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Work Efficiency and MotivationE B Goldsmith, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
ã 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
GlossaryAttitudes A state of mind or feeling about objects, people, or
events often expressed as a like or dislike.
Commitment The degree to which an individual identifies
with and is involved in a particular activity or organization.
Efficiency Acting in such a way as to use a minimum of
time, money, or unnecessary effort, and the ratio of effective
output to the input required to achieve it.
Effort The use of energy to do something; exertion.
Goals End results toward which human activity is directed.
Motivation Effort expended to perform work.
Paradigm shift Situations when an individual, team, or
organization tackles a problem with radically innovative
solutions rather than taking a step-by-step approach.
Persistence Directed effort over time.
Satisfaction Contentment derived from a relationship or a
level of living or working.
Stress The body’s reaction to a demand, or a physical or an
emotional situation that causes imbalance.
Work Physical or mental effort expended to produce or
accomplish something.
Work efficiency and motivation emerged as concerns of man-
agers and researchers in the twentieth century and continues
through the twenty-first century. From its beginning in the
United States with the assembly-line efficiency studies of
Frederick Taylor, this area of study has grown into a sophisti-
cated science applicable to all organizations. His work is
updated with new applications such as the Japanese-influenced
5S Concept discussed in this essay. The interest in the topic has
emerged because of the recognition that successful organiza-
tions need people who are motivated and efficient, challenged
but not overly stressed. As the pace of change accelerates,
paradigm shifts are taking place. There is not always time for
a step-by-step approach to increase productivity. Less clutter,
physical and mental, may be part of the solution. How to
increase motivation and efficiency in workers are on-going
issues throughout the world. It would be difficult to find a
recent research journal or book on industrial psychology, orga-
nizational behavior, family relations, or management that does
not address these issues.
Introduction
There are two levels to this discussion: societal and individual.
Society is rapidly changing as evidenced by technological inno-
vation and adoption affecting time management and worker
availability and shifting demographics. Globally, the Internet,
text messaging, and cell phones have revolutionized commu-
nication and impacted lives beyond measure. In the United
States, the number of households has increased significantly
but the number of people per household has decreased signifi-
cantly (Goldsmith, 2010). It is predicted that the 2010 census
will reveal that the most prevalent household type will be a
married couple without children followed by a single person
household. This demographic pattern is also seen in other
developed nations. So what has happened in the work and
family discussion of impacts on work efficiency and motiva-
tion is a switch from using the term ‘work-family balance’ to
more usage of ‘personal-professional life balance’ as evidenced
in this international journal article title ‘Sacrificing personal or
professional life? A gender perspective on the accounts of retail
managers’ (Broadbridge, 2009).
A unified treatment of work efficiency and motivation must
explore the phenomenon of human behavior at the individual
level. Each individual is unique, and placed in similar sit-
uations all people do not act alike. However, certain funda-
mental consistencies that underlie behavior can be identified,
measured, and predicted. This predictability allows for the
systematic study of human behavior. The aspects of behavior
to be discussed in this article are work efficiency and
motivation.
The Nature of Efficiency
Many practical problems are associated with how efficient
workers are. The overall productivity (output) of an organiza-
tion is linked to the way workers perform. How to encourage
efficiency and maintain high-quality performance in workers
are problems for everyone from line foremen to company
presidents. This problem permeates all organizations, large or
small, for profit or nonprofit. Since the 1940s, the emphasis
shifted from increasing efficiency to increasing effectiveness as
a means for boosting productivity. For example, a department
store is considered effective when it successfully meets the
needs of its shoppers. It is efficient when it can do this and
still keep costs low. Thus, a store is most effective when it
attains its sales or market share goals in a productive and
efficient manner. The emphasis is not purely on making the
most number of sales in record time, but on making sure that
the sales are well handled, to encourage repeat business, and
good ‘word of mouth.’ The concept of effectiveness implies a
concern for the long haul as well as for short-term gains. The
roots of efficiency studies that eventually led to the more global
concept of effectiveness can be traced to the early 1900s when
Frederick Taylor proposed scientific management principles
designed to maximize production efficiency. The goal of
these principles was to eliminate wasted time and motion in
697
698 Work Efficiency and Motivation
repetitious work, especially assembly-line work. By carefully
studying the most efficient ways jobs could be performed and
implementing changes to increase efficiency, he was able to
achieve productivity improvements from 200 to 300%. Natu-
rally, Taylor became the favorite of managers, but drew criticism
from some workers who felt his methods depersonalized pro-
duction. Because of his contributions, Taylor is often called the
father of management or the father of time and motion studies.
Eventually, his methods were criticized more because many
previously creative, personally satisfying jobs became routinized
and boring leading to increased absenteeism, and in some cases
disruptive and even destructive behavior by employees. In
highly routinized jobs, workers can begin to feel like ‘cogs in a
wheel’ rather than as intelligent, skilled human beings. Man-
agers who are aware of this problem try to resolve the creativity/
efficiency conflict through a variety of ways. Most typically, jobs
are redesigned to make them less routine and more meaningful.
For example, encouraging team work stimulates workers’ inter-
est in their jobs and increases productivity. Rotating tasks are
another means to keep work interesting. Ultimately, organiza-
tions need to develop a strategy and a structure that address the
needs of its workers as well as its clientele. By the 1940s and
1950s, concern for the plight of the individual worker became
the subject of many management and industrial psychology
studies. During these decades, worker motivation became
increasingly recognized as a contributor to productivity.
In the 1970s inflexible work hours and health effects from
stress overload became topics considered by many to be pri-
marily women’s issues, but as time passed it was clear that the
either-or of work and personal/family life was an issue for both
men and women (Broadbridge, 2009). Stress can be internal
(arising from personal thoughts, worry) or external such as the
sudden appearance of a belligerent boss (Goldsmith, 2007).
There is an emerging literature on the emotions in the work-
place and the transactional approach to the stress process.
Closely allied to the subjects of stress, efficiency, and effective-
ness is the concept of motivation to be discussed next.
The Nature of Motivation
Motivation comes in many forms and should be addressed
within the over-arching economic climate. The wordmotivation
was originally derived from the Latin word ‘movere,’ meaning
‘tomove.’ Inmanagement theory and practice, motivation refers
to movement and also direction, vigor, persistence, creativity,
and sustained energy. To increase workermotivation, employers
can choose from several methods. Some of these are enriching
job skills through workshops, on-the-job training, travel and
international assignments, sabbaticals, workplace seminars,
courses, job rotation, and other forms of job/skill enrichment
or by providing promotions, bonuses, or raises. Complications
arise from the fact that what motivates one worker might not
motivate another. The skilled manager tries to match the person
with the most appropriate type of motivation. Keeping job skills
up-to-date and providing a stimulating workplace are two ways
that usually ensure a continual reservoir of highly trained, moti-
vated employees.
Regarding the economy, with the downturn in recent years
many organizations had to let go of workers and furlough the
ones remaining. Furloughs can mean working for several days
or weeks a year without pay or in some cases, not having to
come into work but not being paid (this might be during
nationally recognized holidays or on days selected by the
employer or the employee with approval of the manager).
Firings, reduced hiring, overloads, and furloughs affect worker
morale, on the other hand, it motivates many employees to
work harder, happy to have a job during hard times. In many
industries during the economic downturn, services to custo-
mers improved and employee retention was not a problem,
motivation took a back seat to survival.
The previously mentioned methods to motivate employees
are all extrinsic. In other words, they describe ways employers
or managers (outside sources) can motivate workers. Another
form of motivation is intrinsic. In intrinsic motivation, the
effort, comes from within the worker. The concept of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation provides many puzzles for human
behaviorists. Origin is one. Some individuals need very little
external push to work harder while others seem to need a lot.
Are the differences caused by genetics? By childhood experi-
ences? By early work experiences? Another puzzle is how to
stimulate intrinsic motivation. Studies on intrinsic motivation
date back to the 1920s, but the concept became more widely
known in the 1950s. Intrinsic motivation implies enjoyment in
an action, a feeling of being totally immersed by an activity. Far
more is known about extrinsic than about intrinsic motivation.
It is generally agreed that to increase productivity, organiza-
tions need to tap both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Since
motivation appears to be affected by both personal and situa-
tional factors which interact with one another, managers need
to address both sets of factors. Many previous studies on moti-
vation have centered on three main concerns: (1) what moti-
vates or energizes human behavior, (2) how this behavior can
be stimulated and sustained, and (3) what organizations can
do to initiate, direct, and channel motivation. The rest of the
article addresses these concerns.
Central Issues in Efficiency and Motivation
One specific efficiency issue, efficiency versus effectiveness,
has already been discussed. Generally, organizations today
stress effectiveness. Also the problems inherent in overem-
phasizing efficiency and routinization and underemphasizing
creativity and individualism in jobs have been mentioned in
the Frederick Taylor discussion. A more central issue germane
to both efficiency and motivation is how to stimulate and
reward people who work hard.
Influences
Why is it that some workers can be depended on to work hard
while others cannot? There are many influences on worker
efficiency and motivation. The most basic ones are personal-
ity, heredity or history, environment, and situations. Person-
ality, the qualities, traits, and personal characteristics of a
person, appears to be a result of both heredity and environ-
ment. The way it is enacted depends on the situation in which
people find themselves.
Work Efficiency and Motivation 699
Probably the best known theory of motivation was devel-
oped by psychologist Abraham Maslow. He hypothesized that
each individual has a series of needs ranging from lower order
needs to higher order needs. He called this series a hierarchy of
needs. The lower order needs include physiological needs (i.e.,
thirst, hunger, shelter) and safety (i.e., security, safety from
danger). The higher order needs include love (i.e., affection,
acceptance), esteem (i.e., respect, admiration, status), and self-
actualization (i.e., the development of full potential, fulfill-
ment). According to Maslow, physiological needs have first
priority and must be partially met before a person can fulfill
higher order needs. All people seek to fulfill their needs, but
each individual fulfills them in a different way.
Given this hierarchy, an organization that wants to moti-
vate an employee should try to assess where that person is on
the hierarchy and focus on satisfying that level of needs before
proceeding to the next level. For example, during a recession or
a period of down-sizing, the emphasis should be on safety
needs (level two). During high growth times, the emphasis
may shift to esteem or self-actualization (levels four and five).
Motivation can be envisioned as a process that originates
with unsatisfied needs. Unsatisfied needs lead to tension which
in turn stimulates drive and search behavior. The process ends
when needs are satisfied and tension is reduced.
An individual as well as an organization can seek to influ-
ence the motivation process. Ideally, individual needs should
be compatible and consistent with organizational needs.
Unfortunately, it is not unusual for these needs to not match
and to prove counterproductive. For example, a worker may be
seeking solutions to problems which no longer hold impor-
tance for his or her manager. Communication and a shared
vision are the keys to creating the right fit between individual
effort and organizational output.
By the 1960s a philosophical shift was taking place in the
field of organizational behavior. The human factor became an
even more important subject of study than it had been previ-
ously. Jobs were no longer looked at as strictly technical, but as
sociotechnical systems. This approach took into consideration
the individual’s response to their job as well as to the actual
mechanics of the job. Technical tasks were viewed within the
greater context of the work culture and environment. The
narrowly defined concept of scientific management, that is,
efficiency first and foremost, gave way to a much broader
definition of management and all its permutations.
For example, in 1960 Douglas McGregor suggested in his
book The Human Side of Enterprise that the manager’s view of
the nature of human beings is biased toward two main group-
ings of behavior assumptions which he labeled Theory X and
Theory Y. Theory X assumes that the lower order needs identi-
fied by Maslow dominate the individual so that under Theory
X, the assumptions held by managers are:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and will avoid it if
they can.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, con-
trolled, directed, or threatened with punishment to put
forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organiza-
tional objectives.
3. Employees will try to avoid responsibilities and seek secu-
rity and direction whenever possible.
The assumptions underlying Theory Y are:
1. Employees view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control if
they are committed to organizational objectives.
3. Employees are committed to objectives that are related to
the rewards associated with their achievement.
4. Employees under normal conditions seek responsibility.
5. Most employees will exercise a relatively high degree of
imagination, ingenuity, and creativity.
6. Under the conditions of modern life, most employees’
intellectual potentialities are only partially utilized.
McGregor thought that Theory Y assumptions were more
valid than Theory X. He believed that most people would
thrive on opportunities for growth, challenging jobs, good
interpersonal relations, and responsibility.
Motivation took on a more complicated formula with the
introduction of the motivation-hygiene theory of psychologist
Frederick Herzberg. He asserted that intrinsic factors such as
achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growthwere related
to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors were more associated
with dissatisfaction. A person’s attitudes, therefore, have a great
deal to do with that person’s satisfaction and job success.
Just as with Taylor, the theories of McGregor and Herzberg
have their detractors. For example, Herzberg’s theory is criticized
for emphasizing satisfaction over productivity and McGregor’s
for being too simplistic. However, all three theorists along with
Maslow have had an enormous impact on the way organiza-
tions manage workers and design jobs. There are a number of
newer theories that fall into the following categories: (1) needs,
(2) goal-setting, (3) reinforcement, (4) equity, (5) expectancy,
and (6) stress and fatigue. Due to space limitations not all can
be sufficiently addressed in this article. What they have in com-
mon is that they try to explain and predict motivation, and
many build on the works previously cited.
The field of psychology has always had a strong influence on
the theories, research, and applications in organizational behav-
ior. As an example, the roots of needs theory can be traced to
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and those of reinforcement theory
to the work of Harvard psychologist B. F. Skinner. Since Skinner
found that rewards are most effective when they immediately
follow the desired response, his research influenced when and
how managers rewarded positive work behaviors.
Probably of the six theory categories listed, the one most
relevant to the subject of motivation is expectancy theory.
According to this theory, a person’s motivation is a function
of (1) matching effort to performance expectancies, (2) match-
ing performance to outcome expectancies, and (3) the percep-
tion of attractiveness of outcomes. Satisfaction is conceived as a
result of performance rather than a cause of it.
Job Attitudes and Performance
Attitudes are thoughts or feelings (positive or negative) about
objects, people, or events. For instance, people like or dislike
opera. They also like or dislike certain aspects of their work.
People have thousands of attitudes, but for the purposes of
this article the focus will be on job attitudes, specifically, job
satisfaction, involvement, and commitment.
700 Work Efficiency and Motivation
Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude people have
about their jobs. There are many measures of work satisfaction.
Most attempt to determine whether workers are challenged in
their work, feel adequately compensated, rewarded, and com-
fortable in their work environment including the physical
facilities and interpersonal relationships. Job involvement has
to do with how strongly people identify with and really care
about the work they do. Commitment refers to how much the
person identifies with the overall organization. Research indi-
cates that high job involvement and commitment result in
lower absenteeism and job turnover. Job satisfaction, involve-
ment, and commitment are all subject to change, but usually
people strive to maintain a consistency or balance in their
attitudes and behaviors. This is consistent with McGregor’s
Theory Y discussed earlier; most people want to do well at
their work.
In regard to performance, individuals are motivated if they
can see that their performance is appreciated, noted, and
rewarded. They need to know what the organization’s perfor-
mance expectations are and what the outcomes of their indi-
vidual performance will be. Unclear objectives and a lack of
consistency or confidence in the organization to define and
recognize good performance will decrease worker motivation,
and productivity may suffer.
A new managerial organizing principle for workplaces
which has been found to improve performance is called the
5S concept. The name comes from a list of five Japanese words
which when loosely translated into English become five words
beginning with the letter ‘S’:
• Sort : Order items and activities (prioritize)
• Straighten : Arrange
• Shine : On task completion, clean and restore
• Standardize : Consistent methods will increase order, save
time
• Sustain : Afterwards, maintain, reduce waste, evaluate
An example of the 5S concept in practice is when a hospital
was reconfigured and stethoscopes were put in drawers marked
‘stethoscope’ rather than placing them on desk tops or hooks.
Afterward every doctor and nurse knew where to find them,
sounds simple, but it saved time (and perhaps lives) and
lessened clutter. Efficiency experts are brought in to factories
and multistory office buildings to make them more consistent
and systematic using the 5S concept. This works particularly
well in shared work spaces such as production lines and in the
media with 24-h news where no one ‘owns’ a desk.
Diversity in the Workplace
In the 1990s, a concern emerged about how well past motiva-
tional and efficiency theories fit the changing composition of
the workforce. The growing number of women, minorities,
and older workers in the labor force led organizations to
reassess previously held notions about workers and their moti-
vations. Appropriate changes in reward systems have begun to
be implemented. As one example of a policy responsive to
changes in the work force, the popularity and pervasiveness
of flextime (flexible hours of work arrival and departure) can
be partially traced to the growing number of working parents
who are trying to balance work and family responsibilities.
By 2010, white non-Hispanics in the United States will con-
stitute 54% of the population under the age of 18. In the ten
largest cities, no ethnic or racial group will have a clear majority.
The urban work force will become increasingly diverse.
The recognition of diversity in the workplace has brought to
question the notion that an organization has a uniform culture
to which all employees subscribe. Typically in organizations
there is a dominant culture and several subcultures. A subcul-
ture is a set of values and attitudes held by a minority of the
organization’s members. Subcultures may fall along the lines
of specializations, interests, or in a variety of other ways. Sub-
cultures can weaken and undermine an organization, but more
likely they will ascribe to and support the values of the domi-
nant organization culture while seeking to maintain their
own identity.
Respecting diversity and working with it rather than against
it will be the key to the continued success of organizations. In
order to remain competitive, employers are making an effort to
recognize, recruit, and manage an older and more culturally
and racially diverse work force. While practical applications are
moving ahead, research on workplace diversity in relation to
motivation and efficiency is in its infancy.
Motivational Techniques
The concept of goal motivation is used to explain how direc-
tion, effort, and duration/persistence affect goal-setting. Goals
direct action and behavior. It has been established that higher
goals produce higher performance. If goals are set too low they
are not motivating enough. Conversely, goals set unreasonably
high can be frustrating. Thus, finding the right level of goals is a
management problem. The words ‘duration’ and ‘persistence’
refer to directed effort over time, a relentless, driving behavior.
Goal commitment implies a determination to continue goal-
seeking. Research indicates that self confidence and previous
success at achieving goals positively affect a person’s future goal
commitment and achievement.
Technique refers to the systematic procedure for accomplish-
ing a task. Motivational techniques, therefore, are procedures
that stimulate a person to accomplish a work task. Goal-setting
is one technique for motivating workers.
Goal-Setting
In 1968, Edwin Locke published a paper that is considered
to be the seminal work on goal-setting theory. He wrote
that people strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emo-
tions and desires. Although goal-setting is an important moti-
vational stimulus, the concepts of needs and values are also
fundamental concepts of work motivation according to Locke.
More recently, researchers and theorists have concluded
that goals direct and focus attention onto certain task require-
ments, away from conflicting or alternative actions. Thus, goals
direct behavior and provide a framework for a strategy of
performance. Sometimes intentions and goals are used inter-
changeably, but they are different in that intentions may be
theoretical (a person plans or intends to do something)
whereas the word goal implies action. In the terms ‘goal attain-
ment’ and ‘goal achievement,’ an end result is assumed.
Work Efficiency and Motivation 701
Before goals can be achieved, they need to be set. Research
on goal-setting falls into the following categories: (1) specific
versus general, (2) difficult versus easy, (3) owned or shared
versus imposed, and (4) timely feedback and progress toward
goals. The results of the research indicate that specific, chal-
lenging, and owned or shared goals are preferred. The degree of
persistence applied to goal pursuance is closely linked to ulti-
mate achievement. And in the end, timely and appropriate
feedback is preferable to no feedback. Workers want to know
the results of their efforts.
Organizations put a great deal of energy into setting goals
and motivating workers to achieve organizational goals. At the
same time, workers have personal goals they are trying to
achieve. Two examples of worker goals are the opportunity to
learn more and move ahead. Organizations try to match work-
er’s needs with organizational needs-enhancing work satisfac-
tion and output for both.
In the 1980s, American business embraced a Japanese busi-
ness practice called total quality management (TQM). One of
the techniques in TQM relevant to goal-setting is the widespread
use of quality circles (QCs). In QCs, a group of employees
regularly meets to identify and solve work-related problems.
Their focus is on increasing productivity and meeting
department and organizational goals. Improvements are sug-
gested. A group leader reports the proposed improvements
to higher management. Steering committees sort through
the suggestions and implement the ones they consider viable.
With QCs it was thought that everyone benefits from
the increased communication between the various levels
of the organization and the cooperative spirit generated by
teamwork.
By the 1990s, some drawbacks to QCs and TQM were
uncovered. This form of management involves many meetings
and a lot of paperwork that is time consuming. Some of this
time was taken away from the basic organizational functions of
serving customers and producing goods. Consequently, TQM
and QCs are being reassessed. Research continues to try to
determine in what situations, settings, and organizations QCs
and TQM are most effective.
Reward Systems in Organizations
A review of the literature reveals the importance of rewards in
the relationship between motivation, satisfaction, and work
performance. Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler developers of
the Porter Lawler motivation model recommend that organi-
zations make sure that their reward policies are closely linked
to performance. This is suggested because the individual work-
er’s job satisfaction is derived from the difference between the
amount of rewards he or she receives and the amount he or she
expects to receive. Job satisfaction represents an attitude, posi-
tive or negative, rather than a behavior. Zellars et al. (2004)
point out the relationships among attributes such as emotions
and problem solving to coping with what goes on in
organizations.
Equity is an important part of job satisfaction. Employees
want pre motion and pay systems that they perceive as just,
equitable, and fair. Individuals who perceive reward decisions
as unambigious and consistent with their expectations will
likely report satisfaction with their job.
Closely linked to the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation discussed earlier are the concepts of intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards. The pleasure or value a person derives from
the content of work itself makes it intrinsically rewarding.
Rewards received from the work environment, the organiza-
tion, are extrinsic. A company-paid car is an extrinsic reward,
whereas the feelings of personal satisfaction from a job well
done are intrinsic. Intrinsic rewards may stem from greater job
freedom and discretion, more interesting work, opportunities
for personal growth, and more participation in decision
making. There are dozens of extrinsic rewards ranging from
assigned parking spaces to profit sharing. To be most effective,
rewards should be individualized to meet each person’s needs.
One employee might value a flexible lunch hour so he can
swim every day in the nearby university pool while another
employee may put more value on a paneled office with a large
desk. Rewards can be used by organizations to recognize an
employee’s past achievements or to direct him or her toward
certain future achievements.
Concluding Remarks on Efficiency and Motivation
Observing and commenting on human behavior is a funda-
mental and enduring subject for the novice as well as the
professional. This article explored how organizations try to
direct employee behavior toward higher productivity. The the-
ories discussed in the article reveal that there is not one, singu-
lar all-purpose way to motivate workers or to make an
organization more efficient. Generally it is agreed that satisfied,
motivated workers are more productive than dissatisfied,
bored workers. Organizations try to identify, recognize, and
reward productive workers. Research reveals that rewards
should be consistently and fairly distributed. The ultimate
organizational behavior goal is a happy/productive/consistent
worker-not one alternating between despair and elation.
Rewards should not produce ups and downs, but a secure
feeling that efforts are noted and rewarded, if not immediately,
then soon.
Since its beginnings in assembly-line management, the
concept of efficiency has given way to a broader view of pro-
ductivity encompassing effectiveness and worker satisfaction.
The effective organization sets goals and keeps in mind the
different levels of job needs of its workers. Organizations in the
future will make fuller use of the skills, diversity, and motiva-
tional potential of their human resources and more effectively
integrate ever-changing technology to their advantage.
See also: Career Development; Decision Making (Individuals);Organizational Behavior.
Further Reading
Broadbridge A (2009) Sacrificing personal or professional life? A gender perspective onthe accounts of retail managers. In: The International Review of Retail, Distributionand Consumer Research. London: Routledge.
Goldsmith E (2007) Stress, fatigue, and social support in the work and family context.Journal of Loss and Trauma 12: 155–169.
702 Work Efficiency and Motivation
Goldsmith E (2010) Resource Management for Individuals and Families, 4th edn. UpperSaddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Herzberg H, Mausner B, and Synderman B (1954) The Motivation to Work.New York: Wiley.
Kleinbeck U, Quast H, Thierry H, and Hacker H (eds.) (1990)Work Motivation. Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.
Locke E (1968) Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. OrganizationalBehavior and Human Performance 3: 157–189.
Maslow A (1954) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row.McGregor D (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.Porter L and Lawler E (1968)Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Robbins S (1989) Organizational Behavior, 4th edn. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Skinner BF (1971) Contingencies of Reinforcement. East Walk,CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Steers R and Porter L (1991) Motivation and Work Behavior, 5th edn. New York:McGraw-Hill.
Taylor F (1911) Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper & Brothers.Zellars K, Perrewe P, Ferris G, and Hochwarter W (2004) A preliminary examination
of the role of attributions and emotions in the transactional stress model. In:Martinko M (ed.) Attribution Theory in the Organizational Sciences: Theoretical andEmpirical Contributions, pp. 151–172. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.