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Environmental Jurisprudence in India Geetanjoy Sahu Assistant Professor School of Habitat Studies Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Deonar, Mumbai-400088 Email id: [email protected]

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Page 1: Environmental Jurisprudence in India Geetanjoy Sahu ...cdem.somaiya.edu/media/pdf/Dr. Sahu_Environmental Jurisprudence in... · Hindustan Times v. CPCB ... Vellore Leather industrial

Environmental Jurisprudence in India

Geetanjoy SahuAssistant Professor

School of Habitat StudiesTata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), 

Deonar, Mumbai­400088Email id: [email protected]

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No dearth of environmental laws in India

• Around 200 environmental laws

• Multiple Regulatory Authorities

• However, implementation has been ineffective

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Some Facts....

Water Pollution

* 150 polluted rivers

* Ground Water: 122 districts are affected by salinity, in 66 districts by chloride, in 224 districts by fluoride, in 35 districts by arsenic and in 368 districts by nitrate

* SPCBs are yet to develop a comprehensive plan

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Contd...

Air Pollution* 95 cities identified as non­attainment with 

respect to national ambient air quality standards (NAMP Data of CPCB)

* 20 cities in India are world's most polluted (WHO 2014) and New Delhi has the world's dirtiest air out of 1600 cities

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WHO 2016

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Contd...

Solid Waste Management* No system of treating so far only collected and 

dumped (Deonar is one example)* 70% is collected and dumped in an unsanitary 

manner* Landfill sites are not available (NIMBY)

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Contd...

Coastal Zone Management* States are yet to develop integrated coastal 

management plan* No Mapping of coastal areas at the state level

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SE

 A

Low Tide Line High Tide Line

C R Z

500 Metres

L A N D

Coastal Regulation Zone 

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Forest Degradation

Unprecedented rate of clearance (2007­11, 11th FYP)

8,284 projects  granted  forest  clearance and 2.04  lakh hectare (ha) of forest land diverted ­­ 25 per cent of all  forest  land  diverted  for  development  projects since 1981. 

In one  single year – 2009 – as much as 87,884 ha of forest was cleared

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Trend of forest land diverted:1980­2011 (CSE, 2014)

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Changes in the Land Holding Pattern

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Other Major Concerns...

Displacement  of  people:  60  million  people,  of  which 40% are tribal

Agricultural  Land  holding  pattern  has  come  down  to 1.6  ha  in  2011  and  0.38  for  marginalised  farmers from 2.28 ha in 1971 (2014 Agri Census Report)

Common Property Resource has come down by 26% to 63% from 1950 to 1995 (Grazing land, village water bodies)

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Fast and Furious Process

The  Minister  of  Environment,  Forest  and  Climate Change  (“MoEFCC”),  had  cleared  over  2000 projects  worth  10  lakh  crore₹   over  the  last  two years, and had brought down the weighted average time  for  granting  environmental  clearances  (“ECs”) from 599.29 days to 192.59 days. The Minister also claimed  that  this  speed  had  been  achieved  without compromising  environmental  norms,  which  he stated had been applied even more stringently.

MoEF Report­2016, Prakash Javadekar's Statement

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Regulatory Capacity and Resource Mobilisation

• SPCBs are dominated by state bureaucracies (WB and AP are exceptional)

• Frequent replacement of chairpersons (For example: UP has changed 24 chairpersons in the last 24 years)

• Staff crunch (KPCB had 60 % vacant positions)

• Non-technical staff dominate the boards

• Workload has increased, while the number of sanctioned posts has gone down

• Time spent on inspection and monitoring is inadequate

(TISS Environmental Regulatory Report: July 21, 2013, The Hindu)

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Ground Reality…

• Implementation Failure

• Variations in enforcement

• Poor Monitoring

• Staff crunch

• Lack technical skills

• Inadequate funding

• Political interference

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When Implementation Fails?

• Resistance/Dialogue

• Electoral Politics

• Legal Action­Judiciary

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Legal Framework

• Legislature, Executive and Judiciary

• Decline and Fall of Parliamentary Sovereignty

• Assertive Judiciary­ Judicial Activism 

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Judicialisation of Environmental Governance

• Ratlam to Aravali Judgment (221 environmental judgments) of Supreme Court from 1980­2010

• 102 judges were part of various environmental judgments

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Supreme Court Cases (1980­2010)

Types of Cases

• Industry (Private Party) vs. Environment

• State  vs.  Environment  (Micro  structure  vs.  environment, Macro structure vs. environment)

• Community vs. Environment

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Questions

• What has been the process of judicialisation?

• How Green is the Indian Judiciary?

• What has been the impact of its greenness ofEnvironmental Governance?

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Process of Judicial Decision­Making

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Contd..

Amicus Curiae  

Spot Visit 

Court­Monitoring Committee

Green Bench

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Not Confined to Legal Framework

Right to healthy environment is a part of fundamental right to life (Article 21)

Introduction of Environmental Principles

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Public Interest Environmental Litigation

Writ Petition (Article 32 & 226) & PIL

Subject not identity of the petitioner is important

Majority of the cases are filed by individuals

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Contd..

For Example:  In  the Ganga Pollution Case,  the Court held that “the petitioner before the Court was no doubt not a riparian owner. He was a person  interested  in protecting  the  lives of  the people who made use of the water flowing in the river Ganga and his  right  to  maintain  the  petition  could  not  be  disputed.  The nuisance  caused  by  the  pollution  was  a  public  nuisance,  wide­spread in range and indiscriminate in its effect, and it would not be reasonable to expect any particular person to take proceedings to stop it as distinct from the community at large.”

           M C Mehta v. Union of India AIR 1988 SC 1115

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Suo Moto 

Hindustan Times v. CPCB (2000): Justice S Rajendra Babu

Interlinking of Rivers (2002): Justice B N Kripal

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Procedural Flexibility

• M  C  Mehta  v.  Union  of  India  (1996):  Ganga  Water Pollution Case (Justice Kuldip Singh)

• T  N  Godavarman  v.  Union  of  India  (1996):  Forest Governance Case (Justice J S Verma)

• Almitra H. Patel v. Union of India (2000)

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Increasing Importance to Amicus Curiae 

• T N Godavarman v. Union of India (1996­2017)

• Interlinking of Rivers (2002­2012)

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Spot Visit

Ratlam Municipal Council v. Vardhichand (1980): Justice V R Krishna Iyer

RLEK v. Union of India (1985): Justice P N Bhagwati

NBA v. Union of India (2000): Justice S P Bharucha

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Implementation of Court Orders

• Green Bench: Vellore Leather industrial pollution case

• Court­Appointed  Monitoring  Committee:  Delhi Vehicular  Pollution  case,  Dahanu  Power  Plant Case, Central Empowered Committee

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Process: Multi­Pronged Strategies

Section  133  of  Criminal  Procedure  Code  (Public Nuisance)­  Ratlam,  Oleum  Gas  Leak,  Almitra Patel

Articles: 21, 32 & 226

Articles: 48 (A) & 51 A (g)

Open & Shut Case: Violation of Environmental Law

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(2) Greenness of the Indian Judiciary

Consistently Inconsistent: Who is the Polluter?

* Industrial Pollution (Private Parties) vs. Environment

* Community vs. Environment

* State vs. Environment

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Industrial Pollution Cases

Kanpur, Vellore, Patancheru, Vapi, Bichhri Cases

In the Ganga Water Pollution case, the Court emphasised that “ closing down of industries would undoubtedly cause hardships to business group and workmen, but it is a price that has to be paid  for  protecting  and  safeguarding  the  environment”.  (AIR 1988 SC 1037)

Theory of Resource Inequality (Marc Galanter) doesn't work

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Community v. Environment 

Slum Dwellers/Forest Dwellers

* City Beautification­ Questions rights of slum dwellers* Displacement of Tribals (Exceptional case­ Niyamgiri Hill)* Tiger Conservation is more important

T N Godavarman v. Union of India (1996)WWF v. Union of India (1999)Centre for Public Interest Litigation v. Union of India (2006)

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For Example...

In  the  Centre  for  Public  Interest  Litigation  v.  Delhi  Municipal Corporation, in May 2006. 

The SC held that “slum dwellers are encroachers and they have no right  whatsoever  on  public  land,  not  even  for  a  minute. Desperation  does  not  mean  they  will  do  something  illegal  by encroaching  public  land.  In  India,  we  have  three  weather conditions   heat, rain and winter. If we accept your argument, ―there  will  never  be  an  appropriate  time  to  demolish  illegal structures  standing  on  public  land.  The  Bench  said:  "Nobody forced you to come to Delhi. Is there a right to live in Delhi only? Stay where  you  can.  If  encroachments  on public  land are  to  be allowed, there will be anarchy." 

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State Being A Polluter 

Micro Structures (Municipal Councils)

Macro Structures (Union or State Governments)

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Micro Structures v. Environment

In the Ratlam Municipal vs. Vardhichand, the Supreme Court stated  that  “  A  responsible  Municipal  Council  constituted for  providing  basic  amenity  of  public  convenience  cannot run  away  from  its  principal  duty  by  pleading  financial inability. Decency and dignity are non­negotiable  facets of human rights and are a first charge on local self­governing bodies”. (AIR 1980, SC 1625)

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Macro Structures v. Environment

Infrastructure Projects & Huge Investment Cases

(Dams, Power Plants, Airports, Flyover, Metro, Commonwealth Game, Akshardham Temple, Art of 

Living)

In  the  Tehri  Dam  case,  the  Court  clarified  that  “the  case brought  forth an  intricate question  relating  to  science and engineering  and  the  court  does  not  possess  the  requisite expertise to deal with it”.  (AIR 1992 Supp(1) SC 644)

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Hands­Off Approach 

• Huge Investment Cases (Commonwealth Games, Akshardham Temple)

• Infrastructure Cases (Power Plants, Dams, Railway Network, Flyover, Airport, etc.)

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Justification

Policy Matters

Too late to entertain petition

Science and Technical Details

Involves Larger Public Interest

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Departure from the principle of social justice 

Pro­Environment but tribal, workers, slum dwellers' rights are sidelined

• Tribals are encroachers• Eviction order for slum dwellers• Rights of Fishing Communities sidelined• Workers' rights are ignored

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Balancing Approach 

Environment, Human Rights and Development

In  the  Oleum  Gas  leak  case,  the  Court    held  that  “Industries,  even  if hazardous,  have  to  be  set  up  since  they  are  essential  for  economic development and advancement of well being of the people. The Court also  held  that  the  closing  down  of  industry  would  create unemployment of 4,000 workers and  that  such closure would  lead  to their impoverishment”. (AIR 1987 (1) SCC 395) 

But,  the  balance  always  tilted  in  favour  of  the  project proponent/industry in the post­judgment scenario

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(3) Impact of Green Judgments

• Environmental Policy & Governance 

• Civil Society Initiatives

• Industrial Behaviour

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Environmental Policy & Governance

• Evolution of Environmental Principles 

­ Public Trust Doctrine­ Strict Liability­ Precautionary Principle­ Polluter Pays Principle­ Inter­generational & Intra­generational equity

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Contd...

• Enactment of Rules and Acts 

­ Solid Waste Management Rules 2000­ Noise Pollution Regulation and Control Rules 2000­ Hazardous Wastes Management & Handling Rules 1989­ Bio­Medical Waste Management & Handling Rules 1998­ CAMPA­2003 & 2016­ National Green Tribunal Act 2010

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Contd...

• Procedural Changes 

­ EIA Process (Public Hearing, Accreditation Certificate)­ Annual Environmental Statement Report by the Industry   ­ Guideline to Appoint Experts

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Civil Society Environmental Groups

• Created space for third party• Encouraged petitioner (Award in terms of cost)• Involved civil society in the implementation process

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Industrial Behaviour

Mixed Outcome

• Mandatory to have pollution control mechanism• Procedures to be followed (Forest Clearance, 

Environmental Clearance, Land Acquisition)• Environmental Quality Improvement?­ Weak Regulation

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Challenges For Judicial Intervention

• Implementation of orders• Micro­management of cases (level and extent of activism)• Federal principles ignored (Interlinking of rivers)• Lack of institutionalisation • Selective Approach (PIL) & Inconsistent Approach• Symbolic  directions  (Paint  buses  with  green  colour,  kill 

2000 animals per day)

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Thanks