Work Efficiency and MotivationE B Goldsmith, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

ã 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

GlossaryAttitudes A state of mind or feeling about objects, people, or

events often expressed as a like or dislike.

Commitment The degree to which an individual identifies

with and is involved in a particular activity or organization.

Efficiency Acting in such a way as to use a minimum of

time, money, or unnecessary effort, and the ratio of effective

output to the input required to achieve it.

Effort The use of energy to do something; exertion.

Goals End results toward which human activity is directed.

Motivation Effort expended to perform work.

Paradigm shift Situations when an individual, team, or

organization tackles a problem with radically innovative

solutions rather than taking a step-by-step approach.

Persistence Directed effort over time.

Satisfaction Contentment derived from a relationship or a

level of living or working.

Stress The body’s reaction to a demand, or a physical or an

emotional situation that causes imbalance.

Work Physical or mental effort expended to produce or

accomplish something.

Work efficiency and motivation emerged as concerns of man-

agers and researchers in the twentieth century and continues

through the twenty-first century. From its beginning in the

United States with the assembly-line efficiency studies of

Frederick Taylor, this area of study has grown into a sophisti-

cated science applicable to all organizations. His work is

updated with new applications such as the Japanese-influenced

5S Concept discussed in this essay. The interest in the topic has

emerged because of the recognition that successful organiza-

tions need people who are motivated and efficient, challenged

but not overly stressed. As the pace of change accelerates,

paradigm shifts are taking place. There is not always time for

a step-by-step approach to increase productivity. Less clutter,

physical and mental, may be part of the solution. How to

increase motivation and efficiency in workers are on-going

issues throughout the world. It would be difficult to find a

recent research journal or book on industrial psychology, orga-

nizational behavior, family relations, or management that does

not address these issues.

Introduction

There are two levels to this discussion: societal and individual.

Society is rapidly changing as evidenced by technological inno-

vation and adoption affecting time management and worker

availability and shifting demographics. Globally, the Internet,

text messaging, and cell phones have revolutionized commu-

nication and impacted lives beyond measure. In the United

States, the number of households has increased significantly

but the number of people per household has decreased signifi-

cantly (Goldsmith, 2010). It is predicted that the 2010 census

will reveal that the most prevalent household type will be a

married couple without children followed by a single person

household. This demographic pattern is also seen in other

developed nations. So what has happened in the work and

family discussion of impacts on work efficiency and motiva-

tion is a switch from using the term ‘work-family balance’ to

more usage of ‘personal-professional life balance’ as evidenced

in this international journal article title ‘Sacrificing personal or

professional life? A gender perspective on the accounts of retail

managers’ (Broadbridge, 2009).

A unified treatment of work efficiency and motivation must

explore the phenomenon of human behavior at the individual

level. Each individual is unique, and placed in similar sit-

uations all people do not act alike. However, certain funda-

mental consistencies that underlie behavior can be identified,

measured, and predicted. This predictability allows for the

systematic study of human behavior. The aspects of behavior

to be discussed in this article are work efficiency and

motivation.

The Nature of Efficiency

Many practical problems are associated with how efficient

workers are. The overall productivity (output) of an organiza-

tion is linked to the way workers perform. How to encourage

efficiency and maintain high-quality performance in workers

are problems for everyone from line foremen to company

presidents. This problem permeates all organizations, large or

small, for profit or nonprofit. Since the 1940s, the emphasis

shifted from increasing efficiency to increasing effectiveness as

a means for boosting productivity. For example, a department

store is considered effective when it successfully meets the

needs of its shoppers. It is efficient when it can do this and

still keep costs low. Thus, a store is most effective when it

attains its sales or market share goals in a productive and

efficient manner. The emphasis is not purely on making the

most number of sales in record time, but on making sure that

the sales are well handled, to encourage repeat business, and

good ‘word of mouth.’ The concept of effectiveness implies a

concern for the long haul as well as for short-term gains. The

roots of efficiency studies that eventually led to the more global

concept of effectiveness can be traced to the early 1900s when

Frederick Taylor proposed scientific management principles

designed to maximize production efficiency. The goal of

these principles was to eliminate wasted time and motion in

697

698 Work Efficiency and Motivation

repetitious work, especially assembly-line work. By carefully

studying the most efficient ways jobs could be performed and

implementing changes to increase efficiency, he was able to

achieve productivity improvements from 200 to 300%. Natu-

rally, Taylor became the favorite of managers, but drew criticism

from some workers who felt his methods depersonalized pro-

duction. Because of his contributions, Taylor is often called the

father of management or the father of time and motion studies.

Eventually, his methods were criticized more because many

previously creative, personally satisfying jobs became routinized

and boring leading to increased absenteeism, and in some cases

disruptive and even destructive behavior by employees. In

highly routinized jobs, workers can begin to feel like ‘cogs in a

wheel’ rather than as intelligent, skilled human beings. Man-

agers who are aware of this problem try to resolve the creativity/

efficiency conflict through a variety of ways. Most typically, jobs

are redesigned to make them less routine and more meaningful.

For example, encouraging team work stimulates workers’ inter-

est in their jobs and increases productivity. Rotating tasks are

another means to keep work interesting. Ultimately, organiza-

tions need to develop a strategy and a structure that address the

needs of its workers as well as its clientele. By the 1940s and

1950s, concern for the plight of the individual worker became

the subject of many management and industrial psychology

studies. During these decades, worker motivation became

increasingly recognized as a contributor to productivity.

In the 1970s inflexible work hours and health effects from

stress overload became topics considered by many to be pri-

marily women’s issues, but as time passed it was clear that the

either-or of work and personal/family life was an issue for both

men and women (Broadbridge, 2009). Stress can be internal

(arising from personal thoughts, worry) or external such as the

sudden appearance of a belligerent boss (Goldsmith, 2007).

There is an emerging literature on the emotions in the work-

place and the transactional approach to the stress process.

Closely allied to the subjects of stress, efficiency, and effective-

ness is the concept of motivation to be discussed next.

The Nature of Motivation

Motivation comes in many forms and should be addressed

within the over-arching economic climate. The wordmotivation

was originally derived from the Latin word ‘movere,’ meaning

‘tomove.’ Inmanagement theory and practice, motivation refers

to movement and also direction, vigor, persistence, creativity,

and sustained energy. To increase workermotivation, employers

can choose from several methods. Some of these are enriching

job skills through workshops, on-the-job training, travel and

international assignments, sabbaticals, workplace seminars,

courses, job rotation, and other forms of job/skill enrichment

or by providing promotions, bonuses, or raises. Complications

arise from the fact that what motivates one worker might not

motivate another. The skilled manager tries to match the person

with the most appropriate type of motivation. Keeping job skills

up-to-date and providing a stimulating workplace are two ways

that usually ensure a continual reservoir of highly trained, moti-

vated employees.

Regarding the economy, with the downturn in recent years

many organizations had to let go of workers and furlough the

ones remaining. Furloughs can mean working for several days

or weeks a year without pay or in some cases, not having to

come into work but not being paid (this might be during

nationally recognized holidays or on days selected by the

employer or the employee with approval of the manager).

Firings, reduced hiring, overloads, and furloughs affect worker

morale, on the other hand, it motivates many employees to

work harder, happy to have a job during hard times. In many

industries during the economic downturn, services to custo-

mers improved and employee retention was not a problem,

motivation took a back seat to survival.

The previously mentioned methods to motivate employees

are all extrinsic. In other words, they describe ways employers

or managers (outside sources) can motivate workers. Another

form of motivation is intrinsic. In intrinsic motivation, the

effort, comes from within the worker. The concept of intrinsic

and extrinsic motivation provides many puzzles for human

behaviorists. Origin is one. Some individuals need very little

external push to work harder while others seem to need a lot.

Are the differences caused by genetics? By childhood experi-

ences? By early work experiences? Another puzzle is how to

stimulate intrinsic motivation. Studies on intrinsic motivation

date back to the 1920s, but the concept became more widely

known in the 1950s. Intrinsic motivation implies enjoyment in

an action, a feeling of being totally immersed by an activity. Far

more is known about extrinsic than about intrinsic motivation.

It is generally agreed that to increase productivity, organiza-

tions need to tap both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Since

motivation appears to be affected by both personal and situa-

tional factors which interact with one another, managers need

to address both sets of factors. Many previous studies on moti-

vation have centered on three main concerns: (1) what moti-

vates or energizes human behavior, (2) how this behavior can

be stimulated and sustained, and (3) what organizations can

do to initiate, direct, and channel motivation. The rest of the

article addresses these concerns.

Central Issues in Efficiency and Motivation

One specific efficiency issue, efficiency versus effectiveness,

has already been discussed. Generally, organizations today

stress effectiveness. Also the problems inherent in overem-

phasizing efficiency and routinization and underemphasizing

creativity and individualism in jobs have been mentioned in

the Frederick Taylor discussion. A more central issue germane

to both efficiency and motivation is how to stimulate and

reward people who work hard.

Influences

Why is it that some workers can be depended on to work hard

while others cannot? There are many influences on worker

efficiency and motivation. The most basic ones are personal-

ity, heredity or history, environment, and situations. Person-

ality, the qualities, traits, and personal characteristics of a

person, appears to be a result of both heredity and environ-

ment. The way it is enacted depends on the situation in which

people find themselves.

Work Efficiency and Motivation 699

Probably the best known theory of motivation was devel-

oped by psychologist Abraham Maslow. He hypothesized that

each individual has a series of needs ranging from lower order

needs to higher order needs. He called this series a hierarchy of

needs. The lower order needs include physiological needs (i.e.,

thirst, hunger, shelter) and safety (i.e., security, safety from

danger). The higher order needs include love (i.e., affection,

acceptance), esteem (i.e., respect, admiration, status), and self-

actualization (i.e., the development of full potential, fulfill-

ment). According to Maslow, physiological needs have first

priority and must be partially met before a person can fulfill

higher order needs. All people seek to fulfill their needs, but

each individual fulfills them in a different way.

Given this hierarchy, an organization that wants to moti-

vate an employee should try to assess where that person is on

the hierarchy and focus on satisfying that level of needs before

proceeding to the next level. For example, during a recession or

a period of down-sizing, the emphasis should be on safety

needs (level two). During high growth times, the emphasis

may shift to esteem or self-actualization (levels four and five).

Motivation can be envisioned as a process that originates

with unsatisfied needs. Unsatisfied needs lead to tension which

in turn stimulates drive and search behavior. The process ends

when needs are satisfied and tension is reduced.

An individual as well as an organization can seek to influ-

ence the motivation process. Ideally, individual needs should

be compatible and consistent with organizational needs.

Unfortunately, it is not unusual for these needs to not match

and to prove counterproductive. For example, a worker may be

seeking solutions to problems which no longer hold impor-

tance for his or her manager. Communication and a shared

vision are the keys to creating the right fit between individual

effort and organizational output.

By the 1960s a philosophical shift was taking place in the

field of organizational behavior. The human factor became an

even more important subject of study than it had been previ-

ously. Jobs were no longer looked at as strictly technical, but as

sociotechnical systems. This approach took into consideration

the individual’s response to their job as well as to the actual

mechanics of the job. Technical tasks were viewed within the

greater context of the work culture and environment. The

narrowly defined concept of scientific management, that is,

efficiency first and foremost, gave way to a much broader

definition of management and all its permutations.

For example, in 1960 Douglas McGregor suggested in his

book The Human Side of Enterprise that the manager’s view of

the nature of human beings is biased toward two main group-

ings of behavior assumptions which he labeled Theory X and

Theory Y. Theory X assumes that the lower order needs identi-

fied by Maslow dominate the individual so that under Theory

X, the assumptions held by managers are:

1. Employees inherently dislike work and will avoid it if

they can.

2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, con-

trolled, directed, or threatened with punishment to put

forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organiza-

tional objectives.

3. Employees will try to avoid responsibilities and seek secu-

rity and direction whenever possible.

The assumptions underlying Theory Y are:

1. Employees view work as being as natural as rest or play.

2. Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control if

they are committed to organizational objectives.

3. Employees are committed to objectives that are related to

the rewards associated with their achievement.

4. Employees under normal conditions seek responsibility.

5. Most employees will exercise a relatively high degree of

imagination, ingenuity, and creativity.

6. Under the conditions of modern life, most employees’

intellectual potentialities are only partially utilized.

McGregor thought that Theory Y assumptions were more

valid than Theory X. He believed that most people would

thrive on opportunities for growth, challenging jobs, good

interpersonal relations, and responsibility.

Motivation took on a more complicated formula with the

introduction of the motivation-hygiene theory of psychologist

Frederick Herzberg. He asserted that intrinsic factors such as

achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growthwere related

to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors were more associated

with dissatisfaction. A person’s attitudes, therefore, have a great

deal to do with that person’s satisfaction and job success.

Just as with Taylor, the theories of McGregor and Herzberg

have their detractors. For example, Herzberg’s theory is criticized

for emphasizing satisfaction over productivity and McGregor’s

for being too simplistic. However, all three theorists along with

Maslow have had an enormous impact on the way organiza-

tions manage workers and design jobs. There are a number of

newer theories that fall into the following categories: (1) needs,

(2) goal-setting, (3) reinforcement, (4) equity, (5) expectancy,

and (6) stress and fatigue. Due to space limitations not all can

be sufficiently addressed in this article. What they have in com-

mon is that they try to explain and predict motivation, and

many build on the works previously cited.

The field of psychology has always had a strong influence on

the theories, research, and applications in organizational behav-

ior. As an example, the roots of needs theory can be traced to

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and those of reinforcement theory

to the work of Harvard psychologist B. F. Skinner. Since Skinner

found that rewards are most effective when they immediately

follow the desired response, his research influenced when and

how managers rewarded positive work behaviors.

Probably of the six theory categories listed, the one most

relevant to the subject of motivation is expectancy theory.

According to this theory, a person’s motivation is a function

of (1) matching effort to performance expectancies, (2) match-

ing performance to outcome expectancies, and (3) the percep-

tion of attractiveness of outcomes. Satisfaction is conceived as a

result of performance rather than a cause of it.

Job Attitudes and Performance

Attitudes are thoughts or feelings (positive or negative) about

objects, people, or events. For instance, people like or dislike

opera. They also like or dislike certain aspects of their work.

People have thousands of attitudes, but for the purposes of

this article the focus will be on job attitudes, specifically, job

satisfaction, involvement, and commitment.

700 Work Efficiency and Motivation

Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude people have

about their jobs. There are many measures of work satisfaction.

Most attempt to determine whether workers are challenged in

their work, feel adequately compensated, rewarded, and com-

fortable in their work environment including the physical

facilities and interpersonal relationships. Job involvement has

to do with how strongly people identify with and really care

about the work they do. Commitment refers to how much the

person identifies with the overall organization. Research indi-

cates that high job involvement and commitment result in

lower absenteeism and job turnover. Job satisfaction, involve-

ment, and commitment are all subject to change, but usually

people strive to maintain a consistency or balance in their

attitudes and behaviors. This is consistent with McGregor’s

Theory Y discussed earlier; most people want to do well at

their work.

In regard to performance, individuals are motivated if they

can see that their performance is appreciated, noted, and

rewarded. They need to know what the organization’s perfor-

mance expectations are and what the outcomes of their indi-

vidual performance will be. Unclear objectives and a lack of

consistency or confidence in the organization to define and

recognize good performance will decrease worker motivation,

and productivity may suffer.

A new managerial organizing principle for workplaces

which has been found to improve performance is called the

5S concept. The name comes from a list of five Japanese words

which when loosely translated into English become five words

beginning with the letter ‘S’:

• Sort : Order items and activities (prioritize)

• Straighten : Arrange

• Shine : On task completion, clean and restore

• Standardize : Consistent methods will increase order, save

time

• Sustain : Afterwards, maintain, reduce waste, evaluate

An example of the 5S concept in practice is when a hospital

was reconfigured and stethoscopes were put in drawers marked

‘stethoscope’ rather than placing them on desk tops or hooks.

Afterward every doctor and nurse knew where to find them,

sounds simple, but it saved time (and perhaps lives) and

lessened clutter. Efficiency experts are brought in to factories

and multistory office buildings to make them more consistent

and systematic using the 5S concept. This works particularly

well in shared work spaces such as production lines and in the

media with 24-h news where no one ‘owns’ a desk.

Diversity in the Workplace

In the 1990s, a concern emerged about how well past motiva-

tional and efficiency theories fit the changing composition of

the workforce. The growing number of women, minorities,

and older workers in the labor force led organizations to

reassess previously held notions about workers and their moti-

vations. Appropriate changes in reward systems have begun to

be implemented. As one example of a policy responsive to

changes in the work force, the popularity and pervasiveness

of flextime (flexible hours of work arrival and departure) can

be partially traced to the growing number of working parents

who are trying to balance work and family responsibilities.

By 2010, white non-Hispanics in the United States will con-

stitute 54% of the population under the age of 18. In the ten

largest cities, no ethnic or racial group will have a clear majority.

The urban work force will become increasingly diverse.

The recognition of diversity in the workplace has brought to

question the notion that an organization has a uniform culture

to which all employees subscribe. Typically in organizations

there is a dominant culture and several subcultures. A subcul-

ture is a set of values and attitudes held by a minority of the

organization’s members. Subcultures may fall along the lines

of specializations, interests, or in a variety of other ways. Sub-

cultures can weaken and undermine an organization, but more

likely they will ascribe to and support the values of the domi-

nant organization culture while seeking to maintain their

own identity.

Respecting diversity and working with it rather than against

it will be the key to the continued success of organizations. In

order to remain competitive, employers are making an effort to

recognize, recruit, and manage an older and more culturally

and racially diverse work force. While practical applications are

moving ahead, research on workplace diversity in relation to

motivation and efficiency is in its infancy.

Motivational Techniques

The concept of goal motivation is used to explain how direc-

tion, effort, and duration/persistence affect goal-setting. Goals

direct action and behavior. It has been established that higher

goals produce higher performance. If goals are set too low they

are not motivating enough. Conversely, goals set unreasonably

high can be frustrating. Thus, finding the right level of goals is a

management problem. The words ‘duration’ and ‘persistence’

refer to directed effort over time, a relentless, driving behavior.

Goal commitment implies a determination to continue goal-

seeking. Research indicates that self confidence and previous

success at achieving goals positively affect a person’s future goal

commitment and achievement.

Technique refers to the systematic procedure for accomplish-

ing a task. Motivational techniques, therefore, are procedures

that stimulate a person to accomplish a work task. Goal-setting

is one technique for motivating workers.

Goal-Setting

In 1968, Edwin Locke published a paper that is considered

to be the seminal work on goal-setting theory. He wrote

that people strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emo-

tions and desires. Although goal-setting is an important moti-

vational stimulus, the concepts of needs and values are also

fundamental concepts of work motivation according to Locke.

More recently, researchers and theorists have concluded

that goals direct and focus attention onto certain task require-

ments, away from conflicting or alternative actions. Thus, goals

direct behavior and provide a framework for a strategy of

performance. Sometimes intentions and goals are used inter-

changeably, but they are different in that intentions may be

theoretical (a person plans or intends to do something)

whereas the word goal implies action. In the terms ‘goal attain-

ment’ and ‘goal achievement,’ an end result is assumed.

Work Efficiency and Motivation 701

Before goals can be achieved, they need to be set. Research

on goal-setting falls into the following categories: (1) specific

versus general, (2) difficult versus easy, (3) owned or shared

versus imposed, and (4) timely feedback and progress toward

goals. The results of the research indicate that specific, chal-

lenging, and owned or shared goals are preferred. The degree of

persistence applied to goal pursuance is closely linked to ulti-

mate achievement. And in the end, timely and appropriate

feedback is preferable to no feedback. Workers want to know

the results of their efforts.

Organizations put a great deal of energy into setting goals

and motivating workers to achieve organizational goals. At the

same time, workers have personal goals they are trying to

achieve. Two examples of worker goals are the opportunity to

learn more and move ahead. Organizations try to match work-

er’s needs with organizational needs-enhancing work satisfac-

tion and output for both.

In the 1980s, American business embraced a Japanese busi-

ness practice called total quality management (TQM). One of

the techniques in TQM relevant to goal-setting is the widespread

use of quality circles (QCs). In QCs, a group of employees

regularly meets to identify and solve work-related problems.

Their focus is on increasing productivity and meeting

department and organizational goals. Improvements are sug-

gested. A group leader reports the proposed improvements

to higher management. Steering committees sort through

the suggestions and implement the ones they consider viable.

With QCs it was thought that everyone benefits from

the increased communication between the various levels

of the organization and the cooperative spirit generated by

teamwork.

By the 1990s, some drawbacks to QCs and TQM were

uncovered. This form of management involves many meetings

and a lot of paperwork that is time consuming. Some of this

time was taken away from the basic organizational functions of

serving customers and producing goods. Consequently, TQM

and QCs are being reassessed. Research continues to try to

determine in what situations, settings, and organizations QCs

and TQM are most effective.

Reward Systems in Organizations

A review of the literature reveals the importance of rewards in

the relationship between motivation, satisfaction, and work

performance. Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler developers of

the Porter Lawler motivation model recommend that organi-

zations make sure that their reward policies are closely linked

to performance. This is suggested because the individual work-

er’s job satisfaction is derived from the difference between the

amount of rewards he or she receives and the amount he or she

expects to receive. Job satisfaction represents an attitude, posi-

tive or negative, rather than a behavior. Zellars et al. (2004)

point out the relationships among attributes such as emotions

and problem solving to coping with what goes on in

organizations.

Equity is an important part of job satisfaction. Employees

want pre motion and pay systems that they perceive as just,

equitable, and fair. Individuals who perceive reward decisions

as unambigious and consistent with their expectations will

likely report satisfaction with their job.

Closely linked to the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation discussed earlier are the concepts of intrinsic and

extrinsic rewards. The pleasure or value a person derives from

the content of work itself makes it intrinsically rewarding.

Rewards received from the work environment, the organiza-

tion, are extrinsic. A company-paid car is an extrinsic reward,

whereas the feelings of personal satisfaction from a job well

done are intrinsic. Intrinsic rewards may stem from greater job

freedom and discretion, more interesting work, opportunities

for personal growth, and more participation in decision

making. There are dozens of extrinsic rewards ranging from

assigned parking spaces to profit sharing. To be most effective,

rewards should be individualized to meet each person’s needs.

One employee might value a flexible lunch hour so he can

swim every day in the nearby university pool while another

employee may put more value on a paneled office with a large

desk. Rewards can be used by organizations to recognize an

employee’s past achievements or to direct him or her toward

certain future achievements.

Concluding Remarks on Efficiency and Motivation

Observing and commenting on human behavior is a funda-

mental and enduring subject for the novice as well as the

professional. This article explored how organizations try to

direct employee behavior toward higher productivity. The the-

ories discussed in the article reveal that there is not one, singu-

lar all-purpose way to motivate workers or to make an

organization more efficient. Generally it is agreed that satisfied,

motivated workers are more productive than dissatisfied,

bored workers. Organizations try to identify, recognize, and

reward productive workers. Research reveals that rewards

should be consistently and fairly distributed. The ultimate

organizational behavior goal is a happy/productive/consistent

worker-not one alternating between despair and elation.

Rewards should not produce ups and downs, but a secure

feeling that efforts are noted and rewarded, if not immediately,

then soon.

Since its beginnings in assembly-line management, the

concept of efficiency has given way to a broader view of pro-

ductivity encompassing effectiveness and worker satisfaction.

The effective organization sets goals and keeps in mind the

different levels of job needs of its workers. Organizations in the

future will make fuller use of the skills, diversity, and motiva-

tional potential of their human resources and more effectively

integrate ever-changing technology to their advantage.

See also: Career Development; Decision Making (Individuals);Organizational Behavior.

Further Reading

Broadbridge A (2009) Sacrificing personal or professional life? A gender perspective onthe accounts of retail managers. In: The International Review of Retail, Distributionand Consumer Research. London: Routledge.

Goldsmith E (2007) Stress, fatigue, and social support in the work and family context.Journal of Loss and Trauma 12: 155–169.

702 Work Efficiency and Motivation

Goldsmith E (2010) Resource Management for Individuals and Families, 4th edn. UpperSaddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Herzberg H, Mausner B, and Synderman B (1954) The Motivation to Work.New York: Wiley.

Kleinbeck U, Quast H, Thierry H, and Hacker H (eds.) (1990)Work Motivation. Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.

Locke E (1968) Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. OrganizationalBehavior and Human Performance 3: 157–189.

Maslow A (1954) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row.McGregor D (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.Porter L and Lawler E (1968)Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin.

Robbins S (1989) Organizational Behavior, 4th edn. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Skinner BF (1971) Contingencies of Reinforcement. East Walk,CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Steers R and Porter L (1991) Motivation and Work Behavior, 5th edn. New York:McGraw-Hill.

Taylor F (1911) Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper & Brothers.Zellars K, Perrewe P, Ferris G, and Hochwarter W (2004) A preliminary examination

of the role of attributions and emotions in the transactional stress model. In:Martinko M (ed.) Attribution Theory in the Organizational Sciences: Theoretical andEmpirical Contributions, pp. 151–172. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.