Erikson's Stages of Personal and Social Development

As people grow, they face a series of psychosocial crises that shape personality, according to Erik Erikson. Each crisis focuses on a particular aspect of personality and involves the person's relationship with other people.

STAGE APPROXIMATE AGES PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES

SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS PSYCHOSOCIAL EMPHASIS

To get • To give in return To hold on To let go To make ( = going after) To "make like" (= playing) To make things To make things together To he oneself (or not to be) To share being oneself To lose and find oneself in another

To take care of

To be, through having been To face not being

Source: From Childhood and Society by Erik H. Erikson. Copyright 1950, © 1963 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. renewed © 1978, 1991 by Erik H. Erikson. Reprinted by permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

I

II

III

rv

V

VI

VII

VIII

Birth to 18 months

18 months to 3 years

3 to 6 years

6 to 12 years

12 to 18 years

Young adulthood

Middle adulthood

Late adulthood

Trust vs. mistrust

Autonomy vs. doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs. inferiority

Identity vs. role confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation

Generativity vs. self-absorption Integrity vs. despair

Maternal person

Parental persons

Basic family

Neighborhood, school

Peer groups and models of leadership Partners in friendship, sex, competition, cooperation Divided labor and shared household "Mankind," "My kind"

Vygotsky 's Theory on Cognit ive Development

I. Key Principles:

1. Intellectual development and learning can be understood only in light of the historical and

cultural contexts children experience.

2. Development in large part depends on the sign systems with which the children grow up.

3. Cognitive development is strongly linked to input from others; learning is closely linked to development.

II. Central Concepts:

1. Sign systems: Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.

2. Self-regulation: The capability to think and solve problems without the help of others.

3. Private speech: Children's self-talk (often overt initially in very young children) that guides their thinking and actions; eventually becomes internalized as silent inner speech.

4. Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Level of development immediately above an individual's present level of functioning.

5. Scaffolding: Support for learning and problem solving provided by adults or "more competent" peers; can include reminders, clues, encouragements, problem-solving strategies, examples, etc.-anything that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. Typically extensive in early stages of learning, while diminishing later on as the student takes on increasing personal responsibility.

III. Possible Applications to Classrooms:

1. Use methods that provide practice in different children's ZPDs, delivered to individuals or to small groups.

2. Use cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching, and other processes to encourage ZPD stimulation.

3. Use scaffolding to help children in their individual ZPDs, simplifying the role of the learner by the graduated, thoughtful, and level-sensitive interventions of the teacher.

Conservation Task Original Presentation Transformation

Number

\ Length

Are there the same number of pennies in each row?

Is each of these sticks just as long as the other?

Now are there the same number of pennies in each row, or does one row have more?

Now are the two sticks each equally as long, or is one longer?

Liquid

Is there the same amount of water in each glass?

Now is there the same amount of water in each glass, or does one have more?

Mass Is there the same amount of clay in each ball? •

Now does each piece have the same amount of clay, or does one have more?

Area

TR fa Do each of these two cows have the same amount of grass to eat?

Now does each cow have the same amount of grass to eat, or does one cow have more?

Weight

"X TT Do each of these two balls of day weigh the same amount?

Now (without placing them back on the scale to confirm what is correct for the child) do the two pieces of clay weigh the same, or does one weigh more?

Volume

Does the water level rise equally in each glass when the two balls of clay are dropped in the water?

Now (after one piece of day is removed from the water and reshaped) wil l the water levels rise equally, or will one rise more?

Figure 6.4. Some Piagetian conservation tasks. They are achieved successively over the concrete operational period. Number, length, liquid, and mass are acquired some time

between 6 and 7 years of age; area and weight between 8 and 10 years; and volume between 10 and 12 years.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

People progress through four stages of cognitive development between birth and adulthood, according to Jean Piaget. Each stage is marked by the emergence of new intellectual abilities that allow people to understand the world in increasingly complex ways.

STAGE APPROXIMATE AGES MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years

Preoperational 2 to 7 years

Concrete 7 to 11 years operational

Formal operational

11 years to adulthood.

Formation of concept of "object permanence" and gradual progression from reflexive behavior to goal-directed, behavior. Development of the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.

Improvement in ability to think logically. New abilities include the use of operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.

Abstract and purely symbolic thinking possible. Problems can be solved through the use of systematic experimentation.

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Piagetian x& to Discern Thinking Processes of a Preoperational Child ^ . < Years Old) © Brenda Duncan, 2005

7. Inclusion (partwhole relationships)

8. Neighborhoods (left and right)

A box of 20 wooden beads, 18 of which are blue, 2 are yellow

Pencil, key, coin, paper

"Do you know what these beads are made from?" (If child does not know, tell him/her they are made of wood)

Ask the child to identify his/her right hand then left hand. (DO NOT CORRECT). Ask, "Which is your right hand?" - "Which is your left hand?"

Then, "Which is my right hand?" "Which is my left hand?"

Place three objects in a row.

A. Pencil, key, coin

B. Key, paper, pencil

"Are there more wooden beads or more blue beads?"

"Is the pencil to the right or to the left of the key?" "Is the penny to the right or to the left of the key?" "Is the key to the left or the right of the penny?"

B. Ask the same question format using key, paper, pencil.

"How did you know that?"

Piagetian Tasks to Discern Thinking Processes of a Preoperational Child (2-7< Years Old) © Brenda Duncan, 2005

5. Conservation of liquids

Two equal sized glasses, each filled with the same amount of colored water

"Is there the same amount of water in each glass?:"

Pour liquid from one glass into a taller, more narrow container

"Now, is there the same amount of water in each glass, or does one have more?"

"How did you know that?"

6. Conservation of area Two identical pieces of card on which are placed eight green squares and a toy horse or cow

"Do each of these cows have the same amount of grass to eat?"

Spread the squares around on one card

"Now, does each cow have the same amount of grass to eat, or does one cow have more?"

"How did you know that?"

Piagetian 1 .s to Discern Thinking Processes of a Preoperational Child (̂ -; Years Old) © Brenda Duncan, 2005

Task Start with: Ask the child: Then: Ask the child: Request reasoning: 1. Conservation of number

Two equal lines of counters

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

"Are there the same number of counters in each row?" (Let child count them if he/she wishes)

Spread out one of the rows o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o

"Now, are there the same number of counters in each row, or does one row have more?"

"How did you know that?"

2. Conservation of length

Two sticks of equal length

"Is each of these sticks as long as the other?"

Move the position of one stick

"Now, are the two sticks each the same length, or is one longer?"

"How did you know that?"

3. Seriation / ordering Seven sticks of graduated lengths (one set for you, one set for child)

"I'm going to arrange my sticks like this" (demonstrate for the child ordering from smallest to longest)

Disassemble your arrangement, then say, "Now, you arrange yours the way mine were."

Wait until the child appears to have finished to his/her satisfaction

"How did you know what to do?"

4. Conservation of mass Two equal sized balls of clay

O O

"Is there the same amount of clay in each ball, or does one ball have more?" (Let child examine balls to be sure he/she is satisfied that they are the same)

Flatten the shape of one ball of clay

O

"Now, does each piece have the same amount of clay, or does one have more?"

"How did you know that?"