Ethical Comportment in Organizations: A Synthesis of The Feminist Ethic of Care and the Buddhist Ethic of Compassion

International Journal of Value-Based Management12: 109–128, 1999.© 1999Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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Ethical Comportment in Organizations: A Synthesis ofThe Feminist Ethic of Care and the Buddhist Ethic ofCompassion

JUDITH WHITECalifornia State University Monterey Bay, 100 Campus Center, Seaside, CA 93955-8001,U.S.A.

Abstract. This article describes a mode of ethical behavior in organizations called ethicalcomportment that is the enactment of the principles of elements common to the feministethic of care and the Buddhist ethic of compassion. The paper outlines the main tenets ofcare and The Eightfold Path of Buddhism, a mode of practicing compassion, demonstratingthe similarities in values and practices that embody what the author considers to be ethicalcomportment in organizations.

Keywords: ethics, feminist ethics, ethics of care, Buddhist ethics, compassion

1. Introduction

Ethical behavior in organizations is traditionally considered to be a matter ofmaking decisions that involve right or wrong, or good or bad, and then actingon those decisions. This paper discusses a concept of ethical behavior, ethicalcomportment, that includes and goes beyond decision-making and action.Ethical comportment is ethical behavior that includes one’s intentions, efforts,feelings, and thoughts, and occurs within individuals, between individuals,and within organizations. Further, we suggest that ethical comportment maycome directly from the heart, soul, or spirit as well as mind, and does notexclusively involve rational, linear, or intellectual processes.

The field of business ethics has a number of decision-making modelswith criteria to determine what is the most ethical action in any given situ-ation. Ethical decision-making and reasoning is assumed to involve cognitiveprocesses of rationality, thinking, and logic. In this paper we set aside theunderlying assumption that ethical behavior is a result of cognitive, rationalprocesses, and propose a mode of ethical behavior we called ethical comport-ment that is grounded in the heart, soul, spirit, and mind of being human andconnected with others.

While the focus of this paper is the foundations of ethical comportmentin organizations, to best understand it we first need to contrast it with un-

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ethical conduct in organizations. Broadly defined, unethical conduct includesany intentional or unintentional actions, thoughts, or efforts, large or small,that harm others. This includes sexual harassment, exploitation of workers inunsafe work environments, suppression and exclusion of voice and participa-tion in decision-making of any organizational members, inequitable access toopportunities, harmful gossip, discrimination based on race, sex, age, sexualorientation, ethnicity, religion, political beliefs, class or caste, and nationality,use of fear and coercion, theft of any kind, dishonest speech, the manu-facture of potentially harmful products, and giving or receiving a bribe. Inessence, unethical behavior is behavior that harms others. While it is mostoften associated with specific actions that are outside of the rules, policies,regulations, and norms of the organization and the larger legal parameters ofthe surrounding society, for present purposes unethical behavior can be assimple as harboring hatred towards another person. In the Buddhist context,to have unkind thoughts towards another is to fill oneself with unkindnessand dislike that is harmful both to the person holding the unkind thoughts aswell as the target of this unkindness. Also, because so much communicationis nonverbal, unkind feelings may be communicated even through silence.In The Dhammapada(Maitreya, 1995), a central part of the teachings of theBuddha, the relevance of one’s thoughts is highlighted:

Mind is the forerunner of all actions.All deeds are led by mind, created by mind.If one speaks or acts with a corrupt mind, suffering follows,As the wheel follows the hoof of an ox pulling a cart.

Both the feminist ethic of care and the Buddhist ethic of compassion aregrounded in a set of values and behaviors that at the individual, interpersonal,and organizational level comprise what we consider to be ethical comport-ment. We begin with a discussion of the feminist ethic of care, in theoreticaland practical terms, and then proceed to define and discuss the Buddhist ethicof compassion, with its practical steps for enactment in everyday life. Finallyfrom these two traditions we develop the concept of ethical comportment,a broader definition of ethical behavior that includes all of one’s thoughts,actions, decisions, and feelings as practiced in the context, for present pur-poses, of organizational life. Finally we discuss implications of this modelfor practice and research.

The contemporary feminist ethic of care has evolved from relatively recentdevelopmental psychology and moral development (Gilligan, 1982; Gilliganand Attanucci, 1988; Jack and Jack, 1989; Miller, 1976; Noddings, 1984;Tronto, 1993). The Buddhist ethic of compassion was first contemplated in500 B.C., when Buddhism began in India. We discuss the similarities between

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these two ethical traditions, particularly the awareness and consciousness ofa connection to others and the intention not to harm others.

2. The ethic of care

The ethic of care, initially considered in the context of domestic relationships(Gilligan, 1982; Lyons, 1982; Noddings, 1984) is most relevant to businessethics. Caring relationships in organizations include active listening, respect-ing others, and demonstrating empathy towards others (Jack and Jack, 1989;Manning, 1992, Raugust, 1992, Tronto, 1993). Caring emphasizes not harm-ing others, valuing relationships with others, maintaining or repairing rela-tionships (Gilligan, 1982; Lyons, 1982). Caring may involve self-sacrifice,and an accounting of the other’s physical or psychological needs (Manning,1992). Human relationships require continuous caring involving three com-ponents: ‘being receptive to the other, being accepting of the other, and beingon-call for the other when she/he is in need.’ (p. 48).

The feminist ethic of care contrasts to the more traditional ethic of justice,as described by Benhabib (1992), Derry (1996), Gilligan (1982), Noddings(1984), Lyons (1982), Tronto, (1993), White (1994) (Table 1). Gilligan de-scribed the ethic of care when in her research she found that women predom-inantly used a different set of criteria when discussing an ethical dilemma.Unlike the findings of her colleague Kohlberg at Harvard, Gilligan foundthat most of the women in her study believed that the elements importantin resolving ethical problems included (1) the individual is defined in con-nection and relationship to others, as well as embedded in multiple contexts,whether social, historical, political, economic, etc. (2) responding to the otherin his or her own terms, acknowledging that the other may construct realityin a different way from oneself, (3) promoting the well being of others andpreventing harm, suffering, and pain, whether physical or psychological, (4)maintaining and/or repairing the relationship with the other.

The ethic of care contrasts with the ethic of justice in that the ethic ofjustice is based on an assumption that (1) individuals are separate entitiesfrom one another and should be seen with some degree of ‘objectivity,’ (2)that relationships should be based on a sense of reciprocity between separateindividuals, grounded in duty and obligation prescribed according to one’sroles, (3) that conflicting claims between persons can be resolve by usingrules, laws, and principles that may be universal and all-encompassing, and(4) the consequences of the resolution of an ethical dilemma are to be judgedaccording to whether rules, values, principles, and fairness were maintained.

The act of caring leads toinquiry rather than making the assumption of thehomogeneity of values and needs. The carer asks questions, enriches his/her

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Table 1. Ethics of care and ethics of justice

Ethic of care Ethic of justice

Individual isdefined as:

Connected and in relation toothers; sees others in theirown contexts

Separate/objective in relationto others; sees others as onewould like to be seen by them

Relationships areunderstood as:

Response to another inhis/her own terms

Reciprocity between separateindividuals, grounded in theduty & obligation of theirroles

Ethical issues areconstrued as or areissues of:

Relationships or of response:how to respond to others intheir particular terms,resolved through the activityof care

Conflicting claims betweenself and others; resolved byinvoking rules, principles,standards

Considerationsinclude:

a. Maintaining relationships& connection ofinterdependent individualsb. Promoting well-being ofothers or preventing harmc. Relieving pain & suffering,psychological or physical

a. One’s role-relatedobligations, duties,commitmentsb. Standards, rules, principlesfor self, others, society,including reciprocity

Evaluation: a. What happened/willhappen; how things workedoutb. Whether relationshipswere/are maintained orrestored

a. How decisions are thoughtabout & justifiedb. Whether values, principles,standards were/aremaintainedc. Emphasis on fairness

Adapted from Lyons, 1982.

knowledge of the other’s context, and attempts to understand the otherfromthe other’s point of view(Jack and Jack, 1989; Miller, 1991, 1976; Lyons,1982; Noddings, 1984; Tronto, 1993). The carer listens and learns while theother shares of him/herself, allowing the caring person to develop oneselfwhile in the process of caring for another. Organizational relationships, situ-ations, interpersonal and group interactions and circumstances provide manyopportunities for caring behavior.


Care in the workplace

Caring in the workplace reinforces feminist ethics of cooperation, relation-ship, and interdependent nurturance, acknowledging the other’s reality ashis/her own while not precluding extending oneself to the other. Understand-ing that everyone is differentand everyone is connected, caring honors thedifferences while simultaneouslyfeelingthe connection through emotion, ofthe need for care and compassion.

In ‘Feminist Ethics and Workplace Values,’ Raugust (1992) claims theprevailing ethic in the workplace is patriarchal, with the hegemonic valuesof autonomy, rights, and individualistic justice. Under this influence employ-ees relate to each other in terms of the ways ‘work products are measuredand esteemed’ (p. 125). Feminist ethics, in contrast, are based on coopera-tion, relationship, and interdependent nurturance, values more comfortablefor women employees. Raugust outlines six tenets of organizational ethics:

a. A caring relationship with others, rather than declaration, defense, andthe exercise of individual rights, is the primary priority of ethical enact-ment.

b. The giving and receiving of care, appropriate to specific persons andsituations, is the principal outcome for ethically determined behavior.

c. Interdependence rather than individualism is emphasized, along with themutuality of giving and receiving more than entitlements to receivingnurturing from others.

d. The focus is on the particular ‘other’ in contrast to the ‘other’ as gener-alized, faceless, and impersonal.

e. Decisions are founded in context and responsive to the particularities ofthe individual case, not through formulaic and deductive processes.

f. Interpersonal processes are circular rather than linear, atemporal ratherthan time-bound, and accepting rather than transformative.

g. Virtue is the highest good, taking precedence over justice. Exploitationand harm are to be avoided. At work primary tasks are emphasized,while power relations over others are de-emphasized.

These principles embody the core values of both the ethic of care with itsimportance of relationship with the specific other, and the central emphasis inBuddhism on the interconnection of all living things, as discussed below andseen in Table 2.

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Table 2. Similarities in feminist values and Buddhist values

Feminist values Buddhist values

Inclusion Community orSangha

Egalitarianism Non-judging

Relationships important All beings important

Interdependence Connection to all things

Accomodation Flexibility in the moment

Emotions & feelings Emotions & feelings

Spirit Buddha, Bodhisatva

Nature & body Nature & body

Subjectivity Impermanence, non-duality

Intuition Awareness, mindfulness

Heart, caring Compassion, loving kindness

3. The Buddhist ethic of compassion

‘You must help others. If not, you should not harm others,’ from theBod-hisattvascriptures, the Great Vehicle (Mahayana), and the Low Vehicle(Hinayana).The Dalai Lama,A Policy of Kindness.

Buddhism began in 2500 B.C. in India and today is practiced throughout theworld. Just as Christianity is divided into several groups including Catholics,Protestants, Baptists, Lutherans, and Presbyterians, and as Judaism has thedifferent traditions of Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, Hassidic, and Re-constructionist, so too Buddhists have different but related traditions andpractices. Two of the main traditions of Buddhism are Theravada and Ma-hayana, the latter includes Zen and Tibetan Buddhism. The different Buddhisttraditions in part are based on where and at what time in history they de-veloped. The practices of compassion and ethical conduct are at the coreof all Buddhist traditions and presented here for an understanding of theirapplication to ethical comportment in organizations.

Compassion, common to all Buddhist traditions, is detailed in traditionalscriptures and guidelines both for monastic and lay practice. In Buddhism,compassion means ‘true friendliness’ and includes love toward one’s neigh-bors, being of help to others and being more selfless and less selfish (Siva-raksa, 1988). Another traditional understanding is ‘the trembling or the quiv-ering of the heart in response to pain’ and it has the qualities of self-suffi-


ciency, wholeness, openness, spaciousness, resiliency, andnot being brokenwhen facing states of suffering (Salzberg, 1995). Though compassion doesnot require giving up the self while attending to the other, the self may besuspended in service of the other. Compassion is developed through self-lessness by attending to the needs of the other and lack of attachment toone’s own desires and thoughts. It implies an opening of the heart to others,acting upon an authentic deep caring for others, stemming from a sense of anundoubtable connectedness to all living beings (Chang, 1983; Conze, 1959;Feldman, 1988; Goldstein and Kornfield, 1987; Kapleau, 1965; Kornfield,1993; Macy, 1991; Rahula, 1974; Snelling, 1990).

In the Western business world the terms empathy and understanding forothers are used as a means of conveying care. While compassion may havea rational or cognitive element to it, in Buddhism initially it stems from theheart, from a sense of serenity, generosity, caring, and concern and involvesfeeling and action, reaching out and giving to the other, sharing in another’sgrief or suffering. Similar to empathy, it includes the ability to identify withanother on a direct emotional level (McCormick, 1994). Compassion dif-fers from social objectivity (Boyatzis, 1982) or perspective taking, both ofwhich are more cognitively oriented appraisals of how others perceive them-selves, their situation, and their emotions (McCormick, 1994). Compassionis heartfelt and directed toward a specific person or group.

The Eightfold Path

Buddhism defines individual actions that lead to compassion in The EightfoldPath, a Buddhist guide to an ethical life that has implications for ethical com-portment in the workplace (Conze, 1959; Katagiri, 1988; Kornfield, 1993;Rahula, 1979; Snelling, 1990).

In Buddhism The Eightfold Path is considered to be the middle path or theWay leading to the cessation of suffering because by following the prescribedactions along the Eightfold Path means one can avoid the extremes of theendless search for happiness and sense pleasures, as well as the search forhappiness though self-mortification. The Eightfold Path is said to give visionand knowledge, leading to calm, insight, and enlightenment while promotingthe three foundations of Buddhist training: a. ethical conduct (sila), b. mentaldiscipline (samadhi), and c. wisdom (panna). Ethical conduct orsila is builton the Buddhist belief in love and compassion for all living beings, con-sidered to be a guide for ethical comportment everywhere, including withinorganizations. The Eightfold Path specifices the importance of not harmingany living beings, near or far, human or non-human, not at this time, or inthe future (Aitken, 1982; Chang, 1983; Conze, 1959; Cleary, trans.1994 TheDhammapada; Katagiri, 1988; Rahula, 1959; Saddhatissa, 1987; Snelling,

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1990). This precept has far-reaching consequences for our everyday actionsand interactions with others in organizations. Summarized below are the stepsof the Eightfold Path to an ethical life.

a. Right understandingrequires that we see life just as it is, with its inevitableimpermanence, suffering, and emptiness. It involves a clear understandingof moral law, the nature of existence, and the elements that make up theconditioned realm of life. One cultivates right thought by developing a calmmind, free from tension, anger, fear, excitement, clinging and desire, unbi-ased by one’s immediate emotional swings. Right understanding in organi-zational life, for example, can be interpreted as being in a tense or chaoticsituation and realizing in that moment that all of the current trauma anddrama will pass, it is temporary, and like all phenomena it is to be takenseriously and simultaneously to be understood in its position relative to allother phenomena.

b. Right thought,also known as right intention means one’s mind is pure,free from ill-will, cruelty, lust, and similar harmful mind states. To haveright thought is to have thoughts of detachment, selflessness, love, and non-violence that are extended to all beings. In organizational life this meansbeing able to see and think about a situation without regard to one’s selfinterests, but with the interests of others in mind. At any given moment onecan ask oneself, ‘How can I be helpful to others?’

‘There is an ocean of bright clouds; there is an ocean of solemn clouds.’Dogen Zenji’s comment on the Eighth Precept, ‘Not Indulging in Anger’quoted by Aitken

Aitken says, ‘Sometimes a sunny response is appropriate, sometimesa solemn one. But not a harsh one. Harsh language pollutes the Dharma.’(p. 16, 1994Turning Wheel, Winter.)

c. Right speechmeans abstention from telling lies, slander, talk that resultsin hatred, enmity, and disharmony among individuals or groups, from harsh,rude, malicious and abusive language, and from idle, useless gossip. To ab-stain from these harmful forms of speech means one is skillful in one’sspeech, necessarily speaking the truth, in ways that are helpful and usefulto others, and with pleasantness and friendliness. Right speech should betimely, and if one cannot speak to help others, one should keep ‘noble si-lence.’ Practicing right speech in organizations tends to be one of the mostdifficult challenges facing individuals. People are accustomed to gossiping


about others, expressing painful feelings, blaming others for one’s mentalstates of frustration, envy, resentment, hatred, and other forms of suffering.

Zen teacher Robert Aitken (1994) says that Right Speech is perhaps theultimate test of inclusion because you honor both your friend and your adver-sary. To discuss the faults or explore the affairs of others suggests that we arein a superior or exclusive position to the other person. This triangulation, thetendency to complain about somebody to somebody else denies the opportu-nity to work together to remedy a problem and obscures the existence of theinterconnectedness of all persons. Malicious gossip is deliberate rather thanthoughtless, and truth is frequently absent and the workplace suffers.

‘With a malicious word, you are a malicious person, raising hell in theten directions. With a loving and compassionate word, you are openingyour heart and sharing the ambrosia of Kuanyin (Buddhist Goddess ofCompassion) with everyone and everything.’ Aitken, 1994, p. 17

To practice right speech in organizations is to speak only the truth and onlythat which is helpful to others. It is easier to practice right speech if one re-mains in the present time, speaking of the relevant here and now and avoidinghearsay, rumor, and gossip.

d. Right actionpromotes moral and peaceful conduct by suggesting that onepractices the following five precepts: (1) abstention from destroying life inany form, (2) restraint from taking that which is not given, and instead prac-tice charity and generosity (3) avoidance of sexual misconduct and insteadpractice restraint and self-control (4) practicing sincerity and honesty, notindulging in false speech, and (5) practicing restraint and mindfulness andnot ingest intoxicating substances that cloud the mind. In organizations thiscan mean that in one’s everyday actions and thoughts, one is intentionallyconsiderate, helpful, and caring of others, whatever one’s job. One may en-gage the janitor in conversation about his or her family or holiday, or attemptto mediate a conflict between co-workers, or take time to care for a harriedcolleague or client.

e. Right livelihoodsuggests that one should only pursue an occupation thatdoes not cause harm or injustice to others, such as making or trading in armsor poisons, killing animals, or cheating. One should engage in a professionthat does no harm to others, that is blameless, and instead intentionally helpsothers to lead a peaceful and honorable life. Practicing right livelihood inorganizations can include providing service to others in the most compas-sionate way possible, being mindful and attentive to the needs of others.Whatever one’s job, whether a manager, academic, professional, manufac-

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turing or service worker, one can work with a mind towards helping othersin the day-to-day momentary interactions as well as accomplishing the largergoals of the organization.

f. Right effortmeans one acquires and fosters noble qualities while avoidingand rejecting ignoble qualities. This has four parts: 1) The effort to preventthe arising of evil which has not yet presented itself, 2) The effort to expelevil which is already present, 3) The effort to induce good which has notyet presented itself, and 4) the effort to cultivate that good which is alreadypresent. In the workplace this can mean taking a stand on an unpopular posi-tion, or opposing an action that is harmful to others, including speaking one’sperceived truth to those in power. For example, at a recent professional con-ference a junior colleague kindly and politely questioned a senior colleagueon his explicit and self-admittedly practiced values of subordination of oth-ers, exploitation of workers in developing countries, arrogance towards peers,and excessive personal compensation. While this mild confrontation was anunpleasant situation for all involved, it underscored the need to question thosein positions of power and authority and raise issues related to how to be caringand compassionate towards all others.

g. Right mindfulnessis a state of constant awareness of one’s body, feel-ings, mind, and thoughts, the culmination of the intellectual process whichconnects with intuition or direct insight into how things truly are, discardingall discrimination. While things seem good or bad, right or wrong, this onlyproves how incompletely the mind views things. The process of thoughtsenables the mind to diagnose the truth more clearly as discriminating thingsmake themselves evident. In Buddhism one transcends the intellectual mindto realize the true significance and relationship of all things, or, as Boorstein(1995) paradoxically states, ‘Meditation – It’s not what you think.’

The suttas of Buddhism specify four foundations of mindfulness: 1. ob-serving the body, 2. observing feelings, 3. observing the mind, and 4. observ-ing mental objects.

To observe the body is to live observing the activities of the body inter-nally or externally, whether breathing, walking, sitting, etc., observing howthe sensations of the body arise and pass, forever changing.

To observe feelings, for example, is, when one is experiencing a pleasantor painful feeling, to acknowledge, ‘I experience a pleasant (painful) feeling.’This includes noticing the origination and dissolution of feelings, that theyarise, exist, and pass, like all other phenomena.

To observe the mind is to be aware of the various states of mind, as theyoccur. The mind may be filled with tranquility, anger, or ignorance; it may


be distracted, concentrated, or agitated. Observing the rise and fall of allmind states allows one to cultivate unattachment both to the world of allphenemomena and mind states in particular.

To observe the rising and passing of mental objects, one lives daily observ-ing the five hindrances: sense-desire, anger, torpor, restlessness, and doubt.

To have a mind that is free from clinging to states of body, mind, feelings,and mental objects is to have equanimity, to be open and compassionate to-wards others, not detached and impersonal. This is the essence of ethical com-portment: open, compassionate, caring, honest, clear-headed, understanding.

h. Right concentrationis the practice of one-pointedness of mind. Throughthe practice of meditation one realizes that all things are impermanent, un-satisfactory, and without substance. This comes about when, through con-centrated thought, one discards thoughts of desire, restlessness, aversion, andill-will, and instead, maintains thoughts of joy and happiness. In the secondstage of meditation or concentration practice one lets go of intellectual ac-tivity and tranquility and one-pointedness is cultivated. Later, joy (an activesensation) disappears, while happiness remains along with mindful equanim-ity. In the final stage of concentration all sensations disappear, happinessand unhappiness, joy and sorrow, and only pure equanimity and awarenessremain. Life in organizations sometimes tends to be hectic, messy, and uncer-tain, with frequent changes. Individuals juggle several tasks at once, trying tokeep focused on the task at hand while the phone rings, people come into theoffice, and other activities compete for attention. A concentrated mind oftenmay be difficult to maintain in ordinary organizational life, but it can be mosthelpful in dealing with situations in a fair, honest, and effective manner.

Underlying all of the steps on The Eightfold Path is the assumption thatall persons are connected with each other, sharing hopes for a good lifefor themselves and their children, and a healthy habitat, the earth. Build-ing community within organizations requires ethical comportment: practicingawareness and consideration of others, kindness, truthfulness, and compas-sion through mindfulness and attention to process, more thoroughly discussedbelow.

4. Ethical comportment

Individuals bring various intentions and motivations to organizations includ-ing motivations to achieve, accomplish goals, fulfill ambitions, or gain status(McClelland, 1961). Others are motivated by affiliation and need to makefriends and develop social contacts. Others are motivated to influence others,

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Table 3. The ethic of care and the Buddhist ethic of compassion

Ethic of care Ethics of compassion

Importance of maintaining andrepairing relationships

All beings are entitled to kindness andcompassion

Cause no harm to others Never harm another

Self is interdependent with others Self is part of an interdependentnetwork of all others beings

Situational context is essential forunderstanding and care

All things are subjects of conditioning

Feelings and emotions are legitimateand valuable

Feelings, sensations, emotions, andthoughts are an integrated whole andtransitory

Motivation leads to actions Thoughts and intentions are equallyimportant as actions

Intellect and intuition are both valued Intellectual process is linked to intuitiveprocess

gaining positions of power over others, manipulating resources, or advancingin the organization. In expressing each of these motivations the individual’sneeds, intentions, and consciousness are directed toward the self rather thanothers in the work group or organization. Ethical comportment necessitatesbeing intentional about wanting to help others, engage with others, and carefor others, principles that underlay both the feminist ethic of care and theBuddhist ethic of compassion (Table 3).

Ethical comportment is a form of interpersonal behavior, includingthoughts, intentions, and effort, that has the both the means and the pur-pose of extending kindness, caring, and compassion to all others affected inevery situation. In all organizations individuals have the opportunity to bekind, compassionate, and caring to others, treating others with respect andhelping them. To comport oneself in an ethical manner, or to practice ethicalcomportment is to be intentional about this caring. Ethical comportment canoccur on a micro, intrapsychic level, in one’s thoughts, intentions, efforts, andactions, and it is within the realm of possibilities for everyone. Groups andorganizations can practice ethical comportment in the way they treat peopleboth within and outside the organization, for example, in human resource pro-cedures and policies, cooperative and helpful practices between departmentsor units, employee relations practices, and corporate policies that demonstratesocial responsibility towards all stakeholders near and far.


To practice or enact thical comportment suggests that one’s intentionsare to be kind, caring, and compassionate towards others, under all circum-stances. This is not the same as accepting unskillful behavior of the otherperson. In fact, ‘sometimes the best thing you can do in a situation is tobe rough with someone . . . to be balanced in accord with each situation.’(Shishin Wick Sensi, 1996, p. 17). This leads one to ask how can one be kindand rough at the same time, referring to the paradoxical nature of Buddhistthought and practice discussed below (also see K. Wilbur’sGrace and Grit,1993).

Individuals can practice ethical comportment in organizations by focusingintentions and awareness in their intrapersonal and interpersonal behavior toinclude all others, in time and space. Just as the Native American Iroquois inthe U.S. who, before taking action, consider the effects of their actions on thefuture seven generations, to behave with ethical comportment means height-ening one’s awareness and clarifying one’s intentions towards all persons atall times. Practicing ethical comportment involves an awareness of the impactof one’s behaviors on persons in other places, societies, and time, and includesgenerosity, kindness, gentleness, nurturance, and a willingness to face andattend to the suffering of others. For example, American corporations such asNike, PepsiCo, Unocal, and Dole can be compassionate and caring throughadequate compensation systems, healthy working conditions, and appropri-ate uses of natural resources to all their employees, whether in Indonesia orCanada. Currently, some multinational corporations compensate employeesin developing countries so as to maintain the status quo and substandard levelof living prevalent in those countries. This practice assumes that people indeveloping countries do not need the same level and quality of health care,education, shelter, and nutrition as people in developed countries.

Ethical comportment is, like ethics, itself gendered behavior, dictated bythe social and gender roles inherent in culture (Gilligan, 1984; Jack and Jack,1989; Noddings, 1984; Raugust, 1992; Ruddick, 1989; White, 1994). In theWest, characteristics associated with the feminine, whether in men or women(Jung, 1971) include a primary connection and concern for others in general,and the importance of relationships and inclusion of specific others. Jungsuggested that individuals acknowledge and integrating both the feminineand masculine aspects of human nature within themselves to create a whole-some and balanced individual and society. In the West, aggression, competi-tion, autonomy, vertical dominating power structures, and a goal orientationare associated with masculinity, while nurturance, gentleness, cooperation,and a process orientation are associated with the feminine aspects of be-ing (Eisler, 1987; Ferguson, 1984; Kanter, 1977; Maier, 1992; Miller, 1976;Powell and Butterfield, 1989; Tannen, 1990). Implicitly, aggression, compe-

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tition, autonomy, and hierarchical structures keep people separate, vying forresources,

Decision-making can be a form of ethical comportment, whether at theindividual, small group, or organizational level. A company conveys respectfor employees’ contributions by giving them voice and opportunities for par-ticipation in decisions that directly impact them. The concept of giving voice,of including others in discussion and decision-making, is both a basic ele-ment in participative management and also a primary tenet of the feministwomen’s voice perspective (Calvert and Ramsey, 1992; Fletcher, 1994; Ja-cobson and Jacques, 1990; Ruddick, 1989). In contrast, top-down, unilateraldecision-making communicates paternalism and patriarchy, protecting othersand doing for others presumably less capable. Implicit in giving voice andparticipation is caring and inclusion while hierarchical paternalism excludesmany.

An organization’s structures, systems, and processes represent its’ ethicalintentionsvis a visthe individuals that work within it. Management demon-strates the ethics of care and compassion by having structures and systemsfor workers’ health and safety, autonomy, skill development, and team work.While most businesses emphasize efficiency, productivity, and bottom-lineresults by increasing profits and decreasing costs, including labor, the in-creasing emphasis on technology and automation frequently eliminates jobs(Ferguson, 1984; Korten, 1995; Rifkin, 1995). Companies such as Scott Paperand AT & T that downsize through lay offs while increasing profits and exec-utive compensation might reflect on their intentions and ethical comportmentin relationship to their stakeholders.

Further implications of care and compassion as ethical comportment inorganizations

To practice care and compassion in everyday organizational life, while per-haps natural to some, for many seems difficult if not impossible. In the U.S.workplace it is quite common for persons to find friends and allies, people tohate and fear, like and dislike. While grudges may develop over the unevendistribution of resources and rewards, envy, resentment, and anger can berampant among certain individuals towards others, and throughout parts ofan organization. Instances of harassment, poor treatment, harmful gossip,aggression and even violence is present in the workplace (O’Leary-Kelly,Griffin, and Glew, 1996).

Groups as well as individuals develop identities that are classified in pos-itive or negative tones. Quality control, or the comptroller’s office can beseen as the watchdog or policeperson, and feared. In certain institutions, suchas health care or higher education, the social hierarchy is entrenched and


leads to preferential treatment of the more highly educated professionals,and therefore discriminatory treatment towards certain groups. Physiciansor professors are treated with greater respect and benefits than janitors orsecretaries, while a secretary or janitor’s work is essential for the physician orprofessor to perform his or her job. From fear it is difficult to feel compassionand love. Exploitive working conditions, lock-outs, and discriminatory laborpractices are obvious examples of harmful actions towards others.

Traditional management practices of command and control involving au-thority and decision-making at the top of an organization while responsibilityand sweat remains at the bottom are also forms of harming others throughexclusion and denial. All persons want to be treated with respect and all per-sons bring their head, hands, and heart to the workplace, though they mightbe treated as a pair of hands, exclusively. To treat a person like a part of amachine, a robot, or a pack animal is to deny his or her humanity.

An example of the unfortunate and wasteful cost of top-down, exclu-sionary, unilateral decision-making is a situation in the U.S. involving thecorporate agricultural industry in California’s Salinas Valley. One of the coun-try’s largest growers designed a brocoli trimming machine to be used in thefields by broccoli trimmers,after cutting. Soon after its introduction signif-icant numbers of trimmers developed medical problems in their wrist andforearm, problems associated with carpal tunnel syndrome. Many workersfiled workers’ compensation claims and the company paid medical and vo-cational rehabilitation benefits to disabled workers, originally believing itwas less expensive to provide medical and vocational rehabilitation benefitsthan redesign the trimming machine. This example, along with others includ-ing RJR Nabisco, Imperial Food Products, Thai garment sweatshops in LosAngeles, pesticide use in agriculture, Firestone Brakes, Nike in Indonesiaand Dole in Thailand (1) highlights a corporation’s priority of profits overpeople’s health, safety, and human rights.

5. Implications for management development and practice

At the foundation of both the Buddhist ethic of compassion and the feministethic of care (Table 3) is a sense of self in relation to others, a sense of ‘we’in addition to ‘me’ rather than ‘me’ instead of ‘we.’ Organization membersoften feel a sense of connection with others within their organization, butextended organizational boundaries and an expanded, global set of organi-zational stakeholders suggest a heightened awareness of others and a moreinclusive sense of ‘us.’ Individuals can envision themselves as part of a largerorganizationand a global community rather than as an isolated individualwithin an organization.

124 JUDITH WHITE

Ethical comportment is the enactment of care and compassion by valuingrelationships, speaking truthfully, demonstrating concern for others, intend-ing to be part of the solution rather than part of the problem, and not harmingothers through one’s thoughts, speech, and actions. These, along with at-tentiveness, responsibility, competence, and responsibility discussed below,suggest a shift in intention as well as consciousness, from quantity to qualityof processes and products.

To practice ethical comportment may require training in human relations,in how to treat others with care and kindness, particularly in tough worksituations. Additionally, because of increasing diversity in organizations, acommon standard of care and kindness for all persons is needed. Training in-cludes cultural diversity and relativity in communication, conflict resolution,decision making, problem solving, team building, coaching and supervising.Paradoxically, while organizations are working at an accelerated pace, caringrequires patience. Organizations can reinforce ethical comportment by ex-plicitly stating in their mission, vision, and values the importance of caringand connectedness to others. Employees are to be treated like customers andall other stakeholders, with respect, courtesy, and kindness.

Underlying a change in priorities that includes care, compassion, andmorality, is a shift from an individualistic culture to a more middle-of-the roadposition between individualism and collectivism. While individual rights andfreedom traditionally have been honored and revered, to live more harmo-niously in community requires balancing the needs of the community withthose of the individual. This is the middle way, related to the communitar-ian approach (Etzioni, 1991/92) and involves integrating complex cognitive,affective, perceptual, and behavioral skills (Kolb, 1984).

Ethical comportment in organizations requiressensitivityto the needs ofothers. Ethical comportment consisting of caring and compassion requiresspecific moral qualities and a ‘general habit of mind that should inform allaspects of a practitioner’s moral life’ rather than a set of rules or principles(Tronto, 1993, p. 127). Borrowing from Tronto’s guidelines for care, practic-ing ethical comportment involves four elements: attentiveness, responsibility,competence, and responsiveness.

5.1. Attentiveness

Attentiveness is the recognition of a need to be cared about, of being attentiveto the needs of others instead of succumbing to ‘the temptations to ignoreothers, to shut others out, and to focus our concerns solely upon ourselves’(Tronto, p. 127). Weil describes caring through attention as an absence ofwill, the need to suspend one’s own goals, ambitions, and concerns in orderto recognize and be attentive to others. In Buddhism attention is mindfulness,


being present with full attention to the sensory, cognitive, and affective oc-currences in this moment. To be fully present in the moment, mindful andattentive to another, is caring, kindness, and compassion. Socrates and Humeboth spoke of the importance of a willingness to listen, to be able to suspendone’s own concerns and be attentive to the plight of others.

5.2. Responsibility

Responsibility, or taking care of, fulfills an obligation arising out of a promise,and is ‘embedded in a set of implicit cultural practices, rather than a set offormal rules or series of promises.’ (Tronto, 1993, p. 132). Responsibility canbe based in individual psychology, biology, and political motivation. In thecontext of work one asks what responsibilities does the individual have forthe welfare of others, and what responsibilities are those of the individual,and those of the firm. Gender and socioeconomic status add complexity tothese questions.

The Buddhist ethic of compassion for all living beings implies a prac-tice of taking responsibility for others. To turn one’s back on another inneed is to turn one’s back on a part of oneself, because all persons are con-nected to all other persons, through the sense of spirit, time, history, andbiology. Practicing mindfulness is being responsible and attentive. Organi-zational whistleblowers demonstrate responsibility and care for workers, theenvironment, taxpayers, and consumers.

5.3. Competence

Competence in both providing care and expressing compassion is the thirddimension of ethical comportment. To act competently is to act within one’scapabilities. The intention to care and be compassionate in a competent man-ner is important, while obstacles beyond one’s control may interfere with theprovision of competent care and compassion. In organizations an individualmay intend to be attentive, responsible, and compassionate, but a heavy work-load may impede competent performance. An example is a secretary who,because of the rigidly stratified work structure and heavy workload, has toomany demands and is no longer caring, considerate, or attentive to anyone.The structure impedes caring and compassion.

5.4. Responsiveness

Responsiveness of the organizational actor to the other parties involved isthe fourth dimension of ethical comportment. Both care and compassion mayconcern vulnerability and inequality, a dependence of the one person upon

126 JUDITH WHITE

the other. The manager depends on the secretary for messages, and is vul-nerable to the consequences of how the task is accomplished. The essentialvulnerability and interdependence of all persons is embedded in feminist andBuddhist psychology.

Ethical comportment embodies the essence of the ethic of care with itsrelationship with the other, and the central emphases in Buddhism on com-passion, the interconnection of all living things, not harming others. Togetherthese core values can address the complex problems of an increasingly diverseorganization.

Conclusion

We offer a model ethical comportment, the ethical aspect of everyday in-terpersonal interactions in organizational life, drawing on the similarities ofthe feminist ethic of care and the Buddhist ethic of compassion. We suggestthat individuals and organizations can enact care and compassion in everydayorganizational behavior by focusing on caring for the other, holding generousintentions towards others, maintaining a clear and calm mind, being mindfulnot to harm others, through thoughts, feelings, attention, speech, and actions.This perspective takes both the relative and the absolute into perspective,suggesting concrete ethical behavior within organizations.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express appreciation to several colleagues who as-sisted in the support, development and review of this paper. These includeJack Kornfield, Dave Kolb, Don McCormick, and Nel Noddings.

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Ethical Comportment in Organizations: A Synthesis of The Feminist Ethic of Care and the Buddhist Ethic of Compassion