Empire & Aftermath

Postcolonial Egypt: Authoritarian Nationalism and the

American Empire

James E. Baldwin

Independence in stages

• In occupation since 1882, Britain annexes Egypt in 1914.• First World War sees fighting on Egyptian soil and Cairo

used as a military base.• Egyptian nationalists hoped to use post-war peace

conference to secure independence.• Nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul arrested and exiled,

resulting in unrest: the Egyptian Revolution of 1919.• Britain grants Egypt independence in 1922, but retains

for itself: defense of Egypt, control of imperial communications, protection of foreign interests, occupation of Suez Canal zone.

Independence in stages

• World War 2: more fighting in Egypt, including aerial bombardment, British force king to appoint new government in 1942.

• Free Officers’ Revolution of 1952 overthrew monarchy and dedicated itself to full freedom from British influence.

• Agreement in 1954 to evacuate all British troops in Egypt.• Egypt during 1950s and 60s committed to non-alignment.• From 1970s, Egypt aligned itself more closely with the US –

has it now been incorporated into an American empire?

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Nasser’s program

• Challenging British hegemony in the Middle East.

• Arab unity in the face of imperialism.• Non-alignment in the Cold War.• Freedom from influence of international

capital.• Egyptianization of the Egyptian economy.

The Suez War of 1956

The Suez War of 1956: background

• Tension with Britain and France over support for Arab nationalism; tension with USA over arms purchases and funding for Aswan dam.

• Suez Canal Company: listed company, majority of shares owned by Britain and France.

• July 1956: Nasser declares nationalization of canal in speech in Alexandria.

The Suez War of 1956

• Secret plan between Britain, France and Israel.• Israel invades Sinai, Britain and France intervene as

peacekeepers, in the process seizing control of canal area.• US very angry: puts enormous diplomatic and economic

pressure on British Prime Minister Anthony Eden.• Eden suddenly recalls British forces, causing collapse of

operation.• Experienced by Eden and the British political elite as a

deep humiliation, the war was the iconic moment of a longer process in which the US supplanted Britain as the dominant power in the Middle East.

Nasser’s domestic policies

• Nationalization: beyond Suez Canal, most large businesses.

• Land reform: breaking up of large estates, with small plots of land granted to peasant families.

• Ambitious modernization drive.• Egyptianization: increasing restrictions on

economic activities of foreign citizens, ultimately leading to harassment campaign that forces out most of Egypt’s large expatriate population.

Land redistribution ceremony in Minya, upper Egypt, early 1960s.

Repression under Nasser

• Expulsion of foreign nationals as part of Egyptianization drive.

• Vicious suppression of Muslim Brotherhood after attempt to assassinate Nasser in 1954.

• The same campaign crushed all other forms of dissent, such as communists.

• Nasser set up extensive security apparatus: to control population and as counterweight to the military.

Sadat’s turn to the US

• After war of 1973, Sadat decides that military conflict with Israel futile.

• Visits Jerusalem in 1977, peace deal signed in 1979 leading to Israeli withdrawal from Sinai.

• Policy of infitah – opening of Egyptian economy to foreign investment.

• Coincides with Iranian Revolution of 1979: US lost its main Middle Eastern ally and was searching for a replacement.

US-Egyptian alliance

• Most important components: peace with Israel and support for US objectives in the oil-exporting regions of the Middle East.

• Neoliberal reform: also response to IMF pressure.• US support provided through military aid:

currently $1.5 billion annually.• Aid gives Egyptian armed forces huge disincentive

to engage in a coup that threatens US interests.

Egyptian Revolution of 2011

Aftermath of 2011 revolution

• Military tried to stage-manage transition to another authoritarian, military-friendly regime.

• Initially hoped Ahmed Shafik, former minister under Mubarak, would be elected president.

• After Mohamed Morsi’s victory, he attempted to seize control of repressive apparatus, rather than reform it.

• Old regime took advantage of widespread protests against Morsi to seize power again, with military now in more powerful position than security services.