ENVIRONMENTAL CARBON FOOTPRINTS

ENVIRONMENTALCARBONFOOTPRINTS

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ENVIRONMENTALCARBONFOOTPRINTSIndustrial Case Studies

Edited by

SUBRAMANIAN SENTHILKANNAN MUTHU

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CONTENTS

Contributors xi

Biography xv

1. The Need for Greenhouse Gas Analyses in Industrial Sectors 1Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju, Charles Mbohwa

1.1. Introduction 1

1.2. Decomposition Method 5

1.3. Applications of Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index 7

1.4. Conclusion 15

References 16

2. Booming and Stagnation of Spanish Construction SectorThrough the Extended Carbon Footprint Concept 19Jorge E. Zafrilla, Luis A. López

2.1. Introduction 19

2.2. Methodology and Database 21

2.3. Main Results 28

2.4. Conclusions 39

Acknowledgment 41

References 41

3. The Environmental Impact of Magnetic Nanoparticles Underthe Perspective of Carbon Footprint 45Sara Feijoo, Sara González-García, Yolanda Moldes-Diz,

Carlos Vázquez-Vázquez, Gumersindo Feijoo, María T. Moreira


3.2. Materials and Methods 48

3.3. Environmental Results 56

3.4. Conclusions 74

Acknowledgments 74

References 75

v

4. Carbon Footprint of Municipal Solid Waste Considering SelectiveCollection of Recyclable Waste 79Luíza S. Franca, Marina S.R. Rocha, Glaydston M. Ribeiro


4.2. Logistic Chain of Recyclable Waste 82

4.3. Brazilian Waste Management Outlook 84

4.4. Case Study 90

4.5. Applied Carbon Footprint Methodology 95

4.6. Results and Discussion 98

4.7. Conclusions 102

Annex I 103

Annex II 104

References 110

5. Carbon Footprint Analysis of Personal ElectronicProductdInduction Cooker 113Winco K.C. Yung, Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu,

Karpagam Subramanian


5.2. Methodology 114

5.3. Carbon Footprint Analysis 119

5.4. Life Cycle Inventory for Product Carbon Footprint 121

5.5. Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Product Carbon Footprint Analysis 122

5.6. Life Cycle Interpretation 128

5.7. Conclusion 135

Appendix 136

Acknowledgments 139

References 139

Further Reading 140

6. Carbon Footprint Analysis of a Selected Indian Power Plant 141Debrupa Chakraborty


6.2. Review of Literature 143

6.3. Goals and Objectives 144

6.4. Research Methodology and Data Sources 145

6.5. Results and Analysis 149


Acknowledgments 157

References 158

Further Reading 160

vi Contents

7. Carbon Footprint in the Wine Industry 161Flavio Scrucca, Emanuele Bonamente, Sara Rinaldi


7.2. The Wine Sector Worldwide 162

7.3. Available Literature and Existing Experiences Regarding

Carbon Footprint Calculation 163

7.4. Carbon Footprint Methodology in the Wine Industry 169

7.5. Case Studies and Results 175


References 192

8. Carbon Footprint of Aluminum Production: Emissionsand Mitigation 197Meenu Gautam, Bhanu Pandey, Madhoolika Agrawal


8.2. Aluminum Production 200

8.3. Carbon Footprints 206

8.4. Socioeconomic and Ecological Threats 213

8.5. Mitigation Strategies in Carbon Emissions Reduction 215


Acknowledgments 223

References 223

9. Carbon Footprint of Utility Consumption and Cleaning Tasksin Buildings 229Alejandro Martínez-Rocamora, Jaime Solís-Guzmán, Madelyn Marrero


9.2. System Boundaries 231


9.4. Case Study 248

9.5. Results 250


References 256

10. Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Coal Mining Activitiesand Their Possible Mitigation Strategies 259Bhanu Pandey, Meenu Gautam, Madhoolika Agrawal


10.2. Types of Air Pollutants Due to Coal Mining 267

Contents vii

10.3. Coal Mining Contribution to Global Warming 270

10.4. Carbon Footprint for Coal Mining 271

10.5. Important Greenhouse Gas Inventory Calculations for Coal Mining 280

10.6. Case Studies 283

10.7. Strategies in Mitigating Carbon Emissions Reduction From Coal Mining 284

10.8. Conclusion 288

Acknowledgments 289

References 289

11. Life Cycle Assessment of an Academic Building: A Case Study 295Himanshu Nautiyal, Venu Shree, Paramvir Singh, Sourabh Khurana,

Varun Goel


11.2. Life Cycle Analysis 298


11.4. Case Study 304

11.5. Discussions 309


Acknowledgments 313

References 313

Further Reading 315

12. The Role of Demand-Side Management in CarbonFootprint Reduction in Modern Energy Servicesfor Rural Health Clinics 317Olubayo M. Babatunde, Peter O. Oluseyi, Tolulope O. Akinbulire,

Henry I. Denwigwe, Tolulope J. Akin-Adeniyi

12.1. Demand-Side Management 317

Appendices 361

References 361

13. Carbon Footprint Analysis of Printed Circuit Board 365Winco K.C. Yung, Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu,

Karpagam Subramanian



13.3. Carbon Footprint Analysis 372

viii Contents

13.4. Life Cycle Inventory for Product Carbon Footprint 374

13.5. Product Carbon Footprint Analysis 411

13.6. Life Cycle Interpretation 411

Appendix 1 427

Appendix 2 428

Appendix 3 428

Acknowledgments 430

References 430

Further Reading 431

Index 433

Contents ix


CONTRIBUTORS

Madhoolika AgrawalDepartment of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Tolulope J. Akin-AdeniyiDepartment of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

Tolulope O. AkinbulireDepartment of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

Olubayo M. BabatundeDepartment of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

Emanuele BonamenteUniversity of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Debrupa ChakrabortyNetaji Nagar College, Kolkata, India

Henry I. DenwigweDepartment of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

Sara FeijooUniversity of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Gumersindo FeijooUniversity of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Luíza S. FrancaFederal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Meenu GautamDepartment of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Varun GoelNIT Hamirpur, Hamirpur, India

Sara González-GarcíaUniversity of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Sourabh KhuranaOM Institute of Technology and Management, Hisar, India

Luis A. LópezUniversity of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

xi

Madelyn MarreroUniversity of Seville, Seville, Spain

Alejandro Martínez-RocamoraUniversity of Bío-Bío, Concepción, Chile

Charles MbohwaUniversity of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Yolanda Moldes-DizUniversity of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

María T. MoreiraUniversity of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Himanshu NautiyalTHDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology, Tehri, India

Oludolapo Akanni OlanrewajuUniversity of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Peter O. OluseyiDepartment of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

Bhanu PandeyDepartment of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Glaydston M. RibeiroFederal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Sara RinaldiUniversity of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Marina S.R. RochaFederal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Flavio ScruccaUniversity of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Subramanian Senthilkannan MuthuBestseller, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR

Venu ShreeNIT Hamirpur, Hamirpur, India

Paramvir SinghNIT Hamirpur, Hamirpur, India

Jaime Solís-GuzmánUniversity of Seville, Seville, Spain

xii Contributors

Karpagam SubramanianThe Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR

Carlos Vázquez-VázquezUniversity of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Winco K.C. YungThe Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR

Jorge E. ZafrillaUniversity of Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

Contributors xiii


BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Subramanian SenthilkannanMuthuis currently working for Lidl Hong Kong asa Sustainability Manager, based out of HongKong. He has gained his PhD from TheHong Kong Polytechnic University. He wasan outstanding student throughout hisstudies and bagged numerous awards andmedals including many gold medals in hisstudy period. He is a renowned expert inthe areas of Environmental Sustainability inTextiles and Clothing Supply Chain,Product Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA), andProduct Carbon Footprint Assessment (PCF) in various industrial sectors. Hehas 5 years of industrial experience in textile manufacturing, research anddevelopment, and textile testing and around 7 years of experience in LCA,carbon, and ecological footprints assessment of various consumer products.He has completed many LCA, carbon footprint, and environmentalassessment projects in Asia and Europe from both cradle-to-gate and cradle-to-grave stages of many products including apparels, plastics, chemicals, andpackaging. He has a wide experience in environmental assessment of textilesand clothing supply chain, and he has worked on recycling of plastics andtextiles, green claims, and validation of different consumer products. He hasdelivered extensive trainings on PCF and LCA to many external clients inIndia, Colombo, Bangladesh, China, and Hong Kong, apart from thedelivery of many invited talks. He has delivered many invited key notespeeches in various international conferences across the globe.

He has published more than 75 research publications, written numerousbook chapters, and authored/edited multiple books in the areas of carbonfootprint, recycling, environmental assessment, environmental sustainabil-ity, etc. (over 40 books to his credit). Famous titles of his books list includeAssessment of Environmental Impacts of Textiles and Clothing SupplyChain, Assessment of Carbon Footprint in Different Industrial Sectors (twovolumes), Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles and Clothing (three volumes),

xv

Handbook of Carbon Footprint, Handbook of Life Cycle Assessment(LCA) in Textiles and Clothing, Handbook of Sustainable Apparel Pro-duction, and Textiles and Clothing Sustainability (six volumes).

He is acting as an editor, editorial board member, and reviewer formany international peer-reviewed journals of textiles and environmentalscience disciplines. He is also the series editor of two books series ofSpringer namely Textile Science and Clothing Technology and Environ-mental Footprints and Eco-design. He is one of the directors of Textile andBioengineering Informatics Society, which is a charitable organizationcreated to foster, develop, and promote all aspects of science and tech-nology in bioengineering of materials, fibers, and textiles.

xvi Biography

CHAPTER 12

The Role of Demand-SideManagement in CarbonFootprint Reduction inModern Energy Services forRural Health ClinicsOlubayo M. Babatunde, Peter O. Oluseyi, Tolulope O. Akinbulire,Henry I. Denwigwe, Tolulope J. Akin-AdeniyiDepartment of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

12.1 DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT

12.1.1 IntroductionBecause of globalization, industrialization, and development due totechnology, the demand for electrical energy is on the increase. There istherefore a need for efficient energy measures to ensure conservation,thereby saving costs. Demand-side management (DSM) deals with con-version of energy demand of consumers into activities/programs/tactics(e.g., financial incentives and public awareness/education), which bringsabout less use of energy by the consumers.

Gellings and Parmenter gave a history of DSM in the United States andits influence on energy resources. They also explained the role of DSM inintegrated resource planning, the main elements of DSM programs andsummarized the key best practices for program design and delivery.

Palensky and Dietrich (2011) described DSM as using measures such assophisticated real-time control of distributed energy resources, better ma-terials, smart energy tariffs with incentives for certain consumption patternsto improve energy efficiency. Various types of DSM were analyzed, and anoverview of modern DSM projects was given.

Haney et al. (2010) highlighted how integrated government DSMpolicies, targeting residential demand for electricity and heat are more likely

Environmental Carbon FootprintsISBN 978-0-12-812849-7http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812849-7.00012-X

© 2018 Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved. 317

to be successful than single policies. DSM was also used to show how largeuntapped potentials could be uncovered through barriers to energy demandreduction.

A study on sustainable energy regulation and policymaking for Africa(Demand-side management sustainable energy regulation and policymakingfor africa) examined some of the challenges facing the implementation ofDSMprograms and also gave a detailed review ofDSMmeasures (this includesreview of housekeeping and preventive maintenance, which are the simplestand most effective ways of reducing demand, and marketing of DSM pro-grams) managing and controlling loads from the utility side, converting un-sustainable energy practices into more efficient and sustainable energy use,thereby reducing energy demand for the end user. Worldwide, the con-sumption of energy is massively on the rise, and as a result, the carbon footprintis also increasing in an exponential manner. The rise in energy consumptionand carbon footprint are the significant components responsible for “GlobalWarming.” Currently, climate change a consequence of global warming is aglobal challenge with severe penalties for our socioeconomic infrastructure aswell as the natural environment, and future generation. Long-terms planningwill be required to slow down the grave effect of climate change. One of theways of reducing the energy consumption is the adoption of sustainable DSMprograms. Sustainability is also imperative in DSM programs. Sustainabilitymeans “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.”

The rest of this chapter gives an in-depth background into the impor-tance of DSM, DSM program types, and the various benefits of its adoption.It further presents the opportunities of adopting DSM in rural healthcarecentres (RHC). Finally, a case study validating the effect of adopting DSMin sizing of hybrid renewable energy systems for RHC is analyzed.

12.1.2 Importance of Demand-Side ManagementThe importance of DSM can be summarized into the following (Demand-side management sustainable energy regulation and policymaking forAfrica):• Reduction in cost of producing energy by generating companies and

purchasing energy by consumers.• Provision for modern technologies and innovation, which create job

and bring about economic development.• Air pollution is reduced, therefore having a positive impact on the envi-

ronment and social life.

318 Environmental Carbon Footprints

12.1.3 Motivation Behind Demand-Side ManagementAccording to S. Saini, the major motives behind DSM are the need for costto be reduced and continued sustenance of the environment, also the needfor reliability in energy efficiency through the network infrastructure is amotive that encourages DSM.

As a result of the rising costs of power generations and environmentalhazard potentials available in power-generating stations because of gener-ation of electricity, DSM therefore not only provides integrated resourceplanning for reducing costs of generation but also meeting the demands forgeneration (Course Module). This can be achieved by setting up energycommissions or agencies, which set targets and goals toward energy con-servation, load management, and environmental protection. These agenciesare to work with public energy utility companies that oversee generation,distribution, and transmission of electricity to ensure the success of theseprograms. It is very important that, good policies are put in place to sustainDSM programs. Some of these policies include a standard program for cost-benefit analysis of DSM activities, a predetermined target for energy savings,which is generally accepted, a system of funding, which promotes thecompetitive nature of energy companies practicing DSM, and finallyregulation of prices of energy sold by the energy companies to customerswho are noneligible for DSM financial incentives to increase sales, saveincentives for eligible customers and therefore save energy (Course Mod-ule). The implementation of DSM programs can be incurred in cost, eitherby the government through taxes or by the electricity companies throughhigher tariffs whose burden on the consumers can be eased by the gov-ernment through subsidies and loans. The energy commissions and agenciesare to also ensure that, no planning of theirs affects environmental andinfrastructural development, even as they ensure that the natural environ-ment is not polluted, and it is therefore sustained.

Because of increasing demand for electricity and inadequate infrastruc-ture for transmission and distribution networks in developing and developedcountries, the need for DSM program is therefore of priority. Planningthrough DSM can reduce the need and possibly eliminate the cost ofconstructing transmission and distribution network infrastructure expansion(Course Module).

12.1.4 Types of Demand-Side Management MeasuresDSM measures are classified into three (Demand-side management sus-tainable energy regulation and policymaking for Africa), namely: energy

The Role of Demand-Side Management in Carbon Footprint Reduction 319

reduction programs, load management programs, and load growth andconservation programs.

12.1.4.1 Energy Reduction ProgramsThis is also referred to as “energy-saving tips”. Some of the programsrequire capital, whereas others are capital free.

Energy-saving tips for steaming and heating systems include thefollowing:1. It should be ensured that there are adequate control for adjusting the

quantity of combustion air.2. It should be ensured that, insulation and refractory pipes are in good con-

dition, their thicknesses should also be appropriate for good modernpractice.

3. Combustion conditions should be routinely monitored, and the effi-ciency should always be kept as high as possible.

4. It should be ensured that, the water treatment system is always in goodworking order, and there should be constant and regular monitoring ofthe boiler feed water quality.

5. It should always be ensured that, there are no areas for steam and waterleaks in the equipment.

6. Vessels, return lines, and fittings should always be condensed, and anysteam present should be insulated

7. Steam leaks and steam traps should always be maintained and repairedwhen faulty.

8. Flash steam in the plant should always be considered during use.9. Automatic temperature controls should be placed correctly in equip-

ment wherever waste of steam that can overheat equipment or processesis minimized.Energy-saving tips for lighting include the following:

1. Efficient energy fluorescent tubes, CFLs, and other low-energy lightsources should be used.

2. Luminaries should be cleaned regularly.3. Appropriate lighting levels at different periods and different zones

should be used.4. Natural light should always be encouraged in areas where possible, e.g.,

roof panels and skylights, etc.5. Walls and ceilings should be painted with white or bright colors to

improve reflection of light.


Energy-saving tips for motors include the following:1. Use of highly efficient motors should be encouraged.2. Improved bearings should be installed, and there should be regular and

constant lubrication.3. Motors should be properly sized and should be used only when needed.4. All equipment should be maintained regularly.5. Controls having electronic variable speed where motor loads vary in

normal operation should be used.6. Power factor should be checked regularly and should also be improved

using capacitor banks, preferably closely installed to the runningequipment.Energy-saving tips for compressed air systems include the following:

1. Wrong use of compressed air should be discouraged and eliminated.2. Leaks should be checked out when workshops are typically quiet and

are not supposed to be using air.3. Important parts of the system should be checked regularly to prevent

the effect of early damage.4. Overall system efficiency should be ensured by checking compressor

running times to improve the system.5. System pressure should always be optimized.6. Heat recovery systems should be installed.

In households, some energy-saving tips include the following:1. Air infiltration or hot air escapes, and inadequate or failed insulation

should be eliminated in fans and vents, heating, cooling and ventilatingducts, and fireplaces, electric outlets, plumbing penetrations throughwalls, floors, walls, ceilings, doors, and windows.

2. Insulating blankets, insulating pipes, and thermostat set to 50�C shouldbe encouraged for use in hot water cylinders.

3. Incandescent lightings should be replaced with CFLs and LEDs ofappropriate and equivalent illumination.

4. Curtains should be used as insulators at night and as a blind against thesun to cool when hot; the curtain should also be open for sun to enter toheat when cold.

5. Dryers, dishwashers, and washing machine should only run with fullload.Some energy-saving measures that require investments include the

following:1. Replacing appliances that are old and worn-out.2. Making use of a solar water heater.3. Making use of double-glazing windows.


The measures discussed above are not generally applicable. Some of thegenerally applicable measures include the following:1. Efficient Lighting: Efficient lightingmeasures which require investments, are

not so large, and the investments are eased through paybacks and subsidies.Changing light bulbs, fittings, switches, and increased use of natural lightare some of the tips involved in efficient lighting. Incandescent bulbslose energy to heat and are therefore inefficient, compact fluorescent lampswith electronic ballasts are more efficient than incandescent bulbs withconventional ballasts, although they are more expensive, they last longerand consume less energy than the required energy for transmitting the lightenergy output. Some of the most common opportunities involved in effi-cient lighting includea. Long-term benefits by replacing existing lamps with more efficient

light sources. This is known as light retrofitting.b. Safety in lighting by removing selected lamps, which do not support

safety of the lighting zones from existing light fixtures in a uniformpattern throughout specific zones.

c. Switching off selected areas of lighting with absence of people,whereas adjacent areas remain switched on to save energy, whichcan be wasted because of little or nonusage.

2. Energy-efficient Motors: Energy-efficient motors are needed to sustainmanufacturing and mining industries and the natural environment.Many opportunities exist through energy-efficient motors. Air-conditioning for air circulation and compressor motors is a major sourceof power usage in industries to remove heat, dust, and gases, which cancause loss in energy. High efficiency motors can reduce electrical loads,thereby saving energy and ensuring the ventilation of mines (Pitis(Femco) and Livingstone (Anglo Gold Mining Motors), 2004). Perfeasibility studies carried out in 1999 for establishment of motor repairand sales centers in Ghana based on sustainable energy regulation andpolicymaking training manual (Demand-side management sustainableenergy regulation and policymaking for africa). It was concluded that,repeated motor rewinding and refurbishment lead to significant effi-ciency in losses. The study also made a recommendation on developingand implementing procedures on motor testing, labels, and standards forminimum efficiency and also setting up a facility in Ghana for themanufacture of small electric fan and pump motors (Ahenkorah).

12.1.4.1.1 Energy Management Practices in OrganizationsEnergy management practices through DSM are very important inindustries/organizations for cost reduction of energy. Energy


management in organizations depends on organizational budget, skills ofstaff available, and the nature of the organization. Energy managementprograms include: capital investment management (including equipmentprocurement), energy purchasing, performance measurement, energypolicy development, metering and billing, energy surveying and audit-ing, awareness-raising, and training and education. An energy managerin any organization is usually tasked with the following responsibilities:• Development and evaluation of projects to save energy.• Proper and regular identification of energy-saving opportunities.• Regular collection and analysis of energy-related data.• Constant supervision of energy purchases and equipment procurement.• Project implementation and future monitoring of implementation

performance.• Effective communication and public relation skills.

Cost-management activities that aid DSM programs include (Martel,2000) the following:• Accounting of energy and base-lining analysis.• Billing of tenants for multiple occupancy buildings.• Verification of utility bills and tracking of budget.• Production of load profiles of individual and multiple facilities to ease

energy decisions.• Reporting of management of facility to the senior managers.• Benchmarking of internal and external energy performance.

12.1.4.1.2 Energy Management in HouseholdsSome good housekeeping tips for energy savings in households include:• Switching off loads that are not in use: e.g., lightings, computers,

monitors, sockets, etc.• Removing lighting fixtures and pipings that are redundant and

contribute to unnecessary heat losses.• Faulty electricity lines should be replaced to prevent losses and distribu-

tion systems should be improved regularly for efficient output.• Steam leaks and faulty equipment should be replaced or prevented to

prevent losses.

12.1.4.1.3 Precautions to Prevent Energy Losses in BuildingSome preventive measures for ensuring that energy losses do not occur inindustries include the following:• Filter cleaning on air compressors, pumps, upstream of steam traps in

ventilation ducts, and others should be undertaken regularly.


• Hot spots on boilers and furnaces should be monitored regularly andchecked for refractory failure.

• Transformer temperatures should be monitored regularly to preventabnormalities.

• Noise and vibration of bearings should be monitored regularly to pre-vent failure of bearings.

• Having a routine schedule for lubrication of parts and equipment.• Regular replacement of worn-out equipment.

Building regulations and standards are also important practices of DSM.Building regulations has an impact on energy efficiency of buildings. Someof these regulations include the following:• Passive lighting should be encouraged.• Use of quality building construction materials to reduce heat losses.• Roof spaces should be insulated.

It is also important as part of customer awareness that, equipment andbuildings indicate their expected energy consumption. Customer educationand labeling of appliance help customers make good judgment whenbuying appliances and equipment, thereby reducing energy consumption.

12.1.4.1.4 Energy AuditingEnergy auditing deals with analyzing and surveying the flow of energy toconserve energy in a building/plant. This can be done by using energyrecord keeping and measuring equipment like energy meters. Energyauditing is an essential component of energy management program,whereby a complete review of energy consumption activities, such as en-ergy consumed in manufacturing and energy consumed in heating orcooling. Energy audits then collate all relevant data to carry out a detailedanalysis of the performance of the building or system and to identify de-ficiencies and make recommendations for improvement.

Kumar et al. (Sameeullah et al., 2014) identified energy-saving methodsexperienced during an energy audit of a building in India and also gave adetailed explanation on how these methods could be implemented. Thiswas done with the aim of showing the importance of energy audit inenergy conservation.

Lamba and Sanghi (2015) gave a complete emphasis and explanation asto how energy audit is a continuous process toward achieving energy ef-ficiency. They gave a detailed analysis on how to conserve and efficientlyutilize scarce resources and how to identify and implement energy saving


potentials through energy auditing. Opportunities using renewable energytechnologies were also discussed.

The following steps explain how energy audit can be carried out in abuilding:• Information on the processes employed, machinery characteristics, plant

equipment and physical facilities, design data, and production capacitiesare obtained and collated.

• Historical records, the emissions, energy consumptions, and productionlevels for machines and energy consuming equipment (over a period ofsay 2e3 years) are determined.

• The actual operating parameters and performance of equipment andprocesses should be determined.

• The data obtained and the observations made should be properly estab-lished in efficiency of energy utilization by key equipment.

• Constraints to improving performance, including organizational, tech-nical, and financial constraints should be identified and characterized.

• Potential measures for improvement should be identified and financialevaluation, where investment is needed should be carried out.

• A comprehensive action plan, which is very logical to address the con-straints, should be developed, including specific recommendations andpriorities for the different measures.Audits can be divided into preliminary audit and detailed audit, which

are both discussed, respectively.1. Preliminary audit: This is an exercise in form of a fieldwork to gather

initial data at the primary stages of the auditing program. It is alsoknown as walk-through or short audit. In this type of survey, there isno need for the use of equipment because data from the building aresufficient. Data is collected via a “walk-through” of the building duringwhich the general condition of equipment, the standard of mainte-nance, the level of operations control exercised by management, andthe reporting procedures in effect are observed.Dongellini et al. (2014) gave a good explanation on how “walk-

through” audit is important in reducing energy consumptions for sustain-able and energy-efficient manufacturing, continuous energy audit, andprocess tracking of industrial machines. This was carried out on eight largeindustrial buildings of a famous car manufacturing holding in Italy. Pre-liminary audit is very easy and less stressful as few measurement and easycalculations are used. It is therefore quick and can be completed within a


short period. The information obtained from a preliminary audit is used fora thorough analysis of the energy performance of a building/plant.2. Detailed Audit: This is a more comprehensive form of energy auditing. It

deals with a survey on home energy by obtaining more detailed infor-mation on the home’s energy usage, as well as a more proper financialanalysis of its energy costs. Portable instruments are commonly usedfor accessing parameters on equipment and processes, the auditorsmust be well experienced with a good sense of judgment when collect-ing and interpreting data. Half of the effort put into a detailed auditshould be spent on collecting data on-site, whereas the other half onproper analysis of the data and preparing the report. Detailed energyaudit takes a longer time to complete, and it is used for a longer-termperformance monitoring.Singh et al. (2012) defined detailed audit as one, which provides a

dynamic model of energy use characteristics of both existing facilities andall energy conservation measures identified, and therefore calibrates thebuilding model against actual utility data to provide a realistic baseline andto compute operating savings for the proposed measures. They also pre-sented a detailed energy audit, for design and implementation of aphysically based model for industrial load management, therebyimproving the plant efficiency and reducing the energy wastages.

Srinath and Uday Kumar (2014) explained detailed audit in the in-dustrial sector as one requiring a comprehensive recording and analysis ofenergy consumption data, which is split into various sectors (steam/hotwater production, compressed air, electricity, and heating, ventilation, andair conditioning). This is done to present and analyze different parametersthat determine each type of energy use (e.g., production capacity, climateconditions, raw materials, and others). A list of potential energyesavingmeasures, which requires investment capital are presented together with acost-benefit analysis for each proposed measure.

12.1.4.2 Load Management ProgramLoad management programs include: load leveling, load control, tariffincentives, and penalties.

12.1.4.2.1 Load LevelingLoad leveling optimizes the generating base load, operating at the presenttime without the need for reserve capacity to meet the periods of high


demand. It therefore reduces fluctuations in customer demand. Classicforms of load leveling include the following:• Peak clipping: Here the peaks of demand are clipped to reduce the load

at peak times and intervals. The diagram of peak clipping is representedin the first diagram of Fig. 12.1.

• Valley filling: Here the low-demand periods are “filled” by building upoff-peak capacities achieved by using thermal energy storage to displacefossil fuel loads. The diagram of valley filling is represented in the seconddiagram of Fig. 12.1.

Peak Clipping

Peak Clipping

Valley Filling

Peak Shifting

Peak Shifting (Load Shifting)

Valley Filling

Figure 12.1 Classic forms of load leveling. (From https://image.slidesharecdn.com/presentazionecordoba-160319093812/95/residential-demand-response-operation-in-a-microgrid-8e638.jpg?cb¼1458380410.)


• Load shifting: Here loads are “shifted” from high demand to lowdemand to achieve clipping and filling. Some applications of load shift-ing include: storage space heating, storage water heating, customer loadshifting, and coolness storage. The diagram of load shifting is repre-sented in the third diagram of Fig. 12.1.

12.1.4.2.2 Load ControlThis is the automatic regulation of load because of heating, cooling,ventilation, and lighting by the utility or electricity company. Here,agreements are made between the customers and utility company to meetpeak demand on the grid. This is done by customers using energy storageequipment and generators for backup. Electricity companies can organize apublicized schedule for a systematic switching off supply to different areaswithin a particular region at different intervals, whereby different areas taketurns in losing supply. This is done to enable businesses and homes to plantheir use of energy for that period.

12.1.4.2.3 Tariff Incentives and PenaltiesWhenever customers use energy at some certain periods of time to ensure abetter-priced rate for their energy use, the electricity companies encouragestariff incentives as a reward for these customers. These include the following:• Providing different charges for power use at different periods, whereby

high peak time charges encourage users to carry out their activitiesrequiring high load in an off-peak period when the rates are lower.This is known as time-of-use rates.

• Penalizing users for going below a fixed power factor threshold, usuallybetween 0.90 and 0.95. This is also known as power factor charges.

• Ensuring that, energy rates vary based on the energy provided by theelectricity company. This is known as real-time pricing.

12.1.4.3 Load Growth and Conservation ProgramsThese programs are carried out with the aim of ensuring productivity andenvironmental compliance on the part of customers while making sure that,electricity companies increase their sale of energy. These programs caneliminate energy practices, which are unsustainable and bringing aboutmore efficient practices such as: reducing the use of fossil fuels and also rawmaterials. Some of these programs include the following:• Strategic load growth: This is the change of shape in load supplied to the

customers by the electricity company which means that, there is a gen-eral increase in sales of electricity. This is represented in Fig. 12.2.


Increase in market share of loads that are or can be served bycompeting fuels, as well as new areas development encourages loadgrowth. Electrification involving electric technologies, industrial process,heating, and automation are modern day techniques for encouraging loadgrowth.• Strategic load conservation: These are programs targeted at the end use

customers, whereby reducing sales as well as a change in the pattern ofuse is highly encouraged. Some of these programs include: insulation,sealing, and double-glazed windows (also known as weatherization).This is done for improvement in efficiency, in homes, and appliance.Strategic conservation is the change of shape in load supplied to thecustomers by the electricity company, which is directed at the end useconsumption. This is represented in Fig. 12.3.

Strategic Load Growth

Figure 12.2 Diagram representing strategic load growth. (From https://image.slidesharecdn.com/presentazionecordoba-160319093812/95/residential-demand-response-operation-in-a-microgrid-8e638.jpg?cb¼1458380410.)

Strategic Conservation

Figure 12.3 Diagram representing strategic load conservation. (From https://image.slidesharecdn.com/presentazionecordoba-160319093812/95/residential-demand-response-operation-in-a-microgrid-8e638.jpg?cb¼1458380410.)


12.1.5 Information Dissemination on Demand-SideManagement

This involves a collective effort from different stakeholders in developing,and implementing energy efficiency policies that are necessary for unin-terrupted energy efficiency improvement. Information can be disseminatedby awareness through campaigns promoting energy efficiency options andspecific DSM techniques. This can be done through visual media (e.g.,leaflets, brochures, fliers, posters, and video clips). Advertising and con-ducting energy audits are modern day forms of information dissemination.

12.1.6 Challenges of Implementing Demand-SideManagement Programs

Challenges, ranging from insufficient provision, low awareness of energy,and efficiency/DSM programs to inability of industrial and commercialcompanies to carry out energy audits to obtain important information ontheir current operations are current trends affecting developing nationstoday. This can be as a result of failure by the company’s management toexplore the potential benefits of energy efficiency and also lack of skilledpersonnel for performing audits. Some measures that organizations can usein overcoming these challenges include the following:• Ensuring that, competence and comprehensiveness of the assessment of

DSM programs and audits are accomplished.• Ensuring that, DSM systems and opportunities are well known and

understood.• Ensuring that, accuracy of assumptions is always considered.• Ensuring that, there is proper awareness on production and safety con-

straints of involved plants/companies.Factors that load management programs need to consider increasing

energy efficiency include the following:• Varying prices of electricity and other fuels.• Cost burden on the customer.• The value of losses prevented by ensuring an improved and reliable

electricity system.• Losses that can occur in production when implementing DSM

programs.Thorough financial analysis of the benefits of energy efficiency

improvement needs to be undertaken when planning to set up DSMactivities. Every DSM investments need to be properly accounted for to


ensure easy assessment of funds for DSM projects because, if a project is notproperly evaluated, approval of funds would be difficult, and this is the mostvital challenge of implementing DSM projects.

12.1.7 Case StudydEnergy Efficiency Opportunities forRural Health-Care Facilities

Energy efficiency and conservation are a well-established practice indeveloped country hospitals and few developing countries. Energy effi-ciency measures have the tendency to reduce energy consumption as well ashealth facility’s energy bill (Oluseyi et al., 2016). Apart from these, it canreduce emissions from conventional captive diesel/gasoline generators usedin powering the facility and also allow backup systems to work moreeffectively during power outages or failure. Energy-efficient equipment isimportant for any facility, which is intended to operate off grid or onintermittent power sources or which must rely on battery storage.

Like in other power-consuming sectors, energy efficiency measuresshould be an essential factor in all existing and new health-care facilities indeveloping countries. Hence, the use of energy-efficient modern andfunctional medical equipment should be encouraged. This at times is usuallya complex issue as agreement needs to be reached between medicalpersonnel, design engineers, and other stakeholders. For example, in mostdeveloping countries with hot climate, there is usually the need for air-conditioning, which usually consumes significant amount of energy. Also,air-conditioning units are particularly sensitive to power fluctuations and, assuch, are difficult to keep operational in developing countries. On the otherhand, air-conditioned rooms are essential for sensitive laboratory equipmentas well as sanitary purposes. In addition to sizing and designing, the oper-ation of the health clinic can also affect its energy efficiency and powerdemand. The type of equipment purchased is important in reducing powerconsumption at health facilities. Energy starerated equipment performbetter in energy consumption when compared with conventional andobsolete equipment. All equipment and lighting connected to the storagedevice (backup) should be energy starerated. If air-conditioning must beused, units with a high ratio of British thermal unit to watts should beprocured. Training of both medical and maintenance staff on the impor-tance of utilizing and ensuring efficient, low-energy operation of a healthfacility should also be ensured.

Typically, energy-efficient equipment and appliances are more expen-sive than standard-efficiency models. Conversely, this high cost may be


recovered through reduced operational costs of a smaller electricity gen-eration system. Table 12.1 shows energy efficiency opportunities for someappliances/devices used in health clinics.

12.1.7.1 Need for Reliable Electricity in Rural Healthcare CentresThe need for a constant and efficient electrical power supply in our ruraland local health-care centers all over the world is now a major concern.This is because of the adverse effect; the lack of a reliable electrical powersystem exposes the operators of these rural health-care systems and theirpatients, thereby posing a risk when saving human lives (Jimenez andOlson, 1999). Today, the distribution of vaccines and other temperaturesensitive drugs and substances such as: antiretroviral drugs in our health-care

Table 12.1 Energy efficiency opportunities in health-care centersAppliance Energy efficiency/conservation measures

Lights Lighting retrofits with energy-efficient lightbulbs such as CFL or LED lamps. Switch offredundant lamps.

Vaccine refrigerator andice pack freezer

Energy-efficient refrigerators should beencouraged because these refrigerators use 20%less energy.

Centrifuge Turn off redundant centrifuge. Select centrifugemodels that have relatively low rotor friction,which generates less heat, specifying smallerenergy.

Autoclave The equipment is fitted with a timer to cycle offwhen not in use. This will save maintenance byreplacing the element as well as save energy.

Air-conditioner Air-conditioner energy efficiency is measured bythe energy-efficient ratio (EER) of theequipment. When buying new systems, buy themodel with the highest EER rating. Foroperation, ensure coils are kept clean and thatthe thermostat is set at a comfortable, but notoverly cool, temperature.

Computer Energy star computers with flat screens andenabled with power management software canconsume 40% less electricity than theconventional counterparts.

Printer 60% energy can be saved if printers that enablepower management and duplexing features areused.

From http://www.poweringhealth.org/index.php/topics/technology/energyefficiency.


centers globally. This has placed its own demand for electricity in healthcenters where there are limited or even no access to reliable power supply(Olatomiwa et al., 2016). The emergence of highly communicable diseasesin modern time such as: the HIV/AIDS and Ebola virus, which werepredominant in western Africa, and the Zika virus, which was and is stillintense in South American countries, has necessitated the need for anefficient and reliable electricity power supply to fight these diseases to astandstill. For instance, unreliable power supply can hinder the treatmentprocess of these diseases, if there are no refrigerators to store most of thevaccines, which are temperature sensitive, needed to fight these diseases.Also, a health personnel, attending to a patient or trying to take samples formedical tests in an enclosure or room without proper illumination standsthe risk of being infected with these diseases easily as a result of poorillumination to comply with the laid down ethics and procedures forfighting the disease. The chances of carrying out the required medical testscould be impeded even during the day because electricity is required topower most medical equipment required to carry out these tests.Furthermore, a patient that arrives a health center that lacks electric powerat night for medical attention will have to wait till the next day beforeproper examination can be carried out, which could be fatal.

Nigeria as a country has persistently been facing the challenge of lack ofaccess to constant modern energy services over the years with the highdependence of its citizens on petroleum fuel for its individual electricityproduction. This challenge has its tremendous effect in other facets of theeconomy. In a country where about 40% of its citizens have access toelectricity and 80% of this percentage lives in the urban areas (Nwulu andAgboola, 2011), this means that, most rural areas in Nigeria are not con-nected to national grid and therefore do not have access to electricity. Theserural areas depend mostly on their traditionally domestic sources of energyfor their livelihood. In a country with an electricity installed capacity ofw6538.3 MW, not more than 4500 MW is ever produced (Nwulu andAgboola, 2011), and with the ever growing demand for electricity all overthe country in both urban cities and rural areas, especially in sectors thatneed critical attention such as: the health sector, there is the need to provideelectricity that is reliable, efficient, and constant. As at present, Nigeria hasnot utilized or tapped fully the renewable energy technology to solve itselectricity problems even though it is highly endowed with renewableenergy. This form of energy will provide an affordable, reliable, efficient aswell as constant source of electrical power, especially to critical sectors of the


economy such as: health and in the rural areas that face utmost lack of thesebasic social amenities for the provision of good, reliable, and stable health-care system.

Only a few know that, Nigeria is endowed with abundant renewableenergy resources such as: solar energy, hydroelectric power resources, wind,biomass with potentials for hydrogen utilization and development ofgeothermal, and ocean energy (Ohumakin, 2010). As a result of the differentresources of renewable energy, various approaches have been applied todetermine and meet the optimal size of the system and components (Zhouet al., 2010; Bajpai and Dash, 2012). Renewable energy have been provedto provide quality and reliable electricity for different applications in ruralareas (Dihrab and Sopian, 2010; Hiendro et al., 2013).

12.1.8 Methodology12.1.8.1 Sizing Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems12.1.8.1.1 Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric RenewablesA typical hybrid systemwill comprise a photovoltaic (PV) array,wind turbines,possibly a diesel generator, inverters, and battery bank with associated controldevices (Lal and Raturi, 2012). Software tools such as Hybrid OptimizationModel for ElectricRenewables (HOMER) can be used to carry out simulationand optimization of hybrid systems. There are three main tasks that can becarried out by HOMER, which are simulation, optimization, and sensitivityanalysis (HOMER Energy LLC: Hybrid optimization model for electricrenewable, 2009). The HOMER is designed to perform simulation on long-term operation of a combination of micropower system configurations, withthe inclusion of components like PV, wind, small hydro, diesel generators, andstorage devices that canbebattery banks.TheHOMERcan alsobeused for themodeling of grid-connected systems. After the simulation of quite a number ofcombinations, HOMER will make suggestions based on the net present cost(NPC) optimal configuration of the system. The sensitivity analysis can beperformed using the sensitivity variables, i.e., wind, speed, and diesel price,which will enable the designer to determine the best combination of systemcomponents under different conditions.

12.1.8.1.2 Researches for Renewable Energy Access for Rural HealthcareCentresSeveral researches have been carried out to study the hybrid systems in manylocations around the world (Bekele and Palm, 2010; Akinbulire et al., 2014;


Hassan et al., 2011; Nandi and Ghosh, 2010; Rahman and Al-Hadhrami,2010), Bekele and Palm researched on the feasibility study for a stand-alonesolar wind based on hybrid energy system for application in Ethiopia anddetermined the optimal system for supplying electricity to a neighborhood of200 families in Ethiopia and discovered that the price for diesel in 2009 was themost cost effective for the diesel generator/battery/converter set up (Bekeleand Palm, 2010). The study of the optimization and life cycle cost of a hybridsystem for a rural area health clinic in southern Iraq using HOMER softwarewas carried out by Al-Karaghouli and Kazmerski. It was discovered that, thesystem when consisting the PV/battery inverter, was the most economic sys-tem (Al-Karaghouli and Kazmerski, 2010). The study of the technoeconomicevaluation of PV/diesel/battery systems for rural electrification in Saudi Arabiawas carried out byAkinbulire et al. (2014). They researched on the effect of theincrease in PV/battery on the cost of energy, operational hours of dieselgenerators, and the reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions.The studyofthe renewable energy technologies in the Maldives was performed by VanAlphen et al. (2007), and it was discovered that, 10% of the total electricityneeded by Maldives can be supplied using renewable energy resources. Ben-ghamem performed a study of the optimization of tilt angle for solar panel toincrease the energy production, using Madinah, Saudi Arabia as case study(Benghanem, 2011) and revealed a gain of 8% at a tilt of solar collector in aparticular angle on monthly basis when compared with tilting it annually.Besarati et al. (2013) studied the potential of harnessing solar radiation indifferent parts of Iran was analyzed and the results revealed that, there is greaterpotential for renewable energy application in the central and southern part ofIran.

12.1.8.2 Site DescriptionThe sites used for the research were six towns selected across the sixgeopolitical zone/regions of Nigeria. The towns were selected across the sixgeopolitical zones to enable the study covers all the characteristics of theweather and climatic conditions of all the zones in Nigeria. Also, the townsselected are not the popular urban cities well known in Nigeria but aretowns that are rural in nature and close to rural areas. The towns include:Okrika (south south zone), Ihiala (south east zone), Igbeti (south westzone), Kabo (north east zone), Abadan (North West zone), and Gboko(north central zone). Analysis was performed on these selected sites on theprospects of PV to power RHC.


12.1.8.3 Solar ResourceThe NASA website provided the metrological data used in the analysis ofthis research work. The agency provided the average solar radiation for astipulated range of time used for the analysis for the sake of the study.

12.1.8.4 Proposed Hybrid SystemBased on the amount of solar resources present at these selected sites, theproposed hybrid system will be a combination of PV modules, dieselgenerators, power converters, and storage batteries. HOMER is the soft-ware to be used for this study. It is a general purpose system design tool forelectric power systems. The software has several inputs, as well as com-ponent’s technical and economic details (Olatomiwa et al., 2016). To arriveat an optimal value for system components, HOMER accepts more thanone value to be entered to a tune of multiple values. Reliability and effi-ciency can be strengthened when the right merging of different sources ofenergy is done. The energy storage requirements are also reduced whencompared with systems that have only one renewable energy source (Zhouet al., 2010; Olatomiwa et al., 2014). When solar energy resources anddiesel generators are combined, a hybrid solar/diesel generator configura-tion is formed with an energy storage system to make the system a morereliable source of electrical power. The diesel generator in the hybridsystem acts as a backup energy source, when there is redundancy orinsufficient renewable energy resources.

The hybrid system design is better because there is more than onesource of energy for alternation, and compliments the efforts of one anotherto achieve a reliable and efficient system in producing the much-neededelectrical power for rural health centers, unlike the one source of renew-able system that does not have these benefits. Also, in the hybrid system,different components need to be sized so as to achieve the required loaddemand, while in a single source of renewable system, the system toaccommodate the load demand, the becomes oversized.

12.1.8.5 Data RequirementsTo achieve the aim of this study, the data required for this analysis are cate-gorized into three, namely: (1) metrological (solar irradiance), (2) estimatedload, and (3) the component data. These are discussed in the next section.

12.1.8.6 Metrological DataFor the purpose of this study, a town each falling within a geopolitical zonein Nigeria is picked as a pilot study for the entire geopolitical zone.


Fig. 12.4 shows the solar irradiance for the chosen cities as obtained fromNASA’s global satellite database. This serves as input into HOMER toascertain if the load demand of the clinic can be met.

12.1.8.6.1 Load Data12.1.8.6.1.1 Categorization of Health Clinics To adequately capture

the energy demand of a health facility, it is essential to categorize healthfacilities based on size and energy consumption. This section describes classesof health facilities and their corresponding energy demand. The energydemands of a health facility will be a critical component in the selection ofthe most appropriate electrification technology. The descriptions providedare according to United States Agency for International Developmentdocuments available in open literature (http://www.poweringhealth.org/index.php/topics/technology/energyefficiency).

12.1.8.6.1.2 Health Post Health post is the smallest, most basichealth facility in terms of size and services provided. These facilitiesusually do not have a permanent doctor or nurse. Most times, the healthpost may have a full- or part-time primary health-care provider andtrained health officers. Services provided by health post facilities include:the treatment of minor illnesses, the nursing of minor injuries and, andthe provision of basic immunization services. Because of the limitedmedical services provided, the medical equipments are few, and as aconsequence, the overall energy consumption is moderately low. Theenergy demands of a health post will be satisfied through category ofhealth clinic electrification options, while taking into account the reduceddaily demand for energy.

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

irrad

ianc

e (k

Wh/

sqm

/day

)

Abadam

Okrika

ihiala

Kabo

Igbeti

Gboko

Figure 12.4 The solar irradiance for the chosen cities.


12.1.8.6.1.3 Health Clinics Health clinics are generally larger thanhealth posts and engage one or more full-time nurses. Clinics may alsoemploy part-time medical doctors, depending on the services provided, sizeand location. Health clinics offer comprehensive category of services whencompared with health post. Therefore, it is expected that it acquires moremedical equipment so as to enable more sophisticated and advanceddiagnoses. They can be subdivided into the three categories (Categories I, II,and III). Rural health clinics generally fall into one of the three categories,based on the type and number of medical devices used in the facility and thefrequency with which they are used on a daily basis (http://www.poweringhealth.org/index.php/topics/technology/energyefficiency).

Category I Health Clinic (low-energy requirements, 5e10 kWh/day)1. Typically located in a remote setting with limited services and a small

staff.2. Approximately 0e60 beds.3. Electric power is required for:

• lighting the facility during evening hours and to support limited sur-gical procedures (e.g., suturing)

• maintaining the cold chain for vaccines, blood, and other medicalsuppliesdone or two refrigerators may be used

• utilizing basic lab equipmentda centrifuge, hematology mixer,microscope, incubator, and hand-powered aspirator.

Category II Health Clinic (moderate energy requirements,10e20 kWh/day)1. Approximately 60e120 beds.2. Medical equipment similar to Category I Health Clinic; frequency of

use and number of devices are key factors of differentiation betweenCategory I and II health clinics.

3. Separate refrigerators may be used for food storage and cold chain.4. Communication device, such as a radio, may be utilized.5. May accommodate more sophisticated diagnostic medical equipment

and perform more complex surgical procedures.Category III Health Clinic (high energy requirements, 20e30 kWh/day)

1. Approximately 120 beds or more.2. May serve as a regional referral center and coordinate communication

between several smaller facilities and hospitals in large cities.3. May need to communicate with remote health centers and hospitals by

way of telephone, fax, computer, and Internet.


4. May contain sophisticated diagnostic devices (X-ray machine, CD4counters, blood typing equipment, others) requiring additional power.

12.1.8.6.1.4 Energy Assessment of a Rural Health Center Becausehealth-care facilities offer a comprehensive variety of health services, it isessential to specify energy needs based on equipment required for suchservices. In literature and practice, this has enjoyed limited attention(http://www.who.int/hia/green_economy/modern-energy-services/en/).Therefore, this area needs more attention by health and energy professionalat the international, regional and national level, and grassroots. Neverthe-less, infrastructural studies such as Service Availability and ReadinessAssessment (SARA) itemized a detailed list of medical equipment accessiblein health facilities, and the outcome of these reviews can be adopted as abasis for evaluating prevailing energy needs. In the survey, SARA classifiedhealth services, essential electric equipment and its indicative power re-quirements as: (1) infrastructure (lighting, communication, water supply,and waste management); (2) medical devices; and (3) support appliances forspecific health services, which include vaccination, infectious and non-communicable disease treatment, emergency care such as blood transfusionsand surgical services. An extract of this is presented in Table 12.2.

12.1.8.6.1.5 Criteria for Selection of the Appropriate Energy Sys-tem for the Load For the selection of appropriate hybrid power systemfor health-care facilities, a list of factors needs to be considered. Theseinclude the following:• Peak power capacity: This is defined as the maximum capacity the system

can supply.Different appliances consume different amount of electricity, whichranges from a few watts to several kilowatts. Similarly, the variouspower-generating systems generate different quantities of electricity.The generated electricity should adequately meet the expected electricalload demand. Hence, the use of energy-efficient equipment is of greatemphasis, so as to reduce the available peak power needs of the health-care facilities.

• Daily energy capacity: Generally, energy use by various appliances inhealth-care facility could be classified as continuous (e.g., refrigeratorsand space heating) and intermittent such as in laboratory equipment.The intermittent loads are load that are operated periodically, eitherin the evening or early morning (radio, laptop, and others) or some


Table 12.2 Health equipment by power load level

Health services Electrical devicesIndicative powerrating (W)

AC powersupply

DC powersupply

Infrastructure

Basic amenities Lightings:Incandescent bulb 10.8 W/m2 110/220 V eHalogen bulb 1.8 W/m2 110/220 V 12 VCFL bulb 2.16 W/m2 110/220 V eLED bulb 1.8e2.14 W/m2 110/220 V 10e30 V

Security lighting/outdoorsCFL/LED

40e160 W 110/220 V 10e30 V

Laptop desktop incandescent 200e600 W 110/220 V 10e30 V20e60 W 110/220 V 12e20 V

Mobile phone battery(charging)

5e20 W 110/220 V 5e16.5 V

Desktop computer 15e200 W 110/220 V 8e20 VPrinter (ink jet)VHF radio receiver: standbytransmitting

65e100 W 110/220 V 12e20 V2 W 110/220 V 12 V30 W 110/220 V 12 V

Ceiling fan 50e100 W 110/220 V eRefrigerator (for food andwater)

150e200 W 110/220 V e

Portable air-conditioner (AC) 1000e1500 W 110/220 V 48 V

340Environm

entalCarbon

Footprints

Specific services

General outpatient services Nebulizer 80e90 W 110/220 V eOxygen concentrator 270e310 W 110/220 V ePulse oximeter 50 W 110/220 V e

Antenatal child and adolescent health Vaccine refrigerator 60e115 W 110/220 V N/AObstetric and new born LED lighting (phototherapy) 440 W 110/220 V e

Suction apparatus 90e200 W 110/220 V eVacuum aspirator 36e96 W 110/220 V 3e6 VNeonatal incubator 800e1035 W 110/220 V eUltrasound 800e1000 W 110/220 V e

General diagnostics, blood analysis,and laboratory equipment

Laboratory refrigerator 60e160 W 110/220 V eCentrifuge 250e400 W 110/220 V eHematology analyzer 230e400 W 110/220 V eBlood chemistry analyzer 45e88 W 110/220 V eCD4 counter 200 W 110/220 V 12 VMicroscope (with LED light) 20e30 W 110/220 V 3e6 VX-ray machine (portable) 3e4 kW 110/220 V eLaboratory incubator 200 W 110/220 V 12 V

Basic surgical services Suction apparatus 90e200 W 110/220 V eAnesthesia machine 1440 W 110/220 V

From http://www.who.int/hia/green_economy/modern-energy-services/en/.

TheRole

ofDem

and-SideManagem

entin

Carbon

FootprintReduction

341

medical equipment operated once or twice a day (e.g., autoclaves forinstrument sterilization). The breakdown for expected daily energycapacity needed for the health-care facilities considered for this chapteris presented in Table 12.3. This is an extract from the SARA require-ment (Table 12.2). The proposed energy system must be capable of sup-plying the daily energy requirements of a typical rural health clinic.

• Evening peak hours’ supply: In a typical RHC, some patients, includingpregnant women may show up for treatment in the evening time. Toavoid or minimize wasting time during their daytime jobs. In case offirst aid emergencies, the availability of power supply in health-carefacility in the evening and during the night hours is considered imper-ative for quality health-care delivery, especially when there are noreferral clinics nearby. In RHC that have enough personnel to do nightduties, electric power supply in the evening is vital to enable them feelsecured and improve their productivity during night shifts. Therefore,the power supply is designed to suit the expected nighttime loaddemand.

• Duration of supply: The duration of power supply to health-care facility isdependent on size as well as types of health-care services rendered. It isexpected that, electricity supply be available to power all equipmentrequired to enhance quality medical services delivery at all timesRHCs, with maternal health care and childbirth services or other emer-gency services are expected to have power supply for basic applications.Some equipment, such as laboratory equipment, for testing of samplescollected during the day and analyzed in a batch is used intermittently.However, other appliances such as of refrigerators are run as base loadand may require continuous electricity supply.

• Reliability: Reliability in this context deals with the probability of powerfailure because of unmet load. Unmet load is electrical load that thepower system is unable to serve. It occurs when the electrical demandexceeds the supply. Because of the sensitive nature of services renderedby RHCs during power disruptions, health facility is expected to beprovided with backup power generators. This will improve the reli-ability of the system and as such, reduce the loss of load. Backup gen-erators may not provide sufficient electricity for all the equipment;nevertheless, it should serve as support to priority applications such as:lighting, refrigerators, and other critical equipments. Consequently, reli-ability of the power supply is given significant attention, while sizingand designing the power system.


Table 12.3 Clinic appliances and their power ratings

S/no

Powerconsumption Qty

Power(CME)watts

Power(EEME)watts

Total(watts)

Total(watts)

Daytime hours7 a.m.e6 p.m.

Eveninghours(6e10p.m.)

Night hours(10p.m.e7a.m.)

Totalhours/day

Totalenergy(CME)(kWh/day)

Totalenergy(EEME)(kWh/day)

1 Refrigerator-vaccine(RV)

1 60 40 60 40 5 3 2 10 0.6 0.4

2 Refrigerator-nonmedical (RNM)

1 300 125 300 125 2 2 1 5 1.5 0.625

3 Centrifuge 2 242 242 484 484 4 4 1.936 1.9364 Microscope 2 20 20 40 40 6 6 0.24 0.245 Blood chemical

analyzer (BCA)1 88 45 88 45 4 4 0.352 0.18

6 Hematologyanalyzer (HA)

1 230 230 230 230 4 4 0.92 0.92

7 CD4 Machine 1 200 200 200 200 4 4 0.8 0.88 Radio 1 30 15 30 15 10 10 0.3 0.159 Tube fluorescent

lights (TFL)4 40 18 160 72 8 8 1.28 0.576

10 Wall fan 5 65 65 325 325 8 8 2.6 2.611 Halogen lamp

(security)1 100 50 100 50 0 3 8 11 1.1 0.55

12 Desktop computer 1 230 65 230 65 4 4 0.92 0.26Total energy(kWh/day)

12.548 9.237

% Energy reduction 26%Oil equivalent ofenergy saved

0.0003 tonnes

CO2 emissionreduction

4.3043 kg/day

CME, Conventional medical equipment; EEME, energy efficient medical equipment.

• Environmental health and sustainability: It is expected that, energy supplyto any health-care facility should not lead to environmental hazards.Environmental impart such as air pollution, water pollution, and noisepollution in any quantities that could further deteriorate the health ofpatients, affect the medical staff or people living at the health-facilitypremises, should be avoided. This can be achieved by making surehigh penetration of renewable energy sources. This will ensure highvalue of renewable energy fraction. Consequently, reduction of GHGemission per kWh of power generated will lead to environmental sus-tainability. To this aim more priority should be given renewable energysources than captive gasoline or diesel generator source in providingpower supply to the rural health-care facilities.A 24-h energy demand is required, so as to determine the sizes of the

components. Because of the nonavailability of a typical load demand forRHC in Nigeria, load profile based on SARA as indicated by UNICEF for astandard rural health center is developed for the purpose of this study. Thiswas centered on the estimates of the medical equipment, power ratings atdifferent times of the day and night. It is assumed that, the power will varyacross the hour of the day, and that the clinic is only operational between8a.m. and 5p.m. daily. Essential appliances such as refrigerator, operatedintermittently during the night. Two kinds of medical devices and appliancesare modeled for the load-conventional (inefficient) and energy-efficientequipment. The existing devices in most RHC visited are conventionaland obsolete technologies. The various appliances used in this study and thepresumed distribution of the daily energy consumption by appliance areshown in Table 12.3 and Fig. 12.5A and B, respectively. The fan and thecentrifuge consume bulk of the power during the daytime.

As shown in Fig. 12.6, the peak load of 1.557 kW/day and 1.411 kW/day occur for both types on load between 12p.m. and 2p.m. To model thechange in pattern of electricity usage during the year, a day-to-day variabilityof 10% and hour-to-hour random variability of 15% was specified inHOMER. The clinic utilizing conventional equipment will require12.55 kWh/day to run its services, whereas the clinic deploying energy-efficient appliance and equipment will require 9.24 kW/day-26% less thanthe former. The oil equivalent of energy saved and the CO2 avoided withuse of energy efficient medical equipment (EEME) as against conventionalmedical equipment (CME) is 0.0003 tonnes/day and 4.3043 kg/day. Thehourly load distribution analysis for pre-and post-DSM is given inTables 12.4 and 12.5.


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(A)

(B)

Figure 12.5 (A) Daily energy demand contributions of conventional appliances. (B)Daily energy demand contributions of energy-efficient appliances. BCA, blood chem-ical analyzer; HA, Hematology analyzer; RNM, Refrigerator-nonmedical.

00.20.40.60.8

11.21.41.61.8

Total Energy (kWh/d) (with conventional medical equipment)

Total Energy (kWh/d) (with energy efficient medical devices)

Figure 12.6 Electric load profile for both scenarios (conventional and energy-efficientdevices).


Table 12.4 Hourly distribution of load demands without demand-side management

Time of theday RV RNM Centrifuge Microscope BCA HA

CD4machine Radio

Tubefluorescent Fan Halogen

Desktopcomputer

Totalenergy(Wh/d)

12e1a.m. 100 1001e2a.m. 100 1002e3a.m. 60 100 1603e4a.m. 60 100 1604e5a.m. 100 1005e6a.m. 100 1006e7a.m. 300 3007e8a.m. 60 608e9a.m. 60 30 230 3209e10a.m. 60 40 88 30 160 325 230 93310-11a.m. 60 300 40 88 200 30 160 325 120311e12noon 60 300 484 40 200 30 160 325 159912e1p.m. 484 40 88 230 200 30 160 325 15571e2p.m. 484 40 88 230 200 30 160 325 15572e3p.m. 484 40 230 30 160 325 12693e4p.m. 230 30 160 325 230 9754e5p.m. 30 160 325 230 7455e6p.m. 30 306e7p.m. 60 607e8p.m. 60 100 1608e9p.m. 60 300 100 4609e10p.m. 300 100 40010e11p.m. 100 10011e12midnight 100 100Total 600 1500 1936 240 352 920 800 300 1280 2600 1100 920 12548

BCA, blood chemical analyzer; HA, Hematology analyzer; RNM, Refrigerator-nonmedical; RV, refrigerator-vaccine.

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Table 12.5 Hourly distribution of load demands with demand-side management

Time of theday RV RNM Centrifuge Microscope BCA HA

CD4machine Radio

Tubefluorescent Fan Halogen

Desktopcomputer

Totalenergy(Wh/d)

12e1a.m. 50 501e2a.m. 50 502e3a.m. 40 50 903e4a.m. 40 50 904e5a.m. 50 505e6a.m. 50 506e7a.m. 125 1257e8a.m. 40 408e9a.m. 40 15 65 1209e10a.m. 40 40 45 15 72 325 65 60210e11a.m. 40 125 40 45 200 15 72 325 86211e12noon 40 125 484 40 200 15 72 325 130112e1p.m. 484 40 45 230 200 15 72 325 14111e2p.m. 484 40 45 230 200 15 72 325 14112e3p.m. 484 40 230 15 72 325 11663e4p.m. 230 15 72 325 65 7074e5p.m. 15 72 325 65 4775e6p.m. 15 156e7p.m. 40 407e8p.m. 40 50 908e9p.m. 40 125 50 2159e10p.m. 125 50 17510e11p.m. 50 5011e12midnight 50 50Total 400 625 1936 240 180 920 800 150 576 2600 550 260 9237

BCA, blood chemical analyzer; HA, Hematology analyzer; RNM, Refrigerator-nonmedical; RV, refrigerator-vaccine.

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12.1.8.6.1.6 Component Data The initial selections of componentsare based on the load profile in Fig. 12.6. The details of components andother assumption regarding them are specified in Table 12.6. Prices arespecified in US dollar. HOMER models two types of dispatchstrategiesd“load following,” where the generator supplies exactly enoughpower to serve the load in the event of insufficient renewable energy andthe “cycle charging,” where the generators run at full load and excesselectricity charges the batteries. In this study, both dispatch strategies werespecified.

12.1.8.7 Emission FactorsAn emission factor is a characteristic value that relates to the quantity of apollutant released into the atmosphere with an activity associated with therelease of that pollutant. These factors are usually calculated by dividingthe weight of a pollutant by a unit weight, volume, distance, or interval ofthe activity emitting the pollutant. These factors are used to calculateemissions from different sources of air pollution.

These factors are averages of all reliable available data and are assumed tobe typical for long-term means of the source category. The emission factoris used to compute the total emission from a source. Table 12.7 shows thestate-by-state average emission factors for all the pollutants that HOMER

Table 12.6 Assumption regarding component sizing and costComponent parameter Value Component parameter Value

PV Converter

Rated capacity 1 kW Rated power 1 kWDerating factor 80% Efficiency 90%Capital cost $4250 Capital cost $621.80replacement cost $4200 Replacement cost $569Operational life 20 years O & M cost $3/yearGround reflectance 20% Operational life 15 years

Battery Diesel

Rating 4 V, 1900 Ah Rated power 1 kWRound-trip efficiency 85% Capital cost $280Min. state of charge 40% Replacement cost $280Capital cost $269 O & M cost 0.5$/hReplacement cost $260 Operational life 15000 hO & M cost $5/year Minimum load ratio 30%Operational life 4 years

O & M cost, operation and maintenance cost; PV, photovoltaic.


Table 12.7 Average emissions factors for the year 2000 for each us state

Serialnumber State

Average grid emissionsfactors

SN State


SN State


CO2

g/kWhSO2

g/kWhNOx

g/kWhCO2

g/kWhSO2

g/kWhNOx

g/kWhCO2

g/kWhSO2

g/kWhNOx

g/kWh

1 Alabama 656 3.76 1.38 18 Kentucky 1011 5.7 2.41 35 NorthDakota

1086 4.41 2.27

2 Alaska 586 0.61 2.21 19 Louisiana 629 1.6 1.15 36 Ohio 836 7.5 2.333 Arizona 533 0.74 1.06 20 Maine 297 0.96 0.65 37 Oklahoma 833 1.57 1.664 Arkansas 659 1.57 1.1 21 Maryland 623 4.58 1.58 38 Oregon 149 0.26 0.255 California 287 0.08 0.26 22 Massachusetts 587 2.53 0.91 39 Pennsylvania 560 4.32 1.236 Colorado 913 1.85 1.59 23 Michigan 710 3.2 1.52 40 Rhode

Island454 0.09 0.24

7 Connecticut 335 1.02 0.62 24 Minnesota 744 2.26 1.78 41 SouthCarolina

405 2 0.89

8 Delaware 894 5.93 1.59 25 Mississippi 597 3.2 1.55 42 SouthDakota

378 1.25 1.61

9 District ofColumbia

1205 6.18 2.36 26 Missouri 898 2.79 1.96 43 Tennessee 621 3.96 1.51

10 Florida 644 2.74 1.53 27 Montana 662 0.79 1.29 44 Texas 666 1.38 1.0511 Georgia 641 3.87 1.43 28 Nebraska 702 1.95 1.42 45 Utah 950 0.71 2.0112 Hawaii 779 2.08 2.38 29 Nevada 704 1.35 1.34 46 Vermont 26 0.02 0.1413 Idaho 42 0.04 0.07 30 New

Hampshire321 3.12 0.64 47 Virginia 559 2.64 1.17

14 Illinois 503 2.24 1.23 31 New Jersey 332 0.96 0.62 48 Washington 130 0.72 0.2515 Indiana 977 6.01 2.37 32 New Mexico 969 1.83 2.32 49 West

Virginia920 5.84 2.62

16 Iowa 894 3.13 1.84 33 New York 444 1.88 0.66 50 Wisconsin 799 3.01 1.717 Kansas 848 2.36 1.93 34 North

Carolina586 3.45 1.33 51 Wyoming 1044 1.69 1.84

From https://www.epa.gov/energy.

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models. Prior to simulating the energy system, HOMER defines theemission factors (kg of pollutant emitted divided by the unit of fuelconsumed) for each pollutant. Subsequently, it computes the annualemission of that pollutant by multiplying the emission factors by the totalannual fuel consumption. Emissions factors for four of the six pollutants:carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and nitro-gen oxides are directly specified. Using these values and the carbon andsulfur content of the fuel, HOMER estimates the emissions factors for thetwo-remaining pollutants: carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. To achievethese, HOMER uses three primary assumptions following:• Any carbon in the fuel that does not get emitted as carbon monoxide or

unburned hydrocarbons get emitted as carbon dioxide.• The carbon fraction of the unburned hydrocarbon emission is the same

as that of the fuel.• Any sulfur in the burned fuel that does not get emitted as particulate

matter gets emitted as sulfur dioxide.Eq. (12.1) is generally used in the estimation of the emission.

E ¼ Ar � Ef ��1� EFh

100

�(12.1)

where E ¼ emissions; Ar ¼ activity rate; Ef ¼ emission factor; andEFh ¼ overall emission reduction efficiency (%).

12.1.8.8 Results and DiscussionSystems constraints along with input parameters described in Table 12.3were used in the simulations of the PV battery system to obtain the optimalconfiguration. Optimal system configuration is obtained by choosingsuitable system components, depending on parameters such as: solar irra-diance, diesel price, and maximum capacity shortage. The most viablesystem depends on the total net present cost (TNPC), as well as the hourlyperformance. This section presents the result obtained from the simulations,both in graphical and tabular forms.

12.1.9 System ConfigurationDisplayed in Table 12.8 is the optimal system architecture for the selectedgeopolitical zones, with both CME and EEME. It is worth noting that,during component sizing and optimization, HOMER priorities continuoussatisfaction of load. It also makes sure, there is minimum diesel con-sumption, and the PV array is not oversized. In Table 12.8, for both case of


CME and EEME, the PV array size across the sampled locations is the same(3 kW). Except for Gboko and Abadam with a smaller size of dieselgenerator of 1 kW for EEME loads, all other locations require a 2 kWgenerator for both EEME and CME loads. For all locations, the number ofbatteries required with the use of CME is three each, whereas with the useof CME; all locations returned two batteries each except for Ihiala andOkrika with three batteries each. The latter is because of the fact that, Ihialaand Okrika, receives the lowest average solar irradiance. The size of theconverter for both categories of medical equipment for all locationsis 2 kW.

12.1.10 Economic AnalysisTable 12.9 shows the economic analysis of the optimal configuration of thesystem in the six geopolitical zones. It gives the breakdown of the initialcapital cost (ICC), operating cost, TNPC, and the levelized cost of energy(LCOE). The percentage reduction that accrues with the use of EEMEinstead of CME is also shown in Table 12.9. With 17% reduction, Igbetiand Abadam had the highest percentage reduction in TNPC and operatingcost. Gboko recorded the least percentage difference of 15%. If installed,clinics in Igbeti will have the highest TNPC of $17,611 and $20,948 forEEME and CME, respectively. The initial cost of system installation usingCME is the same across all locations that were considered ($15,252),

Table 12.8 System configuration for the six geopolitical zonesCity Gboko Igbeti Kabo

Load type EEME CME EEME CME EEME CME

PV array (kW) 3 3 3 3 3 3Generator (kW) 2 2 1 2 2 2Number of batteries 2 3 2 3 2 3Converter (kW) 2 2 2 2 2 2Dispatch strategy LF CC CC CC LF CC

Ihiala Abadam Okrika

PV array (kW) 3 3 3 3 3 3Generator (kW) 2 2 1 2 2 2Number of batteries 3 3 2 3 3 3Converter (kW) 2 2 2 2 2 2Dispatch strategy LF LF CC CC LF LF

CC, Cycle charging; CME, conventional medical equipment; EEME, energy efficient medicalequipment; LF, load following; PV, photovoltaic.


Table 12.9 Economic analysis of optimal system architectureCity Gboko Igbeti Kabo

Load type EEME CME%Reduction EEME CME

%Reduction EEME CME

%Reduction

Initial capital cost 14,983 15,252 2% 14,757 15,252 3% 14,983 15,252 2%Operating cost 262 628 58% 198 584 66% 213 599 64%Total net present cost 16,937 19,940 15% 16,238 19,611 17% 16,573 19,724 16%Levelized cost of energy 0.672 0.585 �15% 0.645 0.575 �12% 0.658 0.579 �14%


Initial capital cost 15,252 15,252 0% 14,757 15,252 3% 15,252 15,252 0%Operating cost 290 728 60% 200 585 66% 316 763 59%Total net present cost 17,414 20,690 16% 16,249 19,621 17% 17,611 20,948 16%Levelized cost of energy 0.691 0.607 �14% 0.645 0.576 �12% 0.699 0.615 �14%


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whereas that of the EEME varies directly. In the solar irradiance as could beseen in Fig. 12.7. At higher solar irradiance, the ICC is lower and high atlower, solar irradiance. The LCOE was higher for PVeDG battery systemwith EEME loads and lower for CME. In all scenarios, all capital cost forEEME and CME are close with just a maximum of 3% difference.

Fig. 12.8 shows the monthly contributions of the PV and dieselgenerator for the six locations across the six geopolitical zones. Thecontribution pattern of the PV array follows the same pattern for both typesof loads across all sites except Igbeti. Generally, PV contribution falls to itslowest in the month of August, except in Igbeti, which experiences itslowest in the months of April and August. It can also be observed that, thediesel generator contribution peaks when the PV contribution is at itslowest across all locations.

Table 12.10 shows the breakdown of annual electricity productionacross all sites. Okrika recorded the highest annual electricity production of4611 kWh/years and 5468 kWh/years, for EEME and CME, respectively.With the use of EEME, Okrika has the highest electricity production of680 kWh/years, whereas Gboko produce the highest excess electricity of1360 kWh/years with the use of CME. Unmet load and shortage capacityis mostly low and negligible as compared to the load served. The highestrenewable energy fraction of 91.8% and 73.2% can be observed in Kabo.This is expected because it receives the highest solar irradiance out of all thelocations considered. Okrika has the lowest renewable faction of 86.3% and71% for EEME and CME, respectively. This location receives the lowestaverage solar irradiance. Across all locations, the value of the renewablefraction for EEME is higher that, CME with the highest increment of 28%in Kabo and least in Ihiala (21%).

0.001.002.003.004.005.006.007.00

14,50014,60014,70014,80014,90015,00015,10015,20015,300

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r irr

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h/sq

m/d

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Initi

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apita

l cos

t ($)

Axis title

Initial capital cost (EEME) Initial capital cost (CME) Solar irradiance

Figure 12.7 Relationship between initial capital cost for both energy efficient medicalequipment (EEME) and conventional medical equipment (CME) and solar irradiance.


Gboko (CME)

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Kabo (CME)

00.050.10.150.20.250.3

00.10.20.30.40.50.6

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Figure 12.8 Monthly average electricity production. CME, Conventional medical equipment; EEME, energy efficient medical equipment;PV, photovoltaic.

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Table 12.10 Energy production for optimal systemCity Gboko Igbeti Kabo

Load type EEME CME EEME CME EEME CME

Annual electricity Production (kWh/year) 4522 4148 4482 5383 4425 5425Excess electricity (kWh/year) 613 1360 545 36 518 53.6Unmet load (kWh/year) 0.00000775 2.2 0.0427 0.000012 0.00000696 0.000011Shortage capacity (kWh/year) 0.0185 0 1.33 0 0 0Renewable fraction 0.889 0.702 0.901 0.729 0.918 0.732


Annual electricity production (kWh/year) 4556 5399 4485 5383 4611 5468Excess electricity (kWh/year) 626 147 548 34.1 680 218Unmet load kWh/year 0.00000771 0.49 1.24 0.0000128 0.00000753 0.598Shortage capacity (kWh/year) 0.108 3.27 2.95 0 0.118 3.97Renewable fraction 0.879 0.726 0.9 0.729 0.863 0.71


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12.1.11 Emission ResultsThe environmental benefit analysis of the proposed hybrid photovoltaicsystem is first considered in terms of the amount of fossil fuel consumed bythe generator. This information is then employed to estimate the quantityof emissions produced by the generator. The emissions by the generatorare assumed to be the quantity of emissions avoided by the solar PVsystem. As indicated in (U. S, 1998), various values of CO2 emissionfactors are reported in the literature; 3.2, 3.15, and 3.0 kg CO2/L of diesel,respectively. This work adopted an emission factor of 2.66 kg CO2/L ofdiesel to evaluate the quantity of carbon dioxide. All other factors used byhomer is given in Appendices A.1. All emissions are estimated byHOMER software and results are given in Table 12.11. Emissions aredirectly proportional to the quantity of diesel consumed by the generator.The diesel consumption will depend on the annual running hours, totalload severed annually, which also depends on whether the solar resourcecan adequately meet the load or not. Table 12.12 shows the diesel con-sumption reduction that is achievable with the use of EEME as againstCME. Fig. 12.9A and B show the relationship between CO2 emission anddiesel consumption for both CME and EEME. Ihiala consumed thehighest liter of fuel and consequently the highest level of emission,whereas as expected, Kabo had the least fuel consumption as well asemission. There was a 72% reduction in Kabo, 74% in Igbeti and Abadam,whereas Okrika recorded the least reduction of 64%. The relationshipbetween the running hours of diesel generator for both load types (EEMEand CME) is shown in Fig. 12.10. The RHC located in Okrika has thehighest diesel generator running hours for both equipment types, whereasAbadam recorded the least diesel generator running hour.

12.1.12 ConclusionVarious aspects of DSM are very crucial in ensuring that, energy resourcesavailable to a country is efficiently used. So many benefits of DSM include:provision of relief to power grids and generation plants, mitigation ofemergencies in electrical systems, minimization of blackouts to increasereliability of energy systems, reduction in energy prices, mitigation ofemergencies in electrical systems, to reduce or partially eliminate in-vestments in generation of energy, reduction of dependency on expensiveimports, transmission and distribution networks, and reduction of envi-ronmental emissions.


Table 12.11 Emission for both conventional medical equipment (CME) and energy efficient medical equipment (EEME)City Gboko Igbeti Kabo

Load type EEME CME % Reduction EEME CME % Reduction EEME CME % Reduction

Carbon dioxide 488 1391 65% 328 1278 74% 364 1317 72%Carbon monoxide 1.2 3.43 65% 0.81 3.16 74% 0.899 3.25 72%Unburned hydrocarbons 0.133 0.38 65% 0.0898 0.35 74% 0.0996 0.36 72%Particulate matter 0.0908 0.259 65% 0.0611 0.238 74% 0.0678 0.245 72%Sulfur dioxide 0.98 2.79 65% 0.659 2.57 74% 0.732 2.64 72%Nitrogen oxides 10.7 30.6 65% 7.23 28.2 74% 8.03 29 72%


Carbon dioxide 526 1586 67% 332 1281 74% 593 1669 64%Carbon monoxide 1.3 3.91 67% 0.819 3.16 74% 1.46 4.12 65%Unburned hydrocarbons 0.144 0.434 67% 0.0908 0.35 74% 0.162 0.456 64%Particulate matter 0.0979 0.295 67% 0.0618 0.238 74% 0.11 0.311 65%Sulfur dioxide 1.06 3.19 67% 0.667 2.57 74% 1.19 3.35 64%Nitrogen oxides 11.6 34.9 67% 7.31 28.2 74% 13.1 36.8 64%

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The technoeconomic and emission comparison of deploying energyefficiency as a DSM tool in sizing alternative energy for a typical health-carecenter has been presented in this chapter. In conclusion, this study validatesthe effectiveness of utilizing energy efficient-equipment as compared with

Table 12.12 Diesel fuel consumption analysis

Location Gboko Igbeti Kabo Ihiala Abadam OkrikaBasecase

Fuelconsumption(EEME)L/yr

185 125 138 200 126 225 20364

Fuelconsumption(CME)L/yr

528 485 500 602 486 634 20364

% reduction 65% 74% 72% 67% 74% 65% 0


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onsu

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ion

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r)

CO2 e

mis

sion

(kg/

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CO2 emission (CME) kg/yr Diesel consumption (CME) L/yr

0

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Gboko Igbeti Kabo Ihiala Abadam Okrika0

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Dies

el co

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n (L

/Yr)

C02 e

mis

sion

(kg/

yr)

CO2 emission (EEME) kg/yr Diesel consumption (EEME) L/yr

(A)

(B)

Figure 12.9 (A) The relationship between CO2 emission and diesel consumption forconventional medical equipment (CME). (B) The relationship between CO2 emissionand diesel consumption for energy efficient medical equipment (EEME).


conventional ones. It shows that, investments in more energy-efficientmedical devices, though at higher costs, has the tendency to reduce thecapital investment in hybrid renewable energy system for a rural healthclinic, and as such, removes major barrier to the consumption of greenerenergy systems at lower costs over its life span.

For newly proposed clinics of similar status in rural communities ofdeveloping countries like the ones described in this study, a similar loadprofile is expected as the cautious selection of energy-efficient medicaldevices and energy conservation practices along with a hybrid PV/gener-ator/battery system architecture would most possibly ensure the lowestNPC without compromising quality and reliability energy services delivery.The application of energy-efficient equipment is seen to increase therenewable energy penetration, across the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria.This in turn reduces the use operational hours of use of captive generatorsand consequently, the carbon footprint.

In terms of retrofitting, older health centers, the cost of procurement ofenergy-efficient equipment may initially appear expensive. Conversely, theNPC of the system over its life span makes investments in more energy-efficient devices reduce generator fuel costs considerably over time. Apartfrom this, cost of offsetting the effect of emission is also an advantage.

It is worth noting that, this model did not fully quantify the initial costand maintenance costs of procuring newer, and more energy efficientmedical equipment but only the approximate estimate. In future study, asearch light can be beamed to explore these costs, the effect of inflation,carbon tax, as well as the variation in diesel fuel price, and solar irradiance so

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0200400600800

100012001400160018002000

Gboko Igbe Kabo Ihiala Abadam Okrika

Generator runing hours (CME)h/yr Generator runing hours (EEME)h/yr

Figure 12.10 Generator running hours. CME, conventional medical equipment; EEME,energy efficient medical equipment.


as to create a robust cost-benefit and environmental assessment model.Furthermore, health centers with constrained budgets, and facing chal-lenges, choosing between investing in hybrid energy system or efficientmedical devices, models that fully consider both supply and demand side,management options can help generate a precise assessment of costs andbenefits, based on the options available locally.

APPENDICES

A.1 Emission FactorsCarbon monoxide 6.5 g/L of fuelUnburned hydrocarbons 0.72 g/L of fuelParticulate matter 0.49 g/L of fuelPortion of fuel sulfur converted to particulate matter 2.2 %Nitrogen oxides 58 g/L of fuel

A.2 Destination of Fuel Carbon

Carbon dioxide 99.5%Carbon monoxide 0.4Unburned carbon 0.1Total 100

A.3 Conversion Factor (Abolarin et al., 2013)

1 kW ¼ 100 W12,000 kWh ¼ 1 tonne of oil equivalent1 L ¼ 2.68 � 10e3 tonnes of CO2

1 kWh ¼ 1.25 � 10e3 tonnes of CO2

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INDEX

“Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.”

AAcademic buildingclimatic factors, 300e301commercial buildings, 295e296concrete and reinforced steel, 296e297construction materials, 302e303construction phase, 300, 302, 312e313construction projects, 295e296construction rate, 295e296cradle to grave study, 298data elucidation, 298data energy, 300data resources, 298e299demolition phase, 300, 312e313demolition process, 296direct environmental emissions, 299economic input-output (EIO)

method, 299electricity generation, 300e301, 301telements and materials preservation, 296embodied energy, 300, 301texternalities, 299

energy consumption, 295e297data, 300

environmental assessment, 297environmental impacts, 296e297, 302environmental policy makers and

Government, 298financial factors, 297first floor layout, 303e304, 304fground floor layout, 303e304, 303fheating and ventilation energy

requirements, 311e312heating, ventilation and air-conditioning

(HVAC), 300e301human factors, 302e303indoor environment, 295e296input-output approach, 299Leontief inverse/total requirements

matrix, 300

life cycle energy analysis, 296e297,312e313

life cycle impact assessment, 298life cycle inventory analysis, 298maintenance phase, 300, 302,

312e313manufacturing process, 295e296materials contribution, 309, 310fnon-economic data, 299onsite construction process, 296e297operational energy, 300e302operational phase, 300, 312e313passive solar building design, 311e312quantitative analysis, 298residential buildings, 295e296scope and goal definition, 298secondary suppliers requirement, 299solid waste, 297THDC Institute of Hydropower

Engineering and Technology,300, 304e305, 305f

annual electricity consumption,305e306

climatic conditions, 305e306construction phase, 306, 306fe307fdemolition, 307e308green house gases emission, 309,309fe310f

life cycle energy (LCE),308, 308f

maintenance, 307e308operational phase, 306e307power generation capacity, 304e305specifications, 304e305, 305ttotal energy consumption, 305e306

total lifecycle energy, 297total operational energy, 311, 311ftotal service life, 302truncation error, 298e299urban heat isolation effect, 311

433

Additive decomposition, 7Air circulation and compressor

motors, 322Air pollutantsammonium nitrate and fuel oil,

262e263blasting, 264bulk-explosive truck drive, 262e263coalification, 265coal washing/coal preparation, 265custom-designed explosive mixtures,

262e263drilling process, 262e263environmental problems, 261e262fly ash, 268fugitive dust, 264gaseous pollutants, 268e270haul road dust, 264nongaseous pollutants, 267e268processes, 261e262, 263fstoichiometry, 263e264vegetation and topsoil removal,

262e263ventilation air methane, 265

Aluminum productionalumina refineries, 199alumina refining, 206e207and ingot casting, 210e213

anode effects, 207, 210e213anthropogenic activities, 198atmospheric carbon dioxide, annual

growth rate, 198, 199fbauxite mining, 210e213boundaries and calculation, 209e210carbon emissions reduction, mitigation

strategiesclimate change crisis, 215emerging electrode technologies. SeeEmerging electrode technologies

end-of-life management, 215energy efficiency, 215innovation barriers, 215interconnections, 215, 216flong-term carbon emission reductiontargets, 215

strict management system, 215carbon equivalent, 210

carbon trading, 222e223carbothermic reduction, 220e221, 220fcasting, 206e207conversion factors, 210direct energy, 207direct on-site real time

measurement, 210Eddy covariance/flux towers, 210emission factors and models, 210emission management, 207e208energy consumption, 198e199environmental problems

anode effects, 213e214CO2, 213coal tar pitch, 214fluorinated compounds, 214polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(PAHs), 214

SO2, 214spent pot lining, 214toxic emissions, 214e215

environmental profiles and pathways,200e201

fifth assessment report (AR5), 197e198fossil fuel combustion, 198GHG effects, 197e198, 197fGHGs concentration, 198e199global annual production, 200e201,

201fglobal warming effects, 197e198, 197fglobal warming potential (GWP),

210e213greenhouse gas emissions, 210e213,

211tpercentage contribution, 210e213,212f

Greenhouse Gas Protocol-A CorporateAccounting and ReportingStandard, 208e209

Gulf of Cooperation Council andNorth America, 200e201

human sociocultural system, 213indirect energy, 207Industrial Revolution, 198e199Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), 197e198guidelines, 208

434 Index

ISO 14025, 208ISO 14064, 207ISO 14067, 208kaolinite reduction, 221e222,

221fKyoto Protocol, 206e207largest aluminum production countries,

200e201, 200flife cycle assessment (LCA),

200e201. See also Life cycleassessment (LCA)

life cycle inventory (LCI)energy sources, 204e206inputs and outputs, 204e206,

204te205ttreatment plant and red mud,

204e206low-temperature reduction, ionic liquid,

222mineral processing, 210e213mining, 206e207mitigation evaluation, 207e208multipolar electrolytic cell, 220National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), 198oceans and glaciers,

197e198processes, 210e213, 211tProduct Category Rules, 208production chains, 206Publicly Available Specifications-2050,

208recycling, 222smelting, 206e207, 210e213socioeconomic and environmental

impacts, 213socioeconomic problems, 213system boundary setting and collection,

208e209tiers/scopes, 209, 209fWorld Resource Institute and World

Business Council on SustainableDevelopment, 207

Ammonium hydroxide solution, 52Andalusian Construction Cost Database

(ACCD), 233

BBasic costs (BC), 236Bayer’s process, 202Biomass-based energy system,

143e144Biomass feedstocks, 143e144BLUE map scenario, 253, 253fBrazilian waste management outlookBrazilian aluminum recovery rate, 86Brazilian legislation, 84e85controlled disposal, 84e85door-to-door schedule, 86garbage collection, 86informal sector, 85e86plastic recycling, 86Rio de Janeiro panoramaBrazilian Development Bank, 89commercial establishments,86e87

Diagnostic of Solid Waste, 86e87emergency service, 86e87FERTILUB, 89GHG emissions, 89e90, 90fMunicipal Act of Climate Changes,89e90

municipal management, 89planning areas, 86, 87fpopulation density, 86Program for Extension of SelectiveCollection, 89

reforestation projects, 89residential waste, 86e87residential waste composition,88e89, 88f

shopping malls, 86e87supermarkets, 86e87transfer stations and sanitary landfillslocations, 87, 88f

sanitary landfills, 84stakeholder group, 86sustainable development, 84e85urban waste disposal, 84waste final destination, types, 84, 85f

Breakdown cost, 233British Standard Institute, 147Business model, 229

Index 435

CCapital investment management,

322e323Carbon tax, 360e361Carbon trading, 222e223Carbothermic reduction, 220e221, 220fChina’s 5-year plan, 13Chinese emission factor, 33Chinese Government National

Development and ReformCommission (NDRC), 119

Chinese nonmetallic mineral productindustry, 12e13

Chinese research journal, 132Coal-based generation power plants, 142Coal combustion, 157Coal-fired power plants, 144e145Coal mining activitiesagriculture forestry, 280e281air pollutantsammonium nitrate and fuel oil,262e263

blasting, 264bulk-explosive truck drive, 262e263coalification, 265coal washing/coal preparation, 265custom-designed explosive mixtures,262e263

drilling process, 262e263environmental problems, 261e262fly ash, 268fugitive dust, 264gaseous pollutants, 268e270haul road dust, 264nongaseous pollutants, 267e268processes, 261e262, 263fstoichiometry, 263e264vegetation and topsoil removal,262e263

ventilation air methane, 265boundary, 276e277carbon emissions reduction mitigationcarbon trading, 287e288catalytic flow (CFRR), 286e287catalytic monolith reactor (CMR),286e287

concentrators, 287

cryogenic separation, 285membrane separation, 286methane emission mitigation andutilization techniques, 284e285

methanol and carbon black, 286mine methane utilization, gasturbines, 287

power generation, methane, 286pressure swing adsorption, 285solvent adsorption, 285thermal flow (TFRR), 286e287underground sequestration, 287

carbon footprint estimation, 278e279,278f

case studies, 283e284coal burning, 267direct and indirect energy emissions,

fossil fuel combustion, 281e282direct GHG emissions, 277energy source demand, 259

global energy demand, 259e260operation, 260e261primary energy demand worldwide,259e260, 261f

strip mining, 260e261total primary energy supply,259e260, 260f

worldwide coal production andconsumption, 259e260, 262f

equity share, 276e277fuel combustion, 276, 279fugitive emissions, 282e283

CH4 and CO2, 276GHGs selection, 276global warming, 270e271greenhouse gas data collection, 279

direct on-site real time measurement,279e280

emission factors and models, 280indirect GHG emissions, 277industrial processes and product

use, 282life cycle inventory (LCI)

bottom-up approach, 272Caval Ridge Coal Mine Project,273, 276t

decision-making, 271e272

436 Index

energy types, 273environmental and social impact,

271e272inputs and outputs, 273, 274te275tsystem boundaries, 272, 273f

mine fires, 266net purchased electric and heating

powers, 276operational control, 277organizational boundaries, 277population growth, 259torch combustion, 276

Coal tar pitch, 214Commercial establishments waste, 90Compressed air systems, 321Confederation of Indian

Industry (CII), 147Construction and demolition wastes

(CDW), 232e233Coreeshell nanoparticles, 52Corrective maintenance, 231Cost-benefit analysis, 326Cost-management activities, 323Cradle to gate stages, 115Cyclohexane, 52

DDecision-making process, 48Decomposition methodadditive decomposition, 7emission hierarchy, 5e6energy consumption, 7fossil fuel dependency, 6index decomposition analysis (IDA), 6indicators, 5e6industrial production data, 7Logarithmic Mean Divisia Indexeindex

decomposition analysis(LMDIeIDA) formulation, 6e7

multiplicative approach, 7policy making, 6structural decomposition analysis, 6time-series energy, 7

Demand-side management (DSM)annual electricity production

breakdown, 353, 356tbenefits, 357

carbon tax, 360e361climate change, 318CO2 emission and diesel consumption,

357, 359fconversion factor, 361data requirementscomponent data, 336, 348, 348tload data, 336e348metrological (solar irradiance),336e348, 337f

diesel consumption reduction, 357,359t

diesel fuel price, 360e361diesel generator, running hours, 357,

360feconomic analysisoptimal configuration, 351e353,352t

electricity and heat demand, 317e318electric renewables, hybrid optimization

model, 334emission factors, 361air pollution, 348emission estimation, 350HOMER, 348e350pollutants, 348e350state-by-state average emissionfactors, 348e350, 349t

energy consumption, 318energy demand reduction, 317e318energy efficiency opportunities, 332tair-conditioning units, 331diesel/gasoline generators, 331electrical power supply, 332e334energy-efficient equipment, 331energy starerated equipment, 331off grid/intermittent powersources, 331

power-consuming sectors, 331sensitive laboratory equipment, 331standard-efficiency models,331e332

temperature sensitive drugs, 332e334energy-efficient medical devices,

359e360energy resources, 317energy storage requirements, 336

Index 437

Demand-side management (DSM)(Continued)

environmental assessment model,360e361

environmental benefit analysis, 357fossil fuel, 357fuel carbon destination, 361HOMER software and results, 357,

358thybrid PV/generator/battery system

architecture, 360hybrid renewable energy system,

359e360importance of, 318inflation effect, 360e361information disseminationbenefits, 330financial analysis, 330e331load management programs, factors,330

initial capital cost, 351e353, 353flong-terms planning, 318monthly contributions, PV and diesel

generator, 353, 355fmotivationcost-benefit analysis, 319costs reduction, 319energy commissions/agencies, 319energy efficiency, 319environmental and infrastructuraldevelopment, 319

implementation, 319power-generating stations, 319public energy utility companies, 319transmission and distribution networkinfrastructure, 319

optimal system configuration, 350program design and delivery, 317reliability and efficiency, 336renewable energy access, 334e335resource planning, 317robust cost-benefit, 360e361site description, 335socioeconomic infrastructure, 318solar energy resources, 336solar irradiance, 360e361solar resource, 336

sustainability, definition, 318sustainable energy regulation, 318system configuration, 350e351,

351tsystem installation cost, 351e353technoeconomic and emission,

359e360total net present cost (TNPC), 350types, 317, 319e320

electrification, 329energy reduction programs. SeeEnergy reduction programs

load management program. See Loadmanagement program

productivity and environmentalcompliance, 328

strategic load conservation, 329, 329fstrategic load growth, 328, 329f

Unmet load and shortage capacity, 353Direct environmental emissions, 299Domestic hot water (DHW), 242e243Domestic technical assumption (DTA),

24e25Dry fly ash, 154

EEcoinvent database v3, 52Ecoinvent v2.2, 121, 132Economic input-output (EIO) method,

299Electricity emission factor, 119Electronic induction printed circuit

board assembly, 115Emerging electrode technologiesanode design and composition,

216e219carbon anodes, 216e219carbon cathode replacement, 219conventional and advanced methods,

216e219, 217te218tcryolite electrolyte, 215e216energy requirements, 216e219HalleHéroult process, 215e216inert anode, 216e219titanium bromide, 219toxic waste, 219vertical electrode cells, 216e219

438 Index

“End-of-life” stage, systemboundary, 116

Energy and Resources Institute(TERI), 147

Energy auditingcontinuous process,

324e325cost-benefit analysis, 326detailed audit, 326dynamic model, 326energy consumption activities, 324energy-saving methods, 324physically based model, 326preliminary audit, 325renewable energy technologies,

324e325Energy reduction programsautomatic temperature controls, 320compressed air systems, 321efficient lighting, 322energy auditing, 324e326energy-efficient motors, 322energy loss, 323e324energy managementhouseholds, 323practices, 322e323

households, 321investments requirements, 321lighting, 320motors, 321steaming and heating systems, 320water treatment system, 320

Energy-saving tips. See Energy reductionprograms

Energy system selection criteriaappliances, 344clinic appliances, 339e342, 343tdaily energy capacity, 339e342daily energy demand contributions,

344, 345felectric load profile, 344, 345fenvironmental health and

sustainability, 344evening peak hours’ supply, 342gasoline/diesel generator source, 344health-care facilities,

339e344

hourly distributionwith demand-side management,344, 347t

without demand-side management,344, 346t

load-conventional (inefficient) andenergy-efficient equipment, 344

peak power capacity, 339reliability, 342supply duration, 342

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), 46Engineered nanoparticles,

45e46Enterprise Protocol, 169Environmental inputeoutput (EIO)

analysis, 143Enzyme immobilization,

46e47European Union Emissions Trading

Scheme (EU-ETS), 31e33EUROSTAT, 247e248Extended multiplier matrix

decomposition, 23

FFluorinated compounds, 214Fossil fuel combustion, 198Fourth Assessment Report, 1Functional costs (FC), 236

GGHG Protocol Agricultural Guidance, 169Green Bill of Materials (G-BOM)

analyzer, 120e121Green chemistry process, 47Greenhouse Gas Protocol-A Corporate

Accounting and ReportingStandard, 208e209

Gulf of Cooperation Council and NorthAmerica, 200e201

HHalleHéroult process, 215e216Health clinicsclassification, 337high energy requirements, 338e339low-energy requirements, 338

Index 439

Health clinics (Continued)moderate energy requirements, 338United States Agency for International

Development, 337Health post, 337High efficiency motors, 322Human sociocultural system, 213Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric

Renewables (HOMER), 334Hydrofluorocarbons, 3e5

IImpact assessment methodology, 56Index decomposition analysis (IDA),

5e6, 15Indian power plantbioenergy maximum generation rate,

143e144biomass-based energy system, 143e144biomass feedstocks, 143e144carbon dioxide emissions, raw material

transportation, 150, 153tcarbon dioxide productiondry fly ash, 154emission factor, 154employees travel register, 153e154landfill waste, 154e155mill rejects, 154e155noncoking bituminous coal, 153service facilities energyrequirement, 153

wet ash, 154carbon trading and offsetting, 143climate change, 141coal-based generation power plants, 142coal combustion, 157coal-fired power plants, 144e145data sources, 148, 148tand research methodology, 143

decision-making and identification,hotspots, 144e145

direct and indirect emission, 156ecological resources, 142electricity demand, 142electricity generation, 143e144environmental inputeoutput (EIO)

analysis, 143

environmental protectionindicators, 141

gaseous emissions, 141green electricity, 142e143inputeoutput based approach, 143Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, 142life cycle assessment (LCA), 142e143life cycles stages, 141limitations, 156e157nonrenewable energy, 142, 157offsetting, 141e142power plant operation and service

facilities, 149production components calculation,

149e150, 151te152traw material stage, transportation,

148e149reduction, 141e142renewable energy development

program, 143e144research methodology

boundaries selection, 145e146goal and scope definition, 145international standards, 145interpretation, 145life cycle impact assessment(LCIA), 145

life cycle inventory (LCI), 145response strategies, 141e142scope and functional unit, 146supply chain, 143sustainable development goals,

144e145system boundary

activity data, 147auxiliary operations, 146cradle-to-grave approach, 146e147emission factors, 147organizational boundary, 146e147primary data, 147wastes transportation anddisposal, 147

system boundary problem, 142e143thermal efficiency, 142thermal power plant, 142, 144e145

electricity generation process, 156

440 Index

greenhouse gases emissions, 155, 155foperation and service facilities, 156raw material transportation,

155e156top-down approach, 143total-generation capacity, 144e145waste materials disposal, transportation,

149wind and nuclear power plants, 142

Induction cooker, 114fcarbon emission calculation, 113activity data, 120cradle to gate assessment, 119emission factor, 120framework, 119, 120fGHG emissions, 119e120global warming potential, 120Green Bill of Materials (G-BOM)

analyzer, 120e121impact assessment, 119e120ISO/TS 14067:2013, 119life cycle assessment (LCA), 119manufacturing stage, 119product carbon footprint (PCF)

study, 119raw material acquisition and

manufacturing, 119e120raw material stage, 119sensitivity and contribution analysis,

119e120component (printed circuit boards),

137fcooking methods, 114cradle to gate stages, 113e114domestic models, 136feco-friendly and low-carbon

products, 113eco-product design, 135e136end-of-life stage, 113e114factory warehouse, 136ffunctional unitallocation procedures, 116cut-off criteria, 116cut-offs, 116data, 115, 115tdata quality, 115electricity treatment, 119

electronic induction printed circuitboard assembly, 115

geographical and time boundary, 116manufacturing stage, 118e119product category rule (PCR), 115raw material stage, 117e118system boundary, 116e117, 117ftransportation stage, 119

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 113life cycle impact assessment, 122,

123te128tlife cycle interpretation. See Life cycle

interpretationlife cycle inventorymanufacturing stage, 121e122, 121fraw material stage, 121transportation stage, 122

manufacturing process, 137fe138fpackaging materials, 137f, 139fproduct carbon footprint (PCF)

analysis, 113product life cycle, 113e114quality testing process, 138fquantification and communication,

113e114sustainable consumption and

production, 113Industrial Revolution, 198e199Industrial sectors, greenhouse gas (GHG)

analysesclimate change, 1e2CO2 related emissions, 2e3, 4tdecomposition analyses methods, 3e5decomposition method. SeeDecomposition

methodemission reduction, 2energy consumption, 2energy efficiency, 5environmental negotiations, 3European Union (EU), 1e2fossil fuels, 1Fourth Assessment Report, 1fuel types and sectors, 2e3global warming, 1hydrofluorocarbons, 3e5index decomposition analysis (IDA),

5, 15

Index 441

Industrial sectors, greenhouse gas (GHG)analyses (Continued)

infrared radiation absorption, 1Kyoto Protocol, 1e3LEAP method, 3e5Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index

(LMDI), 5, 15. See alsoLogarithmic Mean Divisia Index(LMDI)

MARKA method, 3e5natural and socioeconomic systems, 3negative impacts, 3Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development(OECD), 2e3

perfluorocarbons, 3e5policies, 2policymakers, 3e5reduction and mitigation approaches,

3e5residential sector policy, 2sulfur hexafluoride,

3e5thermal radiation, 1Third Assessment Report, 1

Inorganic chemicals, 369Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, 142Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), 173,197e198, 270

guidelines, 208International Energy Agency’s (IEA)

Reference Scenario, 270International Federation of Wines and

Spirits (FIVS), 168International Organization of Vine and

Wine (OIV), 169International Wine Carbon Calculator

(IWCC), 168International Wine Carbon

Protocol, 169ISO 14025, 208ISO 14064, 207ISO 14067, 208Isopropanol (IPA), 52Italian Wine Carbon Calculator, 168

KKaolinite reduction, 221e222, 221fKyoto Protocolaluminum production, 206e207Industrial sectors, greenhouse gas

(GHG) analyses, 1e3Spanish construction sector, 21Spanish construction sector, extended

carbon footprint, 26e27, 33Utility consumption, 237

LLaccase immobilization, 56e57, 59e60Landfill waste, 154e155LEAP method, 3e5Leontief ’s multiplier matrix, 23Leontief ’s output multiplier, 24Life cycle assessment (LCA), 142e143.

See also Academic buildingaluminum scrap, 201carbon emissions, 201environmental management, 201induction cooker, 116magnetic nanoparticles (mNPs)

characterization factors, 47cradle-to-gate approach, 50decision-making process, 48functional unit, 48e50, 49tISO standards, 48octahedral PEI-coated mNPs,50e51

oleic acid mNPs, 51polyacrylic acid-coated Fe3O4

mNPs, 50polyethylenimine-coated mNPs,50e51

production pathways, 48, 49fproduction protocols, 50semipilot scale, 50SiO2-coated mNPs, Fe3O4

preparation, 51e52spherical PEI-coated mNPs, 50e51

natural resources, 201primary aluminum production

anode production, 202Bayer’s process, 202energy-intensive process, 202

442 Index

HalleHéroult electrolyticprocess, 202

impurities removal, 204net electrolytic reduction

reactions, 202red mud, 202system boundary, 202, 203f

raw materials extraction, 201secondary aluminum production, 204spanish construction sector, 20

Life-cycle costs (LCC), 229e230Life cycle energy (LCE), 308, 308fLife cycle impact assessment (LCIA),

57, 145Life cycle interpretation (LCI)induction cookercooker’s carbon footprint, 128, 129tdatabase selection, value choices,

131e132greenhouse gas emissions and

removals, 128, 131tlimitations, 131raw material stage, 128, 130fsensitivity analysis. See Sensitivity

analysisuncertainty analysis, 132, 135t

printed circuit board (PCB), 372, 411,421f, 421t, 422f

database selection, 423greenhouse gas emissions and

removals, 422, 422tlimitations, 422e423sensitivity analysis, 423e426, 424t,

425f, 425t, 426funcertainty analysis, 426, 426t

Life cycle inventory (LCI), 47e48,118, 145

aluminum productionenergy sources, 204e206inputs and outputs, 204e206,

204te205ttreatment plant and red mud,

204e206coal mining activitiesbottom-up approach, 272Caval Ridge Coal Mine Project,

273, 276t

decision-making, 271e272energy types, 273environmental and social impact,271e272

inputs and outputs, 273, 274te275tsystem boundaries, 272, 273f

Ecoinvent database v3, 52environmental assessment, 52manufacturing stageabsorbent towers, 411activity data, 374consumables packaging, 384, 399te400tconsumables transportation, 384,401te409t

consumables usage, 384, 385te398telectricity consumption, 374, 383temission factor, 374internal transportation tools, 384,384t

liquid wastes, 411, 412tprocess flow, 374, 382fsolid waste management, 384, 410twater consumption, 382, 383t

octahedral polyethylenimine(PEI)-coated mNPs, 52, 53t

oleic acid-coated mNPs, 52, 54ton-site measurements, 52polyacrylic acid (PAA)-coated Fe3O4,

52, 53traw material stagedatabase selection, 374data sources, 374transportation of, 374, 379te381tweight and emission factor, 374, 378tweight, materials used, and emissionfactors, 374, 375te377t

SiO2-coated mNPs, Fe3O4, 52, 55tSiO2-coated mNPs thin shell, Fe3O4,

52, 55te56tspherical polyethylenimine (PEI)-coated

mNPs, 52, 54ttransportation stage, 411, 413twastewater treatment process, 52

Load management programload control, 328load levelingbase load generation, 326e328

Index 443

Load management program (Continued)forms, 327fload shifting, 328peak clipping, 327valley filling, 327

tariff incentives and penalties, 328Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI)carbon intensity, 7e8early oil crisisCO2 factors, 8Divisia method, 8economic growth/development,8e9

Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development(OECD) countries, 8

results, 8, 9tfactors, 7e8greenhouse crisis solutionAustralian sector, 13China’s 5-year plan, 13Chinese nonmetallic mineral productindustry, 12e13

decomposition results, 10e13,12te14t

energy efficiency, 13e15energy intensity, 10, 13factors, total emission, 10, 11tferrous metals pressing, 10fuel shift, 10heat and electricity carbon emissioncoefficients, 10

industrial activity, 10industrial structural shift, 10nonmetal mineral products andsmelting, 10

raw chemical materials and products,10

Taiwan’s decomposition results,10e12, 12t

Taiwan’s industrial emission,10e12

Logistic chain, 83fstages, 82transfer stations, 82treatment and decomposition, 82waste demand region, 82

MMaClar method, 236Magnetic nanoparticles (mNPs), 46biomedical applications, 46biotechnological applications,

46e47chemical coprecipitation, 46coating materials, 46decision-making process, 48end-of-life stage, 47engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), 46engineered nanoparticles,

45e46environmental results, 58t

characterization, 57classification, 57energy consumption, 59environmental profiles, 59e60, 59flaccase immobilization, 56e57,59e60

life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), 57magnetic separation stage, 59oleic acid-coated mNPs production,64e67, 66fe67f

polyacrylic acid (PAA)-coated Fe3O4

mNPs production, 60e61,60fe61f

polyethylenimine (PEI)-coated mNPsproduction, 62e63, 62fe63f

ReCiPe midpoint methodology, 57redispersion stage, 59SiO2 -coated mNPs, Fe3O4

production, 67e71, 68fe71fspherical PEI-coated mNPsproduction, 63e64, 64fe65f

superparamagnetic characteristics, 57transmission electron microscopy, 57washing stage, 59

enzymatic cascade reaction,46e47

enzyme immobilization, 46e47green chemistry process, 47health and environmental risks, 47impact assessment methodology, 56inorganic/organic protective coatings, 46life cycle assessment (LCA), 47. See also

Life cycle assessment (LCA)

444 Index

life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis,47e48

Ecoinvent database v3, 52environmental assessment, 52octahedral polyethylenimine

(PEI)-coated mNPs, 52, 53toleic acid-coated mNPs, 52, 54ton-site measurements, 52polyacrylic acid (PAA)-coated Fe3O4,

52, 53tSiO2-coated mNPs, Fe3O4, 52, 55tSiO2-coated mNPs thin shell, Fe3O4,

52, 55te56tspherical polyethylenimine

(PEI)-coated mNPs, 52, 54twastewater treatment process, 52

lysine amino groups, 46e47magnetic core, 46microemulsion, 46nanomaterials, 45nanoscience development, 47nano-sized water droplets, 46nanotechnology, 45oleic acid, 48production process, 47relative surface area and quantum

effects, 45surfactant molecules, 46synthesis, 48total life cycle environmental impacts,

47e48unit immobilization yield, 72e73, 72t,

73f, 74tMARKA method, 3e5Massart method, 50Mass balance, 149Mill rejects, 154e155Ministry of Environment and GHG

Program, 147Multiplier decomposition analysis,

37e38, 37fMultipolar electrolytic cell, 220Multiregional inputeoutput models

(MRIO), 24e25Municipal solid waste (MSW)recyclable wasteanaerobic composting, 84

atmospheric pollutant emissions,93e94

atmospheric pollutants emissions, 81BAU scenario, 92, 102benefits, 81biogenic carbon, 102boundaries, 95, 96fBrazilian commercialized diesel, 102Brazilian electric energy mix data,97e98

Brazilian municipalities, 80Brazilian waste management outlook.See Brazilian waste managementoutlook

Brazil Recycle Program, 80e81business-as-usual (BAU) CF, 82chemical and physical modification,83e84

CO2eq emission factors, 98,99te100t

composting process, 102composting unit, 84controlled disposal rates, 79e80conversion factors, 95Cooperpires facility, 95cut-off approach, 97diesel consumption, 93e94diesel upstream emissions, conversionfactors, 97

direct emissions, 97domestic and commercial sewage, 81dry and wet waste, 91emission factors, 98, 101f, 101temissions inventory, 81Environment Ministry, 80e81EURO3 specifications, 93e94facilities location, 93, 94fGHG emission factors, 101Global Warming Potential(GWP), 95

Global Waste Management OutlookReport, 79

gravimetric composition coefficients,103, 103te104t

greenhouse gases (GHG), 80GWP100, 98household waste, 80

Index 445

Municipal solid waste (MSW) (Continued)Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC), 80

International Solid Waste Association,79

leachate percolation, 80life cycle GHG emissions, 95logistic chain, 83f. See also Logisticchain

manual/mechanical technology,83e84

municipal solid waste (MSW), 80National Energy Balance, 97National Policy for Solid Waste(NPSW), 80

optimization routesoftware, 102

organic fraction, 83private company (PC) characteristics,90e91

ReCiPe H Midpoint characterizationmethod, 98

reduction costs, 80e81sanitary landfills, 81selective collection regions,92, 93f

software ORD, 93sorted/unsorted materials, 97sorting unit, 93sorting units, 83e84spatial planning, 92transfer station, 94transport data, 104, 105te110ttypes, 92, 92tuncontrolled disposal,79e80

waste amounts, 95, 95twaste decomposition, 80waste disposal, 79e80waste generators, 83waste management, 80waste reuse rates, 80waste trucks, 101wet and dry waste, 83wet fraction, 93wet waste, 98e101

system boundaries, 232

NNanoparticles (NPs)classification, 45e46polyacrylic acid (PAA), 48polyethylenimine (PEI), 48silica-coated mNPs, 48

National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA), 198

Net present cost (npc), 334Noncoking bituminous coal, 153

OOleic acid-coated mNPs productionchemical requirements, 65coprecipitation method, 64e65environmental hotspot, 65global environmental profile, 65, 66fmagnetic NPs formation, 65, 66foleic acid, 65e67, 67fwastewater stream, 64e65wastewater treatment plant

(WWTP), 65Organic chemicals, 369Organizational budget, 322e323Organizational nature, 322e323Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development (OECD), 2e3ORTEC Routing and Dispatch

(ORD), 91Oxidative precipitation, 51

PPackaging methods/materials, 117Paper materials, 118PAS 2050: 2011 guidelines, 147Perfluorocarbons, 3e5Personal electronic product. See Induction

cookerPlastic materials, 118Policymaking training manual, 322Polyacrylic acid-coated Fe3O4 mNPs, 50Polyacrylic acid (PAA)-coated Fe3O4

mNPs productionenvironmental results, 60

chemical requirements, 61electricity requirements,60e61, 61f

446 Index

environmental hotspot, 61global environmental profile, 60, 60f

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(PAHs), 214

Polyethylenimine (PEI)-coated mNPsproduction

environmental results, 62deionized water requirements, 62electricity requirements, 63environmental hotspot,

62e63, 63fglobal environmental profile, 62, 62fpotassium nitrate consumption, 63wastewater treatment plant

(WWTP), 62Polyoxyethylene(5)nonylphenyl

ether, 52PRé Consultants SimaPro 8.1

software, 187Predictive maintenance, 231Preventative maintenance, 231Printed circuit board (PCB)allocation procedures, 368carbon emission calculationcradle-to-gate assessment, 372emission database, 373framework, 372, 373fG-BOM analyzer, 373GHG emissions and removals, 372goal and scope definition, 372ISO/TS 14067:2013, 372LCA, 372life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), 372life cycle interpretation (LCI), 372,

411, 421f, 421t, 422flife cycle inventory (LCI), 372.

See also Life cycle inventory (LCI)product carbon footprint (PCF)

analysis, 411, 414te420tclimate change, 365cutoff, 368cutoff criteria, 368data, 366e367, 367tdata quality, 368distribution stage, 365e366drilling needles and milling cutters,

427te428t

electricity consumption, 426e427electricity treatment, 372electronic components, 365end-of-life stage, 365e366factory manufacturing line, 428fe429ffactory wastewater treatment facility,

429fe430ffunctional unit, 366geographical and time boundary, 368global warming potential (GWP), 365intermediate products, 365life cycle assessment (LCA), 365low-carbon products, 365manufacturing stage, 365e366bag production process, 370energy consumption data, 371hazardous liquids, 371sewage wastewater, 371sludge generation, 371solid waste, 371

product carbon footprint (PCF), 365product life cycle, 365e366product system and function(s), 366,

367fraw material stage, 365e366, 369e370sewage treatment, 428small-scale products, 365system boundary, 368, 369ftransportation stage, 372use stage, 365e366

Producer Responsibility criterion, 21Product category rule (PCR), 115,

170, 208Product end-of-life treatment policy,

116Product life cycle, 115Product Protocol, 169Proton sponge mechanism, 50e51Publicly Available Specification (PAS), 168

RReCiPe midpoint methodology,

56e57Recycling, 222Red winescarbon footprint vs. water footprint

(WF), 187, 189, 189fe190f

Index 447

Red wines (Continued)distribution, end-of-life scenario,

187, 188tfunctional unit data, 187, 188tISO 14067, 182fcore module, 182e185, 184tcradle-to-cradle approach, 181cradle-to-grave approach, 181cropped surface basis, 181e182diesel fuel, 182distribution phase, 182downstream module, 182e185, 184tecoInvent 3.0 database, 181PRé Consultants SimaPro 8.0software, 181

sustainability plan, 181total CF and contribution, 183e185,183t

upstream module, 181, 183e185,184t

upstream phase, 182e183, 183fvineyard management, 181

phases contribution, 189, 190fstudied product data, 187, 188tupstream, core, and downstream

contributions, 187, 189fReheat regenerative ranking cycle, 149Renewable energy development

program, 143e144Residential sector policy, 2Residential waste, 90Restaurant waste, 90Reverse microemulsion method, 51Rural health-care centers (RHC). See

Demand-side management(DSM)

SSensitivity analysismanufacturing stageelectricity usage, 132, 134t, 135femission factor database selection, 132

material stageintegrated circuits, 132, 133t, 134fprinted circuit boards, 132, 133t,134f

utility consumption, 253e256, 254f

Service Availability and ReadinessAssessment (SARA), 339,340te341t, 344

Simple costs (SC), 236SiO2-coated mNPs, Fe3O4 preparation,

51e52environmental results, 69, 70f

cyclohexane, 68deionized water, 67environmental burdens, 68, 69fmechanical agitation, 68reverse microemulsion, 68silica coating stage, 67e68, 68f

silica thin shell, 52thin silica coating

chemicals requirements, 71, 71fcyclohexane, 69e71environmental profile, 69e71, 70fpilot plant, 71

SO2, 214Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), 20additive decomposition analysis, 21

Spanish construction sectorautonomous demand, 30e31booming economic process, 39characteristics, 30e31construction sector emission multipliers

domestic emission multipliers,34e36, 36f

domestic-induced multipliers,37e38

domestic multiplier/outputmultiplier, 37e38

electricity mix, 36e37energy and pollution intensive inputs,37e38

energy cleanliness strategy,36e37

environmental efficiency, 34e36fossil energy source multipliers,36e37

heating systems, 36e37high-induced effects, 38imported multiplier, 37e38income distribution, 37e38international production layers,37e38

448 Index

multiplier decomposition analysis,37e38, 37f

national energy mix, 34e36positive electricity, 34e36production process, 37e38total domestic efficiency, 37e38

consumer responsibility criterion, 20databases, 28demand emissions-intensive inputs,

28e30domestic emissions, 30economic and population growth, 28economic growth, 40emissions analysis, 21energy and environmental policy,

40e41energy demand, 19e20energy efficiency, 19e20energy preservation, 19environmental legislation, 39e40environmental policy improvements, 30European Parliament

recommendations, 20extended carbon footprint, 28e30,

29f, 38autonomous final demand, 25e26average emission factor, 33carbon leakage, 33e34Chinese emission factor, 33circular effects matrix, 24construction sector, direct emissions,

31, 32tconsumer responsibility, 27, 33design mitigation policies, 33e34direct emissions, 24e26direct method, 22domestic carbon, 33domestic demand, 27domestic emission multiplier

matrix, 22domestic emissions, 26domestic-induced emissions,

25e26domestic technical assumption

(DTA), 24e25domestic total emissions, 31e33dragging effect, 34

economic crisis and stagnation, 31e33embodied emissions, 31e33emission factors, 23e24endogenous and exogenouscomponents, 26

energy goods consumption, 25e26environmental costs, 33environmental impact, 26European Union Emissions TradingScheme (EU-ETS), 31e33

exhaustive control, 24extended multiplier matrixdecomposition, 23

household consumptionendogenization, 23

incentivize environmental efficiency,31e33

indirect emissions, 24e25indirect method, 22indirect multipliers matrix, 23e24induced emissions estimation, 34, 35findustrial and hotel and restaurantsectors, 34

inputeoutput models, 21e22Irish construction sector, 31Kyoto Protocol, 26e27, 33Leontief ’s multiplier matrix, 23Leontief ’s output multiplier, 24matrix multipliers, 22metallurgy/nonmetallic minerals,31e33

multiregional inputeoutput models(MRIO), 24e25

national extraction sector, 31e33negative effect, 34producer responsibility expression,26e27

responsibility criterion, 24e25sectorial and households’ direct andindirect emissions, 26

stock variations, 26Stone’s additive decomposition, 23total emission multiplier matrix,24e25

total emissions, 22total virtual carbon, 27vertical specialization processes, 27

Index 449

Spanish construction sector (Continued)financial markets, 40fossil energy sources, 40e41heating systems, 19e20income-generated expenditure, 39inputeoutput analysis, 38inputeoutput life-cycle assessment

model (IO-LCA), 20advantage, 20e21

Kyoto Protocol, 21, 40e41life cycle assessment (LCA), 20light installations, 19e20limitations, 38policy implementation, 28process-based LCA, 20e21Producer Responsibility criterion, 21production chain emissions, 20production process, 20regional governments, 30e31sectorial reallocation, 28e30Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), 20additive decomposition analysis, 21

total domestic emissions, 39e40Spent pot lining, 214Sustainable energy regulation, 322Swiss ecoinvent data version 2.2, 369Spherical PEI-coated mNPs

production, 63ammonium hydroxide, 63deionized water consumption, 64electricity requirements, 64, 65fglobal environmental profile, 63, 64fheating process, 64octahedral PEI-coated mNPs, 63

Stone’s additive decomposition, 23Structural decomposition analysis, 6Sulfur hexafluoride, 3e5

TTetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), 52THDC Institute of Hydropower

Engineering and Technology,300, 304e305, 305f

annual electricity consumption,305e306

climatic conditions, 305e306construction phase, 306, 306fe307f

demolition, 307e308green house gases emission, 309,

309fe310flife cycle energy (LCE), 308, 308fmaintenance, 307e308operational phase, 306e307power generation capacity, 304e305specifications, 304e305, 305ttotal energy consumption, 305e306

Thermal power plant, 142, 144e145electricity generation process, 156greenhouse gases emissions, 155, 155foperation and service facilities, 156raw material transportation, 155e156

Thermal radiation, 1Third Assessment Report, 1Total net present cost (TNPC), 350

UUnited States Agency for International

Development, 337Unmet load, 342“Use” stage, system boundary, 116Utility consumptionBLUE map scenario, 253, 253fbusiness model, 229cleaning tasks, 234te235t

Andalusian Construction CostDatabase (ACCD), 233

basic costs (BC), 236breakdown cost, 233construction process, 236e237constructive element, 236e237,238te240t

cost structure, 236, 236ffunctional costs (FC), 236MaClar method, 236product/cleaning tool, 233simple costs (SC), 236task periodicity, coding, 237, 241ttask type, coding, 237, 241t

cleaning tasks branch, 250, 251tconstruction phase, 230discount rates, 253ecological footprint, 230electrical machinery, 251electricity, 241e242

450 Index

energy demand, 250environmental analysis, 230environmental indicators, 230facility manager (FM), 229e230food consumption, 251e252fuel, 242e243, 243tglobal warming potential, 237Hernando Colón university Hall of

Residence, 248, 249fanodized aluminum frames, 249e250first floor, 249, 249fground floor, 249heating system, 250

impact driver, 251e252, 252fKyoto Protocol, 237life-cycle costs (LCC), 229e230long-term scenariosBLUE map scenario, 248International Energy Agency, 248use-and-maintenance phase, 248

machinery, 246maintenance and renovation, 229e231manpoweraverage daily calorie consumption,

246e247emission factor, 247e248EUROSTAT, 247e248food consumption, 246e247, 247timpact sources, 246metabolic rate, 246e247, 247t

manpower and machinery, 230e231materialsaverage return distance, 244cleaning products, 244construction phase, 245cradle-to-gate analysis, 244e245domestic cleaning kit, 244emission factor, 244e246environmental impact, 244e245fuel emission factor, 245, 245tmanufacturing, 244recycling and energy recovery, 245transportation, 244transport vehicle, 244waste, 244

methodology flowchart, 237, 242fMSW generation, 251e252

open and free-access database,229e230

operation and maintenance costs,229e230

periodic cleaning, 230e231propane and drinking water

consumption, 250resource consumption, 237, 241sensitivity analysis, 253e256, 254fsystem boundaries, 232fcleaning, 231construction and demolition wastes(CDW), 232e233

construction phase, 232e233corrective maintenance, 231finishes and installationsrenovation, 231

food consumption, 232maintenance, 231mobility, 232municipal solid waste (MSW), 232predictive maintenance, 231preventative maintenance, 231rehabilitated building, 231transversal boundaries, 232UNE-EN 15978 standard, 231use-and-maintenance phase, 231utility consumption, 231

tertiary buildings, 229e230total results, 252e253, 252tUNE-EN 15978:2012 standard, 250use-and-maintenance phase, 230e231,

252e253use branch, 250, 250twater, 243e244

VVIVA Sustainable WineCO2 offset contribution, 179e180,

179fenvironmental and socioeconomic

performance, 178hybrid approach, 179indicators, 178Italian Ministry for the Environment, 178label and smartphone application,

178, 179f

Index 451

VIVA Sustainable Wine (Continued)Red #6 details, 180, 180fRed #7 details, 180, 180fvinification phase, 180

WWaste collection operation, 90Waste treatment transportation routes, 118Wet ash, 154Wind and nuclear power plants, 142Wine industryagricultural land, 162beyond ISO 14067carbon footprint vs. water footprint(WF) (red wine), 187, 189,189fe190f

carbon footprint vs. water footprint(WF) (white wine), 187, 190f

distribution (red wine) end-of-lifescenario, 187, 188t

evaluation procedure, 185functional unit (red wine) data,187, 188t

life cycle, 185, 186fphases contribution (red wine),189, 190f

PRé Consultants SimaPro 8.1software, 187

process site-specific data, 187recursive approach, 185studied product (red wine) data,187, 188t

total production data, 187, 187tupstream, core, and downstreamcontributions (red wine), 187, 189f

water footprint (WF), definition, 185core processes, 170crop production, 162downstream processes, 171economic production,

161, 191emission factor, 172emission inventory, 171e172emission quantification,

171e172environmental footprint indicators,

169e170

Environmental Labels and Declarations,170

equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2eq)emissions, 171

European Union (EU), 163food sector, 161functional unit (FU), 173global warming potential, 173, 173tIntergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, 173ISO 14064

crop reconversion process, 175diesel and biodiesel fuels, 175direct emissions, 176, 177felectric energy consumptionreduction, 176

energywares production, 176environmental impact, 175environmental sustainability, 175first-generation biodiesel, 175greenhouse gas emissions,organization, 176, 176f

indirect emissions, 175e176, 177fland surface basis, 176e178, 177foperational boundaries, 175organization boundaries, 175product-oriented approach, 176e178Umbrian agricultural company, 175uncertainty assessment, 176

ISO 14067, red wines, 182fcore module, 182e185, 184tcradle-to-cradle approach, 181cradle-to-grave approach, 181cropped surface basis, 181e182diesel fuel, 182distribution phase, 182downstream module, 182e185, 184tecoInvent 3.0 database, 181PRé Consultants SimaPro 8.0software, 181

sustainability plan, 181total CF and contribution,183e185, 183t

upstream module, 181, 183e185,184t

upstream phase, 182e183, 183fvineyard management, 181

452 Index

land area distribution, 162, 162flife cycle assessment (LCA) approach,

169e170life cycle stages, 170e171New World countries, 163organization-oriented study, 169e170primary data, 172principles, 171Product Category Rules (PCR), 170production process, 161product-oriented approach, 192protocols and guidelinesactivity-based approach, 168British Standards Institute, 168business-to-consumer assessments, 169Enterprise Protocol, 169environmental awareness, 167GHG Protocol Agricultural

Guidance, 169International Federation of Wines

and Spirits (FIVS), 168International Organization of Vine

and Wine (OIV), 169International Wine Carbon

Calculator (IWCC), 168International Wine Carbon

Protocol, 169Italian Wine Carbon Calculator, 168national agencies, 168Product Protocol, 169Publicly Available Specification

(PAS), 168sustainability principles, 167

scientific literatureair-conditioning systems, 166allocation choices, 167cradle to grave and cradle to gate,

163e164data quality, 167diesel production and consumption,

165e166end-of-life phases, 163e164energy consumption, 166gate-to-gate approach, 163e164glass bottle production, 166

global warming potential (GWP), 167grapevines treatment, 165e166Italian red wine, 166kgCO2eq/bottle, 164e165, 165fmodel transportation, 163e164packaging process, 164e165pesticides and fertilizers, 165e166production process phases, 163e164resources consumption, 165e166spirit packages, 166storage and consumption phase,166e167

system boundaries, 163e164third-party logistic company, 167transportation and distribution phase,163e164

transport modes/choices, 167vineyard-planting phase, 165viticulture activities, 164e166

secondary data, 172system boundaries, 171e173, 172f, 174ftotal direct and indirect environmental

impacts, 161, 169e170upstream processes, 170VIVA Sustainable WineCO2 offset contribution,179e180, 179f

environmental and socioeconomicperformance, 178

hybrid approach, 179indicators, 178Italian Ministry for theEnvironment, 178

label and smartphone application,178, 179f

Red #6 details, 180, 180fRed #7 details, 180, 180fvinification phase, 180

wine production data, 163, 164tworld wine production trend, 162, 163f

World Resource Institute and WorldBusiness Council on SustainableDevelopment, 207

World Resource Institute (WRI)India, 147

Index 453


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ENVIRONMENTAL CARBON FOOTPRINTS