in the palace library and rising to become a provincial governor. He is one of the greatest writers of the T’ang dynasty, which is renowned for his poetry. He employed satire and humor in his work to protest against contemporary evils. His poetry was extremely popular in his own time; its elegantly simple style still attracts readers.

Some of his poems are:1. Seeing Hsia Chan Off By River2. To the Distant One3. Looking in the Lake

C. HINDU LITERATURE India is the world’s second most populous nation and the

seventh largest in area, is located in South Asia on the Indian subcontinent.

India and Bharat are both official names. The early settlers called their land “Bharat Varsha” or Bharat” and during the medieval times it was known as “Hind.”

The name India, which derives from the Indus River and was used by the ancient Greeks and Persians, came into wide usage during the colonial period.

Indian culture is of great antiquity

PEOPLE India has one of the world’s most diverse population The earliest Indians may have migrated from Australia and

the South Pacific Islands. A great deal of ethnic, racial, and cultural intermingling

occurred during these successive waves of migration, contributing directly to the pluralistic nature of modern Indian society.

LITERATURE Most of the literature of ancient India was written in

Sanskrit, the oldest extant Aryan language. A small portion of the literature was written in Prakrit, a vernacular from Sanskrit. The history of Indian literature falls into two periods: 1. The Vedic Period, which extends from about 1500 B.C and of which the writings are made up principally of religious and lyric poetry, and 2. The so-called Sanskrit period, which extends from about 200 B.C well into the Middle Ages, and, in a sense, down to the present day. In the Sanskrit period many types of literature achieved

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distinction – epic, lyric, and didactic poetry; drama, fairy tales; fables; romances; and philosophy.

RELIGIOUS WORKS1. POETRY

The oldest sacred literature of India is found in the four Vedas (Book of Knowledge).a. The Rig-Vedab. The Sama-Veda or Book of Chantsc. The YAJUR-Veda or Prayer Bookd. The Athrva-Veda or Book of Spells

2. Prose1. The Brahmans2. The Upanishads3. The Sutras

SECULAR WORKS1. EPICS

a. The Mahabharatab. The Ramayana

2. DRAMASa. The Toy Clay Cartb. Sakuntala or the Fatal Ring

3. TALESa. The Jatakasb. Tha Panchantantrac. The Hitopdesad. Sukasaptati

4. LYRICSa. The Cloud Messengerb. Gitagovinda

D. HEBREW LITERATURE Consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings in

the Hebrew language. It is one of the primary forms of Jewish literature, though there have been cases of literature written in Hebrew by non-Jews.[1] Hebrew literature was produced in many different parts of the world throughout the medieval and modern eras, while contemporary Hebrew literature is largely Israeli literature.

Ancient Hebrew literature Beyond comparison, the most important such work is

the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh).

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The Mishna, compiled around 200 CE, is the primary rabbinic codification of laws as derived from the Torah. It was written in Mishnaic Hebrew, but the major commentary on it, the Gemara, was largely written in Aramaic. Many works of classical midrash were written in Hebrew.

Medieval Hebrew literature Many works of medieval rabbinic literature were written in

Hebrew, including: Torah commentaries by Abraham ibn Ezra, Rashi and others; codifications of Jewish law, such as Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, the Arba'ah Turim, and the Shulchan Aruch; and works of Musar literature (didactic ethical literature) such as Bahya ibn Paquda's Chovot ha-Levavot (The Duties of the Heart). Many works of medieval philosophical literature such as the Guide to the Perplexed and The Kuzari, as well as many works of fiction, were written in Judeo-Arabic. One work of fiction which was written in Hebrew was the "Fox Fables" by Berechiah ben Natronai ha-Nakdan, Hebrew fables which resemble Aesop's fables.

Much medieval Jewish poetry was written in Hebrew, including liturgical piyyutim in Palestine in the seventh and eighth centuries by Yose ben Yose,Yanai, and Eleazar Kalir.[2] These poems were added to the Hebrew-language liturgy. This liturgy was compiled in book form as "the siddur" by rabbis including Amram Gaon and Saadia Gaon.

Later Spanish, Provencal, and Italian poets wrote both religious and secular poems; particularly prominent poets were Solomon ibn Gabirol andYehuda Halevi.

Modern Hebrew literature In addition to writing traditional rabbinic literature in

Hebrew, modern Jews developed new forms of fiction, poetry, and essay-writing, which are typically called "Modern Hebrew Literature."

THE BIBLE The most widely read book in the world, the Bible has been

translated into more languages and dialects than any other. It is really a collection of sixty-six (seventy-two for Catholics) books, ranging in date from 750 B.C to A.D 100. It is divided into three parts: The Old Testament, The New Testament, and the Apocrypha.

LYRIC POETRY

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There is no rhyme and no regular meter, but usually there is a distinct rhythm. The great collection of lyrics, however, is the Book of Psalms.

DRAMA Although there was no theatre in Palestine, there were two

examples of dramatic writing:1. JOB – the book of Job is a philosophical drama,

principally in poetic form.2. The Song of Songs or Song of Solomon – a semi

dramatic poem intended to be presented with songs and dances as part of a wedding ceremony.

WISDOM LITERATURE Proverbs – a book of prudential sayings, chiefly poetic,

erroneously ascribed o Solomon, probably of popular origin.

Ecclesiastes – wrongly ascribed to Solomon, this is a series of heretical essays of profound pessimism, fatalism, and skepticism.

TALESSeveral stories (once considered true, now generally recognized as fiction) are included in the Old Testament. Each one has a special purpose or message.1. Ruth2. Jonah3. Daniel4. Esther

E. PERSIAN LITERATURE Persian literature  (Persian: پارسی ادبیات ) spans two and a

half millennia, though much of the pre-Islamic material has been lost. Its sources has been within historical Persia including present-day Iran as well as reigions of Central Asia where the Persian languagehas been the national language through history. For instance, Rumi, one of Persia's best-loved poets, born in Balkh, wrote in Persian, and lived in Konya then the capital of the Seljuks. The Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. There is thus Persian literature from areas that are now part of Afghanistan and other parts of Central Asia. Not all this literature is written in Persian, as some consider works written by ethnic Persians in other languages, such as Greek and Arabic, to be included.

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Described by some as one of the great literatures of mankind, the Persian literature has its roots in surviving works in Old Persian or Middle Persian dating back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscription, the Behistun Inscription. The bulk of the surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the Islamic conquest of Persia circa 650 CE. After the Abbasids came to power (750 CE), the Persians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic empire and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. Persians wrote both in Persian and Arabic; Persian predominated in later literary circles. Persian poets such as Sa'di, Hafiz , Rumi and Omar Khayyam are well known in the world and have influenced the literature of many countries.

Very few literary works survived from ancient Persia. This is partly due to the destruction of the library at Persepolis. Most of what remains consists of the royal inscriptions of Achaemenid kings, particularly Darius I (522–486 BC) and his son Xerxes. Zoroastrian writings mainly were destroyed in the Islamic conquest of Persia. The Parsis who fled to India, however, took with them some of the books of the Zoroastrian canon, including some of the Avesta and ancient commentaries (Zend) thereof. Some works ofSassanid geography and travel also survived albeit in Arabic translations.No single text devoted to literary criticism has survived from pre-Islamic Persia. However, some essays in Pahlavi such as "Ayin-e name nebeshtan" (Principles of Writing Book) and "Bab-e edteda’I-ye" (Kalileh o Demneh) have been considered as literary criticism (Zarrinkoub, 1959). Some researchers have quoted the Sho'ubiyye as asserting that the pre-Islamic Persians had books on eloquence, such as 'Karvand'. No trace remains of such books. There are some indications that some among the Persian elite were familiar with Greek rhetoric and literary criticism (Zarrinkoub, 1947).

The Persian Language The Old Persian of the Achaemenian Empire,

preserved in a number of cuneiform inscriptions, was an Indo-European tongue with close affinities with Sanskrit and Avestan (the language of the Zoroastrian sacred texts).  After the fall of the Achaemenians the ancient tongue developed, in the province of Pars, into Middle Persian or Pahlavi (a name derived from Parthavi - that is, Parthian). 

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Pahlavi was used throughout the Sassanian period, though little now remains of what must once have been a considerable literature.  About a hundred Pahlavi texts survive, mostly on religion and all in prose.  Pahlavi collections of romances, however, provided much of the material for Ferdowsi's Shahnameh.

After the Arab conquest a knowledge of Arabic became necessary, for it was not only the language of the new rulers and their state, but of the religion they brought with them and - later - of the new learning.  Though Pahlavi continued to be spoken in private life, Arabic was dominant in official circles for a century and a half.  With the weakening of the central power, a modified form of Pahlavi emerged, with its Indo-European grammatical structure intact but simplified, and with a large infusion of Arabic words.  This was the Modem Persian in use today.

Arabic continued to be employed in Iran, though on a decreasing scale, as Latin was used in Europe -that is, as a language of the learned.  As such it was employed by Avicenna, al-Biruni, Rhazes, Al Ghazali and others; indeed, many of the most famous names in Arabic literature are those of men of Persian birth.  But in general the use of Arabic declined; Persian developed rapidly to become the vehicle of a great literature, and before, long spread its influence to neighboring lands.  In India, Persian language and poetry became the vogue with the ruling classes, and at the court of the Moghul emperor Akbar Persian was adopted as the official language; spreading thence and fusing later with Hindi, it gave rise to the Urdu tongue.  To the west of Iran, Persian heavily influenced the language and literature of Turkey; Turkish verse was based on Persian models as regards form and style, and borrowed an extensive vocabulary.

A notable feature of Persian is the small extent to which it has changed over the thousand years or more of its existence as a literary language.  Thus the poems of Rudaki, the first Persian poet of note, who died in the year 940 A.D., are perfectly intelligible to the modem reader.  Persian literature too has a number of noteworthy characteristics, the most striking of which is the exceptional prominence of poetry.  Until quite recently there was practically

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no drama, and no novels were written; prose works were mostly confined to history, geography, philosophy, religion, ethics and politics, and it was poetry that formed the chief outlet for artistic expression.  Classical Persian literature was produced almost entirely under royal patronage whence the frequency of panegyric verse.  An influence of at least equal strength was religion, and in particular Sufism, which inspired the remarkably high proportion of mystical poetry. 

Persian Poetry Classical Persian poetry is always rhymed.  The

principal verse forms are the qasida, masnavi, ghazal and ruba'i.  The qasida or ode is a long poem in monorhyme, usually of a panegyric, didactic or religious nature; the masnavi, written in rhyming couplets, is employed for heroic, romantic, or narrative verse; the ghazal (ode or lyric) is a comparatively short poem, usually amorous or mystical and varying from four to sixteen couplets, all on one rhyme.  A convention of the ghazal is the introduction, in the last couplet, of the poet's pen name (takhallus).  The ruba'i is a quatrain with a particular metre, and a collection of quatrains is called "ruba'iyyat" (the plural of ruba'i).  Finally, a collection of a poet's ghazals and other verse, arranged alphabetically according to the rhymes, is known as a divan.

A word may not be out of place here on the peculiar difficulties of interpreting Persian poetry to the western reader.  To the pitfalls common to all translations from verse must be added, in the case of Persian poetry, such special difficulties as the very free use of Sufi imagery, the frequent literary, Koranic and other references and allusions, and the general employment of monorhyme, a form highly effective in Persian but unsuited to most other languages.  But most important of all is the fact that the poetry of Persia depends to a greater degree than that of most other nations on beauty of language for its effects.  This is why much of the great volume of "qasidas in praise of princes" can still be read with pleasure in the original, though It is largely unsuited to translation.  In short, the greatest charm of Persian poetry lies, as Sir E. Denison Ross

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remarked, in its language and its music, and consequently the reader of a translation "has perforce to forego the essence of the matter".

FAMOUS POET OMAR KHAYYAM

A Persian poet, mathematician, and astronomer, was born at Nishapur, in Khorasan. Khayyam means “The Tent-Maker”.

F. JAPANESE LITERATURE No one knows exactly where the Japanese came from

or who they are. It is believed that the humanoid - human-like creatures - appeared about two and half million years ago and that the humans as we know today, homo sapiens sapiens, came into being some 35,000 years ago. Although the oldest known writings - written language - date back only 5,000 years at best, we can 'read' our history by studying fossils, our DNA, geological data, cosmological data, our language, and so on, and from these records, we can determine the origin, or rather the prehistoric history, of the Japanese race.

Japanese are classified as the Mongoloid (the 'yellow' race) along with Chinese, Korean, Native Americans, Mongols, Eskimos, and so on. The Yellow race makes up 33% of the world population. The Caucasoid (the "white" race), including the Australian aborigines, Arabs, Indians, Polynesians, and so on, accounts for 59% of the world population, while the Negroid (the 'black' race) accounts for only 8%. It is believed the Negroid and Caucasoid are more closely related than the Mongoloid, which gave rise to the regionalism hypothesis whereby the Mongoloid has evolved from homo erectus while the Negroid and the Caucasoid have evolved from a common ancestor homo antecessor.

The character 'Yi', as shown above, was originally meant for barbarians in the east, but later expanded to be more an inclusive word to mean aliens. The big Japanese school of thought, touched on in prehistory section, claimed that the Japanese were true

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descendants of the Dongyi [Dong-yi] people. Hence, the identities of Japanese had changed dramatically during the course of history. As one reader speculated, "modern-day Japanese" might very well have "appropriated their (Dongyi) history and myths". Charcoal remains of 2000-year-old rice in western Japan pointed to China's Yantze Delta as the origin. DNA studies conducted on human remains excavated in Shandong Peninsula suggested southern and northern points of origin for Jormon and Yayoi Japanese. On basis of various historical records and modern technology analysis, I would speculate that early Japanese culture was very much connected with eastern China as a result of nascent human migration from south to north and ii) that Tungusic invasions from Manchuria gradually overtook the early Continental traits. In both cases, Tungusic or continental, Japaneses shared inseparable relations with the Chinese

What is Haiku? Haiku is one of the most important form of traditional

Japanese poetry. Haiku is, today, a 17-syllable verse form consisting of three metrical units of 5, 7, and 5 syllables. Since early days, there has been confusion between the three related terms Haiku, Hokku and Haikai. The termhokku literally means "starting verse", and was the first starting link of a much longer chain of verses known ashaika. Because the hokku set the tone for the rest of the poetic chain, it enjoyed a privileged position in haikaipoetry, and it was not uncommon for a poet to compose ahokku by itself without following up with the rest of the chain.

Largely through the efforts of Masaoka Shiki, this independence was formally established in the 1890s through the creation of the term haiku. This new form of poetry was to be written, read and understood as an independent poem, complete in itself, rather than part of a longer chain.

Strictly speaking, then, the history of haiku begins only in the last years of the 19th century. The famous verses of such Edo-period (1600-1868) masters as Basho, Yosa Buson, and Kobayashi Issa are properly referred to ashokku and must be placed in the perspective of the history

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of haikai even though they are now generally read as independent haiku. In HAIKU for PEOPLE, both terms will be treated equally! The distinction between hokku andhaiku can be handled by using the terms Classical Haikuand Modern Haiku.

English and American Literature

English Literature

English Literature is composed of seven (7) different Periods (Anglo – Saxon – Post Modernism).

ANGLO – SAXON PERIOD (410 – 1066)

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DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

Anglo – Saxon period is also called Old English Period. Anglo – Saxon Literature was developed after the settlement of the Saxons and other Germanic Tribes in England after the withdrawal of the Romans.

Life was centered on ancestral tribes or clans that ruled themselves. There was then the development of “Anglo – Saxon Chronicle” which is a collection of readings in which at present known as versions or fragments. Also, the development of 400 manuscripts evolved in this era.

Literary works were focused on the Saxon invasions and the law of the government. During this period, most of the literary works were in epic, poetry, hagiography, chronicles riddles and others.

This period also includes some of historical events like The Saxon’s defeat against the Britons led by King Arthur and The Construction of Whitby Abbey.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/ RELATIONS

The Anglo – Saxon laws corroborate a similar underlying rigor and discipline in the matter of insults. (They also indicate that such language was indeed to be heard even if it has not survived in the existing texts.)

Changes in the burial practice between these periods along with the historical, anthropological, environmental and linguistic evidence have all been thought to indicate that a mass of migration of Angles and Saxons into Britain occurred in the 5ht century A.D. The sad degeneration of the old traditions of verbal honor and the Christianity veneration of nature based gods also happened during this period.

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WRITERS AND THEIR DEFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

Alfric of Ensham

– English abbot, prolific writer on old English of hagiography homilies, biblical commentaries and other genres.

Beowulf –oldest surviving text in English Literature

Tower of Babel – Old English translation of the Hexateuch

Grammar – first vernacular Latin Grammar in medieval Europe

Colloquy – a work to help students learn how to speak Latin through a conversation manual.

Homilies; Lives of the Saints

Hagiography (996 – 997); False Gods and the Twelve Abuses.

Letter to the monks of Eynsham – abridgement for his own monks

Homily on Judith – views towards a woman’s purity

Ailnoth of Centerbury

- Anglo – Saxon Benedictine monk

Saint Canute – legend of the Danish King

Life and Passion of St. Canute – important sources for the history of Denmark in the middle ages

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Ethelweared

- Anglo – Saxon historian and known as the western provinces

Anglo –Saxon chronicle – Latin translation; old English versions

Alcuin of York

- English scholar, poet, and teacher from York Northumbria

The Bishops, Kings, and Saints of York – poem on York

Alcuin of York – life and letters

Nita Richarii Confessoris Centulensis – revision of an earlier anonymous life

Aldfrith of Northumbria

- King of Northunbria

Lindisfarne Gospels and Codex Amiatinus – creation of works in account of Aldfrith’s reign

Aldhelm/Ealdhelm

- Abbot latin poet, anglo – saxon scholar and bishop of S Sherborne

PROSE

De Laude Virginitatis – a latin treatise on virginity addressed to the nuns of the double monastery at Barking

Epistola ad Acircum

POETRY

Carmen de virginitate – closes with a battle of the virtues against the vices

Carmen rhythmicum – describes a travel through weatern England and the way a wooden church was affected by a storm

Bede Historria ecclesiastica gentis

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- Well known author, monk, scholarand historian

- Father of English History

Anglorum – history of the Christian churches in England and of England. Its main focus is the conflict between Roman and Celtic christianity

Hwaetberth Enigmata Eusebii – collection of 60 riddles

MIDDLE ENGLISH (1066 – 1500)

DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

Middle English is also called the Dark Ages Period. During this period, England became a bilingual country. Norman French was the prestige language. English is the language of everyday folk. Few Normans learned English in the early middle English period but most of the other case endings disappear in the early middle English period including you’ll be happy to learn. Grammatical genders also disappear from English during the early ME period.

With the clergy and count of Norman England working in French or Latin, the great outpouring of literature in English effectively stops cold in the late 1000s and 1100s, though a great century for cathedrals are linguistics Dark Ages for the English language.

English begins to re-establish itself in the 1200s in the sense that native speakers developed the beginnings of a literary culture. The majority clearly spoke English without interruption.

In 1300s, religious dissidents at great risks to themselves, broke with the Norman Tradition of allegiance to the Roman church and produced the first English versions of the Bible in many centuries. Late in the ME period, with the introduction of printing into England in 1470, and the adoption by

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the printing industry of many features of “ Chancery English” as standard in its orthography and usage, we have the first inklings of modern Standard English.

Fisher notes that the crucial years of institutional transition were 1420 – 1460, however, before that time, legal documents in England are still predominantly in French and Latin. During that time, there is an entire shift to English. The royal council and the subsidiary courts that processed petitions to Parliament began to conduct their business in English and the Chancery English became the standard written form of a national government. Fisher also notes that Kings of England, especially starting with Henry V had a great impact on national language policy. Because of Henry, they began to speak in English instead of French.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/RELATIONS

The complicated grammatical relations that we expressed in Old English by means of dative and accusative cases are replaced in Early Middle English with constructions that involve prepositions.

Later, Middle English shows heavy French borrowing and continued reduction of the inflectional system. During the late of this period, any one of those standards was a “dialect” in opposition to a national standard.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

Roger Bacon Opus majus “Major Work” –

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expounded all branches of knowledge accessible at the time including grammar and logic along with mathematics and moral philosophy

William Caxton A merchant and later a writer who set up the first printing press in England in 1476. A few years earlier, Caxton had visited Cologne where he acquired his knowledge in the technique of printing and returned to England via Belgium to apply this new art.

Geoffrey Chaucer The Roman de la Rose – contains the allegorical Book of the duchess

Robert Gloucester Chronicle – noted for comments on the political and linguistic state of England with special reference to the behavior of the Normans in the country

John Gower Confessio Amantis – collection of exemplary tales about courtly and Christian love

Miles Coverdale The first complete Bible to be printed in English (1535)

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Margery Kempe Boke of Margery Kempe - a text dictated by Kempe which recounts her religious experiences, including visions and pilgrimages

John Wycliffe Early reformer in the catholic church, one of the pre-reformation figures who foreshadowed the reforms instigated by Luther in the early 16th century. Responsible for producing a translation of the Bible

William Tyndale An early translator of the Bible into English

RENAISSANCE (1550 – 1660)

DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

This period is also called the rebirth, Elizebethan Era, and The Age of Shakespeare.

During this period, the printing press was developed and science, astronomy, and geography were discovered. The English Reformation under the reign of King Henry VIII also happened during this period.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/RELATIONS

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Classical Humanism – encouraged knowledge of the arts, languages and a generally broad and active education.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

John Milton Paradise lost – poem concerns the Christian story of the fall of Man: the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel Satan and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden

Christopher Marlowe Doctor Faustus – the story of learned German doctor who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power

William Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet – tragedy about two young lovers whose relationship that ends in their death cause two feuding families to unite

Thomas Campion Lord Hay’s Masque – a masque of the celebration of the wedding of an important Scottish aristocrat with a socially prominent English gentlewoman

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Ben Jonson Sejanus His Fall – tragedy about Lucius Aelius Seianus, the favorite of the Roman emperor Tiberius

Thomas Nashe The Unfortunate Traveler – a picaresque novel set during the reign of Henry VII of England

Francis Bacon New Atlantis – a novel depicting the creation of a utopian land where “generosity” and “enlightenment” , “dignity” and “splendor”, “piety” and “public spirit” are the common held qualities of the inhabitants of “Bensalem”

Samuel Daniel Musophilus – a dialogue between a courtier and a man of letters and is a general defence of learning

Michael Drayton Poly – Olbion – a topographical poem describing England and Wales

Robert Greene Pandosto: The Triumph of Time – story of Pandosto, king of Bohemia, who unwillingly falls in love with his daughter Fawnia. His queen Bellaria, dies of grief when she learns of their young son’s death. At the end of the story, Pandosto commits suicide out of

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grief for the troubles he caused his family

William Tyndale The Obedience of a Christian

George Gascoigne A Hundreth Sundrie Flowers – printed in 1573 and contain batches of poems whose authors are known only by “poesies” – little latin phrases such as “Meritum petere, grave”

Sir Walter Raleigh The Lie – a political and social criticism poem

Roger Ascham Toxophilus – talks about the chronicles of the life, works, and times of the author. It also contains a dedication to King Henry VII

18TH CENTURY (1660 – 1790)

DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

This period is also called the creation of United Kingdom of great Britain, the Jacobite Rising and also known as the Industrial Revolution Period.

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Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in the 28th of June and his countryman Denis Diderot on 5th of October. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 firmly established a Protestant monarchy together with effective rule by Parliament.

The new science of the time, Newtonian Physics, reinforced the belief that everything, including human conduct, is guided by a rational order. Cyclopaedia, one of the first general encyclopedias to be produced was published.

Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift died. However, during this Period, Robert Goldsmith was also born.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/RELATIONS

The literary trends like Neoclassicism, Age of Sensibility, Age of Enlightenment, Romanticism and Weimar Classicism were born.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

William Congreve The way of the World – a play with good example of the Sophistication of Theatrical thinking

Sir Richard Steele The Tender Husband – a comedy which really achieved some

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Nicholas Rowe

success

The Fair Penitent – a domestic drama was pronounced to be one of the most pleasing tragedies in the language

John Dennis Battle of the Books – a short writing which demonstrates his position very neatly

Grounds of criticism in Poetry

Antoine Galland One Thousand and One Nights – known as the “ The Arabian Nights”

Simon Ockley The Improvement of Human Reason: Exhibited in the life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan – Enlgish translation of the Tufail’s Hayy Ibn Yaqdhan

Alexander Pope The Rape of the Lock Windsor Forest

Jonathan Swift Gulliver’s Travels – one of the first novels if the genre of satire

A Modest Proposal – a satirical suggestion that Irish Families should sell their children as food

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John Gay The Beggar’s Opera – the ballad opera which brings operatic form down to a more popular level and precedes the genre of comic operettes

Samuel Richardson Clarissa – written in epistolary form

Voltaire Micromegas – a satirical short story which featured space travelers visiting earth

Jean Jacques Rousseau Julie, ou la nouvelle Heloise Emile

Horace Walpole The Castle of Otranto – first Gothic Novel

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe The Sorrows of Young Werther – a novel which approximately marks the beginning of the Romanticism movement in the arts and philosophy

Ann Radcliffe The Mysteries of Udolpho – her most popular novel which follows the fortunes of Emily St. Aubert who suffers among other misadventures, the death of her father, supernatural terrors in gloomy castle, and the

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machinations of an Italian brigand

ROMANTIC PERIOD (1785 – 1830)

DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

This period is also called Romanticism. During this period, the return to aesthetics and ethos of medieval period happened.

The writings of the Romantics were considered innovative based on their belief that literature should be spontaneous, imaginative, personal and free and Gothic literature was born.

This period elevated the achievements of what is perceived as heroic individualists and artists, whose pioneering examples would elevate society. This also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. The strong recourse to the historical and natural inevitability, a zeitgeist in the representation of its ideas happened during this period.

The boom of Industrialization with the expansion of the city, and the consequent depopulation of the countryside as a result of the enclosures, or privatization of pastures – peasants poured into the city to work in the new factories.

Mother Earth is seen as the only source of wisdom, the only solution to the ugliness caused by machines. It is also a part of rebellion against the enlightenment of previous century and its focus on scientific and rational thought. This is also characterized by an emphasis on emotion passion and

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natural world. Many authors turned to folk tales and native mythologies as source material.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/RELATIONS

During this period, The Age of Enlightenment and Nationalism trends of literature was born.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

John Keats Ode on a Grecian Urn – this poem focuses on two scenes, one in which a lover eternally pursues a beloved without fulfillment and another of villagers about to perform a sacrifice

Mary Shelley Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus - Frankenstein creates nameless monster by galvanism which is shunned by all and turns to evil

George Gordon Lord Byron Don Juan – Don Juan sent from Spain by mom Donna Inez; shipwrecks in Greece butnursed by Haidee; sold as slave to Gulbeyas of Constantinople but loves Dudu; attracts Empress

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Catherine in

Russia; sent in England

Sir Walter Scott Ivanhoe – Wilfred knight of Ivanhoe rejects Rebecca the Jewess and loves Rowena but Dad Cedric wants her to marry Saxon Athelstane; Black Knight. Knight Templar Sir Brian de Bois – Guilbert and Locksley.

The Lady of the Lake – The Knight of Snowden loves the daughter of outlaw but she loves Malcom

Percy Bysshe Shelley

Prometheus Unbound – son Demogorgon drives Jupiter from throne; Hercules rescues Prometheus who is reunited with wife Asia

William Wordsworth I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud or Daffodils – the speaker is wondering as if among the clouds, viewing a belt of daffodils, next to a lake whose beauty is overshadowed. In the second and third verses, the memory of the daffodils is given permanence. It is revealed that this scene is only a memory of the pensive speaker

Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood – it discusses the concerns about lost vision how age causes man to lose sight of the divine and how the divine

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allows us to sympathize with our fellow man. This also relies on the concept of pre - existence

Samuel Taylor Coleridge Kubla Khan – the poem celebrates creativity and how the poet is able to experience a connection to the universe through inspiration

VICTORIAN PERIOD (1837 – 1901)

DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

This period is also called the Second English Renaissance. This is known for its attempts to combine imagination and emotion with the neoclassical ideal of the accessibility of art for the common person. Popular works opened a market for the novel amongst a reading public.

The reign of The Victoria was the most progressive in English History. The divine rights of the Kings are as obsolete as suit of armor. The privileges of royalty and nobility are either curbed or abolished and ordinary men by their representatives in the House of Commons are the real rules of England.

Masses of men began to be educated and they began to think of themselves and host an answer to their demand for reading matter. The society and literature became more democratic.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/RELATIONS

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During this period, Pre – Raphaelites, Aestheticism and Decadence and the New Imperialism was born which creates a great impact to the readers.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

Charles Dickens Sketches by Boz – was invented by some little girl who could not say Moses also it was a pet name for a small brother of Dickens

Emily Bronte Wuthering Heights – a unique masterpiece propelled by a vision of elemental passions but controlled by an uncompromising artistic sense

George Eliot Middle March – this is written for grown – up people

William Thackery Vanity Fair – it is a subtitled novel without a hero

H.G. Wells The War of the Worlds – seminal depiction of an alien invasion of earth

Christina Georgina Rosetti Goblin Market – this is about the two sisters’ adventure with the

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Goblins

Daniel Gabriel Rosetti The Blessed Damozel – this is a story about the fictional early Italian artist

William Morris The Earthly Paradise – a collection of twenty – four stories strung together on a plan somewhat resembling that of the Canterbury Tales

Thomas De Quincey Confessions of an English – opium – eater 1821and an account for his lonely youth

John Ruskin Modern Painters – a tribute to the genius of his favorite artist who is J. Turner

Matthew Arnold Sohrab and Rustum – transplants concepts of chivalric knighthood into the world of the Orient telling the story of how two farmed warrior – generals. Sohrab and Rustum – engage in single combat in lieu of the general melee, to spare the lives of the men under their respective commands

Alfred Lord Tennyson Mariana - this is about the woman who continuously laments her lack

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of connection with society. The isolation defines her existence and her longing for a connection leaves her wishing for death at the end of every stanza

Robert Browning My Last Duchess – about the duke of Ferrara murdered wife for not appreciating honor of marrying him

Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol – miser Ebinizer Scrooge, partner of deceased Marley, converted by visions of past, present, and future Christmases; sees the Cratchits, including Tiny Tim and Bob, Scrooge’s Secretary

Thomas Hardy A Pair of Blue Eyes – former boyfriends of Elfride Swancourt Stephen Smith and Henry Knight meet on arrival find her dead

Matthew Arnold Dover Beach – it is all about the expression of deeper thoughts and questions that seem to have been considered beforehand. The general melancholy of the poem greatly contrasts the happy situation in which Matthew Arnold found himself

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Elizabeth Barret Browning Sonnets from the Portuguese – this is an expression of love for her husband Robert Browning

POSTMODERNISM (1980 – PRESENT)

DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

This period is also known as the Contemporary Literature. This period evolved during the two devastating global wars: WW I (1914 – 1918) and WW II (1941 – 1945). A Huge changes in industry and technology as compared to the 19th century.

Embracing of the modern values which include belief of industrialization, individual political rights, democracy, a disbelief of God and the emancipation of women happened during this period. Media Culture interprets values and events for individuals and the emergence of feminist, multi – cultural, and post – colonial literature.

The interconnectedness across the globe: cultural changes, transportation, communication, mass culture from the West and the texts and question and violate the conventions of traditional narrative evolved in this era. A world growing smaller due to ease of communications between societies and a world launching a new beginning of a century and millennium evolved in this era.

LITERARY INFLUENCES/RELATIONS

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During this period, many literary trends evolved such as Magical Realism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Absurdism, Maximalism, and Minimalism evolved.

Magical Realism was the introduction of fantastic or impossible elements into a narrative that is otherwise normal. It includes dreams during normal life, wild shifts in time, and myths and fairytales.

Expressionism tried to express the inner vision, the inner emotion, or the inner spiritual reality that seem more important the external realities of objects and events.

Surrealism tried to liberate the subconscious to see connections overlooked by the logical mind, to deny the supreme authority of rationality.

Absurdism tried to duplicate in literature the absurd conditions of contemporary life; millions dying in wars and Holocaust.

Maximalism projects disorganized, sprawling, overly long, and emotionally disconnected.

Minimalism is a style of writing in which the author deliberately presents characters that are unexceptional and events that are taken from everyday life.

Postmodernism Western values and beliefs as only a small part of the human experience and often reject culture, norms and beliefs. It sees human experience as unstable, internally contradictory, and inconclusive. Post modern writer creates an open work in which the reader must supply his own connections and provides his own interpretation. Authors feature metafiction

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in their writing. It is an attempt to make the reader aware of the fictionality and the presence of the author.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

Graham Swift The sweet – shop Owner, Shuttlecock, Waterland, Out of this world, Tomorrow, and Making an Elephant: Writing from Within

John Fowles The Collector, The Aristos, The Magus, The French Lieutenant’s Woman, Poems by John Fowles, Mantissa and The Journals Volume 2.

Antonia Byatt The Shadow of the Sun, Degrees of Freedom: The Early novels of Iris, The Game, The Djinn in the Nightingale’s Eye, A Whistling Woman and Little Black Book of Stories

Julian Barnes Metroland, Before She Met Me, Flaubert’s Parrot, Staring at the Sun, East Wind and Pulse

Agatha Christie The Murder on the links, Poirot Investigates, The Murder of Roger

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Ackroyd, The big Four, The Mystery of the Blue Train, Peril at End House, The Three Act Tragedy, Appointment with Death, Sad Cypress, Evil under the Sun, Five Little Pigs, The Hallow, Hallowe’en Party and Elephants Can Remember

Georgette Heyer The Great Roxhythe, Simon the Coldheart, Beauvallet, The conqueror, Royal Escape, My Lord John, The Black Moth, Instead of the Thorn, The Transformation of Philip Jettan, These Old Shades, The Masqueraders, Helen, Pastel, Barren Corn, Devil’s Cub

C. S. Lewis The Pilgrim’s Regress, Space Trilogy, The Screwtape Letters, The Great Divorce, The Chronicles of Narnia; The lion, the witch, and the Wardrobe, Prince Caspian, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, The Siver Chair, The Horsenand His Boy, The magician’s nephew and The Last Battle

J. R. R Tolkien The Hobbit, The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, The Lord of the Rings, The Return of the King, The Roverandom Children of Hurin, and the Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun

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Jan Flemming Casino Royale, Live and Let die, Moonraker, Diamonds are Forever, Form Russia with Love, Doctor No, Goldfinger, For your eyes only, Thunderball, The Spy Who Loved me, On her Majesty’s Secret Service, You only Live Twice, In New York, The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy

J. K Rowling Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, Harry Potter and The Chamber of Secrets, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Pottter and the half – blood Prince, HarryPotter and the Deathly Hallows, Fantastic Beasts and Where to find Them, Quidditch Through the Ages, and The Tales of Beedle theBard

American Literature

American Literature is composed of four (4) periods (The Colonial Period – American Renaissance).

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THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1607 – 1765)

The discovery of America in 1492 was an event of perhaps equal importance with the Renaissance and the reformation in opening men’s eyes to the nature of the world they lived in and in changing the order of their lives. The modern world was then emerging from the medieval, and it had progressed still further by 1607, when the first permanent English Colony was established at Jamestown. The scientific discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo, the philosophical speculations of Bacon, the revival of classical learning, the translation of the Bible into the vernacular, and the invention of printing all contributed to the breakdown of the dogmatism and authority which characterized medieval thought in religion and government.

When the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth in 1620, democratic forces in England were already in motion that would in a quarter of a century result in the dethroning of the King and the establishment of Cromwell. It is against such a background as this that one should see the establishment of English colonies in the New World.

The Spaniards and the French laid claim to vast areas, but the English settled the land as they went westward taking over as thoroughly as their Anglo – Saxon ancestors had taken over England from the Britons. Of the thirteen English colonies which won their independence in the Revolutionary War, the two oldest, Virginia and Massachusetts, go back to the first quarter of the seventeenth century; Georgia, the youngest, was not chartered until 1732, the year in which George Washington was born, a century and a quarter after Jamestown. The period of American apprenticeship to England, if we may call it that, extended from 1607 down to 1775, as long a time as the period between the Revolution and Second World War. For half their history Virginia and Massachusetts were British colonies rather than states in the American republic.

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Even in 1775 American civilization was not to be described as purely English; still less is to be so characterized today. As present – day Europeans view it, civilization seems rather an extension to the New World of the civilization of western Europe; and it represents for many of them the chief hope that the civilization will survive, even on the continent where it had its beginnings centuries ago.

American Literature is one of the youngest of the literatures of the world; and it is only one of the several literatures written in the English language. Our literature began as a very minor branch of English literature, and it was slow to take on American characteristics and become an expression of distinctively American life and thought. When Jamestown was founded, Elizabethan literature was at its peak. Something American is evident in the work of our three most important early writers William Byrd, Jonathan Edwards, and Benjamin Franklin, who are worthy to be set not far below the classic prose writers of eighteenth – century England.

The motive which induced the Colonial American to take his pen in hand was seldom the desire to write literature in any narrow sense of the word. The purpose was primarily utilitarian. What we find him writing is not novels, short stories, plays or poems written for their own sake but sermons, histories, biographies, controversial pamphlets, diaries, letters and travelers’ accounts. Often there was no thought of Publication, and much of the best Colonial writing was not published until after the Revolution, some of it not until twentieth century. Among the finest Colonial writing, especially in the Southern colonies, were expressions of resentment at British misconceptions of American life. It was such a motive that induced Robert Beverly to write his History of Virginia. There was more writing and publishing in New England than in other sections.

The Colonial literature is a minor part of English Literature and cannot of course be fully understood without some knowledge of its English background. Literary fashions were set in London and not in Boston and New York. With American writers, as with British, the change is marked in prose style when we come to the eighteenth century. William Byrd and Benjamin Franklin have much in common with Addison, Steele, Defoe, and Swift. They

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also belong to the Age of Prose and Reason, the age of the essay and the novel of Deism, and of Neo – Classicism.

Colonial America has a literary importance of another sort which is seldom stressed. It is the historical background for a large amount of imaginative writing done in America in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Some of the great works written by the Americans during Colonial Period are poems and novels such as Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter and The Maypole of Merry Mount’’; Longfellow’s The Courtship of Miles Standish and A Ballad of the French Fleet’’; Whittier’s Margaret Smith’s Journal; Simms’s The Yemassee; and Irving’s Knickerbocker’s History of New York. Burton E. Stevenson’s Poems of American History includes a considerable body of verse which deals with historical events in the Colonial Period. After the Revolution had made a nation of the thirteen colonies, writers explored the Colonial past for picturesque figures and striking events that could be treated with the same glamour which Scott had thrown around English and Scottish History. Often the pictures are highly idealized. The period of the settlement had already become a sort of golden age in the popular mind.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

John Smith (1580 – 1631)

– a great soldier, a good explorer and a map maker and the ablest of the immigrants to deal with the Indians

- Founder of Maritime Massachusetts

The True Travels, Adventures, and Observation of Captain John Smith – tells the true story of his experiences in the Balkan fighting against the Turks.

A True Relation of Occurrences and Accidents in Virginia (the pamphlet) – which he described his captivity among the Indians but made no mention of the

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famous rescue by Pocahontas.

William Bradford (1590? – 1657)

- He is a separatist who migrated to Holland and he succeeded Carver as the Governor and held his the post

The History of Plymouth Plantation

New England Quarterly

John Winthrop (1588 – 1649)

– married the daughter of Sir John Tyndall and became the Governor of the Massachusetts for about twelve years

The History of New England – considered as the invaluable sourcebook

Speech on the Nature of the Liberty – practically amounted to his impeachment as Governor

Thomas Morton (1575? – 1646)

– he was a trained lawyer who established a trading station at Merry Mount

The Maypole of Merry Mount – The setting up of this Maypole was a lamentable spectacle to the precise separatists; that lived at new Plimmouth. They termed it an Idoll; yea they called it the Calfe of Horeb; and stood at defiance with the place, naming it Mount Dagon; threatening to make it a woefull mount and not a merry mount

Nathaniel Ward (1578 – 1652)

– he was a minister’s son who deprived of his living by Archbishop Laud and came to Massachusetts where he became a pastor of the Church at Ipswich

The Simple Cobler of Aggawan in America – it includes a notable discussion of women’s dress, moving appeal to King Charles, and an exhortation to the Puritan soldiers under Cromwell.

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or “Aggawan”, as the Indians called it.

Anne Bradstreet (1612? – 1672)

– an English gentlewoman by birth, was a daughter of Thomas Dudley and the wife of Simon Bradstreet, both of whom were Governors of Massachusetts

The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America – a volume of her new poems which was published in London in 1650

Benjamin Tompson (1642 – 1714)

– the first native – born New England Poet, was a Harvard Graduate and by profession a schoolmaster

New – Englands Crisis – is a versified account of King Philip’s war, which many thought God had inflicted upon colonists on account of their sins. The prologue pictures the second generation of Puritans which was distinctly more secular in its interests than the first.

“I Feel This World Too Mean, and Low” – in the Tompson manuscript appears the following note: “The following verses were made by Mr. Benjamin Tompson Roxbury, June 20th, 1713, being some of his last lines.”

Michael Wigglesworth (1631 – 1705)

– He was born in England but brought to New England and he was educated at Harvard College where he was a tutor for a time. He became a minister, preaching

The Day of Doom – went through numerous editions and it was perhaps the first American best – seller. This is one his poems wherein the poetics aims are obviously didactic

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at Malden, but for a long time ill health interfered with his work

John Cotton

– he was a Virginia planter who may have witnessed some of the stirring scenes which he describes

The Burwell Papers – vaguely ascribed to “the man that waited upon his Bacon’s person as it is said…”

Bacon’s Epitaph – is superior to almost all verse written by Americans before the Revolution

Edward Taylor (1644? – 1729)

- took charge of the congregation in the frontier village of Westfield, Massachusetts

“Sacramental Meditations” and “God’s Determinations Touching His Elect: And the Elects Combat in their conversion, and coming Up to God in Christ: Together with the Comfortable Effects Thereof.” – resemble the hark back to the poetry of the English Metaphysicals.

Cotton Mather (1663 – 1728)

– he became the prodigy of learning who fought the growing tendency toward liberalism in matters of religion

The Wonders of the Invisible World and Essays to Do Good – influenced Franklin

Magnalia Christi Americana: or, the Ecclesiastical History of New England – laments the passing of the great period in New England when men were filled with religious zeal and the clergy ruled the colony

Samuel Sewall (1652 – 1730) The Selling of Joseph – The first American anti- slavery tract. One

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– one of the most distinguished New Englanders of his time and who was the only judge involved in the persecution of witches who publicly confessed his error.

of the most interesting and valuable of Colonial documents

Sarah Kemble Knight ( 1666 – 1727)

- she was called as “out of respect of her character”

Madam Knight’s Journal – is the truest picture left to the Provincial New England. It takes the delight of those whose reading takes them below the surface of current writings about colonial times, but it has nevertheless remained one of the least familiar of contemporary sources.

William Byrd (1674 – 1744)

- one of the major figures in our Colonial literature

A Secret History of the Line – is considerably shorter than the older version. This reveals the scandalous conduct by certain Virginia members of the party toward women along the border.

A History of the Dividing Line – a diary, a travel book, a history, an account of American flora and fauna and a collection of character portraits. No other American writer before Benjamin Franklin has a literary style comparable to Byrd’s.

Jonathan Edwards (1703 – 1758)

Freedom of the Will – his most famous work which is a treatise and probably the most notable

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– greatest of American theologians, was a native of Connecticut, then a stronghold of conservatism

work produced by an American theologian.

Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God – his famous sermon preached at Enfield.

Sarah Pierrepont – is an account of the woman whom Edwards was to marry.

Narrative of Surprising Conversions – gives vivid account of the religious revival in Northampton.

John Woolman (1720 – 1772)

- was a New Jersey Quaker preacher who made his living by various occupations: tailor, shopkeeper, schoolmaster,etc.

Woolman’s Journal – tells his journey to the South and to England which gives one an excellent picture of what might be called a practical mystic.

THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1765 – 1789)

The effect of the Revolution upon American literature was both good and bad. The revolutionary War diverted Philip Freneau and the Connecticut Wits from literature to propaganda and satire. The destruction of property was great. The greatest loss perhaps was in the departure of Loyalists, many of whom belonged to families of wealth and culture. Large numbers went to

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England and to Canada. In this instance, the loss was Canada’s gain, for the beginnings of the Canadian literature go back to American Tories.

The Revolution was an effect a civil war and as such ne of the most bitter of all wars. However, the American Revolution gave birth to a remarkable body of political writing. From a dispute over taxation, the American Revolution became a war for the rights of man. The ideal of political democracy memorably expressed in the Declaration of Independence carried with it the implications of democracy in other spheres, economic, social, cultural, religious and literary.

Revolution plays a considerable part in the later literature. The year 1777 is the one in which the passions roused by the breaking – off of the American colonies from England, more by their own will, boiled up to shooting point, the shooting being idealized to the English mind as suppression of rebellion and maintenance of British Dominion, and to the American as defence of liberty, resistance to tyranny, and self – sacrifice on the altar of the rights of Man.

WRITERS AND THEIR LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITRARY WORKS

Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790)

– he was self – educated and contributed his early writings to the New England Courant founded by his half – brother, James. One of the greatest men in the eighteenth century and one of the

Portraits of the Eighteenth Century – contains an excellent introduction and a good working bibliography.

His prose style is one of that almost any eighteenth century writer might have envied; it has

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most versatile men who ever lived.

ease and charm as well as clearness, force, and flexibility.

John Logan (1725? – 1780)

- He was friendly to the whites however in later years, Logan became slave to drink and he was finally killed.

Logan’s Speech – the remarkable document which was first published in Colonial newspapers.

Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia – Jefferson took great pains to refute the widely held European notion that in the New World human and animal life represented a somewhat degenerate stage as compared to that of the Old World

Thomas Paine (1737 – 1809)

– became the ablest propagandist for the cause of the Revolution.

Common Sense and The American Crisis (series of Pamphlets) – he advocated independence and urged armed resistance to the British.

The Rights of Man – a reply to Edmund Burk’s Reflections on the Revolution in France which is regarded in England as a libelous work

Jonathan Boucher (1738 – 1804)

– One of the ablest of the Tory writers who is also the grandfather of the English Poet Frederick Locker – Lampson.

The Reminiscences of an American Loyalist – quotes a characterization of himself written by the woman who later married him.

A View of the Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution – regarded as one of

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the dreadful effects of the American Revolt.

Patrick Henry (1736 – 1799)

– The forest – born Demosthenes whose thunder shook the Philip of the seas.

Speech in the Virginia Convention of Delegates

Thomas Jefferson (1743 – 1826)

– he was more the man of the letters and was the indefatigable student of many things and his intellectual curiosity was insatiable

The Declaration of Independence of the Statue of Virginia for Religious Freedom

George Washington (1732 – 1799)

- his correspondence was voluminous and he wrote a considerable number of documents of political importance

The Farewell Address – is one of the most important documents in American Political literature.

James Madison (1751 – 1836)

– fourth president of the Unite States and was one of the youngest of the Virginia statesmen of the Revolutionary period

The Federalist – consists of eight – five essays in support of the new Constitution which in 1787 and 1788 were published over the signature “Publius” in New York newspapers and addressed “ To the People of the State of New York”

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Michel – Guillaume Jean De Cr`eveceur (1735 – 1813) – was born near Caen in Normandy and educated at the Jesuit College du Mont in Caen

Letters from an American Farmer – reveals his distress at having to choose between his allegiance to the king and the cause of the Revolutionalists

John Trumbull (1750 – 1831)

– was a precocious boy who passed the entrance examinations at Yale at the age of Seven

M’ Fingal – his most ambitious poem which is a long Hudibrastic account of the dissensions between the Whigs and the Tories.

Elegy on the Times – reflects the feeling of New Englanders in the year preceding the outbreak of the Revolutionary War

Timothy Dwight (1752 – 1817)

- a grandson of Jonathan Edward’s and one of the ablest ministers of his time

The Conquest of Canaan an epic and regarded as his most ambitious work.

Greenfield Hill – his best long poem which is not easily represented by brief extracts.

Travels in New – England and New – York – his most interesting book.

Joel Barlow (1755 – 1812)

- served as the Chaplain in the Revolutionary army

Advise to the Privileged Orders – his most important prose which reveals the influence of Thomas Paine as well as of French Revolutionary Thinkers.

The Columbiad – an expanded form of the Vision of Columbus

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Philip Freneau (1752 - 1832)

– the leading poet of the Revolution

The British Prison Ship, The National Gazette, A Political Litany, To the Memory of the Brave Americans, Arnold’s Departure, The wild Honeysuckle, The Indian Burying Ground, The Republican Genius of Europe and On a Honey Bee

NATIONALISM AND ROMANTICISM (1789 – 1830)

In 1783 the states had no national culture, no national religion, no national system of education, no language exclusively their own, no strong bond of common traditions, no fully developed national point of view toward anything. They did even have a strong central government.

The United States was still predominantly rural and agricultural. The industrial, or economic, revolution, which has since gone far toward changing not only their way of life but also their psychology and national character, was only beginning in this period.

Political and economic changes were accompanied by important social developments. There was a marked decline in the old aristocracy. The Revolution had ruined many healthy and cultured families. The leveling tendencies in all the states, even in the South, carried the idea of equality over into social and economic matters.

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The nineteenth century inherited from the eighteenth an idea destined to be peculiarly influential in America: the idea of Progress. This concept, unknown to antiquity, was developed in the Age of Enlightenment, which took a hopeful view of the nature and destiny of man. The idea of progress was intimately related to the concept of civilization which was formulated by Condorcet shortly before his death during the French Revolution. Condorcet rejected the traditional notion that history moves in circles or cycles and saw the future as a new epoch set in motion in part by the American Revolution.

The attempt to produce masterpieces of literature and art in a democratic society and to make them carry democratic ideas to the common people was something new in the late eighteenth – century world.

The desire for a literature dealing with the American scene was a perfectly natural one and this is an important factor in the literary history of the early nineteenth century. The years 1789 – 1830 correspond roughly to the great period in English literature which marks the triumph of the Romantic Movement. The American writers were often indebted to their British contemporaries and predecessors. American literature was then, still in some respects a part of English Literature; and it cannot be thoroughly understood without studying it in its relation to the literature of the older country and often to the literatures of other European countries.

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

William Bartman (1739 – 1823)

– Son of the botanist, John Bartman. He explored the southeastern part of the United

The Travels – made a strong impression upon European Romantic writers, especially Wordsworth, Coleridge and

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States Chateubriand

Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748 – 1816)

– founded the United States Magazine in 1779 and he was a classmate of Freneau and Princeton

Modern Chivalry: Containing the Adventures of Captain Farrago and Teague O’Regan – his picaresque romance or satire which owes much to Cervantes’s Don Quixote, etc…

Charles Brockden Brown (1771 – 1810)

– the first important American novelist and the first professional man of letters

Wieland, Ormond, Edgar Huntly, and Arthur Mervyn - some of his best novels which were rapidly written during the four years he spent in New York and while he was editing a magazine as well.

Washington Irving (1783 – 1859)

– was born on April 3, 1783 in New York City which was far from being the metropolis of today

The Sketch Book – give us a glimpse of his boyhood.

A History of New York – one of the three or four of Irving’s best works.

James Fenimore Cooper (1789 – 1851)

– grew up primarily a country gentleman with conservative social sympathies and democratic political principles

The Pioneers – regarded as the best of the Leather – Stocking Tales wherein Cooper gave a faithful picture of the semi – frontier life of his boyhood. It is an exciting romance of adventure.

The Last of the Mohicans – consists of two long pursuits with scant breathing space in the middle.

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The Deerslayer – considered better than the three earlier tales in the series.

William Cullen Bryant (1749 – 1878)

– He is twenty – four years younger than Wordsworth with whom he has often been compared.

Thanatopsis – shows the influence of the so – called “Graveyard School” of British Poets; the influenced of Wordsworth appears in the revised and enlarged version which contains the famous conclusion

Edward Coote Pinkney (1802 – 1828)

– son of Maryland diplomat and was born in London

Emerald and Baltimore Literary Gazette – a poem which was released six months after Pinkey’s death.

Most critics noted the resemblance of Pinkey’s poems to the Cavalier lyrics of the seventeenth century.

William Ellery Channing (1780 – 1842)

– was the great Unitarian preacher and thinker of his time.

Remarks on the Character and Writings of John Milton and Remarks on National Literature – these are the best of his literary essays.

The Moral Argument against Calvanism - is an able statement of the Unitarian case against the theology of Jonathan Edwards.

AMERICAN RENAISSANCE (1830 – 1870)

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The forty years extending from 1830 – 1870 saw the most remarkable development that had yet taken place in American Literature. The Promise of the preceding periods came at last to real fulfillment. The Romantic Movement, reaching its American climax after its English decline, gave the literature comparable in quality and range to that of Victorian England; and much of it could have been written nowhere but in America. The most striking aspect of this period is the literary rise of New England, for this is the age of Emerson, Thoreau and other famous writers during this period.

The period which we have called the American Renaissance might more accurately describe as The Ascendancy of Seaboard Massachusetts. The New England gave birth to a group of writers who are comparable to the Virginia statesmen of the Revolutionary period.

The New England Transcendentalism was late and local manifestations of that great movement for the liberation of humanity which invading practically every sphere of civilized activity, swept over Europe at the end of the eighteenth and at the beginning of the nineteenth century…

WRITERS AND THEIR DIFFERENT LITERARY WORKS

WRITERS LITERARY WORKS

John Pendleton Kennedy (1795 – 1870)

- one of the judges in the Baltimore Saturday Visiter

Swallow Barn – a book of traveler’s sketches, gives the best description to be found of the life of the Virginia planters before the Civil War

William Gilmore Simms (1806 – 1870)

- he was seventeen younger than Cooper and three years older

Martin Faber – his first novel which had a fair success.

Guy Rivers – his first Border Romances which had a great run.

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than Poe The Partisan – the first of his Revolutionary Romances.

The Yemassee – the only one of Simm’s romances that is red today.

Edgar Allan Poe (1809 – 1849)

– referred to as the “Frogpond”

Tamerlane and other Poems – most valuable collector’s item in American literature

Augustus Baldwin Longstreet (1790 – 1870)

– became a successful lawyer and judge of the superior court and once became a Methodist minister

The Fight - involves some horrible and disgusting details of Southern barbarity it is sketch unsurpassed in dramatic vigor, and in the vivid truth to nature.

Charles Henry Smith, “Bill Arp” (1826 – 1903)

– The Georgia humorist was a lawyer, the son of a Massachusetts father and a South Carolina mother.

The Letter to Artemus Ward – reflects the feelings of the defeated and humiliated South

John Caldwell Calhoun (1782 – 1850)

– the ablest advocate of state rights

A Disquisition on Government and A Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States – shows how far Southern Political thinkers had departed from the teachings of Jefferson

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Abraham Lincoln (1809 – 1865) To John D. Johnston, Speech At Cooper Union, etc

Paul Hamilton Hayne (1830 – 1886)

– he was an intimate friends of Simms and Timrod

My Study, The Cottage on the Hill, Poverty, and the South of Carolina to the States of the North

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807 – 1882)

- the most popular poet in his generation

The Question of a National Literature, The Day is Done, Hymn to the Night, The Skeleton in Armor, Serenade, etc.

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809 – 1894)

– was an excellent clerical and merchant stock

Programme – written to introduce Holmes’s Songs of Many Seasons, is placed first because it indicates so well the circumstances under which many of his poems were composed.

Henry David Thoreau (1817 – 1862)

- the only writer who was a native of the village

Civil Disobedience – Thoreau antipathy to slavery and his dislike of the war with Mexico led him to take a more extreme position than he otherwise would have taken.

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Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 – 1882)

– was called the minister to the Second Church in Boston

Friendship – this poem id the motto which Emerson prefixed to his essays on “Friendship” in Essays, First Series

Herman Melville (1819 – 1891)

– the most powerful of all the great American writers

POMS – Melville’s finest poetic passages are to be found in the prose of Moby- Dick, but his verse has qualities that remind one of Emily Dickenson’s compact and powerful poems.

Francis Parkman ( 1823 – 1893)

- best American example of the literary historian

The Oregon Trail – his journey to the Far west in 1846

The Teaching of Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Grammar

Teaching Listening

Listening is the language modality that is used most frequently. It has been estimated that adults spend almost half their communication time listening, and students may receive as much as 90% of their in-school information through listening to instructors and to one another. Often,

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however, language learners do not recognize the level of effort that goes into developing listening ability.

Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners actively involve themselves in the interpretation of what they hear, bringing their own background knowledge and linguistic knowledge to bear on the information contained in the aural text. Not all listening is the same; casual greetings, for example, require a different sort of listening capability than do academic lectures. Language learning requires intentional listening that employs strategies for identifying sounds and making meaning from them.

Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, television), a message, and a receiver (the listener). Listeners often must process messages as they come, even if they are still processing what they have just heard, without backtracking or looking ahead. In addition, listeners must cope with the sender's choice of vocabulary, structure, and rate of delivery. The complexity of the listening process is magnified in second language contexts, where the receiver also has incomplete control of the language.

Given the importance of listening in language learning and teaching, it is essential for language teachers to help their students become effective listeners. In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: those that learners are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.

Teaching ListeningGoals and Techniques for Teaching Listening

Instructors want to produce students who, even if they do not have complete control of the grammar or an extensive lexicon, can fend for themselves in communication situations. In the case of listening, this means producing students who can use listening strategies to maximize their comprehension of aural input, identify relevant and non-relevant information, and tolerate less than word-by-word comprehension.

Focus: The Listening ProcessTo accomplish this goal, instructors focus on the process of listening rather than on its product.

They develop students' awareness of the listening process and listening strategies by asking students to think and talk about how they listen in their native language.

They allow students to practice the full repertoire of listening strategies

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by using authentic listening tasks.They behave as authentic listeners by responding to student

communication as a listener rather than as a teacher.When working with listening tasks in class, they show students the

strategies that will work best for the listening purpose and the type of text. They explain how and why students should use the strategies.

They have students practice listening strategies in class and ask them to practice outside of class in their listening assignments. They encourage students to be conscious of what they're doing while they complete listening tape assignments.

They encourage students to evaluate their comprehension and their strategy use immediately after completing an assignment. They build comprehension checks into in-class and out-of-class listening assignments, and periodically review how and when to use particular strategies.

They encourage the development of listening skills and the use of listening strategies by using the target language to conduct classroom business: making announcements, assigning homework, describing the content and format of tests.

They do not assume that students will transfer strategy use from one task to another. They explicitly mention how a particular strategy can be used in a different type of listening task or with another skill.

By raising students' awareness of listening as a skill that requires active engagement, and by explicitly teaching listening strategies, instructors help their students develop both the ability and the   confidence to handle communication situations they may encounter beyond the classroom. In this way they give their students the foundation for communicative competence in the new language.

Integrating Metacognitive Strategies

Before listening: Plan for the listening taskSet a purpose or decide in advance what to listen forDecide if more linguistic or background knowledge is neededDetermine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend to the

overall meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases)

During and after listening: Monitor comprehensionVerify predictions and check for inaccurate guessesDecide what is and is not important to understandListen/view again to check comprehensionAsk for help

After listening: Evaluate comprehension and strategy useEvaluate comprehension in a particular task or areaEvaluate overall progress in listening and in particular types of listening

tasks

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Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task

Modify strategies if necessary

Using Authentic Materials and Situations

Authentic materials and situations prepare students for the types of listening they will need to do when using the language outside the classroom.One-Way CommunicationMaterials:

Radio and television programsPublic address announcements (airports, train/bus stations, stores)Speeches and lecturesTelephone customer service recordings

Procedure:Help students identify the listening goal: to obtain specific information; to

decide whether to continue listening; to understand most or all of the message

Help students outline predictable sequences in which information may be presented: who-what-when-where (news stories); who-flight number-arriving/departing-gate number (airport announcements); "for [function], press [number]" (telephone recordings)

Help students identify key words/phrases to listen forTwo-Way CommunicationIn authentic two-way communication, the listener focuses on the speaker's meaning rather than the speaker's language. The focus shifts to language only when meaning is not clear. Note the difference between the teacher as teacher and the teacher as authentic listener in the dialogues in the popup screens.

 Teaching ListeningStrategies for Developing Listening Skills

Language learning depends on listening. Listening provides the aural input that serves as the basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in spoken communication. Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their listening behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and listening purposes. They help students develop a set of listening strategies and match appropriate strategies to each listening situation.

Listening Strategies

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Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input.

Top-down strategies are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next. Top-down strategies include

listening for the main ideapredictingdrawing inferencessummarizing

Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message, that is, the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning. Bottom-up strategies include

listening for specific detailsrecognizing cognatesrecognizing word-order patterns

Strategic listeners also use metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor, and evaluate their listening.

They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best in a particular situation.

They monitor their comprehension and the effectiveness of the selected strategies.

They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their listening comprehension goals and whether the combination of listening strategies selected was an effective one.

Listening for Meaning

To extract meaning from a listening text, students need to follow four basic steps:

Figure out the purpose for listening. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate listening strategies.

Attend to the parts of the listening input that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory in order to recognize it.

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Select top-down and bottom-up strategies that are appropriate to the listening task and use them flexibly and interactively. Students' comprehension improves and their confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-up strategies simultaneously to construct meaning.

Check comprehension while listening and when the listening task is over. Monitoring comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures, directing them to use alternate strategies.

Teaching ListeningDeveloping Listening Activities

As you design listening tasks, keep in mind that complete recall of all the information in an aural text is an unrealistic expectation to which even native speakers are not usually held. Listening exercises that are meant to train should be success-oriented and build up students' confidence in their listening ability.

Construct the listening activity around a contextualized task.

Contextualized listening activities approximate real-life tasks and give the listener an idea of the type of information to expect and what to do with it in advance of the actual listening. A beginning level task would be locating places on a map (one way) or exchanging name and address information (two way). At an intermediate level students could follow directions for assembling something (one way) or work in pairs to create a story to tell to the rest of the class (two way).

Define the activity's instructional goal and type of response.

Each activity should have as its goal the improvement of one or more specific listening skills. A listening activity may have more than one goal or outcome, but be careful not to overburden the attention of beginning or intermediate listeners.Recognizing the goal(s) of listening comprehension   in each listening situation will help students select appropriate listening strategies.

Identification: Recognizing or discriminating specific aspects of the message, such as sounds, categories of words, morphological distinctions

Orientation: Determining the major facts about a message, such as topic, text type, setting

Main idea comprehension: Identifying the higher-order ideasDetail comprehension: Identifying supporting detailsReplication: Reproducing the message orally or in writing

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Check the level of difficulty of the listening text.

The factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a listening text for a particular purpose and a particular group of students.How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or instruction conform to familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented in natural chronological order, which have an informative title, and which present the information following an obvious   organization (main ideas first, details and examples second) are easier to follow.How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that misapplication of background knowledge due to cultural differences can create major comprehension difficulties.Does the text contain redundancy? At the lower levels of proficiency, listeners may find short, simple messages easier to process, but students with higher proficiency benefit from the natural redundancy of the language.Does the text involve multiple individuals and objects? Are they clearly differentiated? It is easier to understand a text with a doctor and a patient than one with two doctors, and it is even easier if they are of the opposite sex. In other words, the more marked the differences, the easier the comprehension.Does the text offer visual support to aid in the interpretation of what the listeners hear? Visual aids such as maps, diagrams, pictures, or the images in a video help contextualize the listening input and provide clues to meaning.

Use pre-listening activities to prepare students for what they are going to hear or view.

The activities chosen during pre-listening may serve as preparation for listening in several ways. During pre-listening the teacher may

assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of the text

provide students with the background knowledge necessary for their comprehension of the listening passage or activate the existing knowledge that the students possess

clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage

make students aware of the type of text they will be listening to, the role they will play, and the purpose(s) for which they will be listening

provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for background reading or class discussion activities

Sample pre-listening activities:looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphsreviewing vocabulary or grammatical structuresreading something relevantconstructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement of concepts or words

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showing how they are related)predicting the content of the listening textgoing over the directions or instructions for the activitydoing guided practice

Match while-listening activities to the instructional goal, the listening purpose, and students' proficiency level.

While-listening activities relate directly to the text, and students do them do during or immediately after the time they are listening. Keep these points in mind when planning while-listening activities:If students are to complete a written task during or immediately after listening, allow them to read through it before listening. Students need to devote all their attention to the listening task. Be sure they understand the instructions for the written task before listening begins so that they are not distracted by the need to figure out what to do.Keep writing to a minimum during listening. Remember that the primary goal is comprehension, not production. Having to write while listening may distract students from this primary goal. If a written response is to be given after listening, the task can be more demanding.Organize activities so that they guide listeners through the text. Combine global activities such as getting the main idea, topic, and setting with selective listening activities that focus on details of content and form.Use questions to focus students' attention on the elements of the text crucial to comprehension of the whole. Before the listening activity begins, have students review questions they will answer orally or in writing after listening. Listening for the answers will help students recognize the crucial parts of the message.Use predicting to encourage students to monitor their comprehension as they listen. Do a predicting activity before listening, and remind students to review what they are hearing to see if it makes sense in the context of their prior knowledge and what they already know of the topic or events of the passage.

Give immediate feedback whenever possible. Encourage students to examine how or why their responses were incorrect.Sample while-listening activities

listening with visualsfilling in graphs and chartsfollowing a route on a mapchecking off items in a listlistening for the gistsearching for specific clues to meaningcompleting cloze (fill-in) exercisesdistinguishing between formal and informal registers

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 Teaching ListeningAssessing Listening Proficiency

You can use post-listening activities to check comprehension, evaluate listening skills and use of listening strategies, and extend the knowledge gained to other contexts. A post-listening activity may relate to a pre-listening activity, such as predicting; may expand on the topic or the language of the listening text; or may transfer what has been learned to reading, speaking, or writing activities.

In order to provide authentic assessment of students' listening proficiency, a post-listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put information they have gained through listening.

It must have a purpose other than assessmentIt must require students to demonstrate their level of listening

comprehension by completing some task.

To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that listening to a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For example, after listening to a weather report one might decide what to wear the next day; after listening to a set of instructions, one might   repeat them to someone else; after watching and listening to a play or video, one might discuss the story line with friends.

Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-listening tasks. You can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student's comprehension of specific parts of the aural text. (See Assessing Learning for more on checklists and rubrics.)For example, for listening practice you have students listen to a weather report. Their purpose for listening is to be able to advise a friend what to wear the next day. As a post-listening activity, you ask students to select appropriate items of clothing from a collection you have assembled, or write a note telling the friend what to wear, or provide oral advice to another student (who has not heard the weather report). To evaluate listening comprehension, you use a checklist containing specific features of the forecast, marking those that are reflected in the student's clothing recommendations.

Teaching Speaking

Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their accomplishments in spoken

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communication.

Language learners need to recognize that speaking involves three areas of knowledge:

Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary): Using the right words in the right order with the correct pronunciation

Functions (transaction and interaction): Knowing when clarity of message is essential (transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not required (interaction/relationship building)

Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses between speakers, relative roles of participants): Understanding how to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what circumstances, about what, and for what reason.

In the communicative model of language teaching, instructors help their students develop this body of knowledge by providing authentic practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. They help their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts, and to do so using acceptable (that is, comprehensible) pronunciation.

Teaching SpeakingGoals and Techniques for Teaching Speaking

The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation.To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and communicative output.

Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need to begin producing language themselves.Language input may be content oriented or form oriented.

Content-oriented input focuses on information, whether it is a simple weather report or an extended lecture on an academic topic. Content-oriented input may also include descriptions of learning strategies and examples of their use.

Form-oriented input focuses on ways of using the language: guidance from the teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar (linguistic competence); appropriate things to say in specific contexts (discourse competence); expectations for rate of speech,

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pause length, turn-taking, and other social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic competence); and explicit instruction in phrases to use to ask for clarification and repair miscommunication (strategic competence).

In the presentation part of a lesson, an instructor combines content-oriented and form-oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target language depends on students' listening proficiency and also on the situation. For students at lower levels, or in situations where a quick explanation on a grammar topic is needed, an explanation in English may be more appropriate than one in the target language.

Structured output focuses on correct form. In structured output, students may have options for responses, but all of the options require them to use the specific form or structure that the teacher has just introduced.Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced, sometimes in combination with previously learned items. Instructors often use structured output exercises as a transition between the presentation stage and the practice stage of a lesson plan. textbook exercises also often make good structured output practice activities.

In communicative output, the learners' main purpose is to complete a task, such as obtaining information, developing a travel plan, or creating a video. To complete the task, they may use the language that the instructor has just presented, but they also may draw on any other vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies that they know. In communicative output activities, the criterion of success is whether the learner gets the message across.

Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message.In everyday communication, spoken exchanges take place because there is some sort of information gap between the participants. Communicative output activities involve a similar real information gap. In order to complete the task, students must reduce or eliminate the information gap. In these activities, language is a tool, not an end in itself.

In a balanced activities approach, the teacher uses a variety of activities from these different categories of input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels, including beginners, benefit from this variety; it is more motivating, and it is also more likely to result in effective language learning.

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Teaching SpeakingStrategies for Developing Speaking Skills

Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of language learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning process. Effective instructors teach students speaking strategies -- using minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and using language to talk about language -- that they can use to help themselves expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it. These instructors help students learn to speak so that the students can use speaking to learn.

1. Using minimal responses

Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do the talking. One way to encourage such learners to begin to participate is to help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Such responses can be especially useful for beginners.Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation participants use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying. Having a stock of such responses enables a learner to focus on what the other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.

2. Recognizing scripts

Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges -- a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will need to say in response. Through interactive activities, instructors can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.

3. Using language to talk about language

Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not understood them. Instructors can help students overcome this reticence by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of interaction, whatever the

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participants' language skill levels. Instructors can also give students strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension check.

By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when misunderstanding occurs, and by responding positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practice environment within the classroom itself. As they develop control of various clarification strategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the various communication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.

Teaching SpeakingDeveloping Speaking Activities

Traditional classroom speaking practice often takes the form of drills in which one person asks a question and another gives an answer. The question and the answer are structured and predictable, and often there is only one correct, predetermined answer. The purpose of asking and answering the question is to demonstrate the ability to ask and answer the question.

In contrast, the purpose of real communication is to accomplish a task, such as conveying a telephone message, obtaining information, or expressing an opinion. In real communication, participants must manage uncertainty about what the other person will say. Authentic communication involves an information gap; each participant has information that the other does not have. In addition, to achieve their purpose, participants may have to clarify their meaning or ask for confirmation of their own understanding.

To create classroom speaking activities that will develop communicative competence, instructors need to incorporate a purpose and an information gap and allow for multiple forms of expression. However, quantity alone will not necessarily produce competent speakers. Instructors need to combine structured output activities, which allow for error correction and increased accuracy, with communicative output activities that give students opportunities to practice language use more freely.

Structured Output Activities

Two common kinds of structured output activities are information gap andjigsaw activities. In both these types of activities, students complete a task by obtaining missing information, a feature the activities have in common with real communication. However, information gap and jigsaw activities also set up practice on specific items of language. In this respect they are more like drills than like communication.

Information Gap ActivitiesFilling the gaps in a schedule or timetable: Partner A holds an airline

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timetable with some of the arrival and departure times missing. Partner B has the same timetable but with different blank spaces. The two partners are not permitted to see each other's timetables and must fill in the blanks by asking each other appropriate questions. The features of language that are practiced would include questions beginning with "when" or "at what time." Answers would be limited mostly to time expressions like "at 8:15" or "at ten in the evening."

Completing the picture: The two partners have similar pictures, each with different missing details, and they cooperate to find all the missing details. In another variation, no items are missing, but similar items differ in appearance. For example, in one picture, a man walking along the street may be wearing an overcoat, while in the other the man is wearing a jacket. The features of grammar and vocabulary that are practiced are determined by the content of the pictures and the items that are missing or different. Differences in the activities depicted lead to practice of different verbs. Differences in number, size, and shape lead to adjective practice. Differing locations would probably be described with prepositional phrases.

These activities may be set up so that the partners must practice more than just grammatical and lexical features. For example, the timetable activity gains a social dimension when one partner assumes the role of a student trying to make an appointment with a partner who takes the role of a professor. Each partner has pages from an appointment book in which certain dates and times are already filled in and other times are still available for an appointment. Of course, the open times don't match exactly, so there must be some polite negotiation to arrive at a mutually convenient time for a meeting or a conference.

Jigsaw Activities

Jigsaw activities are more elaborate information gap activities that can be done with several partners. In a jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the "puzzle," and the partners must cooperate to fit all the pieces into a whole picture. The puzzle piece may take one of several forms. It may be one panel from a comic strip or one photo from a set that tells a story. It may be one sentence from a written narrative. It may be a tape recording of a conversation, in which case no two partners hear exactly the same conversation.

In one fairly simple jigsaw activity, students work in groups of four. Each student in the group receives one panel from a comic strip. Partners may not show each other their panels. Together the four panels present this narrative: a man takes a container of ice cream from the freezer; he serves himself several scoops of ice cream; he sits in front of the TV eating his ice cream; he returns with the empty bowl to the

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kitchen and finds that he left the container of ice cream, now melting, on the kitchen counter. These pictures have a clear narrative line and the partners are not likely to disagree about the appropriate sequencing. You can make the task more demanding, however, by using pictures that lend themselves to alternative sequences, so that the partners have to negotiate among themselves to agree on a satisfactory sequence.

More elaborate jigsaws may proceed in two stages. Students first work in input groups (groups A, B, C, and D) to receive information. Each group receives a different part of the total information for the task. Students then reorganize into groups of four with one student each from A, B, C, and D, and use the information they received to complete the task. Such an organization could be used, for example, when the input is given in the form of a tape recording. Groups A, B, C, and D each hear a different recording of a short news bulletin. The four recordings all contain the same general information, but each has one or more details that the others do not. In the second stage, students reconstruct the complete story by comparing the four versions.

With information gap and jigsaw activities, instructors need to be conscious of the language demands they place on their students. If an activity calls for language your students have not already practiced, you can brainstorm with them when setting up the activity to preview the language they will need, eliciting what they already know and supplementing what they are able to produce themselves.

Structured output activities can form an effective bridge between instructor modeling and communicative output because they are partly authentic and partly artificial. Like authentic communication, they feature information gaps that must be bridged for successful completion of the task. However, where authentic communication allows speakers to use all of the language they know, structured output activities lead students to practice specific features of language and to practice only in brief sentences, not in extended discourse. Also, structured output situations are contrived and more like games than real communication, and the participants' social roles are irrelevant to the performance of the activity. This structure controls the number of variables that students must deal with when they are first exposed to new material. As they become comfortable, they can move on to true communicative output activities.

Communicative Output Activities

Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they know in situations that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together to develop a plan, resolve a problem,

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or complete a task. The most common types of communicative output activity are role playsand discussions .In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may eventually encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of language functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role relationships among the students as they play their parts call for them to practice and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language that is appropriate to the situation and to the characters.Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-confidence or have lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first. To succeed with role plays:

Prepare carefully: Introduce the activity by describing the situation and making sure that all of the students understand it

Set a goal or outcome: Be sure the students understand what the product of the role play should be, whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some other product

Use role cards: Give each student a card that describes the person or role to be played. For lower-level students, the cards can include words or expressions that that person might use.

Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class to predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might use.

Keep groups small: Less-confident students will feel more able to participate if they do not have to compete with many voices.

Give students time to prepare: Let them work individually to outline their ideas and the language they will need to express them.

Be present as a resource, not a monitor: Stay in communicative mode to answer students' questions. Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar unless they specifically ask you about it.

Allow students to work at their own levels: Each student has individual language skills, an individual approach to working in groups, and a specific role to play in the activity. Do not expect all students to contribute equally to the discussion, or to use every grammar point you have taught.

Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the outcome of their role plays.

Do linguistic follow-up: After the role play is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the instructor prepares students first, and then gets out of the way. To succeed with discussions:

Prepare the students: Give them input (both topical information and language forms) so that they will have something to say and the

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language with which to say it.Offer choices: Let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose

from several options. Discussion does not always have to be about serious issues. Students are likely to be more motivated to participate if the topic is television programs, plans for a vacation, or news about mutual friends. Weighty topics like how to combat pollution are not as engaging and place heavy demands on students' linguistic competence.

Set a goal or outcome: This can be a group product, such as a letter to the editor, or individual reports on the views of others in the group.

Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion: Large groups can make participation difficult.

Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10 minutes, for discussion. Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to say.

Allow students to participate in their own way: Not every student will feel comfortable talking about every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute equally to the conversation.

Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the results of their discussion.

Do linguistic follow-up: After the discussion is over, give feedback on grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

Through well-prepared communicative output activities such as role plays and discussions, you can encourage students to experiment and innovate with the language, and create a supportive atmosphere that allows them to make mistakes without fear of embarrassment. This will contribute to their self-confidence as speakers and to their motivation to learn more.  

  Teaching Reading

Traditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to the literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials have traditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent "higher" forms of culture.This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers and instructors. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors and reserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to read them.

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The communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the types of texts that can be used in instruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everyday materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourism Web sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one way communicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and reading practice thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level.

Reading Purpose and Reading Comprehension

Reading is an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to gain information or verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writer's ideas or writing style. A person may also read for enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read. The purpose(s) for reading guide the reader's selection of texts.The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approach to reading comprehension. A person who needs to know whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehend the pricing information provided on the menu, but does not need to recognize the name of every appetizer listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and supporting details. However, a person using a scientific article to support an opinion needs to know the vocabulary that is used, understand the facts and cause-effect sequences that are presented, and recognize ideas that are presented as hypotheses and givens.Reading research shows that good readers

Read extensivelyIntegrate information in the text with existing knowledgeHave a flexible reading style, depending on what they are readingAre motivatedRely on different skills interacting: perceptual processing, phonemic

processing, recallRead for a purpose; reading serves a function

Reading as a Process

Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is.Reader knowledge, skills, and strategies include

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Linguistic competence: the ability to recognize the elements of the writing system; knowledge of vocabulary; knowledge of how words are structured into sentences

Discourse competence: knowledge of discourse markers and how they connect parts of the text to one another

Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge about different types of texts and their usual structure and content

Strategic competence: the ability to use top-down strategies (see Strategies for Developing Reading Skills for descriptions), as well as knowledge of the language (a bottom-up strategy)

The purpose(s) for reading and the type of text determine the specific knowledge, skills, and strategies that readers need to apply to achieve comprehension. Reading comprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading comprehension results when the reader knows which skills and strategies are appropriate for the type of text, and understands how to apply them to accomplish the reading purpose.

Teaching ReadingGoals and Techniques for Teaching Reading

Instructors want to produce students who, even if they do not have complete control of the grammar or an extensive lexicon, can fend for themselves in communication situations. In the case of reading, this means producing students who can use reading strategies to maximize their comprehension of text, identify relevant and non-relevant information, and tolerate less than word-by-word comprehension.

Focus: The Reading Process

To accomplish this goal, instructors focus on the process of reading rather than on its product.

They develop students' awareness of the reading process and reading strategies by asking students to think and talk about how they read in their native language.

They allow students to practice the full repertoire of reading strategies by using authentic reading tasks. They encourage students to read to learn (and have an authentic purpose for reading) by giving students some choice of reading material.

When working with reading tasks in class, they show students the strategies that will work best for the reading purpose and the type of text. They explain how and why students should use the strategies.

They have students practice reading strategies in class and ask them to practice outside of class in their reading assignments. They encourage students to be conscious of what they're doing while they complete reading assignments.

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They encourage students to evaluate their comprehension and self-report their use of strategies. They build comprehension checks into in-class and out-of-class reading assignments, and periodically review how and when to use particular strategies.

They encourage the development of reading skills and the use of reading strategies by using the target language to convey instructions and course-related information in written form: office hours, homework assignments, test content.

They do not assume that students will transfer strategy use from one task to another. They explicitly mention how a particular strategy can be used in a different type of reading task or with another skill.

By raising students' awareness of reading as a skill that requires active engagement, and by explicitly teaching reading strategies, instructors help their students develop both the ability and the   confidence to handle communication situations they may encounter beyond the classroom. In this way they give their students the foundation for communicative competence in the new language.

Integrating Reading Strategies

Instruction in reading strategies is not an add-on, but rather an integral part of the use of reading activities in the language classroom. Instructors can help their students become effective readers by teaching them how to use strategies before, during, and after reading.

Before reading: Plan for the reading taskSet a purpose or decide in advance what to read forDecide if more linguistic or background knowledge is neededDetermine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend to the

overall meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases)

During and after reading: Monitor comprehensionVerify predictions and check for inaccurate guessesDecide what is and is not important to understandReread to check comprehensionAsk for help

After reading: Evaluate comprehension and strategy useEvaluate comprehension in a particular task or areaEvaluate overall progress in reading and in particular types of reading

tasksDecide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the

task

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Modify strategies if necessary

Using Authentic Materials and Approaches

For students to develop communicative competence in reading, classroom and homework reading activities must resemble (or be) real-life reading tasks that involve meaningful communication. They must therefore be authentic in three ways.

1. The reading material must be authentic: It must be the kind of material that students will need and want to be able to read when traveling, studying abroad, or using the language in other contexts outside the classroom.

When selecting texts for student assignments, remember that the difficulty of a reading text is less a function of the language, and more a function of the conceptual difficulty and the task(s) that students are expected to complete. Simplifying a text by changing the language often removes natural redundancy and makes the organization somewhat difficult for students to predict. This actually makes a text more difficult to read than if the original were used.Rather than simplifying a text by changing its language, make it more approachable by eliciting students' existing knowledge in pre-reading discussion, reviewing new vocabulary before reading, and asking students to perform tasks that are within their competence, such as skimming to get the main idea or scanning for specific information, before they begin intensive reading.

2. The reading purpose must be authentic: Students must be reading for reasons that make sense and have relevance to them. "Because the teacher assigned it" is not an authentic reason for reading a text.

To identify relevant reading purposes, ask students how they plan to use the language they are learning and what topics they are interested in reading and learning about. Give them opportunities to choose their reading assignments, and encourage them to use the library, the Internet, and foreign language newsstands and bookstores to find other things they would like to read.

4. The reading approach must be authentic: Students should read the text in a way that matches the reading purpose, the type of text, and the way people normally read. This means that reading aloud will take place only in situations where it would take place outside the classroom, such as reading for pleasure. The majority of students' reading should be done silently.

Reading Aloud in the Classroom

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Students do not learn to read by reading aloud. A person who reads aloud and comprehends the meaning of the text is coordinating word recognition with comprehension and speaking and pronunciation ability in highly complex ways. Students whose language skills are limited are not able to process at this level, and end up having to drop one or more of the elements. Usually the dropped element is comprehension, and reading aloud becomes word calling: simply pronouncing a series of words without regard for the meaning they carry individually and together. Word calling is not productive for the student who is doing it, and it is boring for other students to listen to.

There are two ways to use reading aloud productively in the language classroom. Read aloud to your students as they follow along silently. You have the ability to use inflection and tone to help them hear what the text is saying. Following along as you read will help students move from word-by-word reading to reading in phrases and thought units, as they do in their first language.

Use the "read and look up" technique. With this technique, a student reads a phrase or sentence silently as many times as necessary, then looks up (away from the text) and tells you what the phrase or sentence says. This encourages students to read for ideas, rather than for word recognition.

Teaching ReadingStrategies for Developing Reading Skills

Using Reading Strategies

Language instructors are often frustrated by the fact that students do not automatically transfer the strategies they use when reading in their native language to reading in a language they are learning. Instead, they seem to think reading means starting at the beginning and going word by word, stopping to look up every unknown vocabulary item, until they reach the end. When they do this, students are relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottom-up strategy. One of the most important functions of the language instructor, then, is to help students move past this idea and use top-down strategies as they do in their native language.

Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help students develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each reading situation.Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include

Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a

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sense of the structure and content of a reading selection

Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content

Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify text structure, confirm or question predictions

Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up

Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the information and ideas in the text

Instructors can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in several ways.

By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of previewing, predicting, skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This shows students how the strategies work and how much they can know about a text before they begin to read word by word.

By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting activities as preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating class time to these activities indicates their importance and value.

By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This helps students learn to guess meaning from context.

By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help them approach a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about what strategies they actually used. This helps students develop flexibility in their choice of strategies.

When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language.

Reading to Learn

Reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supports learning in multiple ways.

Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By giving students a variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunities for students to absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in authentic

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contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the elements of the language work together to convey meaning.

Reading for content information: Students' purpose for reading in their native language is often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this purpose can be useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the language classroom gives students both authentic reading material and an authentic purpose for reading.

Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials that are designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles and worldviews of the people whose language they are studying. When students have access to newspapers, magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its variety, and monolithic cultural stereotypes begin to break down.

When reading to learn, students need to follow four basic steps:

Figure out the purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate reading strategies.

Attend to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory.

Select strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use them flexibly and interactively. Students' comprehension improves and their confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to construct meaning.

Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is completed. Monitoring comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures, helping them learn to use alternate strategies.

Teaching ReadingDeveloping Reading Activities

Developing reading activities involves more than identifying a text that is "at the right level," writing a set of comprehension questions for students to answer after reading, handing out the assignment and sending students away to do it. A fully-developed reading activity supports students as readers through prereading, while-reading, and post-reading activities.As you design reading tasks, keep in mind that complete recall of all the information in a text is an unrealistic expectation even for native speakers.

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Reading activities that are meant to increase communicative competence should be success oriented and build up students' confidence in their reading ability.

Construct the reading activity around a purpose that has significance for the students

Make sure students understand what the purpose for reading is: to get the main idea, obtain specific information, understand most or all of the message, enjoy a story, or decide whether or not to read more. Recognizing the purpose for reading will help students select appropriate reading strategies.

Define the activity's instructional goal and the appropriate type of response

In addition to the main purpose for reading, an activity can also have one or more instructional purposes, such as practicing or reviewing specific grammatical constructions, introducing new vocabulary, or familiarizing students with the typical structure of a certain type of text.

Check the level of difficulty of the textThe factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty

of a reading text for a particular purpose and a particular group of students.

How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or instruction conform to familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented in natural chronological order, which have an informative title, and which present the information following an obvious organization (main ideas first, details and examples second) are easier to follow.

How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that misapplication of background knowledge due to cultural differences can create major comprehension difficulties.

Does the text contain redundancy? At the lower levels of proficiency, listeners may find short, simple messages easier to process, but students with higher proficiency benefit from the natural redundancy of authentic language.

Does the text offer visual support to aid in reading comprehension? Visual aids such as photographs, maps, and diagrams help students preview the content of the text, guess the meanings of unknown words, and check comprehension while reading.

Remember that the level of difficulty of a text is not the same as the level of difficulty of a reading task. Students who lack the vocabulary to identify all of the items on a menu can still determine whether the restaurant serves steak and whether they can afford to order one.Use pre-reading activities to prepare students for reading

The activities you use during pre-reading may serve as preparation in

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several ways. During pre-reading you may:

Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of the text

Give students the background knowledge necessary for comprehension of the text, or activate the existing knowledge that the students possess

Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage

Make students aware of the type of text they will be reading and the purpose(s) for reading

Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for class discussion activities

Sample pre-reading activities:Using the title, subtitles, and divisions within the text to predict content

and organization or sequence of informationLooking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs and their captionsTalking about the author's background, writing style, and usual topicsSkimming to find the theme or main idea and eliciting related prior

knowledgeReviewing vocabulary or grammatical structuresReading over the comprehension questions to focus attention on finding

that information while readingConstructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement of concepts or words

showing how they are related)Doing guided practice with guessing meaning from context or checking

comprehension while readingPre-reading activities are most important at lower levels of language proficiency and at earlier stages of reading instruction. As students become more proficient at using reading strategies, you will be able to reduce the amount of guided pre-reading and allow students to do these activities themselves.

Match while-reading activities to the purpose for readingIn while-reading activities, students check their comprehension as they

read. The purpose for reading determines the appropriate type and level of comprehension.

When reading for specific information, students need to ask themselves, have I obtained the information I was looking for?

When reading for pleasure, students need to ask themselves, Do I understand the story line/sequence of ideas well enough to enjoy reading this?

When reading for thorough understanding (intensive reading), students need to ask themselves, Do I understand each main idea and how the author supports it? Does what I'm reading agree with my predictions, and, if not, how does it differ? To check comprehension in this situation, students may

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Stop at the end of each section to review and check their predictions, restate the main idea and summarize the section

Use the comprehension questions as guides to the text, stopping to answer them as they read

Teaching ReadingAssessing Reading Proficiency

Reading ability is very difficult to assess accurately. In the communicative competence model, a student's reading level is the level at which that student is able to use reading to accomplish communication goals. This means that assessment of reading ability needs to be correlated with purposes for reading.

Reading AloudA student's performance when reading aloud is not a reliable indicator

of that student's reading ability. A student who is perfectly capable of understanding a given text when reading it silently may stumble when asked to combine comprehension with word recognition and speaking ability in the way that reading aloud requires.

In addition, reading aloud is a task that students will rarely, if ever, need to do outside of the classroom. As a method of assessment, therefore, it is not authentic: It does not test a student's ability to use reading to accomplish a purpose or goal.

However, reading aloud can help a teacher assess whether a student is "seeing" word endings and other grammatical features when reading. To use reading aloud for this purpose, adopt the "read and look up" approach: Ask the student to read a sentence silently one or more times, until comfortable with the content, then look up and tell you what it says. This procedure allows the student to process the text, and lets you see the results of that processing and know what elements, if any, the student is missing.

Comprehension QuestionsInstructors often use comprehension questions to test whether

students have understood what they have read. In order to test comprehension appropriately, these questions need to be coordinated with the purpose for reading. If the purpose is to find specific information, comprehension questions should focus on that information. If the purpose is to understand an opinion and the arguments that support it, comprehension questions should ask about those points.

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In everyday reading situations, readers have a purpose for reading before they start. That is, they know what comprehension questions they are going to need to answer before they begin reading. To make reading assessment in the language classroom more like reading outside of the classroom, therefore, allow students to review the comprehension questions before they begin to read the test passage.

Finally, when the purpose for reading is enjoyment, comprehension questions are beside the point. As a more authentic form of assessment, have students talk or write about why they found the text enjoyable and interesting (or not).

Authentic AssessmentIn order to provide authentic assessment of students' reading proficiency,

a post-listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put information they have gained through reading.

It must have a purpose other than assessmentIt must require students to demonstrate their level of reading

comprehension by completing some task

To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that reading a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For example, after reading a weather report, one might decide what to wear the next day; after reading a set of instructions, one might   repeat them to someone else; after reading a short story, one might discuss the story line with friends.

Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-reading tasks. You can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student's comprehension of specific parts of the text.

Teaching Grammar

Grammar is central to the teaching and learning of languages. It is also one of the more difficult aspects of language to teach well.Many people, including language teachers, hear the word "grammar" and think of a fixed set of word forms and rules of usage. They associate "good" grammar with the prestige forms of the language, such as those used in writing and in formal oral presentations, and "bad" or "no" grammar with the language used in everyday conversation or used by speakers of nonprestige forms.

Language teachers who adopt this definition focus on grammar as a set of forms and rules. They teach grammar by explaining the forms and rules and then drilling students on them. This results in bored, disaffected

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students who can produce correct forms on exercises and tests, but consistently make errors when they try to use the language in context.

Other language teachers, influenced by recent theoretical work on the difference between language learning and language acquisition, tend not to teach grammar at all. Believing that children acquire their first language without overt grammar instruction, they expect students to learn their second language the same way. They assume that students will absorb grammar rules as they hear, read, and use the language in communication activities.

This approach does not allow students to use one of the major tools they have as learners: their active understanding of what grammar is and how it works in the language they already know.

The communicative competence model balances these extremes. The model recognizes that overt grammar instruction helps students acquire the language more efficiently, but it incorporates grammar teaching and learning into the larger context of teaching students to use the language. Instructors using this model teach students the grammar they need to know to accomplish defined communication tasks.Teaching GrammarGoals and Techniques for Teaching Grammar

The goal of grammar instruction is to enable students to carry out their communication purposes. This goal has three implications:

Students need overt instruction that connects grammar points with larger communication contexts.

Students do not need to master every aspect of each grammar point, only those that are relevant to the immediate communication task.

Error correction is not always the instructor's first responsibility.

Overt Grammar InstructionAdult students appreciate and benefit from direct instruction that allows

them to apply critical thinking skills to language learning. Instructors can take advantage of this by providing explanations that give students a descriptive understanding (declarative knowledge) of each point of grammar.

Teach the grammar point in the target language or the students' first language or both. The goal is to facilitate understanding.

Limit the time you devote to grammar explanations to 10 minutes, especially for lower level students whose ability to sustain attention can be limited.

Present grammar points in written and oral ways to address the needs of students with different learning styles.

An important part of grammar instruction is providing examples. Teachers need to plan their examples carefully around two basic principles:

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Be sure the examples are accurate and appropriate. They must present the language appropriately, be culturally appropriate for the setting in which they are used, and be to the point of the lesson.

Use the examples as teaching tools. Focus examples on a particular theme or topic so that students have more contact with specific information and vocabulary.

Relevance of Grammar InstructionIn the communicative competence model, the purpose of learning

grammar is to learn the language of which the grammar is a part. Instructors therefore teach grammar forms and structures in relation to meaning and use for the specific communication tasks that students need to complete.Compare the traditional model and the communicative competence model for teaching the English past tense:Traditional: grammar for grammar's sake

Teach the regular -ed form with its two pronunciation variantsTeach the doubling rule for verbs that end in d (for example, wed-wedded)Hand out a list of irregular verbs that students must memorizeDo pattern practice drills for -edDo substitution drills for irregular verbs

Communicative competence: grammar for communication's sakeDistribute two short narratives about recent experiences or events, each

one to half of the classTeach the regular -ed form, using verbs that occur in the texts as

examples. Teach the pronunciation and doubling rules if those forms occur in the texts.

Teach the irregular verbs that occur in the texts.Students read the narratives, ask questions about points they don't

understand.Students work in pairs in which one member has read Story A and the

other Story B. Students interview one another; using the information from the interview, they then write up or orally repeat the story they have not read.

Error CorrectionAt all proficiency levels, learners produce language that is not exactly

the language used by native speakers. Some of the differences are grammatical, while others involve vocabulary selection and mistakes in the selection of language appropriate for different contexts.In responding to student communication, teachers need to be careful not to focus on error correction to the detriment of communication and confidence building. Teachers need to let students know when they are making errors so that they can work on improving. Teachers also need to build students' confidence in their ability to use the language by focusing on the content of their communication rather than the grammatical form.

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Teachers can use error correction to support language acquisition, and avoid using it in ways that undermine students' desire to communicate in the language, by taking cues from context.

When students are doing structured output activities that focus on development of new language skills, use error correction to guide them.Example: Student (in class): I buy a new car yesterday. Teacher: You bought a new car yesterday. Remember, the past tense of buy is bought.

When students are engaged in communicative activities, correct errors only if they interfere with comprehensibility. Respond using correct forms, but without stressing them.Example: Student (greeting teacher) : I buy a new car yesterday! Teacher: You bought a new car? That's exciting! What kind?

Teaching GrammarStrategies for Learning Grammar

Language teachers and language learners are often frustrated by the disconnect between knowing the rules of grammar and being able to apply those rules automatically in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This disconnect reflects a separation between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.

Declarative knowledge is knowledge about something. Declarative knowledge enables a student to describe a rule of grammar and apply it in pattern practice drills.

Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to do something. Procedural knowledge enables a student to apply a rule of grammar in communication.

For example, declarative knowledge is what you have when you read and understand the instructions for programming the DVD player. Procedural knowledge is what you demonstrate when you program the DVD player.

Procedural knowledge does not translate automatically into declarative knowledge; many native speakers can use their language clearly and correctly without being able to state the rules of its grammar. Likewise, declarative knowledge does not translate automatically into procedural knowledge; students may be able to state a grammar rule, but consistently fail to apply the rule when speaking or writing.To address the declarative knowledge/procedural knowledge dichotomy, teachers and students can apply several strategies.

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1. Relate knowledge needs to learning goals.Identify the relationship of declarative knowledge and procedural

knowledge to student goals for learning the language. Students who plan to use the language exclusively for reading journal articles need to focus more on the declarative knowledge of grammar and discourse structures that will help them understand those texts. Students who plan to live in-country need to focus more on the procedural knowledge that will help them manage day to day oral and written interactions.

2. Apply higher order thinking skills.Recognize that development of declarative knowledge can accelerate

development of procedural knowledge. Teaching students how the language works and giving them opportunities to compare it with other languages they know allows them to draw on critical thinking and analytical skills. These processes can support the development of the innate understanding that characterizes procedural knowledge.

3. Provide plentiful, appropriate language input.Understand that students develop both procedural and declarative

knowledge on the basis of the input they receive. This input includes both finely tuned input that requires students to pay attention to the relationships among form, meaning, and use for a specific grammar rule, and roughly tuned input that allows students to encounter the grammar rule in a variety of contexts.

4. Use predicting skills.Discourse analyst Douglas Biber has demonstrated that different

communication types can be characterized by the clusters of linguistic features that are common to those types. Verb tense and aspect, sentence length and structure, and larger discourse patterns all may contribute to the distinctive profile of a given communication type. For example, a history textbook and a newspaper article in English both use past tense verbs almost exclusively. However, the newspaper article will use short sentences and a discourse pattern that alternates between subjects or perspectives. The history textbook will use complex sentences and will follow a timeline in its discourse structure. Awareness of these features allows students to anticipate the forms and structures they will encounter in a given communication task.

5. Limit expectations for drills.

Mechanical drills in which students substitute pronouns for nouns or alternate the person, number, or tense of verbs can help students memorize irregular forms and challenging structures. However, students do not develop the ability to use grammar correctly in oral

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and written interactions by doing mechanical drills, because these drills separate form from meaning and use. The content of the prompt and the response is set in advance; the student only has to supply the correct grammatical form, and can do that without really needing to understand or communicate anything. The main lesson that students learn from doing these drills is: Grammar is boring.

Communicative drills encourage students to connect form, meaning, and use because multiple correct responses are possible. In communicative drills, students respond to a prompt using the grammar point under consideration, but providing their own content. For example, to practice questions and answers in the past tense in English, teacher and students can ask and answer questions about activities the previous evening. The drill is communicative because none of the content is set in advance:

Teacher: Did you go to the library last night?Student 1: No, I didn’t. I went to the movies. (to Student 2): Did you read chapter 3?Student 2: Yes, I read chapter 3, but I didn’t understand it. (to Student 3): Did you understand chapter 3?Student 3: I didn’t read chapter 3. I went to the movies with Student 1.

Teaching GrammarDeveloping Grammar Activities

Many courses and textbooks, especially those designed for lower proficiency levels, use a specified sequence of grammatical topics as their organizing principle. When this is the case, classroom activities need to reflect the grammar point that is being introduced or reviewed. By contrast, when a course curriculum follows a topic sequence, grammar points can be addressed as they come up.In both cases, instructors can use the Larsen-Freeman pie chart as a guide for developing activities.

For curricula that introduce grammatical forms in a specified sequence, instructors need to develop activities that relate form to meaning and use.

Describe the grammar point, including form, meaning, and use, and give examples (structured input)

Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills (structured output)

Have students do a communicative task that provides opportunities to use the grammar point (communicative output)

For curricula that follow a sequence of topics, instructors need to develop

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activities that relate the topical discourse (use) to meaning and form.Provide oral or written input (audiotape, reading selection) that addresses

the topic (structured input)Review the point of grammar, using examples from the material

(structured input)Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills that

focus on the topic (structured output)Have students do a communicative task on the topic (communicative

output)

When instructors have the opportunity to develop part or all of the course curriculum, they can develop a series of contexts based on the real world tasks that students will need to perform using the language, and then teach grammar and vocabulary in relation to those contexts.

For example, students who plan to travel will need to understand public address announcements in airports and train stations. Instructors can use audiotaped simulations to provide input; teach the grammatical forms that typically occur in such announcements; and then have students practice by asking and answering questions about what was announced.

Teaching GrammarAssessing Grammar Proficiency

Authentic AssessmentJust as mechanical drills do not teach students the language,

mechanical test questions do not assess their ability to use it in authentic ways. In order to provide authentic assessment of students’ grammar proficiency, an evaluation must reflect real-life uses of grammar in context. This means that the activity must have a purpose other than assessment and require students to demonstrate their level of grammar proficiency by completing some task.

To develop authentic assessment activities, begin with the types of tasks that students will actually need to do using the language. Assessment can then take the form of communicative drills and communicative activities like those used in the teaching process.

For example, the activity based on audiotapes of public address announcements) can be converted into an assessment by having students respond orally or in writing to questions about a similar tape. In this type of assessment, the instructor uses a checklist or rubric to evaluate the student’s understanding and/or use of grammar in context.

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Mechanical Tests

Mechanical tests do serve one purpose: They motivate students to memorize. They can therefore serve as prompts to encourage memorization of irregular forms and vocabulary items. Because they test only memory capacity, not language ability, they are best used as quizzes and given relatively little weight in evaluating student performance and progress.

Teaching Writing: Strategies

The most important factor in writing exercises is that students need to be personally involved in order to make the learning experience of lasting value. Encouraging student participation in the exercise, while at the same time refining and expanding writing skills, requires a certain pragmatic approach. The teacher should be clear on what skills he/she is trying to develop. Next, the teacher needs to decide on which means (or type of exercise) can facilitate learning of the target area. Once the target skill areas and means of implmentation are defined, the teacher can then proceed to focus on what topic can be employed to ensure student participation. By pragmatically combing these objectives, the teacher can expect both enthusiasm and effective learning.

Choosing the target area depends on many factors; What level are the students?, What is the average age of the students, Why are the students learning English, Are there any specific future intentions for the writing (i.e school tests or job application letters etc.). Other important questions to ask oneself are: What should the students be able to produce at the end of this exercise? (a well written letter, basic communication of ideas, etc.) What is the focus of the exercise? (structure, tense usage, creative writing). Once these factors are clear in the mind of the teacher, the teacher can begin to focus on how to involve the students in the activity thus promoting a positive, long-term learning experience.

Having decided on the target area, the teacher can focus on the means to achieve this type of learning. As in correction, the teacher must choose the most appropriate manner for the specified writing area. If formal business letter English is required, it is of little use to employ a free expression type of exercise. Likewise, when working on descriptive language writing skills, a formal letter is equally out of place.

With both the target area and means of production, clear in the teachers mind, the teacher can begin to consider how to involve the students by considering what type of activities are interesting to the students; Are they preparing for something specific such as a holiday or test?, Will they need

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any of the skills pragmatically? What has been effective in the past? A good way to approach this is by class feedback, or brainstorming sessions. By choosing a topic that involves the students the teacher is providing a context within which effective learning on the target area can be understaken.

Finally, the question of which type of correction will facilitate a useful writing exercise is of utmost importance. Here the teacher needs to once again think about the overall target area of the exercise. If there is an immediate task at hand, such as taking a test, perhaps teacher guided correction is the most effective solution. However, if the task is more general (for example developing informal letter writing skills), maybe the best approach would be to have the students work in groups thereby learning from each other. Most importantly, by choosing the correct means of correction the teacher can encourage rather discourage students.

Principles of Teaching Writing

The following text is a collation1 of principles of teaching writingextracted from “Current Research on Effective Teaching & Learningto Write”2.

Principles of Teaching Writing in regard to Writing Instruction Methods

Students write better when: a) Children write better when they take ownership of their own writing.

b) They are provided with prior knowledge or experience of a subject matter.

c)They are taught how to evaluate/revise their own story to make it better aligned to objectives.

d) They are given a focus or specific writing task.

e) They are allowed to work in small group activities to preparethem for a writing assignment.

f)Students write better when they self- select their writing.

Principles of Teaching Writing in regard to Follow-up Teaching

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Students write better when:

g)They are provided with clear, honest and positive feedback, in accordance with clear goals, by their peers and teachers.

h) They are taught how to evaluate their own writing based on specified objectives.

Principles of Teaching Writing in regard to Teaching-learning Contents

Students write better when: i) They are given a chance to explore a set of data in relation to what they will be writing about.

j) They are taught how to extend or elaborate on an idea / sentence/ point.

k) They are taught how to edit a piece of writing based on specific criteria.

l)Students tend to write better when they prepare their work and back-up their data with research done through self- questioning to clarify all doubts they have before writing begins.

m) Children write better when they write about something that interests them.

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THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

The way literature is taught in most schools is similar to the way other subjects are taught: drill students, highlight key quotes and prepare model answers. The ultimate aim is not to learn life’s lessons but to clinch that coveted A grade. That was the reason many schools decided to make literature optional a few years ago, when the subject was deemed too difficult to score a distinction in.

Students end up memorizing the whole book and all the quotations as their way of getting through the examinations. Its no wonder they feel they gained nothing applicable to their lives and future career. All they remember is the bitter memory of studying it

Therefore what we see in this student’s utterance is not that of a philistine but a child of our education system; a product of the prevailing ideology of pragmatism in our society.

Parents exhort their children to study hard for the sake of future material comforts (and who are we to blame them?)

The demands of our economy decide how many of us ought to be bankers, engineers and doctors and oh let us not forget nurses…!

inspire our students to love and learn from it. make it relevant to them and their future reduce the anxiety over examinations and put fun back into learning

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Have fun through role-playing, and watching plays and films and make students less conscious of the language as an obstacle. British and American texts would seem less distant if they can be

compared to local stories and literature. Comparing translated Asian literary works or introducing more novels

set in the present generation will show them that the universal themes in life go beyond borders and cultural confines

More important than teaching strategies is having teachers who are able to show their students the connection between life and literature.

It is through the teachers’ eyes that the young see beauty; through their minds that their imaginations take flight; and through their hearts that they feel and are moved.

So it is up to us teachers to put humanity back into literature. Reading literature is no easy task. Students must be taught how to

read literature. It is not a skill with which one is born, nor is it a skill that students have mastered by the time we see them on the secondary level. It is a skill we as teachers are still mastering for ourselves, and we want our students to begin to apply certain principles that will make them not only life-long readers but readers who do so with a keen eye.

What kind of readers do we as English teachers want our students to become? What do we want them to be aware of as they read? How do we teach them to focus on certain key elements in a story line or poem?

We need to reassess what we know, what our goals ought to be, and what approaches we wish to use in order to reach them

One of the most enjoyable aspects of the work of an English teacher is the teaching of literature. In this aspect, I believe the literature teacher is to be envied. For literature deals with life – in all its broad ramifications, life that transcends the heights and depths of feeling.

By its very nature, literary selections lend themselves well to grouping by units. The teacher can choose how to group them – by chronological development or historical periods, according to themes, or by genres. Whatever the plan of organization adopted, the teacher then begins initiating the unit before studying any of the selections she/he has chosen.

The chief purpose of this activity (initiating the unit) are the following

to arouse the student’s mental set for undertaking the unit to provide the students with the proper background to immerse them in the ambience of the particular historical period, or

the theme, or the genre which is the subject of the unit

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to broaden the students understanding of the selections included through a discussion of the historical, cultural, social and political background of the period and

to enrich the students store of vocabulary by means of the related words introduced

Too often, teachers approach the literature lesson with roughly the same viewpoint as they treat the reading lesson in the elementary grades but teachers must remember that the teaching of literature in the secondary and in the tertiary level have some fundamental differences

fundamental differences in elem and hs teaching of literature

the main thrust of a literature lesson in the secondary is the stimulation of the intellect, particularly the development of the higher-level skills like independent and critical thinking.

students in high school are expected to be more mature than elementary students thus, teaching should be more challenging so that a high degree of interest can be maintained.

since high school is preparatory for a more mature and difficult study in college, close links between literature and other fields of study must also be stressed.

The Analytical Approach to the Teaching of Literature

motivation

to arouse interest in the selection to introduce the story to set the situation leading to a motive question

for example: first year selection The Witch, the teacher can ask Do you believe in witches? If you learned that a certain person had

been accused of witchcraft, would you believe the rumor? Why? These questions lead to step b

2. introduction

today, we’re going to read a story about a woman who was rumored to be a witch.

This step leads to c3. raising the motive question

was the woman who was reputed to be a witch really one

4.setting the atmosphere of a story or poem

use of pictures, objects, posters and other av aids

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asking questions which are closely related to the theme or message of the story

giving a brief introduction or historical background using hypothetical questions referring to first hand experience of the students making comparison and contrasts (like the city from the rural area) drawing parallels using proverbs, sayings or quotations using a passage from a poem using a definition

Unlocking of difficulties

use of objects, pictures and gestures finding the meaning through context dictionary work – using the words in sentences match words with their meaning multiple choice the use of synonym and antonyms the use of analogy filling the blank with the correct word presenting situations and letting the students provide the

appropriate word for each situationsilent reading

unless the selection has been previously assigned must be With time limit like 10 to 15 minutes so the students don’t

dawdle or playDiscussion and answer of motive question

Prior to undertaking the analysis, determine whether the selection is a poem, a short story, an essay, a play or a novel.

If it is a poem, what kind of poem is it? Descriptive, narrative, lyric, lyric-descriptive?

If a narrative, is it an epic? A ballad? Or just a simple narrative? If it is a short story, try to pick out the most significant elements. What

is the author trying to emphasize. Is it the theme?, the plot? The character? The symbolism?

There is no hard and fast rule for analyzing a selection, but once the foregoing questions have been answered, these will determine the point of emphasis in the questioning procedure to be adopted by the teacher in guiding the class discussion

The Art of Questioning

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In lower levels like first year and second year it is advisable to adopt a chronological arrangement of questions – example following the sequence of events in the story, as this leads in the understanding of the theme or message of the story which in turn answers the motive question

First Dimension literal or factual

questions intended to bring forth data students are asked to enumerate, list down, observe or identify

Second Dimension – inferential or process questions

questions that involved interpretation or reasoning.

Students are required to note relationships of Cause and effect, synthesize, compare, classify Infer, sequence, organize, group or cite analogies

Third Dimension – evaluative or critical questions

questions that are supposed to speculate, forecast or predict, hypothesize, evaluate, generalize, and criticize

Fourth Dimension – creative and integrative questions

questions that require the application of a principle, the unification or integration of facts into a coherent entity, the clarification of insights and the use of

innovation and creativity, as in creating another end to the story

Psychomotor

1.role play a portion of the text

2. write an essay in response to a selection3. make or draw a comic strip of the text

1. read the poem with proper emotion and pronunciation

2. recite a poem from memory

3. compose a similar poem

1. perform scenes from selected plays

2. choreograph a dance drama

3. mount settings and design costumes and props

Cognitive 1. identify the 1. identify the 1. explain the

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character, setting etc.

2. explain the theme and conflict

3. trace the sequence of events or plot

author or locale of the text

2. identify and classify the different types of poetry3 . identify the figures of speech, rhyme scheme, and meter

message of the play

2. compare and contrast the elements of fiction and drama3. distinguish characters and their roles

Affective 1. relate to real life experience the incidents that happens in the narrative

2. point out positive and negative aspects of the culture in the narrative3. identify with anyone of the characters in the story

1. correlate the text to the situation today

2. point out the feelings evoked by the poem3. express creatively the message of the text

1. express the feelings of one of the characters in the play

2. appreciate the aesthetic values of the play by watching its performance entirely3. empathize with one of the characters in the play

New Methods and Approaches Integrated in the Teaching of Literature

Collaborative/ Cooperative Learning Discovery Approach Problem Based Approached Whole Language Approach Task Based Approach

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Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials

Using and Evaluating Instructional Materials

Selections of Materials

The following guide questions express standards to consider in the selection of instructional materials:

Do the materials give a true picture of the ideas they present? To avoid misconceptions, it is always good to ask when the material was produced.

Do the materials contribute meaningful content to the topic under study? Does the material help you achieve the instructional objectives?

Is the material appropriate for the age, intelligence, and experience of the learners?

The Proper Use of Materials

To ensure effective use of instructional material, Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel, (1972) book authors on Instructional Media, advise us to abide by the acronym PPPF.

P – Prepare yourself

P – Prepare your student

P – Present the materials

F – Follow up

Prepare Yourself. You know your lesson objective and what you expect from the class after and why you have selected such particular instructional material. You have a plan on how you will proceed, what questions to ask, how you will evaluate learning and how will tie loose ends before the bell rings.

Prepare your students. Set class expectations and learning and learning goals. It is practice to give them guide questions for them to be able to

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answer during the discussion. Motivate them and keep them interested and engaged.

Present the material under the best possible condition. Many teachers are guilty of the R.O.G Syndrome. This means “running out of gas” which usually results from poor planning. (Smith, 1972) Using media and materials, especially if they are mechanical in nature, often requires rehearsal and a carefully planned performance.

Follow up. Remember that you use instructional material to achieve an objective, not to kill time in class. You use instructional material for attainment of an objective. Your use of the instructional material is not the end in itself. It is a means of an end, the attainment of a learning objective. So, there is need to follow up to find out if objective was attained or not.

The Concept of Visual Literacy

Visual Literacy is a learned ability to interpret visual messages (such as designs, symbols or pictures) accurately and to create such messages.

What Visuals Can Achieve

Visuals are iconic, meaning they normally resemble the thing they represent. Realism is one quality of visual messages which we should attend to. No media form is totally realists. Besides it has been noted that visuals tend to become less useful for communication or instruction as they breach the extremes of being abstract or very realistic. A certain Dwyer says that the amount of realism desired has a curvilinear relationship to effective communication learning. Too much or too little realism may affect achievement adversely.

Definition of Terms

1. Decoding—includes “reading” visuals accurately, understanding and relating the elements of a visual, being able to translate from visual to verbal and vice versa, and appreciating the aesthetics of visuals.

2. Encoding—includes using the tools of visual media to communicate effectively with others and to express one’s self through visuals.

Designing Visuals For Instruction

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In producing well-designed visuals -- charts, posters, bulletin board displays, graphics for slides or television and the like- it best to do a preliminary sketch of the intended visual.

The rough lay-out in commercial art is called a “blueprint” which gives less attention to artistic details and more consideration on choosing the right words and images, their arrangement, lettering styles and colors.

In planning your rough lay-out, consider the following :

Use A – rrangement

B – alance

C – olor

to maximize D – ynamism

E – mphasis

F – idelity, and

G – raphic memory

Basic Design Considerations

A. Arrangement

-- The pattern should capture the viewer’s attention to relevant details.

-- A geometric shape ( e.g. oval, rectangle, triangle) can serve as a framework to build on.

-- Apply the “rule of thirds”. Elements along any one of the one- third dividing lines takes on liveliness or movement. The most dominant position is at the intersections of the one- third dividing lines (especially the the upper left intersection). The center is the most static and the least intersecting point on the grid.

-- Restrict the display to a single idea. In advertising this is called the “unique selling proposition.”

-- Lines add to eye movement.

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Horizontal lines give a feeling stability and rest.

Vertical lines imply strength.

Diagonal lines show movement, action and dynamism.

Crossed diagonals give a sense of conflict.

Curved lines give a feeling of motion.

B. Balance

-- Symmetrical or formal balance has an equivalence of elements on each sideof the visual either horizontally or vertically.

-- Asymmetrical or informal balance has a rough equivalence of weights among elements. This tends to provide dynamism and interest.

C. Color

-- Color adds to realism, provides emphasis, and creates an emotional tone.

Blue, green and violet are “cool” colors which physiologically seem to recede from the viewer.

Red and orange are “hot” colors which seem to approach the viewer. Red and orange highlights make objects leap to the viewer.

Different colors appear to simulate the senses: blue is “sweet” orange is “edible”. Pink, yellow and green “smell” best. Dark red and brown evoke masculine images of earth, wood and leather. Gold, silver and black suggest prestige and status.

D. Lettering

-- Letterings should be consistent and harmonious.

-- Ornate letterings adapt to aesthetic or motivational objectives.

-- Lowercase letters with capitals, only when needed, are most legible.

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-- Short headlines may be all in capitals.

-- Color of lettering should contrast with background color for legibility and emphasis.

Instructional Materials

WRITING BOARD

A writing board can display information written with chalk (chalkboard or blackboard) or special pens (whiteboard). There usually are more effective methods of transmitting information. The writing board is still the most commonly used visual aid. It is especially useful for impromptu discussions, brainstorming sessions and note taking.

Suggestion of Using Writing Board:

1. Keep the board clean.

2. Use chalk or pens that contrast with the background of the board so that students can see the information clearly.

3. Underline headings and important or unfamiliar words for emphasis.

4. Do not talk while facing the board.

5. Do not block the students’ views of the board; stand aside when writing or drawing is completed.

6. Allow sufficient time for students to copy the information from the board.

TRANSPARENCIES

The overhead projector is one of the most commonly used and most versatile pieces of audiovisual equipment. This visual aid projects images onto a screen using transparency film and silhouettes of opaque objects. A transparency is a plastic or acetate sheet (film) containing written or drawn material. An overlay is one transparency placed over another to show complex information.

Suggestions for Preparing Transparencies

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1. Limit the information on each transparency to one main idea and about five to six lines of large type.

2. Use large lettering (at least 5mm tall, preferably larger if printing or 18 point or larger if using a computer)

3. Print text. It is easier to read than script handwriting. 4. Make graphics and drawings large enough to be seen easily in the

back of the room. 5. Number the transparencies in a box with a lid in an envelope or a

“pocket” made from manila folders or sheets of clear plastic to protect them from dust and scratches.

Suggestions for Preparing Overhead Projector

1. Check the operation of the on/off switch. 2. Be sure that there is an extra projector bulb and that it is working. 3. Focus the projector and check the position of the image on the screen

using a transparency before beginning the session. 4. Face the students not the screen while talking.5. Show one pointer or pencil directly on the transparency to focus

attention on a specific area.

VIDEOTAPES

Videotapes are creative audiovisual aids. Using a single camera and recorder system , audio and video signals are recorded on videotape which can be played back on a videocassette machine and television screen or monitor.

Suggestions for Using Videotapes

1. Preview the videotape to ensure that it is appropriate for the students and consistent with the objectives.

2. Before the class, check to be sure that the videotape is compatible with the videotape player. Run a few seconds of the tape to ensure that everything is functioning properly.

3. Arrange the room so that all students can see the video monitor.4. Prepare the students to view the videotape

a. State the lesson objective.b. Provide an overview of the videotape.c. Focus students’ attention by asking that they look for a number

of specific points during the viewing of the videotape.

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5. Discuss the videotape after it has been shown. Review the main points that the students were asked to watch for as they viewed the videotape.

6. Prepare test items based on the videotape content if appropriate.

POCKET CHART

A pocket chart is a wall chart which has a number of pockets made of card glued onto it. Pictures and strips of words can be displayed on the front of the pocket and pieces of paper can be inserted into the pockets.

Suggestions for Preparing Pocket Chart

1. Pin or stick the pictures or photographs in a line on the wall2. Attach an envelope to each picture3. Have the pieces of paper nearby for voting

VISUAL AIDS

Tips for making visual aids

1. Visual aids should be clear. Do not overcrowd the poster or board with too many pictures or words.

2. Keep pictures as simple as possible. This makes it easier for the students/learners to see and understand but do show enough detail for the picture to be recognizable.

3. A picture is better understood when it has one clear meaning. Use a series of pictures to explain more than one thing or a sequence of events.

4. Illustrate a person’s whole body and not just a part of it. If only a part of a body is shown (for example, a head or hand) the picture may not be easy to understand.

5. Pictures will be more successful if they are based on what is familiar locally – faces, clothes, houses, utensils, and so on.

6. Food, animals, and objects (like spoon or a pot) are more difficult to recognize than pictures of people. Draw them clearly.

7. Leave out backgrounds as these draw attention away from the message (what you want to say).

8. Avoid making very small objects or animals too big. For example, if you show a picture of a very big mosquito, people may not recognize it as the tiny insect they know.

9. Perspective, for example a house seen in the distance, can often be very difficult to recognize.

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10. Symbols such as crosses, arrows, lines showing movement, skull and crossbones for danger are culturally specific and can therefore be difficult to understand.

Tips in using visual aids

1. Use visuals when they will help your students

To make visuals effective, use them to:1. focus the student’s attention2. reinforce the key components of your verbal message3. stimulate and maintain interest4. illustrate complex concepts that are difficult to visualize5. aid the audience’s comprehension6. increase retention

Avoid using them to:

1. impress your students with overly detailed2. text, charts, or animations – avoid information overload3. limit interaction with your audience4. present simple ideas that are easily stated verbally5. serve as your cue cards

2. Select appropriate visual aids and equipment3. Interact with your students and make sure YOU remain their focus4. Prepare and be organized.

POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE PREPARING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

Following points may be kept in view by instructors during the preparation of written instructional materials:

1. Use simple, direct, and easily understandable language;2. Supplement written information with as many sketches as would help the trainee graspthe information with clarity;3. Use impressive layout;4. Give specific guidelines wherever necessary;5. Do not give a volume of information, rather limit the contents that are absolutely essential;6. Provide questions that lead to the attainment of objectives;

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7. Follow syllabus, and titles that will cover the syllabus;8. Provide references for additional study if required;9. Provide the specific objectives or learning outcomes in clear terms, to enable the trainees to know what exactly is expected of them at the end of each learning task.

Qualities of an Effective Teacher in Using Instructional MaterialsBy EmilyTrudeau, 

Although teachers may understand the subjects they are attempting to teach, this does not necessarily make them effective teachers. Teachers must understand a few behavioral techniques to successfully communicate lessons to students. Making eye contact, keeping presentations concise and requiring student participation will help students focus on the material at hand.

Eye Contact

Most teachers use some form of notes to help them through a lecture. These notes are either on cards to be seen only by the teacher, or they may be displayed on the board for the students as well. However, by focusing only on the notes, teachers may forget to make eye contact with students. To prevent this, teachers should use the notes only as a reference, removing their gaze from the audience only periodically. Students will feel cared about and will in turn care about focusing on the teacher. By focusing their attention on the class, teachers will reduce students' propensity for conducting side conversations or for sleeping in class. It also will make students feel like the teacher is addressing each person directly, giving them a sense that what that teacher is saying is important.

Presentations

If not provided properly, the notes that teachers display for students to follow have the potential to distract from the lecture. Presentations overflowing with verbiage keep students too busy reading along to listen to what the teacher is saying, which is detrimental, especially if the teacher

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adds additional notes. Irrelevant or anecdotal information can confuse students. A rule of thumb is to display the amount of words on the board that would fit on a T-shirt. Teachers should refer to the notes throughout the lecture to keep students on track.

Student Participation

Requiring students to participate in a more discussion-like setting rather than a straight lecture is more effective than having them listen quietly for the duration of class. Student participation includes having students read sections from the book or participate in question-and-answer time. Students can also engage the subject matter by working in groups on specific scenarios. Experiential education is a useful tool that many teachers avoid, but it can create full understanding very quickly. Teachers should ask questions throughout the class, not just during a specified time. Get students moving by having them stand in front of the class to get the blood flowing and to keep them on their toes. Take small field trips outside the classroom to reinforce concepts learned during the lecture.

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Language and Literature Assessment

Language Assessment

Language assessment is the way to measure student learning of   languages . It is a gauge of what a student knows and/or can do and, more indirectly, of how well instruction is proceeding. Language assessment is part of a system for establishing what an economy, province, or state will establish as the framework for instruction. Language assessment should be based on Language Policies and Language Content Standards, which make clear what students will be expected to know and be able to do as a result of having participating in language learning experience.  Language Performance Standards are important because they determine which areas and levels of performance by the students will be examined in order to assess their learning. The assessment may cover listening, speaking, reading, writing or cultural understanding. It may place equal weight on knowledge (understanding how the language works theoretically) and proficiency (ability to use the language practically), or may give greater weight to one or the other.

The earliest works in language assessment in the US date back to the 1950s to the pioneering studies and test created by Robert Lado and David Harris. The earliest large scale assessment in the US was the Test of English as Foreign Language (TOEFL) that was launched in 1961 by Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. This test was designed to assess the English language ability of students applying for admission to US and Canadian colleges and universities. This test, which is used widely around the world, is still in use although it is now only available in the internet-based format (now called the TOEFL iBT).

Many tests from other companies, universities and agencies compete for this market: the Pearson Language Test's Pearson Test of English (PTE), the University of Michigan's Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB) and the University of Cambridge, the British Council and the

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Australian IDP's International English Language Testing System (IELTS). In the US, non-profit and other organizations such as the Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C. and Second Language Testing, Inc. have developed language tests that are used by many public and private agencies. Many universities too, like the University of California, Los Angeles, Teachers College, Columbia University, the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, have developed English (and other) language tests to assess the abilities of their students and teaching assistants. These language assessments are generally known as proficiency or achievement assessments.

Factors Influencing the Assessment of English Language LearnersThis section describes factors to consider when developing assessments and making decisions regarding testing accommodations for ELLs. The factors are not guidelines per se, but rather provide useful context for the guidelines presented in the later parts of the document.

Language Factors• Different linguistic backgrounds—ELLs in the United States possess a wide range of linguistic backgrounds. While the majority of ELLs come from Spanish-speaking backgrounds, it has been estimated that approximately 400 different native languages are spoken by ELLs nationally. This is particularly important to keep in mind when considering the use of native language testing accommodations, since it may not be possible to provide assessments in all native languages represented in a large school district or a state.• Varying levels of proficiency in English—ELLs vary widely in their level of English language proficiency, and furthermore, ELLs may have varying levels of oral and written English proficiency. Do not assume that students who can converse easily in English will have the literacy skills necessary to understand the written directions for a standardized test. Some ELLs may be proficient in the English used for interpersonal communications but not in the academic English needed to fully access content-area assessments. Studies show that the level of language proficiency has an influence on processing speed. In other words, compared with native speakers, ELLs generally take longer on tasks presented in English. This is important to keep in mind when designing and scoring the assessment, as well as when making decisions about testing accommodations.• Varying levels of proficiency in native language—ELLs also vary in their levels of proficiency and literacy in their native languages. Therefore, do not assume that speakers of other languages will be able to understand written test directions in their native languages. In fact, a large proportion of ELLs were born in the United States and may not have had any formal schooling in their native language. This is important to keep in mind when considering the use of native language accommodations.

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Educational Background Factors• Varying degrees of formal schooling in native language—As mentioned previously, ELLs vary widely in the level of formal schooling they have had in their native languages. The degree of native-language formal schooling affects not only native language proficiency—specifically, literacy in the native language—but also the level of content area skills and knowledge. For example, students from refugee populations may enter the U.S. educational system with little or no formal schooling in any language. These students must learn English and content-area knowledge simultaneously, while also being socialized into a school context that may be extremely unfamiliar. Other ELLs may come to the United States with more formal schooling and may have received instruction in the content areas in their native languages. The primary challenge for these students is simply to transfer their existing content knowledge into English. Again, these factors come into play when making decisions about appropriate accommodations.• Varying degrees of formal schooling in English—ELLs also vary in the number of years they have spent in schools where English is the language of instruction. A distinction may also be made between students who have studied English as a foreign language while in their home countries and students who have studied English as a second language only in the United States. Furthermore, ELLs differ in the type of instruction they have received while in English-speaking schools. Bilingual, full English immersion, and English as a second language are but three of the many existing instructional programs for non-native English speakers, and there are great variations in how these programs are implemented. In addition, ELLs from migrant populations may spend many years in English-speaking schools but may also experience repeated interruptions and relocation to different cities in the United States in the course of their schooling, which may have an impact on both their English language proficiency and on their content-area knowledge.• Varying degrees of exposure to standardized testing—It should not be assumed that all ELLs have had the same exposure to the standardized testing that is prevalent in the United States. Students in some countries may have had no exposure to multiple-choice questions, while those from other countries may never have seen a constructed-response question. Even ELLs from educationally advantaged backgrounds and with high levels of English language proficiency may not be accustomed to standardized, large-scale assessments and may be at a disadvantage in these testing situations.

Cultural FactorsCultural factors can also be potential sources of construct-irrelevant variance that add to the complexity of appropriately assessing ELLs.• Varying degrees of acculturation to U.S. mainstream—ELLs come from a wide range of cultural backgrounds, and cultural differences may place ELLs at a disadvantage in a standardized testing situation. Lack of familiarity with mainstream American culture, for example, can potentially have an impact on test scores for ELLs. Students who are unfamiliar with American culture

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may be at a disadvantage relative to their peers because they may hold different assumptions about the testing situation or the educational environment in general, have different background knowledge and experience, or possess different sets of cultural values and beliefs, and therefore respond to questions differently. Students from cultures where cooperation is valued over competition, for example, may be at a disadvantage in those testing situations in the United States where the goal is for each individual student to perform at his or her best on his or her own. Students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds may also respond to questions differently and may have background knowledge and experiences that are different from those presumed by a test developer.

Planning the AssessmentIn planning assessments to be taken by the general student population, including ELLs, the general principles of good assessment practices apply. This section describes different steps within the planning process, highlighting issues most relevant to the assessment of ELLs.Test PurposeThe purpose of a test must be clear in order for valid interpretations to be made on the basis of the test scores. Tests have different purposes. For example, one test may be used to evaluate students’ readiness to advance to the next grade, while another evaluates students’ need for remediation. It is also important to outline the specific interpretations that will be made based on the scores. For example, tests used as a criterion for high school graduation will affect studentsdifferently than tests designed to inform instructional decisions.3Defining the ConstructA second criterion for validity is a precise and explicit definition of the construct the test is intended to measure. For K-12 assessments, state standards underlie the test specifications. Sometimes other state documents, such as curriculum frameworks, may clarify knowledge and skills stated in the standards. When defining a construct for an assessment to be given to ELLs, consider in particular how English language skills interact with the construct. For example, when defining the construct for a mathematics test, consider whether it is intended to be a test of mathematics, in which case the test should require no or absolutely minimal English proficiency, or a test of the ability to do mathematics within an English-language educational environment, in which case the ability to comprehend word problems in English may be part of the construct. Similarly, those who define the construct should pay attention to how much of the vocabulary of the discipline in English is to be viewed as part of the assessment.4 Defining English proficiency as part of a target constructs for an assessment in mathematics or science is neither right nor wrong. It is essential, however, that these definitions be explicit. Furthermore, even if English proficiency is part of the construct, take care to define what level of English proficiency should be expected of students. When defining the linguistic demands to be

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included in the construct, make an effort to include professionals with backgrounds in educating ELLs.

Developing the Assessment SpecificationsAssessment specifications define the test content and explain how that content will be assessed. Assessment specifications also provide a link between a state’s content standards and the items or tasks that appear in a particular test. ELLs will likely constitute a significant portion of the population of many K-12 tests; therefore, considering ELLs during the initial development of assessment specifications is utterly important. The following points relevant to ELLs should be addressed when writing K-12 assessment specifications. Domain of Knowledge and SkillsStates are likely to have documented content standards for the subject area to be assessed. States may also provide performance standards and other documents that define the domain and their expectations for student achievement. Test developers should review these documents carefully and note the degree to which each standard calls for the ability to read, write, speak, or listen in English. Share the results of this review with the educational agency and clarify the level of English proficiency that each standard implies. Educational agencies may not be aware of ambiguities in their content standards regarding this issue. Content standards are often developed by committees of experts focused primarily on the subject area. Defining expectations about the use of English, use of ELLs’ first languages, and use of visual representations is important both to ensure an efficient development process and to gain educational agencies’ confidence in the validity of an assessment. Many states define expectations for test questions in detail in item specifications, as distinct from assessment specifications. The item specifications contain detailed notes about acceptable vocabulary, content limits, and focus for each of the state standards assessed. Develop—and have the state approve—item specifications before the assessment program’s first content or bias and sensitivity reviews. Update details in the specifications when items are reviewed, with state approval. Number and Types of Items or Tasks In general, all other things being equal, tests with more items will supply more reliable scores. Reliability refers to the extent to which scores obtained on a specific form of an assessment can be generalized to scores obtained on other forms of the assessment, administered at other times, or possibly scored by some other rater(s). Thus, as is true for all students, it is desirable to provide ELLs with multiple opportunities to show what they know and can do.Some have posited that ELLs should have not only multiple opportunities, but also multiple ways to show what they know, and that assessment specifications should include a variety of item and response types that may lead to assessments on which ELLs are more likely to be able to show their strengths. For example, items with visuals, performance tasks, or oral responses are sometimes suggested as ways to allow ELLs to better demonstrate proficiency. However, in the literature base, there is no

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consistent agreement as to whether these varied item types are in fact beneficial. In addition, more items and more sets of directions may tax the reading ability of ELLs, as well as the rest of the examinee population. Lastly, educational agencies will always have limitations regarding time and costs and must decide what is realistic for a given testing program.Therefore, we suggest making an effort to present the best options for task types that allow ELLs to show what they know and can do within the practical limits of the assessment program. Item tryouts, discussed in a later section, may be a way of exploring the use of different item types with ELLs. Relative Weights of Tasks and SkillsThe weight of a task or content category is generally decided by the importance of the assessed task relative to the other tasks on the test and the degree to which the tasks tap content described in the state’s standards. For more information, refer to the documented decisions made during the process described under Domain of Knowledge and Skills to determine possible weightings. Often tasks that require more time to complete (and usually longer responses written in English) receive more weight in an assessment. Such weightings may disadvantage ELLs; therefore, develop a careful rationale for weighting to apply to all students’ responses, taking both content knowledge and language skills into account.

Assessment and Response FormsAssessment specifications describe how the tasks will be presented to the students and how the students are expected to respond. Printed test booklets and answer sheets on which students mark responses and write constructed responses are very common in the K-12 school environment. Just as including a variety of item types in an assessment provides multiple ways for ELLs to show their knowledge, some feel that incorporating different types of media (such as video or sound) in an assessment’s presentation format may also benefit ELLs. However, the research base is not yet well developed on this topic, so use caution in employing different types of media. In addition, using alternative media may unintentionally disadvantage other groups of students, including students with disabilities such as visual impairments. Alternative forms of responding, such as using diagrams or tables, may help some ELLs—as well as students with different learning styles—better demonstrate what they know. Just like students in the general population, ELLs vary greatly as individuals. Therefore, no one type of presentation or response is optimal for all ELLs. However, in general, keep in mind while developing assessment specifications that, depending on the content area being assessed, large amounts of text make it less likely that ELLs will understand what is being asked of them. Some testing programs also rely on tasks that require extended written responses to assess students’ depth of knowledge in the content areas. Where feasible, consider including tasks that allow examinees to respond in ways that do not require long responses written in English, such as by drawing a diagram or other visual representation, as appropriate. Also consider using item tryouts as a

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means of obtaining information on ELLs’ responses to and performance on different kinds of tasks.

Cultural Background and DiversityThe educational agency for which an assessment is developed should be able to provide information about the cultural backgrounds of its test-taking population, including ELLs. Content standards may also refer to exposure or knowledge about cultural or regional history or literature. If possible, test material (e.g., item and stimulus material) should include references to and contributions of major groups in the tested population (see the ETS Fairness Review Guidelines for further information on representing diversity in test material). Discuss with the educational agency the ways in which cultural diversity is represented in passages, context setting, and illustrations. Test specifications should describe the type of material in each test form, and item specifications should describe the appropriate material for each standard.

Developing Test Items and Scoring CriteriaMatching the Task to the PurposeThe first step in developing a test item should be to link, directly to the test specifications and content standards, the content and skill that the item is supposed to measure. If the items require a high level of English proficiency, unrelated to the construct as defined, this will likely affect the scores for ELLs as well as students in the general population. For content area assessments, only include items that require high degrees of English proficiency if they are consistent with the assessment specifications. Examples of items that require a high degree of English proficiency are those that ask examinees to identify or provide specific definitions or terminology in English that are unrelated to the construct, or items that are evaluated based on the quality of the language in a constructed response. Item writers and reviewers should work to ensure that all test items maintain specificity in their match to content guidelines. As part of the process of creating and reviewing test material to ensure that it is appropriate and accessible to examinees, it is important that item developers, state content review staff, and state review committees analyze each item critically to ensure that it only measures the intended construct.

Defining ExpectationsBecause ELLs—just like students in the general population—come from a wide variety of cultural and educational backgrounds, item writers should not assume that students have had any previous experience with given tasks. For example, students should be told explicitly what type of response is acceptable for a constructed-response question, whether it is a paragraph, complete sentence, list, diagram, mathematical equation, and so on. Likewise, the criteria for the evaluation of the response should be made clear to the student. As this may add a significant reading load to the directions,

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information about how responses will be scored may be especially helpful if students receive it prior to the test.

Writing Appropriate DirectionsDesign directions to maximize clarity and minimize the potential for confusion. Consider options for simplifying the language used for directions (see below). Also consider presenting the directions orally or in a language other than English if that will provide the best, most understandable instructions for ELL examinees (see Testing Accommodations).

Using Accessible LanguageUsing clear and accessible language is a key component of minimizing construct-irrelevant variance. However, do not simplify language that is part of the construct being assessed (e.g., the passages on a reading comprehension test or challenging vocabulary that is part of the construct of a subject area test). In other cases, though, the language of presentation should be as simple and clear as possible. Some general guidelines for using accessible language are provided below:• Use vocabulary that will be widely accessible to students. Avoid colloquial and idiomatic expressions, words with multiple meanings, and unduly challenging words that are not part of the construct.• Keep sentence structures as simple as possible to express the intended meaning. ForELLs, a number of simple sentences are often more accessible than a single more complex sentence.• Avoid use of negatives and constructions utilizing not in the questions’ stems and options as they can cause confusion, especially for ELLs.• When a fictional context is necessary (e.g., for a mathematics word problem), use a simple context that will be familiar to as wide a range of students as possible. A school based context will often be more accessible to ELLs than a home-based context. Ask reviewers to note any instances where an item can be simplified or clarified to make the language more accessible. However, do not change language that is part of the construct being measured.

PresentationFor all assessments, test developers should be aware of formatting issues. Fonts, font sizes, line breaks in paragraphs, and test directions should all receive a careful review. ELLs who already have reading ability in another language may have different levels of familiarity with texts that read from left-to-right, right-to-left, or top-to-bottom. Therefore, clearly and consistently placing elements such as pictures, page numbers, and other page elements can greatly improve readability for ELLs as well as other students.

Fairness and Sensitivity

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In order to maximize fairness and accessibility for all students, the ETS Standards for Quality and Fairness (and, as applicable, the ETS International Principles for Fairness Review of Assessments) require that test materials “minimize the effects of construct-irrelevant knowledge or skills” and “avoid material that is unnecessarily controversial, inflammatory, offensive, or upsetting.” In applying these guidelines, it is important to recognize that ELLs have had extremely diverse life experiences and may be unfamiliar with many U.S. cultural contexts. One way to increase accessibility for ELLs is to use school-based contexts for test items as often as is practical. For example, research has shown that mathematics word problems are more accessible for ELLs when set in a school context (e.g., counting things such as notebooks, desks, and erasers) than when set in a home context (e.g., counting the number of appliances in the home). Other neutral contexts and topics may be appropriate, as well; consider all available information about the test-taking population.

External Reviews of Test MaterialsReviews from diverse, informed points of view are an effective technique to improve the quality of assessments, including the degree to which assessments are accessible to ELLs. The insights external reviewers provide can help test developers understand how students are likely to interpret test materials and how members of different populations may respond to test items. Although it is expected that all test material will receive thorough internal reviews, external reviewers who are chosen for their knowledge of the ELL population and the specific challenges they face may be able to provide insights that complement and improve the work of the internal reviewers. This helps to ensure that the contexts selected for items and the language in which they are written are appropriate for ELLs. The educational agency developing the test almost always requires that the materials pass its own committee reviews. An agency may also seek recommendations regarding the types of professionals it should invite to review an assessment. If a test will be administered to ELLs, the review panels should include, in addition to content experts, professionals who are familiar with issues regarding different ELL populations, such as migrant, newly arrived, or reclassified students. In their reviews, the panels should also consider the variety of programs of English language instruction experienced by the students. The panels should, within the context of the state standards and the item specifications, evaluate each item for technical quality, alignment to standard, and accessibility to ELLs. The panels should also include in such reviews test specifications, directions, sample items, and scoring criteria.

External reviewers should address the following questions:• Does each task match the purpose of the assessment and the assessment specifications?• Are the directions for each task clear and appropriate?

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• Is the task presented in clear and accessible language, free from idioms and complex linguistic constructions?• Are the formats of both the assessment and the response materials appropriate?• Do the tasks and scoring criteria meet standards for fairness?Evaluating the Tasks through TryoutsTrying out or field-testing items can provide extremely useful information during the test development process. When conducting an item tryout, use a sample of examinees similar to those who will take an assessment once it is administered operationally (for official score-reporting purposes). This step is particularly important for items that will be used with ELLs.

Purposes of Item TryoutsThere may be several reasons to conduct item tryouts. Data may be collected in order to:• inform decisions about how appropriate the items are for a sample of examinees similar to the operational population,• inform content and fairness reviews of the items,• evaluate timing requirements for new or existing item types,• evaluate the clarity of instructions to examinees,• support the scaling or equating of test forms,• inform the standard setting process by providing performance data, which panelists will receive as feedback on cutscores, on different groups, and• assess whether ELLs of different proficiency levels can understand the text of the items.This is important when English language proficiency is not the construct of interest.

Types of Item TryoutsItem tryouts may take several different forms, ranging from one-on-one interviews with students, through small-scale pilot tests, to large-scale field tests. As with other activities described within these guidelines, it may not be possible to implement each of these types of item tryouts in a given testing program because of resource constraints. However, we describe them here so that readers can make informed decisions about when and whether each type may be useful.

One-on-One InterviewsOne-on-one interviews with students who have been administered the items can provide much useful information. These interviews can take the form of informal debriefings after students have completed the tasks, or more formal cognitive laboratory activities where students are interviewed either while they are answering the questions or afterward. Because individual interviews are time-consuming to conduct, it is usually not possible to involve large numbers of students. The information that such interviews yield can sometimes be idiosyncratic. However, the quality and type of information

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interviews provide can offset that concern. Interviews allow students to talk about the cognitive processes they employed when answering the item, whether anything confused them, and how they arrived at their answer. The interviewer can also ask students what they think the item is asking them to do or what they think the item is measuring. Qualitative summaries of this feedback can be very helpful for the item review process. This type of item tryout is particularly important for items that will be used with ELLs, since the interviewer can ask them directly about their understanding of and response to the items.For ELLs, interviews are extremely useful for identifying potential threats to the validity of tests that measure knowledge in content areas other than English language arts. To determine whether items require a high degree of English proficiency unrelated to the construct, it is important to assess ELLs’ understanding of the language of the items. While external reviewers with expertise in ELL issues can provide valuable insights, working directly with ELLs to gather their impressions of test materials can generate even more detailed and useful information.Since one-on-one interviews may be costly and time-consuming, it may not be possible to conduct them as part of an ongoing testing program. They may be most useful when trying out a new item type. Testing officials will need to decide whether the information they may gain from these interviews is worth the time and expense.

Small-Scale Pilot Tests Small-scale pilot tests may also provide useful information on how students respond to the items. In this data collection format, test developers administer the items to a larger sample of students than is used for one-on-one interviews, and, generally, one-on-one debriefing does not take place. Because these samples may not be fully representative of the test-taking population, the item statistics provide only a gross measure of whether students were able to answer the item correctly. Including a small-scale pilot with an oversampling of ELLs may prove very helpful during the item development process to discover issues specific to ELLs. Again, however, budgets and schedules may not allow for these types of pilot tests to take place. Such activities may be most appropriate when introducing a new item type.Large-Scale Field TestsIn large-scale field tests, test developers administer the items to a large, representative sample of students. Because of the size and nature of the sample, statistics based on these responses are generally accurate indicators of how students may perform on the items in an operational administration. If the tryout items are administered separately from the scored items, motivation may affect the accuracy of the results. When the tryout items are embedded among the scored items, students do not know which items count and which do not, so motivation is not a factor. Consequently, many states conduct embedded field testing and are

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increasingly moving toward placing the tryout items in random positions within each test form. Conducting a large-scale field test on a group in which ELLs are well-represented will allow for the evaluation of item difficulty and other item characteristics specific to ELLs.Guidelines for Item EvaluationThe type of tryout should be tied to the goals of the evaluation. To obtain information directly from students about their thought processes while answering the items, conduct one-on-one interviews. To obtain information directly from ELLs about their understanding of complex language in items measuring content areas other than English language arts, conduct one-on-one interviews. Evaluate the extent to which complex language generates comprehension difficulties for ELLs relevant to the construct being measured. If there appears to be unnecessary linguistic complexity, review the item and revise it as appropriate before the operational administration. Field tests it again if necessary (for example, in the case of pre-equated tests).To inform judgments about how items will work, conduct a small-scale pilot test—but remember that the data from such pilots usually does not come from a representative sample. To obtain reliable and valid statistics that can be used when selecting items for test forms or equating, conduct a large-scale field test.Try items out on a sample that is as similar as possible to the population that will take the operational administration. However, oversampling ELLs during pilot testing is recommended; such oversampling increases the likelihood of uncovering issues that may be specific to those students. Document the procedures used to select the sample(s) of examinees for item tryouts and the resulting characteristics of the sample(s). Try out all item types, including both selected-response, constructed-response, and hands-on tasks or activities. If constructed-response items are tried out, score them using scorers and procedures that are as similar as possible to those used for operational administrations (but consider possible security risks engendered by exposing prompts before the administration). Evaluate responses to constructed-response items according to the following criteria, per the ETS Guidelines forConstructed-Response and Other Performance Assessments:• Do the examinees understand what they are supposed to do?• Are the tasks appropriate for this group of examinees?• Do the tasks elicit the desired kinds of responses?• Can the responses be easily and reliably scored?• Can they be scored with the intended criteria and rating scale?• Are the scorers using the scoring system in the way it was intended to be used?To ensure accessibility for ELLs, it is also important to ensure that rubrics focus on the construct of interest and do not include construct-irrelevant variance by placing inappropriate emphasis on English language proficiency unrelated to the construct. For example, scoring rubrics should state clearly

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that, when English language proficiency is not defined as part of the construct, raters should ignore errors in English when scoring for content. For more information, see Scoring Constructed- Response Items.Limitations of Item TryoutsEven when field test samples and operational populations seem comparable, differences in demographics, curriculum, and culture may make comparisons difficult. Document any limitations of the representativeness of the field test sample. Such limitations are most likely to be present for oneon- one interviews and small pilot samples. Motivational level can also be a factor as field test participants are often not as highly motivated to do their best as are operational examinees. In sum, field testing is valuable for trying out new tasks and scoring criteria, but use the results of field testing with caution for higher-stakes decisions such as setting the standard for passing the assessment.Scoring Constructed-Response ItemsWhile issues related to scoring apply to the general population, scoring constructed responses written by ELLs may present a number of additional unique challenges. At first glance, constructed responses from ELLs may be confusing to read and may appear to be off-topic or unscorable. Many of these responses, however, can be scored—and can possibly receive high scores—if the scorer has been trained to identify and properly evaluate the multiple ways an examinee might approach an item. Two important ways in which ELLs’ constructed responses may differ from those of other students are differences due to language background and differences in the style of the response. Differences due to language background will vary among students, but some patterns are generally recognizable. ELLs may use spelling conventions or false cognates based on their knowledge of their first language. They may spell phonetically or mix words or word parts between English and another language. Other frequent markers of ELL responses may be missing articles, lack of noun/verb agreement, or incorrect use of prepositions. Scorers may also find that ELLs combine words that should not be combined. ELL responses may also be characterized by sentence patterns that reflect reasoning patterns used in the test taker’s native language. While it is appropriate to consider these types of errors in a test of English-language writing skills, raters should overlook them in tests of academic content knowledge. Again, define the construct as explicitly as possible so that raters can differentiate construct-relevant factors from construct-irrelevant ones. ELLs may also differ considerably from native English speakers in the style in which they present constructed responses. For example, ELLs that have learned long division in another country may show their work moving from the bottom of the page to the top or using other conventions for long division, unlike the common practice in the United States of writing out long division and remainders moving from the top of the page to the bottom. ELLs may also attempt to communicate their answers in alternate ways, such as by drawing diagrams and pictures. Of course, whether any of these responses or styles is acceptable depends on the test

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and the construct being measured. While an ELL’s lack of control of fundamentals such as sentence structure or word order may appear to indicate that he or she has responded to an item poorly or incorrectly, scorers should recognize that some aspects of an ELL’s response may only show unfamiliarity with English and not low proficiency in the construct. Including scorers and scoring leadership (such astable leaders) who are familiar with the teaching and learning of ELLs in the process of scoring can help scorers who come across unfamiliar or confusing responses from ELLs. We are not suggesting that responses that appear to have been written by ELLs be routed to scorers familiar with ELL issues, since that may introduce bias into the scoring process. Similarly, we are not necessarily recommending that response issues common to ELLs be identified as such, since that could also potentially bias scorers. Instead, we recommend describing these issues in more general terms to all scorers as reflective of all students who lack mastery in English language writing conventions.The ETS Guidelines for Constructed-Response and Other Performance Assessments outline general steps that should be taken in the scoring process: creation of rubrics, recruiting scorers, training scorers, and confirming consistent and accurate scoring. Each of these steps has specific application to scorers who will evaluate ELLs’ responses, as discussed below.Creation of RubricsFor content area assessments, the scoring leadership should examine constructed-response items and determine whether they require specific English-language terms or constructions in order to receive a high score. For example, if the test specifications require examinees to be able to define key terms in English and use them in a response, then a certain level of English proficiency is, in fact, part of the construct. If, however, the test specifications require that the student be able to describe or represent things such as a scientific process or mathematical function, then specific terms and usage in English may not be required to receive a high score. After determining the extent to which specific English language skills are required for answering an item, write rubrics so that raters can interpret responses in a linguistically sensitive way. That is, the rubrics should make clear the role that English language skills should play in determining a score. (It may be helpful to have educators who are familiar with the performance of ELLs involved in the creation and review of rubrics). Generally, write rubrics for content area tests so as to focus on content rather than on language use—but carefully evaluate the construct to determine if, for example, writing an essay in English to provide evidence about a historical event would in fact require a certain degree of language skills. For assessments of English writing skills, the rubric should consider command of language (vocabulary, grammar, mechanics, etc.) but also make clear the role of critical thinking as distinct from fluency in English-language writing conventions. While this is not an easy distinction to make, it is an important consideration. Rubrics should be clear about how raters should score

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responses written partially or entirely in a language other than English. That determination should also be made clear to students in information distributed about the test beforehand.

Recruiting ScorersThe proper scoring of ELLs’ responses includes an understanding of the language or presentation style examinees use. Knowledge of second language acquisition, ELL teaching background, or other aspects of cultural background may help raters to appropriately evaluate some responses ELLs produce. Including in the group of scorers (and scoring leadership, such as table leaders) people who are familiar with aspects of responses that have characteristics of students learning English as a second language can help to ensure more accurate scoring for ELLs. These scorers could serve as resources when ELL-related issues arise. To reiterate, we are not suggesting that responses that appear to have been written by ELLs be routed to those scorers, since that may introduce bias into the scoring process.Training ScorersScorer training should include a review of how to interpret responses and the scoring rubric in a linguistically sensitive way. Training should make clear the extent to which particular responses must contain key terms or other specific language in English in order to be considered for the top scores.Assessment developers and chief readers/table leaders should pick out exemplar responses, at various score points, that evince some or all of the ELL characteristics noted above, including some that are presented in atypical formats. These exemplars, in tandem with the rubrics, should be used in training raters. Through these exemplars (and the explanations that go along with them) raters can be trained to recognize ELL characteristics and to score ELL responses fairly without introducing bias.Scorers-in-training should receive an explanation of the extent to which the examinee’s level of English proficiency affected the scoring. Low levels of English proficiency can affect the scores of many students, not just ELLs. As with all scoring, instructions should tell scorers how to handle responses written entirely in languages other than English.Confirming Consistent and Accurate ScoringUsing training papers that reflect characteristics of ELLs’ responses can help scorers become familiar with the rubric and how it applies to a range of responses. All aspects of scorer training— both before scoring begins and while it is ongoing—should include responses by ELLs (if they can be identified) as part of the training materials. Recalibrating scorers at the beginning of each scoring session should confirm scorers’ abilities to resume accurate scoring. Including ELLs’ responses as calibration papers (given at the start of a scoring session) and as monitor papers (embedded among other student responses while scoring is underway) is an effective means of confirming scorers’ use and interpretation of a rubric at any point in time. The scoring leadership should confirm the validity of all sample student responses used in training. It is beneficial to include among the scoring

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leaders professionals who are knowledgeable about English language learning.

Testing Accommodations for English Language LearnersPurpose of Testing Accommodations for English Language LearnersThe main purpose of providing examinees with testing accommodations is to promote equity and validity in assessment. For ELLs, the primary goal of testing accommodations is to ensure that they have the same opportunity as students who have English as their first language to demonstrate their knowledge or skills in a content area. Reducing or eliminating construct-irrelevant variance from the testing situation increases the likelihood that score users will be able to make the same valid interpretations of ELLs’ scores as they make for other examinees. In general, the main sources of construct-irrelevant variance on content area assessments for ELLs are the effects of English language proficiency in answering test items. Unless language proficiency is part of the construct being measured, it should not play a major role in whether an examinee can answer a test item correctly. Accommodations refer to changes to testing procedures, which researchers have traditionally considered to include presentation of test materials, students’ responses to test items, scheduling, and test setting. As a general principle, testing accommodations are intended to benefit examinees that require them while having little to no impact on the performance of students who do not need them. At present, the research basis regarding which accommodations are effective for ELLs under what conditions is quite limited. Relative to research on students with disabilities, research on accommodations for ELLs has a much shorter history, with the results from studies often seeming to contradict each other. Some state policies distinguish between testing accommodations (changes in the assessment environment or process that do not fundamentally alter what the assessment measures) and testing modifications (changes in the assessment environment or process that may fundamentally alter what the assessment measures) and refer to both as testing variations. In these guidelines, the term testing accommodation refers to changes that do not fundamentally alter the construct being assessed.

Identifying Students Eligible for AccommodationsPolicies for identifying ELLs who may be eligible for testing accommodations continue to evolve. At present, there are no uniform guidelines or policies at the federal level regarding the use of accommodations for ELLs. For students with disabilities, eligibility for accommodations is part of a student’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP); however, ELLs do not have any corresponding documentation. Across states and local school districts, both the eligibility requirements as well as the specific accommodations available to ELLs vary widely. In fact, some policies are not transparent with respect to how eligibility for accommodations is determined or who is making the decisions for

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ELLs. As a general principle, if an ELL’s English language proficiency is below a level where an assessment administered in English would be considered a valid measure of his or her content knowledge, then that student may be eligible for one or more testing accommodations. Typically, ELLs who regularly use accommodations in the classroom are usually eligible to use the same accommodations in testing situations. However, some accommodations that may be appropriate for instruction are not appropriate for assessment. For example, some ELLs routinely have text read aloud to them as part of instruction. But if decoding or reading fluency is being assessed as part of reading comprehension, this would not be an appropriate accommodation because it would change the nature of the assessment from one of reading comprehension to one of listening comprehension. Further, an accommodation such as the use of a native language glossary of terms that could be appropriate for certain subjects such as mathematics or science would not be appropriate for English language arts, because the use of a glossary would change what is being assessed and would provide an unfair advantage to those who have access to it.Identifying AccommodationsTesting accommodations for ELLs can be broadly grouped into two categories: Direct linguistic support accommodations (which involve adjustments to the language of the test) and indirect linguistic support accommodations (which involve adjustments to the conditions under which a test is administered). To be ELL-responsive, an accommodation should provide some type of linguistic support in accessing the content being tested. To date, the limited number of research studies on accommodations for ELLs indicates that direct accommodations appear to benefit student performance more than indirect accommodations.Examples of direct linguistic support accommodations include providing a translated or adapted version of the test in the student’s native language or providing test directions orally in the student’s native language. The use of translated tests is a complex issue because questions can arise as to whether the original and translated versions are measuring the same construct in the same manner.Translated versions of items may or may not have the same meaning as in their original versions.Therefore, some educational agencies have created transadapted versions of tests, which are translated versions of tests that have been culturally adapted for the examinees. Furthermore, the use of translated tests may only be of limited benefit to examinees, particularly if the language of instruction and the language of the test are not the same. Furthermore, unless a test can be translated into all of the native languages spoken by the students in a school district or state, questions of equity may arise specific accommodations available to ELLs vary widely. In fact, some policies are not transparent with respect to how eligibility for accommodations is determined or who is making the decisions for ELLs. As a general principle, if an ELL’s English language proficiency is below a level where an assessment

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administered in English would be considered a valid measure of his or her content knowledge, then that student may be eligible for one or more testing accommodations. Typically, ELLs who regularly use accommodations in the classroom are usually eligible to use the same accommodations in testing situations. However, some accommodations that may be appropriate for instruction are not appropriate for assessment. For example, some ELLs routinely have text read aloud to them as part of instruction. But if decoding or reading fluency is being assessed as part of reading comprehension, this would not be an appropriate accommodation because it would change the nature of the assessment from one of reading comprehension to one of listening comprehension. Further, an accommodation such as the use of a native language glossary of terms that could be appropriate for certain subjects such as mathematics or science would not be appropriate for English language arts, because the use of a glossary would change what is being assessed and would provide an unfair advantage to those who have access to it..Using Statistics to Evaluate the Assessment and ScoringMultiple sources of empirical evidence should be gathered to evaluate the fairness of assessments and scoring.7 The ETS Standards for Quality and Fairness state that, whenever possible and appropriate(i.e., if sample sizes are sufficient), testing programs should report analyses for different racial/ethnic groups and by gender, and that testing programs should use experience or research to identify any other population groups to be included in such evaluations for fairness. Therefore, we recommend that in K-12 assessments, testing programs should, where possible, report disaggregated statistics for native English speakers, ELLs, and former ELLs, so that the distributions of scores for these groups can be evaluated. Programs should also review differences in scores across testing variations (types of accommodations and test modifications). Whenever appropriate, programs should report analyses for test variations commonly employed with ELLs. These include:• language of assessment, translated versions of the test or dual language booklets (e.g., English vs. Spanish),• linguistically modified (or plain English) versions of tests, and• extended time, reading aloud instructions, and use of bilingual glossary.Differential ImpactFor each studied group (or test variation, if appropriate), the following statistical information can provide evidence regarding the validity of an assessment for different examinee groups:• Performance of studied groups. Provide statistics about the performance of studied groups on the whole test, subtests, and items. Group differences in the distribution of scores and item and test statistics are worthy of investigation in order to determine the underlying causes of these differences. For the test and, if appropriate, for subtests, compute score distributions and summary statistics—means, standard deviations, selected

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percentiles (the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th)—and percentages of students in each achievement level. • Differential item functioning (DIF). Report DIF statistics, if sample size allows, using ELLs as the focal group and non-ELLs as the reference group. If sample sizes allow, DIF results could also be reported using former ELLs as the focal group. Examine test items that are flagged as exhibiting DIF against one or more examinee groups in order to identify the possible causes, which can be useful in making decisions about possibly removing items from scoring.• Differential predictive validity. Report statistical relationships among reported scores on tests and subtests and criterion variables (such as scores on other tests given in later years) for ELLs and non-ELLs. Gather information about differences in prediction as reflected in regression equations, or differences in validity evidence for studied groups. Evidence of differential predictive validity indicates that the test functioned differently for different examinee groups and suggests that further investigations into the construct validity of the test for all groups may be warranted.

ReliabilityTo investigate whether scores are sufficiently reliable to support their intended interpretations, the following statistics for each of the examinee groups are particularly informative:• If sample size permits, provide the following for reported scores, subscores, and cut scores (if available): Reliability estimates (accounting for a variety of sources of measurement error), information functions, index of classification consistency (consistency of the pass/fail decisions based on cutscores), standard error of measurement (for raw and scaled scores), and conditional standard errors of measurement around cut scores.• When comparing test reliability across studied groups, evaluate differences in group dispersion (for example, ELLs may be more homogeneous than non-ELLs). If reliability coefficients are adjusted for restriction of range, provide both adjusted and unadjusted coefficients.• For scoring constructed responses, follow the ETS Guidelines for Constructed Response and Other Performance Assessments (i.e., estimate inter-rater reliability for individual items). Since ELLs’ writing skills in English are in most cases lower than those of English-proficient students, evaluate whether there are interactions between rater scoring and ELL membership.ValidityThe ETS Standards for Quality and Fairness recommend gathering evidence about whether a test is measuring the same construct(s) across different subpopulations. These standards also indicate that, if the use of an assessment leads to unintended consequences for a studied group, the testing program should review validity evidence to determine whether the consequences arose from invalid sources of variance—and, if they did, revise the assessment to reduce, to the extent possible, the inappropriate sources of variance.

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For ELLs as well as non-ELLs, some methods for investigating validity include:• Analyses of internal test structure. Report statistical relationships among parts of the assessment (e.g., intercorrelations among subtests, item test correlations, dimensionality and factor structure).• Relations to other variables/constructs. Report statistical relationships among reported scores on the total test and subtests and with external variables.• Test speededness. Because of ELLs’ lower reading fluency, test time limits may affect their performance disproportionately relative to non-ELLs. For timed tests, evaluate the extent to which there are differential effects of test speededness on ELLs. Report the number of items not reached and omitted for each examinee group.

Literature Assessment

Assessment ObjectivesIf students choose to study and test for English literature, they must show excellent competency in both English language skills and English literature. Assessment objectives include speaking and listening appraisals, such as clear and thoughtful communication, discussion and audience communiqué skills; reading evaluation, including insight and engagement, critical thinking and understanding of linguistic and structural presentations; writing assessment, including communication, organization and structure skills; and evaluation for the ability to "relate texts to their social, cultural and historical contexts and literary traditions," according to More Learning.

Alternative Assessment for Literature

Performance-based projects demonstrate learning

Go beyond one-dimensional paper-and-pencil tests. Ready to use and easy to implement, Alternative Assessment offers performance-based projects for students to demonstrate their understanding of contemporary and classic literature titles. Students can write a ballad, define a dialect, draw a map, and more.

Benefits

Over 30 engaging and meaningful short- and long-term projects provide choices for students.

The variety of activities appeals to different learning styles—linguistic, visual, kinesthetic, and more.

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Reproducible rubric charts allow students to become involved in the assessment.

Additional teacher support includes—book synopsis—questions for before, during, and after reading—suggestions for developing your own standards and criteria—suggestions for adapting projects to various learning styles and modalities

Assessment Objectives are two scary words, and to make matters worse, when your teacher gives you a bit of paper that "explains" them, it may make no sense. I can remember it well.

Here’s a helping hand to get you on your way to achieving the grades you want.

AO1. Speaking and Listening / EN1

To gain AO1 marks you must show that you have clear and imaginative ideas that are well organised. Getting involved in your lessons won’t hurt – start putting across your ideas in class. Even if you’re not sure, asking questions that help you will also contribute to the lesson, and that will get you better marks. Write and speak using the English Language correctly and fluently, but be imaginative with it. Inject nice words. If you don’t know many, try to find out new some new ones and use them in your essays and when you talk in class. A good way to do this is to read, and you can read anything you like to help you learn new words.

Teachers want to see how comfortable you are speaking in front of your classmates, and in front of them. You can get good marks for displaying your communication skills. Try not to get nervous. After all, they are just your classmates, and they are probably nervous too. Show them what you can do.

AO2. Reading / EN2

To get AO2 marks, you have to read your books. Teachers want you to understand the themes at play, process other people’s critical opinions and draw your own conclusions. Be enthusiastic. When you are asked to read aloud, do it slowly and clearly. Enjoy it as much as you can and try and make it enjoyable for those listening too.

Your teacher will want to see if you can tell what is fact. You need to be able to explain the difference between a fact and somebody’s opinion. They will

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also want you to comment on how information is presented – is it presented fairly? Is it a piece of propaganda? They want you to investigate how writing has been used in the past, and how it functions in the world today.

You will get good AO2 marks for being able to follow an argument, and comment on how consistent it is. They want you to explain if it contradicts itself in any way. You will get further marks for drawing opinions on what the writing did – what were the implications? How did people react?

If you talk about your books in class, ask questions and draw your own conclusions, you can get solid AO1 and AO2 marks. If you want to get great marks, you need to cross-reference between the different texts you have studied, and even better, with books you’ve read on your own outside of your classes. This shows that you are well informed and able to understand the greater themes that find their way into all literature.

When you make quotes, you need to make sure that they are relevant. The more relevant they are to your argument, the better marks you will get. You will also need to explain how writers use more than just language to get their message across. How do they use presentation and structure to enhance their work as well? You can get extra marks for showing you understand that the language people use is different, and different for many reasons. Explain how it can vary, and why.

AO3. Writing / EN3

You get your AO3 marks for showing how well you can write, structure and present your work. Be clear and concise and try not to get sidetracked when you’re making a point. If you are responding to a question, then answer it.

It might be time to use a bit of imagination in your writing and try to inject some flair. Don’t get carried away, but after thinking about presentation, spelling and punctuation, put some of your personality in what you write.

When you present your work, you need to think about the audience it is designed for. Showing your teacher that you can write for different readers is essential to AO3 assessment, and you can get even more marks for showing you can adapt your writing for different purposes. There are many forms of writing, and you’ll have to show you can tackle a range of them.

You will have to make sure your essays and paragraphs are well formed and structured, and that they are easy to read. Think about how you lay your work out on the page. Could it be presented in a more engaging way? Is it easy to read?

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Don’t be sloppy with your language; be inventive with it. Be accurate with your punctuation and firm and to the point when discussing your opinions. Make sure you spell everything correctly. Simple things can go a long way.

AO4. Wider contextual understanding

To get the best marks you’ll need to show that you understand the context of a piece of writing. You must show that you understand that any piece of writing naturally reacts to the point in history that it existed in – AO4 is concerned with social, cultural and historical contexts.

Your teacher will want you to demonstrate that you understand how literature from two separate cultures is different. However, they will also want you to explain similarities as well, so you’ll have to read closely and examine the language to do this.

How does a text written four hundred years ago differ from another text produced today?

Explaining how writing reacts to its wider context is a key assessment objective. You will also need to provide a sound understanding about literary traditions. Writing is a process that has been heavily influenced by a vast array of external factors, but you will have to explain how literary conventions, as well as contexts, have always shaped literature.

Can being a certain nationality change a person’s writing? How about a person’s culture? What social background were they from? Does this change their work?

Examining the wider context of a piece of writing will indicate that you take an interest in your English Literature and English Language studies. The markers will like that.

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LANGUAGE RESEARCH

There has been a prominent shift within the field of language learning and teaching over the last twenty years with greater emphasis being put on learners and learning rather than on teachers and teaching. In parallel to this new shift of interest, how learners process new information and what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information has been the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning. This paper provides the background of language learning strategies, gives various definitions and taxonomies of language learning strategies presented by several researchers. It also stresses the importance of language learning strategies for foreign language learning and the teacher's role in strategy training. In the last section, the paper exhibits some questions for further research on language learning strategies.

Background of Language Learning Strategies

Research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Particularly, developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on language learning strategies (Wiliams and Burden 1997:149). In most of the research on language learning strategies, the primary concern has been on "identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or foreign language." (Rubin and Wenden 1987:19). In 1966, Aaron Carton published his study entitled The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the first attempt on learner strategies.After

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Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focussing on the strategies of successful learners and stated that, once identified, such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) classified strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and O'Malley (1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others studied strategies used by language learners during the process of foreign language learning.

Definition of a Language Learning Strategy

The term language learning strategy has been defined by many researchers. Wenden and Rubin (1987:19) define learning strategies as "... any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information." Richards and Platt (1992:209) state that learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information." Faerch Claus and Casper (1983:67) stress that a learning strategy is "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." According to Stern (1992:261), "the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques." All language learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing new information and performing tasks in the language classroom. Since language classroom is like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face new input and difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to find the quickest or easiest way to do what is required, that is, using language learning strategies is inescapable.Language learning strategies language learners use during the act of processing the new information and performing tasks have been identified and described by researchers. In the following section, how various researchers have categorized language learning strategies will be shortly summarized:Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies have been classified by many scholars (Wenden and Rubin 1987; O'Malley et al. 1985; Oxford 1990; Stern 1992; Ellis 1994, etc. ). However, most of these attempts to classify language learning strategies reflect more or less the same categorizations of language learning strategies without any radical changes. In what follows, Rubin's (1987), Oxford's (1990), O'Malley's (1985), and Stern's (1992) taxonomies of language learning strategies will be handled:

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Rubin's (1987) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Rubin, who pionered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These are:

Learning Strategies Communication Strategies Social Strategies

Learning Strategies

They are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learner:

Cognitive Learning Strategies Metacognitive Learning Strategies

Cognitive Learning Strategies

They refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified 6 main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning:

Clarification / Verification Guessing / Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring

Metacognitive Learning Strategies

These strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve various processes as planning, prioritising, setting goals, and self-management.

Communication Strategies

They are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended. Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their

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communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker.

Social Strategies

Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practise their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to the target language, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language (Rubin and Wenden 1987:23-27).

Oxford's (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Oxford (1990:9) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of communicative competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into 6 groups. In Oxford's system, metacognitive strategies help learners to regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned with the learner's emotional requirements such as confidence, while social strategies lead to increased interaction with the target language. Cognitive strategies are the mental strategies learners use to make sense of their learning, memory strategies are those used for storage of information, and compensation strategies help learners to overcome knowledge gaps to continue the communication. Oxford's (1990:17) taxonomy of language learning strategies is shown in the following :

DIRECT STRATEGIES I. Memory

A. Creating mental linkages B. Applying images and sounds C. Reviewing well D. Employing action

II.Cognitive A. Practising B. Receiving and sending messages strategies C. Analysing and reasoning D. Creating structure for input and output

III. Compensation strategies A. Guessing intelligently B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing

INDIRECT STRATEGIES I. Metacognitive Strategies   

A. Centering your learning B. Arranging and planning your learning C. Evaluating your learning

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II. Affective Strategies    A. Lowering your anxiety B. Encouraging yourself C. Taking your emotional temperature

III. Social Strategies    A. Asking questions B. Cooperating with others C. Emphathising with others

It can be seen that much of the recent work in this area has been underpinned by a broad concept of language learning strategies that goes beyond cognitive processes to include social and communicative strategies.

O'Malley's (1985) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

O'Malley et al. (1985:582-584) divide language learning strategies into three main subcategories:

Metacognitive Strategies Cognitive Strategies Socioaffective Strategies

Metacognitive Strategies

It can be stated that metacognitive is a term to express executive function, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. Among the main metacognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation.

Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among the most important cognitive strategies.

Socioaffective Strategies

As to the socioaffective strategies, it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main socioaffective strategies (Brown 1987:93-94).

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Stern's (1992) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesAccording to Stern (1992:262-266), there are five main language learning strategies. These are as follows:

Management and Planning Strategies Cognitive Strategies Communicative - Experiential Strategies Interpersonal Strategies Affective Strategies

Management and Planning Strategies

These strategies are related with the learner's intention to direct his own learning. A learner can take charge of the development of his own programme when he is helped by a teacher whose role is that of an adviser and resource person. That is to say that the learner must:

decide what commitment to make to language learning set himself reasonable goals decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate

resources, and monitor progress, evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined

goals and expectations ( Stern 1992:263).

Cognitive Strategies

They are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. In the following, some of the cognitive strategies are exhibited:

Clarification / Verification Guessing / Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring

Communicative - Experiential Strategies

Communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking for repetition and explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a conversation going. The purpose of using these techniques is to avoid interrupting the flow of communication (Stern 1992:265).Interpersonal StrategiesThey should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance. Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate

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with them. Learners must become acquainted with the target culture (Stern 1992: 265-266).

Affective Strategies

It is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies. Language learning can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, the feeling of strangeness can be evoked by the foreign language. In some other cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about native speakers of L2. Good language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and its speakers as well as towards the learning activities involved. Learning training can help students to face up to the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern 1992:266).

Importance of Language Learning Strategies in Language Learning and Teaching

Since the amount of information to be processed by language learners is high in language classroom, learners use different language learning strategies in performing the tasks and processing the new input they face. Language learning strategies are good indicators of how learners approach tasks or problems encountered during the process of language learning. In other words, language learning strategies, while nonobservable or unconsciously used in some cases, give language teachers valuable clues about how their students assess the situation, plan, select appropriate skills so as to understand, learn, or remember new input presented in the language classroom. According to Fedderholdt (1997:1), the language learner capable of using a wide variety of language learning strategies appropriately can improve his language skills in a better way. Metacognitive strategies improve organization of learning time, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. Cognitive strategies include using previous knowledge to help solve new problems. Socioaffective strategies include asking native speakers to correct their pronunciation, or asking a classmate to work together on a particular language problem. Developing skills in three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective can help the language learner build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning. Lessard-Clouston (1997:3) states that language learning strategies contribute to the development of the communicative competence of the students. Being a broad concept, language learning strategies are used to refer to all strategies foreign language learners use in learning the target language and communication strategies are one type of language learning strategies. It follows from this that language teachers aiming at developing the communicative competence of the students and language learning should be familiar with language learning strategies. As Oxford (1990:1)

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states, language learning strategies "... are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence." Besides developing the communicative competence of the students, teachers who train students to use language learning strategies can help them become better language learners. Helping students understand good language learning strategies and training them to develop and use such good language learning strategies can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston 1997:3). Research into the good language learning strategies revealed a number of positive strategies so that such strategies could also be used by bad language learners trying to become more successful in language learning. However, there is always the possibility that bad language learners can also use the same good language learning strategies while becoming unsuccessful owing to some other reasons. At this point, it should be strongly stressed that using the same good language learning strategies does not guarantee that bad learners will also become successful in language learning since other factors may also play role in success.

The Teacher's Role in Strategy Training

The language teacher aiming at training his students in using language learning strategies should learn about the students, their interests, motivations, and learning styles. The teacher can learn what language learning strategies students already appear to be using, observing their behavior in class. Do they ask for clarification, verification or correction? Do they cooperate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient foreign language users? Besides observing their behavior in class, the teacher can prepare a short questionnaire so that students can fill in at the beginning of a course to describe themselves and their language learning. Thus, the teacher can learn the purpose of their learning a language, their favorite / least favorite kinds of class activities, and the reason why they learn a language. The teacher can have adequate knowledge about the students, their goals, motivations, language learning strategies, and their understanding of the course to be taught (Lessard-Clouston 1997:5). It is a fact that each learner within the same classroom may have different learning styles and varied awareness of the use of strategies. The teacher cannot attribute importance to only one group and support the analytical approach or only give input by using the auditory mode. The language teacher should, therefore, provide a wide range of learning strategies in order to meet the needs and expectations of his students possessing different learning styles, motivations, strategy preferences, etc. Therefore, it can be stated that the most important teacher

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role in foreign language teaching is the provision of a range of tasks to match varied learning styles (Hall 1997:4).               

In addition to the students, the language teacher should also analyze his textbook to see whether the textbook already includes language learning strategies or language learning strategies training. The language teacher should look for new texts or other teaching materials if language learning strategies are not already included within his materials.The language teacher should also study his own teaching method and overall classroom style. Analyzing his lesson plans, the language teacher can determine whether his lesson plans give learners chance to use a variety of learning styles and strategies or not. The teacher can see whether his teaching allows learners to approach the task at hand in different ways or not. The language teacher can also be aware of whether his strategy training is implicit, explicit, or both. It should be emphasized that questioning himself about what he plans to do before each lesson and evaluating his lesson plan after the lesson in terms of strategy training, the teacher can become better prepared to focus on language learning strategies and strategy training during the process of his teaching (Lessard-Clouston 1997:5).

Conclusion

Language learning strategies, being specific actions, behaviors, tactics, or techniques, facilitate the learning of the target language by the language learner. All language learners, needless to say, use language learning strategies in the learning process. Since the factors like age, gender, personality, motivation, self-concept, life-experience, learning style, excitement, anxiety, etc. affect the way in which language learners learn the target language, it is not reasonable to support the idea that all language learners use the same good language learning strategies or should be trained in using and developing the same strategies to become successful learners. As Lessard-Clouston (1997:8) mentions, studies to be done on language learning strategies and strategy training should move beyond descriptive taxonomies of language learning strategies and attempt to seek for answers to a wide range of questions, such as: What types of language learning strategies appear to work best with what learners in which contexts? Does language learning strategies or language learning strategies training transfer easily between L2 and FL contexts? What is the role of language proficiency in language learning strategies use and training? How long does it take to train specific learners in certain language learning strategies? How can one best assess and measure success in language learning strategies use or training? Are certain language learning strategies learned more easily in classroom and non-classroom contexts? What language learning strategies should be taught at different proficiency levels? It can be expected that answers to the above mentioned and many other questions from research in a variety of settings will pave the way for building the theory that seems

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necessary for more language learning strategies work to be relevant to current L2 / FL teaching practice.  TEACHING AND LEARNING LITERATURE

Related to the models of teaching literature is the teaching approach. There are four types of teaching approaches suggested:

literary-core approach, thematic approach, holistic approach language-based approach.

The teachers have to bear in their minds that each approach has its own target or aim.

The literature as content approach (literary-core approach) Used traditionally and covers the history and characteristics of literary movement, social, political, historical background to a text, the literary genres, rhetorical devices and others. Unlike in other approaches, the learners acquire English by focusing on the course rather than the language itself. Eagleton (1983) writes, “One of our aims …should be to teach our students to read literature using the appropriate literary strategies” The learners also read set texts and literary criticism to help them. Translation is also allowed for their benefit in their discussion of the texts. Eagleton states, “Students may have already acquired this kind of literary competence in their own language, in which case we simply need to help them to transfer these skills.”

Literature for personal approach

Encourages the learners’ active involvement, emotionally and intellectually, in learning English. G. Lazar (1991) points out that they are incited to draw their own experiences, feelings and opinions. This approach is also known as the thematic approach due to the use of themes in teaching literature. Texts are chosen according to the same theme and them compared by the learners.

This is a way of teaching and learning, whereby many areas of the curriculum are connected together and integrated within a theme. It allows learning to be more natural and less fragmented than the way where a school day is time divided into different subject areas and practice exercises frequently relate to nothing other than what the teacher thinks up, as he or

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she writes them on the chalk board. It allows literacy to grow progressively, with vocabulary linked and with spelling and sentence writing being frequently, yet smoothly, reinforced. It guides connected ideas to follow on easily. It is, after all, how we, as adults, learn new things. Don't we start at a point of interest and branch out from it like ripples from a stone thrown in the water?

Holistic approach

Integrates all the approaches mentioned before. It uses the critical analysis, themes and the learners’ responses. Texts are treated cognitively and affectively. This approach focuses on the correct and apposite point of entry into text which will them motivate the learners.

The language-based approach

Used to help incorporate the language and literature syllabus by studying the language. This helps the learners to interpret significantly and improves their use of English. Lazar claims that the learners are encouraged to draw their knowledge of familiar grammatically, lexical or discoursal categories to make their anesthetic judgements. Despite covering a range of different goals and procedures, this approach concerns with the process reading and standard EFL procedures are used for opening up the literary text thus releasing its meanings. In other words, literary texts are used to teach language. A. Maley and Duff (1990) insist, “ The primary aim of our apporach is quite simply to use literary texts as a resource ( and it will not be the only resource) for stimulating language activities.”

A language-based approach is quite a broad approach which covers a range of different goals and procedures. Generally speaking, this approach focuses on a closer integration of language and literature in the classroom, since this will help the students in achieving their main aim which is to improve their knowledge of, and proficiency in, English.Techniques and procedures

A language based approach to using literature includes techniques and procedures which are concerned more directly with the study of the literary text itself. The aim is to provide the students with the tools they need to interpret a text and to make competent critical judgements of it. Stylistics analysis is one of them. Stylistics involves the close study of the linguistic features of a text in order to arrive at an understanding of how the meanings of the text are transmitted.

Two factors are proposed the focus on the study or reading literature itself and the use of literature for language practice. The former aims to provide

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the learners with the tools to interpret a text in order to make competent critical judgments and help the learners to develop, explore and express their perceptions using their communication skills. The latter aims at improving the learners’ proficiency in English by using certain language-based study skills as preliminary activities to studying literature as expressed by Brumfit and Carter (1986). Brumfit (1985) claims that, “ The process of reading is a process of meaning creation by integrating one’s own needs, understanding and expectations with a written text.” However, Lazar argues that in this approach, literature is viewed with a small “l” as the texts used vary from lterary to non-literary. By using literature, the learners are exposed to humanity and its values, belief and customs and taught to appreciate the language used in the literary texts. Which ever approach a teacher may use, literature helps the learners to develop their confidence in the language and stimulate them to enjoy reading. As literature offers wide range of materials, teaching literature can be interesting and the teacher need not stick to one particular approach.

Theories of Language Development

The Learning Perspective 

The Learning perspective argues that children imitate what they see and hear,and that children learn from punishment and reinforcement.(Shaffer,Wood,& Willoughby,2002).

The main theorist associated with the learning perspective is B.F. Skinner. Skinner argued that adults shape the speech of children by  reinforcing the babbling of infants that sound most like words. (Skinner,1957,as cited in Shaffer,et.al,2002).  

  The Nativist Perspective

The nativist perspective argues that humans are biologically programmed to  gain knowledge.The main theorist associated with this perspective is Noam Chomsky.

Chomsky proposed that all humans have a language acqusition device (LAD). The LAD contains knowledge of grammatical rules common to all languages (Shaffer,et.al,2002).The LAD also allows children to understand the rules of whatever language they  are  listening to.Chomsky also developed the concepts of transformational grammar,

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surface structure,and deep structure.

Transformational grammar is grammar that transforms a sentence. Surface structures are  words that are actually written. Deep structure is the underlying message or meaning of a sentence. (Matlin,2005).   

Interactionist Theory    

Interactionists argue that  language development  is both biological and social. Interactionists argue that language learning is influenced by the desire of children to communicate with others.

The Interactionists argue that "children are born with a powerful brain that matures slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings that they are motivated to share with others" ( Bates,1993;Tomasello,1995, as cited in shaffer,et al.,2002,p.362).

The main theorist associated with interactionist theory is Lev Vygotsky.Interactionists focus on Vygotsky's model of collaborative learning ( Shaffer,et al.,2002). Collaborative learning is the idea that conversations with older people  can help children both cognitively and linguistically ( Shaffer,et.al,2002).

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right.

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Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children

 

Areas of study

Psycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and linguistics. There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up language.

Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds and how they are represented linguistically. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.

Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).

Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form sentences.

Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.

Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.

The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed text.

Theories

Theories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "sentences." The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—

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is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication). Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that follows.

There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal grammar." This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the brain. This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non-humans. (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my friend .") The ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce recursion, says the "innate" view. Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of speakers. Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.

The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist, Rudolf Carnap. As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language—syntax included— is behavior shaped by conditioned response. The second point of view—the "innate" one— can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal Language [1]. That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in psychology.

The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal communication. That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at all. Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have been useful for syntax. In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology,

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these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax. (Also see "exaptation".) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, speculation.

The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human interaction. From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for survival. Language—syntax and all—is a cultural artifact. This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be learned.

Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff, Steven Pinker, and Michael Tomasello.

Methodologies

Much methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task (e.g. make a judgement, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud). Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance.

Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; e.g., "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so on. Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive sentences. More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia).

Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by

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such drastic surgery. Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research.

Newer, non-invasive neuroimaging techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI); event related potentials (ERP) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy). Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in psycholinguistics.

Computational modelling is another methodology. It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs. Such programs are useful because they motivate theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable (e.g. the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[2].

More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner (1978) [3] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Tanenhaus et al.[4], have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken language. Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic input.

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING STUDENTS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Communication Disorders involve a wide variety of problems in speech, language, and hearing. For example, speech and language disorders include stuttering, aphasia, dysfluency, voice disorders (hoarseness, breathiness, or sudden breaks in loudness or pitch), cleft lip and/or palate, articulation problems, delays in speech and language, autism, and phonological disorders.

Speech and language impairments and disorders can be attributed to environmental factors, of which the most commonly known are High Risk Register problems, which include drugs taken during pregnancy, common STD's such as syphilis, and birthing trauma to name a few. Communication disorders can also stem from other conditions such as learning disabilities, dyslexia, cerebral palsy, and mental retardation.

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Individuals with communication disorderto the student with a disability as you would any other student.

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.

Students with communication disorders should be encouraged to discuss their functional difficulties and needs in private during the first week of classes and to talk about ways to compensate.

When it appears that a student needs help, ask if you can help. Accept a "No Thank You" graciously.

Encourage classmates to accept the student with communicative problems.

Be a good speech model. This will indicate to all that good communication is desirable.

An atmosphere conductive to easy and good interactive communication should be established and maintained in the classroom.

Consult a Speech Language expert concerning each child with a communicative disorder in your class and work with him/her throughout the class.

Keep up-to-date on the student's accomplishments in therapy.

Give students with speech impairments opportunity to speak in class.

Give them time to express themselves, do not interrupt or try to fill in gaps for them.

Speak to them naturally.

Teacher Presentation Maintain contact with student. Allow students to tape lectures.

Provide and interpreter (signed English or American Sign Language) to those who require another form of communication.

Encourage and assist in facilitation of participation in activities and discussions.

Be patient.

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Be a good listener.

Laboratory

1. Allow more time for the student to complete activities. 2. Place the student within reasonable distance from the instructor to

meet their needs.

3. Anticipate areas of difficulty in access and involve the student in doing the same. Together, work out alternate procedures while trying not to disengage the student from the activity.

4. For students who cannot use the computer because of other physical limitations in their hands or arms, explore avenues for obtaining adaptive access software, (including Unicorn keyboards), special switches, Power Pads, eye controlled input systems, touch screens, footmice, and other special equipment.

5. If appropriate, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided.

6. Use a peer-buddy system when appropriate.

7. Lastly, consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.

Group Interaction and Discussion

Encourage classmates to accept the student with communicative problems.

An atmosphere conductive to easy and good interactive communication should be established and maintained in the classroom.

Encourage and assist in the facilitation of participation in activities and discussions.

Allow more time for the student to complete activities.

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Research

Review and explain to the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the specific functional limitations of the student and jointly devise accommodations for that student.

Use appropriate lab and field strategies according to the nature of the research.

Allow more time for the student to complete activities.

With the student, work out alternate procedures which do not disengage the student from the activity.

Anticipate areas of difficulty in access and involve the student with a communication disability in doing the same. Together, work out alternate procedures while trying to disengage the student from the activity.

If appropriate, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided.

Field Experiences

Discuss with the student any needs, problems or alternatives he/she anticipates in the field learning environment.

Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.

Make special advance arrangements with curators during passive visiting field trips.

When information gathering involves a physical action that the impaired student cannot perform, try a different experience yielding the same information.

In the field, provide assistance, but also provide positive reinforcement when the student shows the ability to do something unaided.

Testing

Allow more time for the student with communication impairments to complete tests in their optimal mode of communication.

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Design tests that are appropriate for the student's disorder (written, drawn, or oral.)

Writers could be provided for test taking if the individual requires such assistance.

Check to be sure that test instructions are completely understood by the child and provide any additional assistance that may be needed

New methods to study language learning.

For over 30 years, my lab has been working to probe the process of language learning. Along the way we developed two methods to probe children’s language comprehension as children’s understanding of language often precedes their ability to talk. Both methods “trick” babies into showing us what they know by relying on what they look at (their visual fixation) as their response. One method we developed in the late 1980’s (e.g., Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, Cauley, & Gordon, 1987; Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 1996; Hollich, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 1998), the Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm (IPLP), is in use in laboratories around the world and relies on the video presentation of simultaneous events. Children see, for example, a boat on one side of the screen and a shoe on the other, while they hear audio that matches only one of these images (as in, “Where’s the shoe?”). We measure whether children look longer at the shoe or at the boat.  If they understand the item in question (here, “shoe”), they should look longer to the shoe than the boat. Another method uses the basic premise and response of the IPLP but in “real time,” with a real person and real objects (the Interactive IPLP). We have used this method to study word learning in children as young as 10 months of age (Hollich, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2000; Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2006).

Theory development: The Emergentist Coalition Model (ECM

). Our focus has been mainly on grammatical development (how children learn the syntax of their language), lexical development (how children learn their language’s vocabulary), and segmentation (how children carve up the stream of speech they hear into words). We have developed a theory called the “Emergentist Coalition Model” (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 1996; Hollich et al., 2000) that is a truly developmental model of how language learning changes in character over the first two years of life. Using this theory as our

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guide, we produced a monograph on how children learn nouns, or names for objects (Hollich et al., 2000). To become a sophisticated word learner, children must learn to take a speaker’s point of view into consideration to learn the names of all kinds of things in the environment – even things that children don’t necessarily find interesting or attractive (Pruden, Hennon, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2006). There are some assumptions though, that children seem to make at the beginning of word learning that they will have to relax. For example, at 12 months of age, children assume that words map to whole objects (e.g., Hollich, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, in press) and not to their attractive parts.

How do children learn verbs?

We have also made significant inroads into understanding how children learn verbs – a more difficult task than learning nouns (see Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 2006). Verbs are the architectural centerpiece of the sentence so learning verbs is tantamount to learning the grammar of one’s language. When we started our research on verbs, we were surprised at how hard they were for children to learn. Now however, we recognize a number of the factors that contribute to verb learning (e.g., Maguire, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2006; Brandone, Pence, Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, 2007). Our theoretical perspective and some of the research conducted in our labs were presented in our keynote address before the Boston Child Language Meeting in November, 2006 (Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2007; Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, in press).

Research on segmentation.

Even before babies can learn the syntax or grammar of their language, they need to find the units that comprise their language in the stream of speech they hear. This is the problem of segmentation. Remember how difficult it is to listen to people talking in a foreign language? Where do the words and sentences begin and end? Yet babies who can’t even tie their shoes can find the units in their native language by the end of the first year of life! With Heather Bortfeld and James Morgan, we discovered that one of the “wedges” babies use to break into the language stream is their own name! When they hear their name in a passage, they can remember the word that comes after it. This also works for “mommy” or “momma” – whatever moniker their mother uses to refer to herself (Bortfeld, Morgan, Golinkoff, & Rathbun, 2005).

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Babies’ perception of language-relevant aspects of events.

In another line of research, we probe the concepts that underlie language (e.g., Pulverman, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2006; Parish, Pruden, Hirsh-Pasek, Ma, & Golinkoff, in press). For example, if the languages of the world refer to how an action is performed in their verbs (e.g., running versus walking), and the path along which the action takes place (e.g., in a circle versus up and down), babies need to be able to perceive these elements in events. To ask whether and when babies can formulate dynamic language-relevant concepts that will surface in language in verbs and prepositions, we present babies with nonlinguistic events and use visual fixation once again as a “trick” to get babies to show us what they know. We have found that babies can discriminate between different kinds of actions and paths in events (e.g., Pulverman & Golinkoff, 2004) as well as form concepts of the actions and paths (e.g., Pruden, 2006; Song et al., 2007). Now with funding by NIH and NSF we continue to ask how babies perceive the events that language will label and how they can even find the events in the never-ending happenings in the world around them.

Implications of the Emergentist Coalition Model for language disorder.

As the ECM is a model that emphasizes the availability of multiple cues to word learning, its tenets have implications for understanding and possibly remediating various types of language disorders. For example, we have used our Emergentist Coalition Model to guide us in research on how children on the autistic spectrum learn words (Parish, Hennon, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, & Tager-Flusberg, in press). Autistic children who are more sensitive to what a speaker is naming have larger vocabularies than autistic children who have difficulty inferring a speaker’s intent. These findings tell us that children can learn words without being attuned to a speaker’s intent – a problem for many autistic children. These children can learn words by using perceptual cues, such as learning the names for objects they find attractive. Our plan is to further expand the utility of the ECM for language disorder as it suggests that there may be multiple paths to the same goal.

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Campus Journalism

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7079

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION OF CAMPUS JOURNALISM AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

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Section 1. Title. — This Act shall be known and referred to as the "Campus Journalism Act of 1991."

.chan robles virtual law librarychan robles virtual law library

Sec. 2. Declaration of Policy. — It is the declared policy of the State to uphold and protect the freedom of the press even at the campus level and to promote the development and growth of campus journalism as a means of strengthening ethical values, encouraging critical and creative thinking, and developing moral character and personal discipline of the Filipino youth.In furtherance of this policy, the State shall undertake various programs and projects aimed at improving the journalistic skills of students concerned and promoting responsible and free journalisms

Sec.  3. Definition of Terms. — 

(a) School. — An institution for learning in the elementary, secondary or tertiary level comprised of the studentry, administration, faculty and non-faculty personnel;.(b) Student Publication. — The issue of any printed material that is independently published by, and which meets the needs and interests of, the studentry;

(c) Student Journalist. — Any bona fide student enrolled for the current semester or term, who was passed or met the qualification and standards of the editorial board.He must likewise maintain a satisfactory academic standing. (d) Editorial Board. — In the tertiary level, the editorial board shall be composed of student journalists who have qualified in placement examinations.In the case of elementary and high school levels, the editorial board shall be composed of a duly appointed faculty adviser, the editor who qualified and a representative of the Parents-Teachers' Association, who will determine the editorial policies to be implemented by the editor and staff members of the student publication concerned.

At the tertiary level, the editorial board may include a publication adviser at the option of its members.

(e) Editorial Policies. — A set of guidelines by which a student publication is operated and managed, taking into account pertinent laws as well as the school administration's policies.Said guidelines shall determine the

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frequency of the publication, the manner of selecting articles and features and other similar matters.Sec.  4. Student Publication. — A student publication is published by the student body through an editorial board and publication staff composed of students selected but fair and competitive examinations.

Once the publication is established, its editorial board shall freely determine its editorial policies and manage the publication's funds.

Sec. 5. Funding of Student Publication. — Funding for the student publication may include the savings of the respective school's appropriations, student subscriptions, donations, and other sources of funds.In no instance shall the Department of Education, Culture and Sports or the school administration concerned withhold he release of funds sourced from the savings of the appropriations of the respective schools and other sources intended for the student publication. Subscription fees collected by the school administration shall be released automatically to the student publication concerned.

Sec.  6. Publication Adviser. — The publication adviser shall be selected by the school administration from a list of recommendees submitted by the publication staff.The function of the adviser shall be limited to one of technical guidance.

Sec.  7. Security of Tenure. — A member of the publication staff must maintain his or her status as student in order to retain membership in the publication staff.A student shall not be expelled or suspended solely on the basis of articles he or she has written, or on the basis of the performance of his or her duties in the student publication.

Sec.  8. Press Conferences and Training Seminar. — The Department of Education, Culture and Sports shall sponsor periodic competitions, press conferences and training seminars in which student-editors/writers and teacher-adviser of student publications in the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels shall participate. Such competitions, conferences and seminars shall be held at the institutional, divisional, and regional levels, culminating with the holding of the annual national elementary, secondary or tertiary School Press Conferences in places of historical and/or cultural interest in the country.

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Sec.  9. Rules and Regulations. — The Department of Education, Culture and Sports, in coordination with the officers of the national elementary, secondary or tertiary organizations or official advisers of student publications, together with student journalists at the tertiary level and existing organizations of student journalists, shall promulgate the rules and regulations necessary for the effective implementation of this Act.

Sec.  10. Tax Exemption. — Pursuant to paragraph 4, Section 4, Article XIV of the Constitution, all grants, endowments, donations, or contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for the promotion of campus journalism as provided for in this Act shall be exempt from donor's or gift tax.

Sec.  11. Appropriations. — For the initial year of implementation, the sum of Five million pesos (P5,000,000.00) is hereby authorized to be charged against the savings from the current appropriations of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Thereafter, such amount as may be necessary shall be included in the General Appropriations Act.

Sec.  12. Effectivity. — This Act shall take effect after fifteen (15) days following the completion of its publication in the Official Gazette or in at least two (2) newspapers of general circulation.

Approved: July 5, 1991

WRITING AN EDITORIAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING

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An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made up of editors and business managers. It is usually unsigned. Much in the same manner of a lawyer, editorial writers build on an argument and try to persuade readers to think the same way they do. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to take action on an issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinionated news story.

Editorials have:

1. Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories 2. An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues 3. A timely news angle 4. Opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the writer addresses 5. The opinions of the writer delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials engage issues, not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty tactics of persuasion. 6. Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. Anyone can gripe about a problem, but a good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making the situation better by using constructive criticism and giving solutions. 7. A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion. Give it some punch.

Four Types of Editorials Will:

1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the newspaper covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may explain new school rules or a particular student-body effort like a food drive. 2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations while providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get readers to see the problem, not the solution. 3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the problem. From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific, positive action. Political endorsements are good examples of editorials of persuasion. 4. Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done well. They are not as common as the other three.

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Writing an Editorial

1. Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest readers. 2. Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research3. State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement4. Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is important.5. Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts 6. Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details, figures, quotations. Pick apart the other side's logic.7. Concede a point of the opposition — they must have some good points you can acknowledge that would make you look rational. 8. Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds.9. Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge. Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction.10. Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis statement).11. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I"

A Sample Structure

I. Lead with an Objective Explanation of the Issue/ Controversy.Include the five W's and the H. (Members of Congress, in effort to reduce the budget, are looking to cut funding from public television. Hearings were held …)

Pull in facts and quotations from the sources which are relevant. Additional research may be necessary.II. Present Your Opposition First. As the writer you disagree with these viewpoints. Identify the people (specifically who oppose you. (Republicans feel that these cuts are necessary; other cable stations can pick them; only the rich watch public television.)

Use facts and quotations to state objectively their opinions. Give a strong position of the opposition. You gain nothing in refuting a

weak position.

III. Directly Refute The Opposition's Beliefs.

You can begin your article with transition. (Republicans believe public

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television is a "sandbox for the rich." However, statistics show most people who watch public television make less than $40,000 per year.)

Pull in other facts and quotations from people who support your position. Concede a valid point of the opposition which will make you appear

rational, one who has considered all the options (fiscal times are tough, and we can cut some of the funding for the arts; however …).

IV. Give Other, Original Reasons/Analogies

In defense of your position, give reasons from strong to strongest order. (Taking money away from public television is robbing children of their education …)

Use a literary or cultural allusion that lends to your credibility and perceived intelligence (We should render unto Caesar that which belongs to him …)

V. Conclude With Some Punch.

Give solutions to the problem or challenge the reader to be informed. (Congress should look to where real wastes exist — perhaps in defense and entitlements — to find ways to save money. Digging into public television's pocket hurts us all.)

A quotation can be effective, especially if from a respected source

A rhetorical question can be an effective concluder as well (If the government doesn't defend the interests of children, who will?)

Go to the library or any computer lab and complete the “webquest” located at

 

http://library.thinkquest.org/50084/index.shtml

http://library.thinkquest.org/50084/editorials/index.html

 

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Writing a Feature Story

A feature story is an essay written by a journalist or news reporter on varied subjects of human interest. It can be a profile of someone or about some event. It can also be about your pet, favorite food or dresses and so on. When writing a good feature story, it require certain basic and special skills to make it appealing and generally persuasive. Here's how to write a feature story.

Preparation

1.Read or watch different kinds of features and stories. Reading and observing can help you understand the nuances of presenting your ideas clearly and concisely.

2.Study the language, ideas, presentation and the wrap-up patterns of various feature stories.

3.Think clearly. Be sure about the purpose of writing the feature story. It can be for dissemination of information, appreciation and instructional. Learn how to distinguish one from the other

4.Visualize the reaction of your reader. Reflect if you can draw the attention of the reader by your presentation.

5.Prepare a framework. A proper introduction, flow of words, relevant quotations and/or anecdotes can go a long way.

6.Identify the sources and collect all the relevant information. If you can, take surveys. You can request people to fill in questionnaires or take interviews, sift through them and retain whatever is necessary.

7.Discuss the feature story with friends and colleagues and get their feedback. They can provide valuable insights by looking objectively at your writing.

8.Introspect and accept reasonably good opinions or ideas.

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9.The more features stories you create, the better you will become.

Developing the Feature Story

1.Come up with a catchy short headline. It should communicate the essence of your story and build the curiosity of targeted readers.

2.Follow a systematic path of presenting the feature story with an introduction, main body and the ending highlighting the purpose that you have already thought about. Weave a proper and continual thread to keep the reader glued to your writing.

3.Write an impressive introduction. It can be contain a thought-provoking question or an idea. Use an exclamation point or quotation marks wherever needed.

4.Give a human touch to the feature story as deemed fit to make it more interesting. The plot should build up tension and not be boring.

5.Insert facts or apparent facts depending on whether your feature story is based on real-life events or is fictitious.

6.Use striking illustrations and anecdotes relevant to the topic.

7.Conclude with a powerful message. Good wrap-up is a crucial aspect of any powerful feature story. Otherwise, it will fail to make the desired impact.

8.Evaluate it as neutral reader as it can help improve the overall presentation of the feature story. Get a second opinion from your friends or colleagues and encourage constructive criticism of your write-up.

Writing a News Story

1. What can I write about? What is news?

On the surface, defining news is a simple task. News is an account of what is happening around us. It may involve current events, new initiatives or ongoing projects or issues. But a newspaper does not only print news of the day. It also prints background analysis, opinions, and human interest stories.

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Choosing what's news can be harder.

The reporter chooses stories from the flood of information and events happening in the world and in their community. Stories are normally selected because of their importance, emotion, impact, timeliness and interest. Note: all these factors do NOT have to coincide in each and every story!

2. Identify what kind of a story it is

Hard news (+/- 600 words): This is how journalists refer to news of the day. It is a chronicle of current events/incidents and is the most common news style on the front page of your typical newspaper.

It starts with a summary lead. What happened? Where? When? To/by whom? Why? (The journalist's 5 W's). It must be kept brief and simple, because the purpose of the rest of the story will be to elaborate on this lead.

Keep the writing clean and uncluttered. Most important, give the readers the information they need. If the federal government announced a new major youth initiative yesterday, that's today's hard news.

Soft news (+/-600 words): This is a term for all the news that isn't time-sensitive. Soft news includes profiles of people, programs or organizations. As we discussed earlier, the "lead" is more literary. Most of YPP's news content is soft news.

Feature (+/-1500 words): A news feature takes one step back from the headlines. It explores an issue. News features are less time-sensitive than hard news but no less newsworthy. They can be an effective way to write about complex issues too large for the terse style of a hard news item. Street kids are a perfect example. The stories of their individual lives are full of complexities which can be reflected in a longer piece.

Features are journalism's shopping center. They're full of interesting people, ideas, color, lights, action and energy. Storytelling at its height! A good feature is about the people in your community and their struggles, victories and defeats. A feature takes a certain angle (i.e. Black youth returning to church) and explores it by interviewing the people involved and drawing conclusions from that information. The writer takes an important issue of the day and explains it to the reader through comments from people involved in the story.

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Hint: Remember to "balance" your story. Present the opinions of people on both sides of an issue and let the readers make their own decision on who to believe. No personal opinions are allowed. The quotes from the people you interview make up the story. You are the narrator.

Editorial: The editorial expresses an opinion. The editorial page of the newspaper lets the writer comment on issues in the news. All editorials are personal but the topics must still be relevant to the reader.

Young People's Press publishes two types of editorials:

Youthbeat (+/- 700 words): Youthbeat's are YPP's editorial bread and butter. It's your story, from your point of view. Tell it like it is. Youthbeats usually (but not always) combine personal experience(s) with opinion/analysis. Essentially, you establish your credibility by speaking from experience.

My Word! (+/-600 words): An opinion piece. Short, sweet and to the point. Not as likely to be a personal narrative. Christmas "spirit" bugs you? Say why. Had an encounter with a cop that left you sour? Same deal. Be strong. If you don't like something, don't beat around the bush. This is a space for you to rant and roll with as much emotive power as possible.

3. Structure for your article

The structure of a news story (hard & soft news & features) is simple: a lead and the body.

The leadOne of the most important elements of news writing is the opening paragraph or two of the story. Journalists refer to this as the "lead," and its function is to summarize the story and/or to draw the reader in (depending on whether it is a "hard" or "soft" news story - See below for the difference between these two genres of news stories).

In a hard news story, the lead should be a full summary of what is to follow. It should incorporate as many of the 5 "W's" of journalism (who, what, where, when and why) as possible. (e.g. "Homeless youth marched down Yonge St. in downtown Toronto Wednesday afternoon demanding the municipal government provide emergency shelter during the winter months." - Can you identify the 5 W's in this lead?)

In a soft news story, the lead should present the subject of the story by allusion. This type of opening is somewhat literary. Like a novelist,

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the role of the writer is to grab the attention of the reader. (e.g. "Until four years ago, Jason W. slept in alleyways...") Once the reader is drawn in, the 5 "W's" should be incorporated into the body of the story, but not necessarily at the very top.

The bodyThe body of the story involves combining the opinions of the people you interview, some factual data, and a narrative which helps the story flow. A word of caution, however. In this style of writing, you are not allowed to "editorialize" (state your own opinion) in any way.

REMEMBER

The role of a reporter is to find out what people are thinking of an issue and to report the opinions of different stakeholders of an issue. These comments make up the bulk of the story. The narrative helps to weave the comments into a coherent whole. Hint: Stick to one particular theme throughout the story. You can put in different details but they all have to relate to the original idea of the piece. (e.g. If your story is about black youth and their relationship with the police you DO NOT want to go into details about the life of any one particular youth).

As a reporter, you are the eyes and ears for the readers. You should try to provide some visual details to bring the story to life (this is difficult if you have conducted only phone interviews, which is why face-to-face is best). You should also try to get a feel for the story. Having a feel means getting some understanding of the emotional background of the piece and the people involved in it. Try to get a sense of the characters involved and why they feel the way they do.

Okay, got it? Let's look at two examples as a way of summarizing the essentials:

Youth are banding together to start an organization. You want to show why are they doing that and the changes are they trying to make in the world. You want to say who they are and the strategies they are using.

An artist is having her first show. Why? What is it that she believes about her art? Is her artistic process rational or from the soul? What does the work look like?

4. Further tips for news writing

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Finding story ideas

Keep your eyes and ears open; listen to what your friends are talking about.

Read everything you can get your hands on; get story ideas from other newspapers and magazines.

Think of a youth angle to a current news story. Research a subject that interests you ask yourself what you would like

to know more about. Talk to people in a specific field to find out what is important to them.

NEWSGATHERING

Begin collecting articles on your subject. Talk to friends and associates about the subject. Contact any agencies or associations with interest or professional

knowledge in the area. Create a list of people you want to interview; cover both sides of the story

by interviewing people on both sides of the issue. Collect government statistics and reports on the subject get old press

releases or reports to use as background.

INTERVIEWING DO’S AND DONT’S

Be polite. Explain the ground rules of the interview to people unfamiliar with how

the media works - this means that you tell them the information they give you can and will be published. If they do not want any part of what they say published, they need to tell you it is "off the record."

Tape the interview (so if anyone comes back at you, you have the proof of what was said).

Build a relationship with the person being interviewed. Start with easy questions; end with difficult questions. Read the body language of the person you're interviewing and if they

get defensive, back away from the question you are asking and return later.

Don't attack the source. Keep control of the interview; don't let the subject ramble or stray from

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the subject. On the other hand, don't let your "opinion" of what the story should be

colour the interview. Always remember that the person you are talking with knows more about the subject than you do.

Organizing the information Gather your notes, interviews and research into a file. Review your notes. Look for a common theme. Search your notes for good quotes or interesting facts. Develop a focus. Write the focus of the article down in two or three sentences.

WRITING AND EDITING

Remember you are the narrator, the story teller. Don't be afraid to rewrite. Be as clear and concise in the writing as possible. Avoid run-on sentences. Be direct. Tell a good story. Tell the reader what you think they want to know. Always ask yourself what the story is about. Read the story out loud; listen carefully.

THE SPORTS NEWS

The sports page has the greatest appeal to a large number of students readers. Part of the thrill of high school life is rivalry between schools and between intramural teams. Because of this keen interest, school papers devote more space to sports than to any other single area of activity.

MANAGING THE SPORTS NEWS

1. Have just the proper play of sports. The adult reader must not get the impression that athletic contests are the only activities in school.

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2. Contribute to good sportsmanship. Neither the alibi nor the boast has a place on the page.

3. Encourage feature treatment to give known facts reader interest. (School Papers come out later than the dailies.)

4. Have a variety of material besides the sports story. Include interviews, features, a column, items about graduates who are involved in athletics in college or larger groups.

5. Play up advance news.6. Use cartoons, illustrations, photographs.7. If it is important, pull a sport page and play it up on the front page.8. While playing up the major sportslike basketball, football, softball,

don’t overlook minor sports stories, such as tennis, bowling, ping-pong, badminton, boxing, and wrestling.

SRUCTURE OF A SPORT STORY

1. The lead may be summarized or analyzed; it may give the significance, the winner, the hero, the score. The score is usually played up in the first sentence or set in bold above the story proper.

2. The body plays up other elements not in the lead and gives details of those already mentioned.a. Key play and outstanding performer.b. Quotations from players, trainers, coachesc. Play-by-play account (seldom found in the school paper for lack

of space)d. Personalitiese. Background on playersf. Importance of the event g. Summaries of results and statistics (these may be compiled for

the future reference)

QUALITIES OF A GOOD SPORTS WRITER

1. Sportsmanship2. Ability to report accurately a fast contest.3. A style of writing that includes familiarity with sports terms.4. A basic knowledge of sports rules and regulations.5. A specialized use of summary and feature leads.

GATHERING INFORMATION

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1. before the game

2. during the game

3. after the game

WRITING THE SPORTS STORY

1. be accurate2. avoid clichés3. include human interest4. keep your sense of humor5. exercise discipline6. follow the inverted pyramid order—the big facts first, the lesser next7. write the headlines along with the story8. write the story immediately after the event.

COPYREADING

Every piece of copy has to pass through the copy reader (copy editor) before it is sent to the press. Copyreading may be done by the page editor or his assistant.

DUTIES OF THE COPYREADER

A. CHECK CONTENT

1.Check facts.

2.Delete irrelevant or improper material.

3.Improve news value.

4.Expand or reduce copy.

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5.Guard against criticism on ethics and good taste.

6.Write or check headlines.

7.Correct instances of “editorializing.”

B. CHECK THE FORM

1. Correct errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, usage, organization.

2. Make copy simple and clear.

3. Make copy conform to the paper’s style book.

4. Polish and improve the style of writing.

C. MARK COPY FOR THE PRINTER

1. Indicate corrections by using accepted symbols. Do not erase original2. Don’t write vertically in the margin.3. Re-type copy when the marks are too congested and difficult to follow.4. If necessary, cut and paste re-organized copy on a new sheet of copy

paper.5. Indicate column width, size, kind of type.6. Write heads.

GUIDELINES TO BECOMING A GOOD COPY READER

A. be accurateB. be a master of detailC. have a broad knowledgeD. be able to write correctly and effectivelyE. distinguish sound inference from editorializing.F. Recognize effective writingG. Have a creative imagination. Be able to see a good story even in a

poorly-written one.H. Be a super-reporter.

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I. Be neat and clean in marking copy. Write legiblyJ. Consult referencesK. Be careful and patient.

LAYOUT

A newspaper must not only have fresh , interesting material; it has “to sell”. It must make a good first impression through the “packaging” of its content. This packaging or arrangement of types and photos on a page is called layout. Layout aims to attract the readers and lead them to read the contents. it also gives the paper a distinct personality. Some regularity of arrangement makes the different contents easy to find.

TYPES OF LAYOUT

The balanced make-up a.contrast and balance

b. brace

1. right brace

2. left brace

circus make-up

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Translation and Editing of Text

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text

by means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas interpreting

undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance

of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of

Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second

millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-

language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other

hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-

language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages.

Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into

which they have translated.

Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial

Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties

have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional

associations.

Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have

sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid

the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of

the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and

has facilitated language localization.

Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back

into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient

Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation)

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and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by

English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described

translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when

selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," orequivalents, for the

expressions used in the source language:

When [words] appear . . . literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author’s words: ’tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense. Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: “When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."

This general formulation of the central concept of translation

— equivalence — is as adequate as any that has been proposed

since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome, famously and

literally cautioned against translating "word for word" (verbum pro verbo).

Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has

hardly changed since antiquity.Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the

earlyChristian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods

(especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have

generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where

possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other

crucial "values" (e.g., style,verse form, concordance

with musical accompaniment or, in films, with

speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.

Lexicographer and literary critic: Samuel Johnson

In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by

reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order —

when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The

grammatical differences between "fixed-word-

order" languages [11]  (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-

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order" languages  (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no

impediment in this regard.

Religious translator: Martin Luther

When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source

language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the

target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange

of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation

from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable"

among the modern European languages. Generally, the greater the

contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or

between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio

of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among

them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a

common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current

meaning in one or the other language. For example, the

English actual should not be confused with

the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the

Polish aktualny ("present", "current"), or the

Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical").

The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between

cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE

Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by

no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to

that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel

creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that

"Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the

translator with amusician or actor goes back at least to Samuel

Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet,

while Homer himself used a bassoon.

Axiom: Johann Gottfried Herder

If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger

Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know

both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and

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finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation

and translators altogether.

Polish author and translator:Ignacy Krasicki

The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with

being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only

toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried

Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates

only toward his own language.

Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that

no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in

translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the

Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a

more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The

same point, but also including listening to the spoken   language , had

earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry

Andrzej Kopczyński.

The translator’s special role in society is described in a posthumous

1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the Roman Catholic Primate of

Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and

translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki:

“ [T]ranslation . . . is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country.

Although many writers and even some instructors use the terms

interchangeably, you may find it helpful to see editing and revising as

two different activities. For our purposes, editing means going through a

piece of writing and making comments and suggestions about how it

could be better--or even whether it's appropriate at all. Revising, on the

other hand, occurs when a writer attempts to make the changes

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suggested during the editing process.For example, an editor might

suggest that you tweak your introduction to make it better fit the rest of

the paper. The actual process of changing the introduction is called

revising and comes with own set of difficulties. We talk more about that

process in the Revising chapter.

You may be called upon to edit other student's writing. This process is

often called Peer Reviewing and is given a separate chapter in this book.

If you're concerned about how to diplomatically edit someone's work

without being offensive, be sure to read it carefully.

You can (and should) also edit your own work. This simply means going

back over what you've written and finding ways to improve it. Most

writers frequently switch between drafting new sentences and

paragraphs and editing ones they've already written.

In this chapter, we go over some basic editing strategies and some

specific things to look for during the editing process.

As previously mentioned, revision concerns large sections of text, while

editing concerns individual sentences. Below is a list of potential errors

to consider while editing.

Fragments

Run-on sentences

Dangling or misplaced modifiers

Adjective and adverb use

Verb usage and tense

Subject/verb agreement

Pronoun/antecedent agreement

Sentence balance

Comma Use

Spelling

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Word choice (connotation vs. denotation)

Format/presentation

Sentence Structure

Use active verbs.

Be-verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, has/have been) indicate condition

and often require an extra sentence or clause to be sound.Active

verbs allow you to compose sharply without numbing the rhythm of

your writing. Read your writing with an objective eye and think: “How

can I make every sentence and paragraph straightforward and simple?”

Below are examples in italics of wordy and confusing verbiage. Below

the italics are the same sentences that have been simplified.

''The sharp rise in fuel prices is a serious challenge to trucking firms. It

makes it hard for them to provide timely service to customers and to

meet payroll expenses.

Sharply rising fuel prices challenge trucking firms by causing delays in

customer service and payroll.

Primary causes of the rise in fuel prices are an issue of confusion for

many citizens. They don’t know how to fight the rise because they don’t

know its cause.

Primary causes of rising fuel prices elude many citizens, making them

unaware of how to fight the increase.Name the people. Directly state who or what group is acting in your sentences. Note the contrast in power and clarity among the sentences below

Without people: A citywide ban on indoor smoking in Duluth originally

caused a marked drop in bar patronage.

With people: When the Duluth City Council passed a citywide ban on

indoor smoking, many people stopped going to bars.Eliminate wordy phrases. Certain stock phrases are weak and wordy. They can make you sound stuffy or as though you’re just trying to fill up space. Use these replacements

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Because, Since, Why: the reason for, for the reason that, owing/due to

the fact that, in light of the fact that, considering the fact that, on the

grounds that, this is why

When: on the occasion of, in a situation in which, under circumstances

in which

About, Regarding: as regards, in reference to, with regard to,

concerning the matter of, where ABC is concerned

Must, Should: it is crucial that, it is necessary that, there is a

need/necessity for, it is important that, it cannot be avoided that

Can: is able to, has the opportunity to, has the capacity for, has the

ability to

May, Might, Could: it is possible that, there is a chance that, it could

happen that, the possibility exists for

Luckily, Internet users can find numerous web sites about how to

eliminate wordiness.

Use Parallelism in sentences. Parallelism sounds difficult but is easy to write or edit. Parallelism uses the same pattern in words and structure to show equal importance or provide balance in sentences

John likes reading, his studies, and talking.

Corrected: John likes reading, studying, and talking.

We were asked to calculate scores, record them, and putting them on

the bulletin board.

Corrected: We were asked to calculate scores, record them, and post

them on the bulletin board.

The science class had to dissect frogs or were experimenting with

gases.

Corrected: The science class had to dissect frogs or experiment with

gases.

To check for parallelism, first circle or highlight every and or or to check

for balance in the sentence. List the phrases from your sentence on a

separate piece of paper. Example:reading, his studies, and

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talking. Make corrections to your list to create

balance: reading, studying, and talking.

Once you fix a few sentences, problems with parallelism become easier

to recognize and to correct!

Editing Tips

Editing is like going over your writing with a fine-toothed comb, scanning

the surface and the depths for errors, misstatements, and a lack of

clarity. First, keep resources close. Gather your writing handbook,

dictionary, thesaurus, handouts, and any other editing resources

andkeep them close. This way, you will not be tempted to guess at the

correct way to do something. Instead, use your resources when you

need them. Spelling errors can be avoided if you have a dictionary

nearby. Don't rely on spell check. It will only correct the spelling, not the

proper usage of a word. For example, the word their means someone's

possession of something. When used in a sentence, "We sat

in their chairs." On the other hand, there is used to express an area or

place. When used in a sentence, "We sat over there." Looking up these

words in a dictionary will prevent unnecessary errors from occurring.

Secondly, know your errors. Keep a list of the errors you tend to make

next to a corresponding list of corrections. No writer makes unique

mistakes all the time; instead, our mistakes are habitual. Know what

yours are by looking at your instructor’s comments on past papers or by

working with a writing tutor. That way, you can enhance your editing

strategies by watching specifically for these types of errors. If there are

grammar rules you find yourself looking up more frequently than others,

write them down for future reference.

Thirdly, break it down. Edit one thing at a time. Instead of reading your

paper through from start to finish once or twice and trying to catch

everything, try searching for one thing at a time. For example, you might

go through your paper once to tighten up wordiness. Then, read through

a second time, while looking for one type of error which you frequently

make, such as comma splices. Then, try reading a third time looking for

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words that may have been misspelled when you ran a spell check. Read

a fourth time for another characteristic error, such as subject-verb

agreement.

Next, reduce visual clutter. Use two pieces of blank paper to cover up

everything but one sentence at a time. This forces you to pay closer

attention to the words because they are the only thing you see.

Normally, our eyes move all over a text as we are reading; this trick will

prevent that tendency. Lastly, work backwards. Read from the end of

your paper to the beginning, one sentence at a time. When we read in

the conventional manner--top to bottom or left to right--we tend to read

quickly and are constantly leaping ahead without really focusing on the

words. We tend to see what isn't there, because we know what it is

supposed to say. Reading backwards forces us to slow down, thereby

allowing us to catch more errors within individual sentences.

When reviewing your work, it is also important to ensure that the tense

you choose remains consistent. Tense refers to the relation of details in

the past, present, and future. For example, one writer may tell a story

about going to the mall in the present tense by saying, "I am walking

around the mall and I see my third grade teacher." Another writer may

choose to relate this story in the past tense by saying, "I was walking

around the mall when I saw my third grade teacher." Although it is

important to select the tense that best suits the particular context a

writer is using, it is equally important to remain consistent with

whatever tense is chosen. Inconsistency within tense is extremely

confusing for readers. It is important to review your use of tense to

ensure that your language is clear. For example, if you were to say "I

was walking around the mall and I see my third grade teacher" your

audience would be very confused, wondering if you were seeing your

teacher in the present or last week. By keeping your tense consistent

your reader will always know when you experienced what you're writing

about.

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Speech and Stage Arts

THE ORAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The oral communication process begins with the formulation of an idea by the speaker. He then encodes ideas into language to be transmitted through audible and visible symbols to the receiver. As the receiver receives the message, he decodes them and may physically or verbally respond to the speaker. The process of communication involves several stages. They are:

First Stage: Thinking

This stage starts with the birth of an idea of the speaker. A speaker who does not have many ideas about a chosen subject should not have the courage of facing the audience. He should exactly know what he wants to convey otherwise he will be confused and will become the laughing stock of the audience.

Second Stage: Symbolizing

After the speaker has decided what idea he has to share to his audience, he is then ready to communicate orally through the use of words. The words chosen should be appropriate for the idea to be clearly understood by his listeners. It then requires a working knowledge for the mastery of the language of the speaker. He should know how to give his thoughts and feelings in the most effective way. It is to be noted that an inadequate speaking vocabulary can cause a breakdown in communication. To do away with this fear, the speaker should select a language easy for him to use and for the listener to understand.

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Third Stage: Expressing

Having decided on the words to use, the speaker is now ready to express his ideas in an audible speech using appropriate gestures. Clear, good voice and physical delivery are the requirements of expressing the speaker’s ideas.

Fourth Stage: Transmitting

The speaker’s ideas and feelings are transmitted into the ears of the listeners. They are represented by atmosphere disturbances in the form of sound and light waves which move away from the speaker to the ears and eyes of the listeners. The proximity of the speaker to the audience and the disturbances within the surroundings may interfere with transmission.

Fifth Stage: Receiving

As the sound waves that carry the ideas of the speaker reach the ears of the listeners, a series of movements takes place. Neural impulses are sent to the brain. The light waves that strike the eyes of the listeners are converted to the brain. Defects of the ears and eyes cause faulty reception.

Sixth Stage: Decoding

This stage will lead the listeners to understand what the speaker wants to convey. Understanding takes place only upon receiving the ideas of the speaker through his voice with supplementary gestures. The voice and gestures are symbols that facilitate the comprehension of the listener. If the listener’s vocabulary is different from the language used by the speaker, then it becomes complex. Both the speaker and the listener will not come up with a common idea.

Seventh Stage: Reaction or “Feedback”

It is a normal situation to see listeners giving responses to what was heard from the speakers. The listeners’ failure to give responses may hinder the speaker from “giving feedback” on the reaction. Reactions may be in the form of applause, boredom, hissing, yawn, doubtful look and so on.

Eighth Stage: Monitoring

The speaker should be sensitive in giving the needs of his audience. This stage should not be disregarded because it is only through monitoring that the speaker determines if comprehension takes place. The speaker should look into the kind of reactions of the listeners, so he could give the

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necessary and appropriate alternatives on how he could make his audience understand the message.

FORMS OF SPEECH ARTS

Extemporaneous

The extemporaneous method of delivery needs extensive study, careful organization of a speech, and preparation of an outline or notes which the speakers always rely on. This type of delivery has many advantages. It allows flexibility. The speaker can adjust to the feedback of the listener. For example, if the speaker sees that several of his listeners do not seem to understand, he can stop and explain. If the audience looks bored, the speaker can freely move to put the audience at ease.

One disadvantage in the use of this method is that the speaker may stumble over or grope for words. This problem can be avoided by releasing the speech. This method may be the best for beginning speakers because it provides a natural and spontaneous style of speaking.

Impromptu

The impromptu method requires the speaker to organize his ideas and select his words just before and/or during the actual delivery. The speech is composed and delivered on the spur of the moment with no specific preparation. The speaker relies entirely on his knowledge and speaking ability.

Memorized

Speaking from memory involves commitment to the memory word for word. Delivering from memory has all the advantages of reading from the manuscript regardless of its disadvantages like the problem of closing eye contact. The speaker’s hands are left free to make effective gestures. Some common disadvantages of this method are forgetting some of the words and dull mechanical delivery. Responding to feedback can be a problem, too, because it is difficult for the speaker to get away from what they have memorized.

Manuscript Reading

Speaking from a manuscript requires the speaker to write his speech and read it orally to his audience. This method of speaking is a good method when exact timing is necessary. Speakers using manuscripts are often skilled at delivery. This mode of speaking is often used in radio and television,

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reports at meetings, seminar papers, papers delivered at conventions of business firms or professional organizations. One disadvantage of this method is the loss of audience contact. On the other hand, the speaker presents his ideas exactly as the speaker planned without having to worry that they may forget some of the words. Feedback tends to be another problem. If the audience becomes bored and inattentive, it is difficult to respond and modify the speech because the speaker is bound to the manuscript. This type also confines the speaker to the lecturer because that is where the manuscript is.

WHAT PUBLIC SPEAKING INVOLVES

What is Public Speaking?

How would you define public speaking? Let us examine some definitions of public speaking.

Public speaking is speech-making before a large body of audience in a formal situation wherein you, the speaker, display your talents for eloquence and oratory.

Public speaking is communication of ideas using words and actions to let others know what is happening in your head.

Public speaking is an art of facing a group of people and communicating to them your thoughts and feelings by means of effective speech.

Public speaking is direct communication with the audience – the creation of an idea in other minds through the stimuli of words, facial expressions, and movements.

There are more elaborate definitions of public speaking, what it is, and how it works. But, for our purposes, a simple definition will do: public speaking is a process of conveying ideas, of sharing opinions and information, of inducing understanding. It is highly social in that it always involves others, but it is individualistic in its need for understanding. In public speaking, the process of sharing meanings unites the speaker and the audience in their desire to exchange ideas, thereby leading to enrichment and broadening of all human experiences. When thoroughly understood, this definition contains all the characteristics and complexities of public speaking as a communication process.

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What Factors Make Up Effective Public Speaking?

Public speaking is not difficult. Anyone who can converse with a friend, talk in colloquial and thoughtful terms, exchange a humorous remark, and be interested in the lives of others can speak publicly. Unless a person is a master of speech techniques, his personality, his knowledge and all the factors that will make him a significant man will be reduced to nothing. For this reason, there is a need to consider the factors that contribute to the development of successful speaking and to the acquisition and mastery of the techniques of effective public speaking.

Speech does not exist in isolation but exists between speaker and audience bound by a common desire to exchange ideas, consequently, the necessary requirements in a speech act are: A SPEAKER, AN AUDIENCE, and AN OCCASION.

Now, let us consider the speaker, who is the sender and source of ideas. It is said that the measure of a speaker will be the measure of his speech. For this reason, it is necessary to know what must be the characteristics of a good, interesting, and successful speaker in order that you, a potential public speaker, may be made aware of the ways by which you can bring your personality to bear upon your audience.

Personality. It is impossible to make interesting speakers out of uninteresting people. Only people with interesting personality make good speakers. For this reason, personality is one factor we cannot overlook in the training of a person as a public speaker for his personality determines his speech.

If we are to define personality, we may say that it is the sum total of all our physical, mental, and emotional traits. Personality is not a matter of height, color, shape, etc., but a development of all the traits of an individual.

Through speech, we express our individual personality, our total self. As we talk, others see, hear, sense, and feel our personality. What we say bears the imprint of our sympathies, prejudices, passions, fears and aspirations as it is filtered through our inner selves on the way to expression. Our spontaneous speech reveals our mental states and our emotional attitudes, our upbringing and our level of education. Hence, speech reveals our personality.

For you to become an interesting and attractive personality, consider these factors essential in the cultivation of the necessary characteristics or traits of a successful speaker:

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a. Personal grooming. The speaker’s appearance has much to do with how well he will be received by his audience. Even in simple conversations, your external appearance affects your listener. For this reason, you must pay careful attention to your personal appearance when you get involved with public speaking. Consider these questions as a guide to good personal grooming:

As a speaker, is your dress appropriate to the occasion?Are you neat and comfortable?Do you choose clothes that will establish basic similarities with your

audience so that you make them feel at ease and comfortable with you?Are your clothes well-pressed? your shoes well-shined?Are your hands and fingernails clean?Is your hair properly and neatly combed? If a woman, is your hairdo

becoming to you and appropriate to the speaking occasion?Are you sloven in appearance? careless or untidy?Does your taste clearly show in your choice of accessories that will

harmonize with your chosen clothes and your personality?Do you take pains to look your best in public appearances?

b. Attitudes. Attitudes are important in public speaking for they greatly affect linkage in communication. The variety of attitudes that a speaker assumes during speech delivery oftentimes creates serious problems in effective communication. As a speaker, you start making impressions on your audience as soon as you are seen. For this reason, you must consider these pointers in cultivating an attitude most acceptable to good audience contact:

Do you show poise and confidence through good posture while sitting or standing?

Do you sit or stand at ease or do you slouch or are you sloppy?What facial expressions do you show? Alert and attentive?Do you make your audience feel the magnetism of your smile?Do you communicate a feeling of pleasantness because you assume a

friendly and an amiable attitude towards your audience?Or are you ostentatiously confident? Arrogant? Supercilicious?

Haughty? Brusque? Aloof? Belligerent? Hostile?Do you appear indifferent? Apathetic? Subservient? Lazy? Subdued?

Timid or shy?Do you display a rigid, tense, too formal facial expression as to make

your audience uncomfortable and nervous during the process of thought communication?

Remember that an audience detests a “stuffed shirt.” Therefore, be natural so as to encourage your audience to get as close to you as possible.

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Intelligence. No matter how much self-confidence or self-assurance a speaker has, if he does not have some measure of intelligence, his public appearance as a speaker will be completely brief and a failure. Anyone who presumes to engage in any form of public speaking either by means of simple conversation or standing before his fellow men and who directs their thinking should be well-endowed mentally. For this reason, we shall consider the intelligence of a speaker as consisting of common sense, tact, good taste, wide interests, and self-criticism.

a. Common Sense - it is the ability of the speaker to size up situations, to meet emergencies and to act accordingly. Common sense is also manifested in the speaker’s demonstration of good judgment to select and to discuss topics according to the needs of the occasion and the demands of the audience.

b. Tact - is closely associated with common sense. This quality of the speaker is dependent upon his imagination and discernment. With imagination, a speaker can put himself in the shoes of his fellow being and realize how he would feel if some unkind remark were made about him. This is empathy at work!

Tact and prudence at work help the speaker win his audience by careful observation of attitudes, moods, behaviors, and situations. A tactful person, for instance, will never push for a decision when it appears that decision will be against him. He would rather postpone the decision until some later time. Again, his discernment will tell him when to speak and when not to. By dealing much with people, a speaker will know when they are in a friendly mood and when they are in a hostile one. By observation, he will be able to diagnose the opinions, beliefs, and prejudices of his listeners. Tact will help the speaker to handle delicate topics dealing with sex, politics, and religion in group discussions.

c. Good Taste - Good taste is another manifestation of the intelligence of an effective public speaker. Since many of our choices are dictated by good taste, this quality is quite valuable to a speaker in many ways. For example, good taste will help a speaker to select the kind of clothes to wear in public speaking occasions. The speaker is conscious of the fact that his personal appearance affects the sensibilities of his audience. He knows that his audience will notice the slightest affectation in the matter of clothing. For this reason, he will exert all efforts to maintain a neat, properly groomed appearance that will enhance and strengthen closer sharing of ideas with the audience.

Good taste also helps the speaker to choose a subject appropriate to the needs of the audience and the demands of the occasion, to select a language adapted to the educational level of the audience and to speak with ease and naturalness rather than with exaggerated elocution, elegant

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English, and artificiality and affectation of expression. Audience are impressed by well-groomed speakers who communicate ideas with ease, with relaxation, with simplicity and clarity of expression, and with emotional sincerity.

d. Wide Interest - This quality is revealed in the speaker’s profound knowledge of people, things, or situations. If there is anything that is most embarrassing, sometimes even disgusting, it is a speaker who doesn’t know what he is talking about. To be an attractive and interesting speaker, you must be a man of ideas. To be so, you must be widely read and widely traveled. You must also be a keen observer of people, things, or events. You must grasp all opportunities to improve your knowledge. To know what you’re talking about, you must work at getting information. You must not simply rely on mere rumors, gossips, conjectures, etc. You have to know where to go, what to look for, and what to use. You must know your sources of information – newspapers, magazines, TV documentaries, books, and all other forms of mass media which can really help you keep up with everything. Good talk is expensive. When you want to talk about a subject you don’t have knowledge of or little knowledge of, you have to go out and get information.

Remember, the quality of your life as an effective public speaker is dependent upon your willingness to find out what you are talking about. You need facts. But, you only need fact if you need to know what you are talking about. If you want to impress your audience, you will try to locate information … you must be a master in one realm of knowledge. Audience detests glib talkers, cheap talks, and phonies. Therefore, be thoroughly informed so that you learn to separate facts from rumor, gossip, or opinion, so that you may develop the habit of seeking for and using facts effectively, and so that you begin to discriminate between intelligent communication, which has value, and cheap talks involving statements that are absurd and illogical.

e. Self-criticism - This manifestation of the speaker’s intelligence is revealed in the ability of the speaker to hold himself at arm’s length occasionally and to evaluate himself in the light of his public performance as a communicator of ideas. The ability to accept criticisms gracefully is indicative of a mature personality. Infantile indeed is the individual who bristles, who looks upon a word of correction as a personal attack, who harbors resentment, or who is filled with an urge to flee or to fight back when criticized.

You can improve and perfect your skill and techniques of effective communication if you become your own judge and if you compare yourself with other speakers. To help you form a standard of judgment as to what is excellent on the platform, review your past speaking performances and take

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note of their strengths and weaknesses, what it is that succeeds and what it is that fails in your speaking.

Compare yourself with other speakers. Go and listen to men whom you admire. By listening to these brilliant and outstanding public speakers, you can improve your diction and your vocabulary by noting how they use words that are not in your vocabulary. While making a mental comparison of yourself and the speaker you admire most, ask yourself these questions. What type of delivery does the speaker use? How does he use his hands? Does he speak directly to the audience? Where does he get his subjects? Where does he get his material? How does he organize his material? These questions will surely help you diagnose the success of the speaker and will help you in your own communication problem.

Integrity or Virtue. The acceptability of a public speaker to his audience is dependent upon his integrity as indicated by his moral virtues. Cato defined an orator as “a good man skilled in speaking.” Should a public speaker be a good man? Undoubtedly, people will believe in a good man more quickly than a man whose motives are questionable. Not all things can be proven and for this reason, we have to take the word of a speaker for much that he says.

Sincerity and moral integrity are qualities that will endear a speaker to his audience and will make him influential to them. For this reason, a speaker must adhere to truth and must not be afraid to communicate facts that are actual and true. Sincerity will prompt a speaker to disagree with opinions known to be held by the audience. Sincerity and moral integrity will help a speaker not to pander to his audience because he knows that if he panders to his audience he loses his identity and his usefulness is soon over. People will readily believe a speaker whose name and reputation are without stain and are above moral reproach, whose motives are unselfish, unquestionable, free from personal gains, and altruistic.

Audiences dislike speakers who say one thing and think another for personal gain, or think one thing and say another for fear of the listeners. As Albert J. Beveridge says on this point: “Never under any circumstance of for any reward tell an audience what you yourself do not believe in or are even indifferent about. To do so is immoral and worse - - it is to be a public liar.”

Training. This consists of a speech program intended to develop in the speaker skills and techniques to communicate ideas effectively.

To communicate effectively, a speaker must not only say something but he must also say it well. Hence, the need for training.

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The Romans used to say that a good public speaker was a good man skilled in speaking. Although thought and personality are basic in public speaking, the mere existence of a thought does not guarantee its effective highest efficiency in the use of forms and manners of communication which are best for audience reception and understanding of ideas.

The value of training is five-fold.

1. Training tells the speaker what to say. Speech training develops thinking. Through training, a would-be speaker learns the process of selection of subject, of organization of materials, arrangement of ideas, and, most important of all, of development of accuracy in grammatical structure, vocabulary usage, and the use of specific and concrete illustrations to interest the listeners.

2. Training teaches the speaker how to say the speech. It is through speech practices in the class that you acquire communication skills of audibility, eye contact, and articulation.

3. Training develops the speaker’s confidence in his ability to communicate effectively. The important value to accrue from speech training is a well-developed communicability reflecting maturity – a maturity that shows self-respect, cooperativeness, and the willingness and capability to contribute to society. While sharing ideas in oral activities, all may feel that they are integral parts of the class group and may acquire a greater social consciousness. Confidence in meeting and conversing with one person or addressing the group contributes to personal satisfaction and potential business success. Correcting individual speech difficulties may change the youth from a social liability to an accepted, responsible citizen.

4. Training develops creative but critical thinking rather than a mechanical one. Through participation in oral discussions, informal arguments, informative talks, lively conversations, political rallies, etc., the speaker learns to create ideas on the spot and he says them with a tone of authority and confidence. Creative thinking does not only increase the speaker’s confidence to communicate ideas well but it also helps the speaker to concentrate on his thought and his audience during the sharing of ideas and understanding.

5. Training aids the speaker to achieve the main objective of effective communication - - to create a particular effect on a particular audience. Since speeches are prepared for a particular audience, it is essential that the speaker impresses his audience with the clear presentation of the points of his speech so as to elicit spontaneous responses from them through better understanding of conveyed ideas or information. The more specific the speaker’s information is and the more he can shape it to specific ends, the better the speech will be. Hence, the value of training for training acquaints the speaker with the principles of subject selection, helps him to analyze the subject, aids him in arranging his ideas, and suggests areas of discussion which are most vital to the audience.

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Technique. The spirit of communication unites the speaker and the audience in their desire to exchange ideas. For this reason, public speaking requires a definite audience response caused by direct communication with the audience - - the speaker’s ability to create an idea in other minds through the stimuli of words, facial expression, and movements. In order to increase his pic accuracy and power of expression, the speaker must not only learn the techniques of effective speaking but he must also master them. Therefore, the need to cultivate a highly individual technique to demonstrate the art and the craft of effective and successful public speaking.

In public speaking, techniques consist of the elements of speech and action which orally and visually represent the speaker’s thought and communicate it to the audience. These elements of technique are:

Voice - the sound produced by the vibration of the vocal cordsVoice Pitch - the highness or lowness of toneVoice Volume - the loudness or carrying power of voiceVoice Quality - that which distinguishes one voice from another

when pitch, volume, and duration are the same. For

instancea voice may be hoarse, nasal, mellow, etc.

Speech rate and pause - consists of the number of words uttered per

minute and the cessation of speaking within

or between sentencesEnunciation and Pronunciation - the formation of voice into words

and the manner of utterance of words

Gestures - involve the movements of arms, shoulders, hands or head

in the physical expression of thoughtPosture - the position and bearing of the bodyFacial Expression - the aspect and general appearance of the faceOrganization of thought - the logical arrangement of ideasComposition - manner of formulating ideas into effective

sentencesPhrasing - the grouping of words into small units of thoughtsAudience contact - establishing mental contact with the audience

by talking to its members

Motivation - the use of appeals and subject matter which are important

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to the audience and induce audience action.

Ignorance on the part of the speaker of the techniques of good effective communication of ideas will surely handicap him in achieving his objective to create the desired idea in the listeners. Only through a mastery of the techniques of effective speaking can a speaker direct the thought, mood, and action of his audience toward the specific objective chosen by him.

Since speech is the principal medium of exchanging knowledge and opinions among people in their multi-varied activities, public speaking is now a MUST for all would-be professionals. For speaking is a powerful influence, a molding of minds, a changing of group thought through spoken, social intercourse.

GETTING INVOLVED WITH A GROUP DISCUSSION

Today, we recognize the value of group discussions. Many changes are brought about in our social, economical, political, or religious conditions through participation of individuals in group discussions. Great deeds are accomplished by the concentration of men’s knowledge to an extent that would not be possible for any one individual. Hundreds of millions of persons have been swayed in one direction or another by the decisions of discussion groups.

How effective a group can be in accomplishing something that would be impossible or at least improbable for one person will depend on a large degree upon the ability of the group members to communicate effectively when they find themselves in a group situation.

Since much of your time is spent in some form of a group, whether a class, a friendship group, a peer group, a family, or any other organization, how successfully you function in such situations will depend upon how much you know about group process and group communication.

Requirements of Group Communication

What makes a collection of people a group and not a crowd or gathering of anonymous individuals? For one thing, groups are generally

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smaller than crowds and members of the group casually know each other to some degree.

Group communication consists of a collection of individuals with unique meanings, who come together physically and psychologically to share those meanings for a common purpose through interaction with one another.

But how do people interact in groups and why? For example, during flood calamities, various government agencies gather together and become a closely knit group to thresh out the causes of the flood, to organize fund drive for the flood victims and to plan ways and means of extending aids to these victims in the different areas badly hit by the storm.

From this, we infer that all groups begin with or evolve out of a particular need … a purpose which serves to motivate a group to band together to think and discuss. This purpose must be made clear to the group; otherwise, if the purpose is not clear, group communication will be crippled by wasted time, misdirected efforts, and confused members.

Therefore, to have an effective group communication, the PURPOSE must be clear to everyone so that group interaction and communication becomes successful.

Aside from the purpose, group communication also becomes effective when the GOALS are clearly set up. Usually, group’s goals are more specific than its overall purpose though sometimes the purpose and goal may be identical. While the purpose of the group is usually established by the nature of the group, the goals are set up by the members of the group. For instance, during typhoons when quite a number of groups come out with identical purposes but with varying goals.

Defining a group’s purpose and establishing its particular goal is easy but to achieve these goals is a different story. For this reason, in order to accomplish the goals effectively, it is essential in group discussion or communication to understand the process of group thinking and communication: group decision making or problem solving.

Process of Group Decision Making or Problem Solving

For effective group discussion, you must follow some procedures:

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1. Identify the particular problem or situation – what the problem or situation is; analyze it, find its causes, determine its seriousness, and decide whether or not it is something deserving attention.

2. Establish a criteria or course of action leading to a workable solution. For example, in a flood calamity, you must determine the time, the effort, the money that will be involved in helping the flood victims as acceptable solutions to solve the crisis.

3. Research possible solutions or courses of action – this implies using interviews, library work, observation, experimentations as tools for arriving at valid conclusions and solutions to the problem at hand.

4. Evaluate proposed solutions or courses of action for the purpose of selecting one to be tested, i.e. test each proposed solution for effectivity of results. For example, using helicopters to bring food, medicine, and clothing to the people in the flooded areas that had remained impassable because of high water.

5. Test the selected solution or course of action so as to find out how workable the solution is.

With these five steps in mind, organize a group activity and put into work these steps in problem solving or observe any group activity. How does the group work in communicating ideas effectively?

Factors to Consider in Group Communication

How do groups share meanings? How do the members interact with one another? In order to understand fully how the group communicative process works, let us take into consideration these factors: group atmosphere, group roles, communication patterns, and group evaluation.

Group Atmosphere. Every group creates its own particular atmosphere for communication. Usually, for effective group communication the ideal atmosphere must be one of openness and honesty wherein the members are permitted to speak and listen. However, in a realistic set-up of group interaction, the group atmosphere is subject to constant changes depending upon the attitudes of the members of the group or among the members are permitted to speak and listen. However, in a realistic set-up of group interaction, the group atmosphere is subject to constant changes depending upon the attitudes of the members of the group at a given time and upon what is happening within the group or among the members between group meetings. For instance, at the onset of group activity, the atmosphere maybe too formal and, perhaps, strained as a consequence of the newness of the experience for the members but as the group activity develops and the members become better acquainted with one another and with their purpose and goals, such an atmosphere at the onset gradually changes into a more open spontaneous, and honest relationship among the

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members. Of course, some members may have had positive or negative experiences in the past; others may have had no previous experience at all but may have heard comments that have made them either open or wary of group experience. For this reason, it would be wise to determine the attitudes of the group at the initial stage and to cultivate an atmosphere conducive not only to creative thinking but also to positive ones. In a healthy atmosphere characterized by openness and honesty where the members are encouraged to voice out their individual ideas, opinions, or feelings, communication becomes effective and the purposes and goals of group thinking are accomplished.

On the other hand, group atmosphere is also influenced by the setting, size, and purpose. When these influences on group atmosphere are working for the benefit of the group then, cohesion results. As cohesion gradually develops and deepens, interaction becomes more free and open as the members learn more about one another. It is when cohesion is at its profound level that the group achieves the ideal atmosphere for effective communication.

Group Roles. In group thinking or activity, every member must fulfill a role. Therefore, in a group discussion, there will always be a leader and members of the group. Hence, leadership role and participant role must be clearly understood in order that group communication becomes successful.

In a group discussion, the group usually has a leader, who is either a founder of the group or a member of the group chosen or designated by the others to be the leader. However, in some cases, a group may have more than one leader. For example, family group activity where parents share leadership responsibilities.

In small groups, democratic leadership is usually most effective. This kind of leadership leads to free, open, and spontaneous interaction among the members for the democratic leader does not try to dominated group thinking; rather, he welcomes assistance, encourages all members to participate in leadership when they can do so effectively, and induces the members to work actively with one another in order to help accomplish the goals of the group.

Here are some suggestions for democratic group leadership favorable to group activity.

1. A democratic group leader should be open-minded and honest so that he can create an ideal atmosphere conducive to free, spontaneous group interaction where all ideas are given equal consideration and where trust predominates so that the members are free to say or to do what they

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believe will be good for the common welfare of the group in achieving its purpose and goal.

2. A democratic group leader must ask questions at the beginning of the group discussion directed to each member of the group so that each one is given the opportunity to answer and to offer group as a whole will give the members not only a reason but also an opportunity to hear themselves speak, to hear one another speak, and to experience the silence of others listening to them.

3. A democratic group leader should not only be a good listener but he should also be able to tolerate long silences if they occur. Being a good listener leads the democratic group leader to participative leadership which dispels the feeling or attitude that he, the group leader, is dominating the group process in any way. Besides, participative leadership contributes to the flexibility of discussion which readily shifts from member to member as they begin to interest with one another. Also, tolerating long silences are effective in the sense that they give people ample time to think and reflect. Thus, they do not only think about what to say next but they also find courage enough to speak out their minds.

4. A democratic group leader must be sensitive to the feelings of all the members of the group. He must learn to empathize so that in cases where one member dominates the group process unnecessarily, the leader should be prepared to intervene but only after allowing time for the group itself to recognize and handle the problem.

5. A democratic group leader should have the ability to summarize group thinking at the appropriate time.

Just as leadership role is important in group thinking, so, too is the participant’s role. In group activity, individual members demonstrate individual behaviors in group processes. Some of these behaviors may be positively contributing to group communication but other behaviors may work against effective group communication. Whether the behavior is positive or negative, we cannot overlook the value of these behaviors to effective group interaction and communication. For this reason, let us consider these practical guidelines for group participation:

1. A good group participant should not only know clearly the purpose of the group and should work to achieve it but he should also speak for and through self and should not hesitate to offer information or opinion or feelings which can directly or indirectly serve the purpose of the group.

2. A good group participant should encourage others to express themselves, should respect others’ uniqueness, and should listen.

3. A good group participant should have a concern for the people – needs of the group as well as for the task-needs.

4. A good group participant should be able to balance a sense of responsibility with a sense of humor. At the same time, while participating in

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and evaluating the group activity, he should maintain a practical objectivity and should not neglect to express self openly and honestly.

Since individual behaviors can either support or undermine group process during communication, it is essential to bear in as the group deals directly and openly with it.

Communication Patterns. What would be the best communication pattern for a group activity? Every group has its own communication pattern, a sort of a network determined by who talks to whom, how frequently they talk, and what things they say. Therefore, knowing a particular group’s pattern of communication can enable a member to understand how communication happens within a group.

Communication pattern for any group will be dependent upon the size and the setting of the group. In considering its size, here are some points to remember. How small or how big is the group? The smaller the group, the simpler is the communication pattern because there are fewer possible interpersonal relationships. But the larger the group, the more complex the communication pattern becomes. In a larger group, the opportunity for individual participation decreases. For this reason, it is easier for the individual members to drift along with the thinking of others or to withdraw from involvement in the group or to break up into subgroups.

Group setting is also important to communication pattern. How are the members of the group arranged? In a round table manner of group discussion, or in a group division into two participant groups with a leader in front? With a leader in front and the members arranged and seated accordingly?

Whatever communication pattern will be ultimately chosen by the group, the choice must be governed not only by the size and setting but also by the achievement of the goals through effective communication.

Group Evaluation. In order to find out how well a group discussion is functioning, it is advisable to evaluate its activities in terms of feedback. This feedback can be obtained from the members of the group themselves or from observers outside of the group. In the evaluation of the group activity, evaluation or survey sheets should be furnished for each member in order to measure the success or failure of group activity and communication.

Types of Group Discussion

Depending upon the purpose and goals of group discussion, this special type of public speaking is classified as follows: the debate, the round

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table talk, the conference, the committee meeting, the panel falk, and the symposium.

The Debate. The debate is a group discussion where the members engage in a special kind of conflict. In a debate, the participating members take opposing points of view and present their reasons for their position. The aim of the debate is to lead the audience to accept a conclusion previously formed by the speaker.

In a debate, the debater seeks to win or lose an argument by supporting or opposing a particular question. For this reason, to debate any issue, you must develop a persuasive message, you must listen carefully to your opponent’s petition, and you must ask pertinent questions about his or her points.

Also, a debate is a formal tournament that illustrates the skills in reasoned argument, with two teams taking opposite sides of an agreed upon question.

Many students engage in this kind of special public speaking. For those who will engage in a debate, they should know the factors determining a good formal debate.

A formal debate is characterized by the following qualities:

1. It is competitive, leading to a decision by vote.2. It requires that the participants take a definite position, either

affirmative or negative which cannot be changed.3. It is more formal than discussion and follows rules of procedure.4. Its objective is to start with a proposal, make the best case for it,

and win approval for that side.5. The style of speaking is argumentative and persuasive.

As a specialized form of oral argument, the debate is carried on definite rules. Two teams, usually two speakers, agree on a subject, the time, the place of the debate, the time limit, and the kind of decision to be reached.

In a debate, each team, one affirmative and one negative, presents its arguments on the question or proposition and a critic judge, or a board of judges, or the audience makes the decision.

The best strategy that a team may employ in persuading the audience to agree with the team and its members is to promote a full, honest, and accurate discussion of the proposition. The team should tackle every major issue, should reply to every major argument and should stay close to sound

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reasoning and reliable evidences if it wishes to win the support of the audience.

A team that tries to avoid discussing the major issues, or seeks to cloud and avoid the major arguments, or resorts to careless reasoning and doubtful evidences is likely to lose audience trust and support for the audience begins to suspect that it is not able to present fairly or defend adequately its case. When the audience begins to suspect, then it will certainly join the opposing debate team in looking for weak arguments and loopholes in reason for an audience does not like to feel being tricked.

The effectiveness of everything in a debate will depend primarily on the speaker’s ability to deliver ideas. For this reason, when you participate in a debate, you must cultivate a speaking style that will lend itself most readily to creating a lively, animated conversational style of communication of arguments. Be erect in your posture as it will help you win your audience’s impression of your capacity as a speaker. Make gestures that are not only natural but also meaningful and graceful in nature for dramatic effect. Project adequately your voice and vary your tone and inflection so as to hold your audience in rapt attention to every word you say. Look straight into the eyes of your audience in order to establish constant eye contact with them. Strive for a delivery that will suggest lively thinking aloud about the issues before you communicate persuasively each argument you develop.

Above all, put the principles governing argumentative and persuasive speaking into work in order to win the debate.

The Round Table Talk. This is an informal kind of group discussion. The members are seated around a round table or may face one another as they are seated in a set pattern in a rectangular table. In this kind of discussion, the group leader usually opens the meeting by stating the purpose of the meeting, the topic, and a summary of the points and decisions of previous meetings. He may mention some of the factors under consideration or he may ask a member to review a special aspect of the problem.

The round table talk may assume the form of a committee meeting or a conference on important issues that may be political, social, business, or religious in nature.

In the round table type of discussion, the members are all encouraged to take part. Individual members are free to express their opinions about any number of matters and thus make them potential leaders in other groups. Spontaneity is the keyword of these discussion.

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The Panel Discussion. The panel is a small group discussion. Usually, this kind of group discussion consists of four to five well-informed persons who sit at a table on a platform before the group. All the members at the table face the larger group, with the leader sitting in the center of the group. The subject of the discussion is developed in a give-and-take method. A time limit for the entire discussion may be set, after which the members of the audience may be asked to participate in the discussion.

In a panel, the individual members may answer the questions or carry on the discussion with the members of the audience. The panel is simply a clearing house for ideas; it does not attempt to settle any question. Panel discussions are for the purpose of getting the audience and the participants awakened to all the implications of the questions discussed. Although every member of the panel is qualified to speak, no one has a set speech to deliver. Each member speaks as he feels he has something to contribute.

In a panel, the chairman or leader is a coordinator who tries to make the proceedings function as smoothly as possible. He addresses the audience, announces the topic, and introduces the panel members. He also interprets statements made by the audience and resolves possible conflicts among or between the panel members and the audience. At the conclusion, the panel leader summarizes the points of view of the panel and the contributions of the audience and then he integrates them into a statement which represents the group’s accomplishment during the session.

The semi-circle arrangement will be quite effective for a panel discussion where the panel members should be on an elevated platform before the audience in order that they may be seen and heard easily.

The Symposium. This type of group activity is a learning type of discussion which combines the techniques of both instruction and discussion. The symposium is composed of four to eight experts, who present their prepared speeches of fifteen or twenty minutes in length on previously assigned phases of a topic. The comments concerning the experts’ statements and related aspects of the topic in an open forum.

The broad scope of the symposium permits a comprehensive authoritative survey of the subject. It adds the speaker’s personalities to the dissemination of information, and it permits the audience to clarify any misconceptions which they might have had concerning the topic. The varied approaches to the subject tend to give the audience a general perspective of the whole subject.

In a symposium, the chairman of the symposium acquaints the audience with the purpose of the meeting and the nature of the topic. Then, he introduces the speakers, mentioning their qualifications and positions before they speak.

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At the conclusion of the speeches, the audience is requested to ask questions and make comments. The chairman may relay the question to the speaker or the speaker may rise and talk directly to the questioner with several answers and questions in exchange. At the end of the question and answer portion, the chairman may conclude the meeting by thanking the experts and the audience for their contributions and may make any other remarks which are of special interest.

The Forum Lecture. The forum lecture consists of fifty to sixty-minute speech presented by an expert and a subsequent discussion of the subject by the expert and the audience. Like the symposium, the forum lecture uses a factual and interpretative manner of speech rather than an emotional and persuasive one.

In the forum lecture, there is no need to have a chairman to preside although the help of a chairman is advisable. Should there be a chairman, the function of the chairman is to introduce the speaker and to acquaint the audience with the topic and the speaker’s qualifications for discussing it. Also, if the lecture becomes dull and pedantic, the chairman may inject some enthusiasm and interest into the discussion.

Dramatic Theory and Conventions

 I. THEORY -- Idealized rules based on classical writers; some playwrights honored them (Jonson, Dryden) while others didn't (Marlowe, Shakespeare):

      A.  The Unities (developed from Aristotle's Poetics by 16th century critics)

            1.  TIME (action on stage should occur within 2-1/2 hours)

            2.  PLACE (same locale/setting for entire play)

            3.  ACTION (all events should describe a single plot line — this was the                       only rule Aristotle actually spelled out)

      B.  Probability -- Aristotle recommends that the action proceed rationally, with no events unprepared for.

      C.  Decorum -- Characters should speak, dress, and behave in a manner suitable to their rank, sex, age, personality; also, style/expression should fit the genre or subject.

      D.  Verisimilitude -- Events must be true, believeable, and more or less realistic.

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      E.  Five-Part Structure:

            1.  EXPOSITION -- presents the situation and events leading up to the action; introduces characters and defines their relationships

            2.  RISING ACTION -- complicates the original situation, creating conflict among the characters

            3.  CLIMAX/TURNING POINT -- change in direction of the course of events, particularly for the protagonist

            4.  FALLING ACTION -- resolving of complications

            5.  CONCLUSION/CATASTROPHE -- final revelation or outcome (such as discovered identities in comedy or death in tragedy), resulting in "restored order" ("dénouement" often refers to falling action and conclusion together)

 II.  DRAMATIC CONVENTIONS

      A.  Chorus -- group of actors who speak in unison (later replaced by a single actor) functioning as an expository device

      B.  Confidant(e) -- Character whose main function is to carry information to and from the main character and to provide the excuse for a character to speak thoughts aloud.

      C.  Soliloquy -- When a character reveals inmost thoughts directly to the audience.  Reveals the speaker's perceptions, not necessarily the "truth."  Conventionally, the speaker doesn't reveal an awareness of the audience's presence, although sometimes awareness is shown for comic effect.

      D.  Aside -- During a scene, when a character suddenly turns to another character or to an audience and speaks a line heard only by the audience and addressee.  Convention requires the other characters to reveal no knowledge that the first character is speaking.

      E.  Metadrama -- Some playwrights have their characters either refer directly to the presence of the audience or other parts of the theater in the course of their speeches, or else use specifically theatrical figures of speech (i.e., Shakespeare has a character in As You Like It begin a speech, "All the world's a stage,/ And all the men and women merely players./They have their exits and their entrances,/And one man in his time plays many parts . . .).  Such references are usually included for comic or ironic effect, but can also be used in tragedy to enhance the play's critical commentary on politics,

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society, philosophy, etc.  Metadrama also refers to the inclusion of a play-within-a-play, as in Hamlet.

 TYPES OF COMEDY

 Comedy in Shakespeare’s time tended to fall into several categories, requiring varied levels of sophistication on the part of the listener for fullest enjoyment: 

Burlesque — purely physical comedy: potty and sexual jokes, pratfalls, foodfights, drinking/drug jokes, drag costumes.  This level of comedy requires almost no prior knowledge — references are to the most basic kinds of human experience.

Farce — plot-oriented comedy (similar to situation comedy today): disguise/mistaken identity, eavesdropping (intentional or unintentional), coincidences and accidents, get-rich-quick schemes that backfire, etc.  Familiarity with the formulas and conventions of plot increase enjoyment.

Romantic comedy — boy-get-girl/boy-loses-girl/boy-gets-girl-back: humor is based on the delusions and pretensions of young people in love, misunderstandings, etc.  Familiarity with the conventions of love poetry often required for appreciation of satire about lovers.

Comedy of manners — humor requires a knowledge of the social mores and fashions referred to in the plays; jokes center around social hypocrisies and pretensions.  This type of comedy would probably only be funny to people who were familiar with the values and behaviors of the elite characters being satirized.

Witty comedy — humor based on wordplay (puns and literary allusions) and on comic heroes who use intelligence and language to outwit their adversaries and get what they want.  This type of comedy requires the highest level of previous knowledge on the part of the audience, since much of the humor assumes a sophisticated command of the nuances of language and the uses of formal logic and rhetoric.

 No one play ever featured only one type of humor exclusively — most comic plays feature a mixture of all these types.  You will note, though, a decided hierarchy of humor in this list, from “low-class” to “high-class.” 

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Shakespeare’s theater was not overly concerned with observing decorum, or a separation of comic styles — that would come later, in the 18th century.

 TYPES OF TRAGEDYCritic Northrop Frye developed a general outline for the typical tragic plot pattern: 

 1.  ENCROACHMENT — The protagonist takes on more than he should and makes a mistake that ultimately causes his own “fall;” it is often an act blindly done, demonstrating the hero’s faith in his own power to regulate the world or his insensitivity to others.  Even in cases where the act is unconscious, the tragic hero encroaches on the norms of human conduct within a given world.

2.  COMPLICATION — This builds up and includes the events that align opposing forces.    

3.  REVERSAL — This is the point at which it becomes clear that the protagonist’s expectations are mistaken, that his fate will be the reverse of what he had hoped.  At this minute, the vision of the audience and dramatist are the same.       

4.  CATASTROPHE — This exposes the limits of the protagonist’s power and dramatizes the waste of his life.  Piles of dead bodies remind us that the forces unleashed are not easily contained; there are also elaborate subplots in later tragedies, which reinforce the impression of a world inundated with evil.      

5.  RECOGNITION — The audience (and sometimes the protagonist) recognize the larger pattern inherent in the action.  If the protagonist does experience recognition, s/he begins to share the vision of reality that the dramatist and the audience see.  From this new perspective s/he can see the irony of her/his actions.   

 NOTE: You may have heard the term “tragic flaw” (hamartia) used to describe the cause of a protagonist’s downfall.  We prefer Aristotle’s “some error of human frailty” or Frye’s “encroachment” because these terms offer subtler and more complicated descriptions of the human condition.  The problem is rarely a simple personality quirk on the part of one character.

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Creative Writing

Creative writing is considered to be any writing, fiction, poetry, or non-fiction, that goes outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, and technical forms of literature. Works which fall into this category include novels, epics, short stories, and poems. Writing for the screen and stage, screenwriting and playwriting respectively, typically have their own programs of study, but fit under the creative writing category as well.Somewhere in the educational scheme there must be encouragement for the dreams and imaginings of youth. The student must be permitted emotional expression in order that he may be taught to discipline his emotions. His shy fancies must be drawn out of him for the good of his soul.Creative writing can technically be considered any writing of original composition. In this sense creative writing is a more contemporary and process-oriented name for what has been traditionally called literature, including the variety of its genres. The practice of "professional writing" is not excluded from creative writing — one can be doing both in the same action. In her work, Foundations of Creativity, Mary Lee Marksberry references Paul Witty and Lou LaBrant’s Teaching the People's Language to define creative writing. Marksberry notes:Witty and LaBrant…[say creative writing] is a composition of any type of writing at any time primarily in the service of such needs as 

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1.the need for keeping records of significant experience, 2.the need for sharing experience with an interested group, and 3.the need for free individual expression which contributes to mental and physical health.Creative writing in academiaUnlike its academic counterpart of writing classes that teach students to compose work based on the rules of the language, creative writing is believed to focus on students’ self-expression. While creative writing as an educational subject is often available at some stages, if not throughout, K–12 education, perhaps the most refined form of creative writing as an educational focus is in universities. Following a reworking of university education in the post-war era, creative writing has progressively gained prominence in the university setting. With the beginning of formal creative writing program:“For the first time in the sad and enchanting history of literature, for the first time in the glorious and dreadful history of the world, the writer was welcome in the academic place. If the mind could be honored there, why not the imagination?"

Programs of studyCreative Writing programs are typically available to writers from the high school level all the way through graduate school. Traditionally these programs are associated with the English departments in the respective schools, but this notion has been challenged in recent time as more creative writing programs have spun off into their own department. Most Creative Writing degrees for undergraduates in college are Bachelor of Fine Arts degrees (BFA).[citation needed] Some continue to pursue a Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing, the terminal degree in the field. At one time rare, PhD. programs are becoming more prevalent in the field, as more writers attempt to bridge the gap between academic study and artistic pursuit.Creative writers typically decide an emphasis in either fiction or poetry, and they usually start with short stories or simple poems.[citation needed] They then make a schedule based on this emphasis including literature classes, education classes and workshop classes to strengthen their skills and techniques. Though they have their own programs of study in the fields of film and theatre, screenwriting and playwriting have become more popular in creative writing programs, as creative writing programs attempt to work more closely with film and theatre programs as well as English programs. Creative writing students are encouraged to get involved in extracurricular writing-based activities, such as publishing clubs, school-based literary

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magazines or newspapers, writing contests, writing colonies or conventions, and extended education classes.Creative writing also takes places outside of formal university or school institutions. For example, writer Dave Eggers set up the innovative 826 Valencia in San Francisco, where young people write with professional writers. In the UK, the Arvon Foundation runs week long residential creative writing courses in four historic houses.

Creative writing is usually taught in a workshop format rather than seminar style. In workshops students usually submit original work for peer critique. Students also format a writing method through the process of writing and re-writing. Some courses teach the means to exploit or access latent creativity or more technical issues such as editing, structural techniques, genres, random idea generating or writer's block unblocking. Some noted authors, such as Michael Chabon, Kazuo Ishiguro, Kevin Brockmeier, Jacob Appel, Ian McEwan, Karl Kirchwey, Rose Tremain and reputed screenwriters, such as David Benioff, Darren Star and Peter Farrelly, have graduated from university creative writing programs.Controversy in academiaCreative writing is considered by some academics (mostly in the USA) to be an extension of the English discipline, even though it is taught around the world in many languages. The English discipline is traditionally seen as the critical study of literary forms, not the creation of literary forms. Some academics see creative writing as a challenge to this tradition. In the UK and Australia, as well as increasingly in the USA and the rest of the world, creative writing is considered a discipline in its own right, not an offshoot of any other discipline.Those who support creative writing programs either as part or separate from the English discipline, argue for the academic worth of the creative writing experience. They argue that creative writing hones the students’ abilities to clearly express their thoughts. They further argue that creative writing also entails an in-depth study of literary terms and mechanisms so they can be applied to the writer’s own work to foster improvement. These critical analysis skills are further used in other literary study outside the creative writing sphere. Indeed the process of creative writing, the crafting of a thought-out and original piece, is considered by some to be experience in creative problem solving.It is also believed by some in the academic sphere that the term "creative writing" can include "creative reading" which is the reading of something not

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typically understood to be a creative piece as though it were creative. This expanded concept further addresses the idea of "found" materials being of literary value under a newly assigned meaning. Examples of this might be product assembly directions being considered "found poetry."“Despite the large number of academic creative writing programs throughout the world, many people argue that creative writing cannot be taught. Louis Menand explores the issue in an article for the New Yorker in which he quotes Kay Boyle, the director of creative writing program at San Francisco State for sixteen years, who said, “all creative-writing programs ought to be abolished by law.”

Elements of Creative Writing

1.Character 2.Point of View 3.Plot 4.Setting 5.Dialogue (fiction) 6.Style (fiction) 7.Theme and Motif Forms of creative writingAutobiography/Memoir Collaborative writing Creative non-fiction (Personal & Journalistic Essays) Epic Flash fiction Novel Novella Playwriting/Dramatic writing Poetry Screenwriting Short story Songwriting Bibliography Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)

Element of creative writing and reading

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Free writing Free writing — also called stream-of-consciousness writing — is a prewriting technique in which a person writes continuously for a set period of time without regard to spelling, grammar, or topic. It produces raw, often unusable material, but helps writers overcome blocks of apathy and self-criticism. It is used mainly by prose writers and writing teachers.[citation needed] Some writers use the technique to collect initial thoughts and ideas on a topic, often as a preliminary to formal writing. Free writing is not the same as automatic writing.Unlike brainstorming where ideas are simply listed, in freewriting one writes sentences to form a paragraph about whatever comes to mind.Free writing is based on a presumption that, while everybody has something to say and the ability to say it, the mental wellspring may be blocked by apathy, self-criticism, resentment, anxiety about deadlines, fear of failure or censure, or other forms of resistance. The accepted rules of free-writing enable a writer to build up enough momentum to blast past blocks into uninhibited flow, the concept outlined by writing teachers such as Louise Dunlap, Peter Elbow, and Natalie Goldberg.Free-writing is all about loosening and limbering the thought process, not about a product or a performance for a student or a writer.The technique involves continuous writing, usually for a predetermined period of time (often five, ten, or fifteen minutes). The writer writes without regard to spelling, grammar, etc., and makes no corrections. If the writer reaches a point where they can't think of anything to write, they write that they can't think of anything, until they find another line of thought. The writer freely strays off topic, letting thoughts lead where they may. At times, a writer may also do a focused freewrite, letting a chosen topic structure their thoughts. Expanding from this topic, the thoughts may stray to make connections and create more abstract views on the topic. This technique helps a writer explore a particular subject before putting ideas into a more basic context.Freewriting is often done on a daily basis as a part of the writer's daily routine. Also, students in many writing courses are assigned to do such daily writing exercises.

Reflective WritingReflective Writing is a practice in which the writer describes a real or

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imaginal scene, event, interaction, passing thought, memory, form, adding a personal reflection on the meaning of the item or incident, thought, feeling, emotion, or situation in his or her life. Many reflective writers keep in mind guiding questions, such as "What did I notice?" "How has this changed me?" or "What might I have done differently?"Thus, the focus is on writing that is not merely descriptive. The writer doesn’t just hit the replay button; rather, he or she revisits the scene to note details and emotions, reflect on meaning, examine what went well or revealed a need for additional learning, and relate what transpired to the rest of life.While anyone can use reflective writing for personal development, the practice is often incorporated into professionalism training for physicians, nurses, teachers, social workers, and others who are in the process of developing understanding of self and others in order to offer more humane and compassionate service to their patients or clients. The underlying assumption is that through the experience of telling and listening to stories, the student becomes more attuned to noticing, listening to, recording, and responding to the stories of patients and colleagues in years to come.Through the longitudinal[clarification needed] practice of reflective writing comes recognition that people's perspectives grow and change. A vector[clarification needed] develops: the stories are going somewhere, or they are stuck. Viewed this way, even bad days are not so awful; the writer becomes curious about what comes next. The mindful, reflective stance that develops in clinical training can subsequently be helpful and healing when modeled for patients or clients.Reflective writing asks the practitioner not only to pull back the lens and observe events, human interactions, and perspectives in the field of study, but also to become more conscious of his/her emotional responses to situations encountered in training and practice, to find metaphors for experiences, and to contextualize observations. When reflective writing is shared in classes and groups, careful listening and provision of responsible, sensitive feedback to fellow students and practitioners is encouraged.

Creative Writing TipsSuccess Secrets of Top Authors

Creative Writing Tip #1: Figurative LanguageFigurative Speech uses language in original, imaginative ways to create exciting concrete images. Two frequently used figures of speech are similes and metaphors. A Simile explicitly compares one thing to another, using the word like or as;

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as in: Sharp as flint...solitary as an oyster. (From A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens) A Metaphor is a figure of speech that implies a comparison by speaking of one thing as if it were another, without using the word like or as: Where I first bow'd my knee Unto this king of smiles, this Bolingbroke... Why, what a candy deal of courtesy This fawning greyhound then did proffer me! (From King Henry IV, by William Shakespeare) Create Word Music with OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeic words imitate the sounds, movements or feelings they describe; for example: murmur, babble, clang, mumble, moan, drone, buzz, hiss, sigh, ooze, churn, crack, quiver, rustle, shiver, sizzle, flicker, whirl, twirl, tumble, swoon. Onomatopoeia creates musical effects and brings images to life.Create Word Music with AlliterationThis is when the same sound gets repeated in several words running close together; it can be a loud plosive, as in batter, bash, bang, bump, battle, bomb; or a softer, muted note as in mummy, milk, mellow, melody, moon, murmur. Alliteration helps to convey meaning and mood: contrast the explosive force of Don't do it!; Drop dead!; Down, Doggy, down! with the mellower tones in mummy's milk; merry melody; marry me; or the light, lingering effect created by the l consonants.Create Word Music with Vowel SoundsWriters use vowel sounds to reveal moods and emotions. Quick, lilting i and e vowels create a light-hearted feeling, while long vowels and diphthongs like a, o, u and ea sound rich and warm.Rich, full vowels also evoke a sense of abundance.Create Word Music with AssonanceAssonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds close together, as in the rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain. This repetition reinforces mood and feeling, and gives unity to sentences. Examples: for a touch of warm humor, as in how now, brown cow?; for a lighthearted, hopeful tone, as in star light, star bright, first star I see tonight; or to evoke a sense of awe, as in O Lord my God, when I in awesome wonder, consider all the worlds... Writers also use assonance to create word music with a rhythmical beat to it.Create Word Music with ResonanceResonance is a prolonged, vibrating sound that adds fullness and weight to

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words. It is useful for recreating the hum and bustle of a crowd, droning voices or background noises. Listen to the resonance of the m, n and ng sounds in these lines: The moan of doves in immemorial elms,And murmur of innumerable bees.(From The Princess by Alfred Lord Tennyson) Create Word Music with RepetitionRepetition is especially effective in children's stories. Kids love jingles and repetitive rhymes; in fact they need this repetition to learn words. Studies have shown that constant reiteration improves a child's flow of language; think, for example, of nursery rhymes like Mary Had a Little Lamb and favorite tales like The Three Little Pigs ("Then I'll huff and I'll puff, and I'll blow your house down") and Jack and the Beanstalk ("Fie Fee Fo Fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman") Creative Writing Tip #2: Strong Action VerbsWrite with strong action verbs. Active verbs are dynamic; passive verbs are insipid. Active Verb: Joe caught the lion. Passive Verb: The lion was caught by Joe. An action verb electrifies. Active verbs are vivid verbs; they evoke drama and suspense, they rivet the reader's attention: Mr Rochester flung me behind him: the lunatic sprang and grappled his throat viciously, and laid her teeth to his cheek: they struggled. (From Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Bronte) Creative Writing Tip #3: DenotationsGood word-choice is important. Readers expect words to be used according to their denotations: that is, their established dictionary definitions. Some words may have the same general definitions. For example: famous, noted, renowned, celebrated, talked-about and notorious all mean widely-known. But each of these words carries a different denotation. Choose words that precisely fit your meaning. A celebrated author is very different from a notorious one. Wrong choice of words weakens your writing and confuses readers. Consult a good dictionary if you're unsure of the precise meaning of a word. Creative Writing Tip #4: ConnotationsWords also have connotations: emotional overtones that go beyond the word's explicit definition. When choosing words, be sensitive to their connotations. Explore the overtones in different words. Words with approximately similar meanings may have different connotations. For example, each of these

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words evokes an entirely different response from the reader: fat, plump, chubby, pot-bellied, paunchy, obese. Emotional associations add layers of meaning to your writing. Sentences are especially potent when constructed with emotionally charged words, because of the rich interplay of connotations among the words: Oh! But he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone, Scrooge! A squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching, covetous old sinner! Hard and sharp as flint, from which no steel had ever struck out generous fire; secret, and self-contained, and solitary as an oyster. (From A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens) If you're unsure of the connotation of a word, consult a good dictionary of synonyms. Creative Writing Tip #5: Concrete WordsBalance general words and abstract ideas with specific and concrete words. General words name groups of things: for example, fish, fruit. Abstract words name qualities or ideas: for example, protection, danger. Specific and concrete words name things that appeal to our senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste or smell: for example, goldfish, orange, castle. General and abstract words paint a broad but sketchy picture. Use them to set out your main idea, then flesh them out with specific and concrete words that evoke vivid images in the minds of readers. Like this: In the sea, once upon a time, O my Best Beloved, there was a Whale, and he ate fishes. He ate the starfish and the garfish, and the crab and the dab, and the plaice and the dace, and the skate and his mate, and the mackereel and the pickereel, and the really truly twirly-whirly eel. (From Just So Stories, by Rudyard Kipling) Creative Writing Tip #6: Show, Don't TellGet readers involved in your story, make them feel with and for your characters. One way of doing this is to show characters' feelings and personalities through action and dialogue: "The Founder of the Feast indeed!" cried Mrs Cratchit, reddening. "I wish I had him here. I'd give him a piece of my mind to feast upon, and I hope he'd have a good appetite for it." "My dear," said Bob, "the children; Christmas Day." "It should be Christmas Day, I am sure," said she, "on which one drinks the health of such an odious, stingy, hard, unfeeling man as Mr Scrooge. You know he is, Robert! Nobody knows it better than you do, poor fellow!"(From A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens) By letting Mrs Cratchit speak and act for herself, Charles Dickens has brought her to life. He has shown us her distinctive voice and personality,

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and at the same time engaged our sympathy for Bob Cratchit. Much more effective than if the author were to tell us: "Mrs Cratchit felt indignant when Bob proposed a toast to Scrooge. She wanted to give Mr Scrooge a piece of her mind..." Creative Writing Tip #7: Word Music When we read, we hear the words with our inner ear. The way an author writes, especially the interplay of word choice, syntax and repetition, determines the way the words sound to readers: whether it's discord or melody that they hear. Good writing has a musical rhythm to it. Listen as Charles Dickens draws us into A Tale of Two Cities with this lyrical opening: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair... And the poignant, triumphant note on which the story ends: listen as the stirring music draws to a close: "I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peaceful, useful, prosperous and happy, in that England which I shall see no more... "I see that I hold a sanctuary in their hearts, and in the hearts of their descendants, generations hence. I see her, an old woman, weeping for me on the anniversary of this day. I see her and her husband, their course done, lying side by side in their last earthly bed, and I know that each was not more honoured and held sacred in the other's soul, than I was in the souls of both... "It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known." (From A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens)

Creative Writing TipsHow to Improve Writing Skills

Creative Writing Tip #1: Be SimpleWrite in the simple, natural language of everyday speech. This doesn't mean that you confine yourself to only the most basic words, but that you avoid pompous language, which may cloud your meaning or send readers to sleep.

Creative Writing Tip #2: Be YourselfBe yourself; be natural and sincere. Don't try to imitate another writer's style; find your own, the style that bears the stamp of your personality.

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Creative Writing Tip #3: Be Precise Choose words that convey your message clearly to readers. Good writers look for the apt word, the word that carries the precise denotation and the strongest, richest connotations. For more Creative Writing Tips on Denotations and Connotations of Words, go to Good Word Choice. Creative Writing Tip #4: Be ConciseConcise writing is clear and strong. Write to the point, cut out unnecessary words. This doesn't mean that you throw out all details, descriptions and figures of speech but that you make every word pull its weight.

Creative Writing Ideas:Ideas for Writing a Book& Narrative Story IdeasHow do you find creative writing ideas? It's not difficult if you know where to look; free story plot ideas are all around you. Here are some great sources of story writing ideas: Creative Writing Ideas from Newspapers, Magazines and BooksNewspapers and magazines are a treasure trove of story ideas. Mix news items with incidents from your own life, or from your observations or imagination; what emerges should not be a mere retelling of the facts but a creative shaping of the events into a story with your own unique stamp on it.

Think about the people in these news reports, too. What drove them to act in the ways they did? What were their hopes and fears, their dreams and desires? Create rounded characters that will add depth to your story. Look through newspapers and magazines, and cut out photos of fascinating faces on which you can build your characters. Read books by other authors, too: not so much to copy their work as to see how you might use their ideas as a springboard from which you could develop your own original storyline. Creative Writing Ideas from PeopleObserve people around you. Their mannerisms and facial expressions, their distinctive diction and memorable turns of phrase, their personality quirks and oddities: any of these may spark off your imagination, leading to a novel revolving round one or more fascinating, unforgettable characters. Listen to people: You never know what strange or wonderful experiences they have gone through, which will make great stories; but get their consent

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first, especially if you want to write your book as a direct retelling of someone's real life adventures. Be careful, though, about basing your characters or plot directly or solely on a real-life person or event; click here for the legal issues involved in doing so: Avoid Defamation of Character.

It's much safer to build characters that are a composite of various real people, and composite plots based on several different incidents - and you get a richer story with more in-depth characters too. Creative Writing Ideas from Your Own LifeThe best ideas for creative writing often come from your own experiences, from what you can write about knowledgeably and convincingly. Think back, for example, to your childhood escapades: any ideas there for a children's book? Or, what about your life now? If you're in a college or university, your tales of campus life could strike a sympathetic chord with many students. Or if you go scuba diving or rock climbing on weekends, your hobby could provide you with wonderful ideas for adventure stories. Exciting events, trying times, even dreams and nightmares: all these can be turned into unique, fascinating plots. Readers like a good laugh, and a good cry, and will identify with your tale of woe if it's told humorously and skillfully.

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