Europe in Crisis

• World War I

• World War II

• The Cold War

• Post-Cold War Conflicts

Causes of World War One

• Although it was the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand that led to the outbreak of world war one in August 1914, the actual causes of the war were more complicated

– Complicated Alliances– Imperialism– Nationalism– Militarism

Sarajevo and Outbreak of War

• Assassin killed Archduke Francis Ferdinand– (Black Hand) supported by Serbian

government

Germany’s and Austria’s Response

• Germany promised German support on attack on Austria

• July 28- Austria declared war on Serbia– Russia ordered partial mobilization against Austria

• July 30- Austria ordered mobilization against Russia

• Aug 1-3 Germany invaded Luxembourg and Belgium

Triple Entente Response

• Aug 4- Britain declared war and Germany invaded France

Strategies and Stalemate

• Allied superior in numbers and financial resources and command of sea

• Central powers advantages of communication and first attack

New Weapons

• Machine Guns made cavalry redundant

• Later on Tanks -- after 1916 -- they made Trench warfare impossible in later wars.

• Chemical Weapons - Mustard Gas

• New Diseases - Shell Shock

War in the West

• Schlieffen Plan- going around French defenses by going through Belgium and going south and east to crush against German fortresses

• Germany defensive war in east– Schlieffen died and left to Moltke to execute plan

• Hesitant strategy and mistakes led to failure

• France and Britain stopped German in Battle of Marne– Each side dug in behind a wall of trenches with

machine gun nests and artillery

War in the East

• Hindenburg captured/destroyed entire Russian army at Battle of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes

The Home FrontPopular Support:  Most people in the various countries saw the war in

nationalistic/patriotic  terms -- White Feathers (chicken/dove) were given to non-fighting men in Britain

Total War and Economic Mobilization: Mobilizing for total war • Factories • Munitions • Pub hours in England were shortened • Rationing - especially harsh in Germany • Total control of economic and social life to obtain a common goal

strengthened socialist ideals.• Labor shortages brought about benefits for organized labor.

Role of Women • Changes drastically as women entered labor force. • Right to vote was granted after the war to women in Britain and

Germany and Austria.

Breaking the Deadlock

• Winston Churchill proposed to attack Ottoman Empire

• Falkenhayn failed at Verdun• Germans responded to British Blockade with

unrestricted sub warfare– Americans angry after torpedoed Lusitania– Battle of Jutland confirmed British control of sea

• Feb 1- Germany announces unrestricted sub warfare and U.S. breaks diplomatic relations

• Germany had won against Russia, but by 1916 morale had declined,

• The United States entered the war. – The "Lusitania" 1915 1,200 die (inc. 118

Americans)• Altered American public opinion.

– The Zimmerman Telegram – America Enters the War 1917:

• Germany had to act quickly before the US forces built up. – Spring Offensive by Germany -- March  1918

Russia Revolution

• Tsar adjourned Duma and ruled alone– March 1917- Petrograd worker demonstrations

• Tsar abdicated on Mar. 15• Began to organize soviets, councils of workers

and soldiers

• Bolsheviks demanded all political power go to soviets– Coup failure and Lenin fled to Finland, and

Leon Trotsky imprisoned– Trotsky organized coup on Nov.6 and

Bolsheviks ruled Russia

Communist Dictatorship

• Bolshevik gov. decrees that nationalized land turned over to peasant proprietors– Bolsheviks took Russia out of War– Treaty of Brest-Litovsk- treaty with

Germany that Russia lost vast amounts of territory and pay much war reparations

Last Push

• Germany pushed for one last offensive and got no further from Marne

• Prince Max of Baden asked for peace on 14 points

End of the Ottomans

• Ottomans under the “Young Turks” had sided with Germany.

• Russian and British forces defeated the Ottomans– British aided by the Arabs under the control of

Hussein the sherif of Mecca.

• 1920 Peace treaty dismantles the Ottomans, large portions of the empire fell under the control of England and France.

• Turkish nationalists under Ataturk founds the Republic of Turkey in 1923.

Settlement at Paris

The AlliesWoodrow Wilson (1856-1924) • The Fourteen Points Jan 8 1918

– Self Determination - was it a good idea (think of problems with this in Eastern Europe)

Aims of Other Allies • Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)

David Lloyd George (1865-1945, PM 1916-1922)Vittoria Emanuale Orlando, 1860-1952

• Britain: Bowed to public opinion at home, and they wanted reparations.

• France: Wanted the destruction of German Threat and Reparations.

Provisions - The New Europe

Nine new "nation-states":  Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary.

France - gains Alsace-Lorraine

Germany - loses territory

Alsace-Lorraine – Saarland – A lot of Prussia to Poland

Austria-Hungary: An Empire disappears – Austria - a small state – Hungary - (problem - many Hungarians in Transylvania, which

was given to Romania). – Czechoslovakia - the democratic success story -Czechs,

Slovaks, Moravians (Problem - Germans in Sudetenland)

Balkans – Yugoslavia - Serbia grows and gains a little

empire over Croats, Slovenes. Dalmatians, Macedonians, Bosnians, some Hungarians, and Montenegrins (Problem - Albanians.)

Rumania - gains territory – Transylvania + Moldavia + many Hungarians.

Gypsies ignored. Bulgaria

– Loses land to Yugoslavia and Greece

Russia -- loses a lot of land – Finland – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania – Poland – Moldavia to Rumania

Colonies: German colonies are divided up. – Britain gets African lands – Japan gets Asian lands.

Ottoman Empire – Britain and France divided the Middle East. – Britain renegades on promise made to Arabs. – Greece tried to conquer Western Anatolia – The New Turkey, under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk

repulsed and drove out the Greeks

Reparations

• Germany was to pay $5 Billion per year until 1921

• Then a fixed sum which would be paid off over 30 years. – Never paid, and could not be,– Infuriated the Germans.

League of Nations

• A League of Nations to be established to govern later disputes.

• Germany and Russia excluded.

• USA would not join.

• It never worked.

Germany’s Surrender• The War Guilt Clause –

– "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and Germany accepts, the responsibility for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies“

• Germany was not instigator of the War, it was regard as main defeated power. – Not a complete defeat. – Military Defeat not acknowledged by the army. – Military insisted that the Civil Government bears the blame.

• Made things hard for the new postwar government.

• Led to UK and USA really leaving France to enforce the Treaty, - France was  unable to this.

• Versailles settlement managed to set the scene for the next war within 25 years.

World War II

European Theater

Prelude & November 1942-May 1945

Road to War (1933-1939)

• In Germany, economic/social discontent focused on Versailles settlement;

• Adolf Hitler and Nazi Party condemned settlement, Hitler controlled foreign policy

Hitler’s Goals

• Hitler wanted to go beyond Germany’s 1914 boundaries and bring entire German people (the Volk) together as a single nation/racial group –

• new Germany would include parts of Habsburg Empire, Austria, Poland, Ukraine and space to live (Lebensraum) from Slavs, who were inferior

• Hitler had no single plan of attack– improvised/didn’t lose sight of goals

Germany Rearms:

• Hitler 1st wanted to make Germany a military power;

• 1933, Germany withdrew from international• disarmament conference and League of Nations• Jan1934, Germany signed nonaggression pact

with Poland (France’s main mean of containing Germans)

• Mar1935, Hitler formed German air force and conscripted 500K men– Formally renounced disarmament provisions of

Versailles treaty

The League of Nations Fails

• Sept 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria– China appealed to League, – Lytton Report condemned Japan for using

force• Didn’t impose sanctions,• Japan withdrew from League/kept Manchuria

• Hitler announced rearmament, League condemned but didn’t prevent him (they hadn’t disarmed either);

• June 1935 - France and Britain met with Mussolini to form Stresa Front: – short attempt to maintain status quo – Britain violated accords by signing naval

agreement with Hitler to maintain control of seas

– Italy conflicted Western powers through expansionist ambitions in Africa

• (Hitler closer to goals)

Italy attacks Ethiopia

• Oct 1935- Mussolini attacked Ethiopia b/c of border incident– wanted to avenge defeat from 1896– Restore Roman glory and distract public from

domestic issues • France and Britain eager to appease Mussolini• League of Nations condemned aggression• ordered economic sanctions: wavering policy discredited the

League’s security

• Mussolini turned to Germany for a Rome-Berlin Axis

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

• Mar7,1936 Hitler sent small armed force into demilitarized Rhineland– Violated Versailles treaty and voluntary

Locarno Agreements• British opinion wouldn’t support France• France wouldn’t act alone: paralyzed by internal

division/defensive tactics • Allies lost great opportunity to stop Hitler before

he became serious menace;– Response to new German problem was appeasement

based on assumption that Germany had real problems and Hitler was reasonable (Allies did NOT want war)

The Spanish Civil War

• 1931, Spanish monarchy collapsed and became democratic republic– elections in 1936 brought Popular Front govt to power– July 1936, General Francisco Franco led Falangist (Spanish

fascist) from Spanish Morocco against the republic

• Spanish Civil War lasted 3 yrs– Germany/Italy supported Franco– Soviet Union supported republicans– Brought Germany, Italy and Japan together– France, Britain and US still focused on appeasement –

Barcelona fell to Franco in early 1939, fascists controlled almost all of Spain

Austria and Czechoslovakia

• 1934, Nazi Party in Austria assassinated prime minister and tried to seize power– Mussolini suspicious– moved troops to Austrian border– caused coup to fail

• Hitler tried again in 1938 with bullying, threats, propaganda but Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite

• Hitler sent his army in the day before• Mussolini didn’t object• Anschluss (forced union of Germany/Austria) violated

Versailles treaty but West remained passive

• Germany now surrounded democratic Czechoslovakia on 3 sides

• May1938, false rumors of German attack made French, British and Russians voice their support of Czechoslovakia– Forced Hitler to publicly deny any plans

• 1938, Hitler gave provocative speech, causing riots in Sudetenland

• Chamberlain, British prime minister– talked with Hitler– wanted cession of Sudetenland and immediate occupation

Munich• France and Britain prepared for war• Mussolini suggested conference:

– Munich conference gave Hitler almost everything he demanded• Had to promise he had no more territorial demands• Appeasement didn’t work• Poland/Hungary took bits of Czechoslovakia/Slovaks demanded their

own state• Mar15,1939, Hitler occupied Prague/took over

Czechoslovakia/discredited appeasement

• Hitler demanded highway/railroad through Poland and return town of Danzig– France/Britain promised support to Poland– Hitler didn’t take it seriously, started propaganda campaign

The Nazi-Soviet Pact

• Russians feared Western powers would make them bear burden of war vs. Germany;

• Aug 23,1939 Stalin signed non-aggression pact with Hitler – secret provisions would soon divide Poland between

them, allow Russia to occupy Baltic states –

• Sept1, 1939- Germans invaded Poland– 2 days later Britain and France declared war on

Germany: WWII had begun

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Japan and the United States Enter the War

• American govt supported British; assistance would have warranted German war vs. US but US might have not entered war in Atlantic without attack in Pacific

• US policy toward Japan was unfriendly since 1931 conquest of Manchuria

• when Japan occupied Indochina in 1941– US cut off oil supplies

• war faction led by General Hideki Tojo took power/attacked Pearl Harbor– US/Britain declared war on Japan, Germany/Italy

declared war on US

The Tide Turns

• US was ill prepared for war; small army/unready industry:• Japan captured Guam, Wake, and Philippine Islands

– attacked Hong Kong, Malaya, Burma and Dutch East Indies,– poised to invade Australia

• Germans advanced deeper into Russia, – Almost reached oil fields– Deeper into Egypt– subs attacked British: future looked bleak

• Tide turned: – battle in Coral Sea secured Australia, – battle off Midway Island secured Hawaii – US/Britain still suspicious of Soviet Union

Allied Landings in Africa, Sicily, and Italy:

• Allied force took over Mediterranean in 1942;

• 1943, Allies took Sicily– Mussolini driven from power– Germans occupied Italy– Need to defend Italy diverted Germans’

energy

Battle of Stalingrad:

• Hitler attacked Stalingrad on the way to oil fields, but after a huge battle, an entire German army defeated(many Russians died) – afterwards, Russians advanced west as German’s resources dwindled

Strategic Bombing

• 1943, US industrial might came to full force, reduced submarine menace, took over the skies by 1945, extensive bombing

The Defeat of Nazi Germany

• June 6,1944(D-Day) American/British/Canadian troops landed on coast of Normandy; by beginning of Sept, France had been liberated

• The Battle of the Bulge: last gasp for Germans in the West, resistance rapidly crumbled

• The Capture of Berlin: In the East, Russian swept forward; Hitler committed suicide; Russians occupied Berlin by 1945: Third Reich was over

Fall of the Japanese Empire

• End was in sight for Japan; US industry/population would overpower them

• Americans Recapture the Pacific Islands: US began “island-hopping” selected major bases/strategic supply line sites; in 1945, Iwo Jima/Okinawa fell; still, Japanese govt, run by military clique, refused to surrender

• The Atomic Bomb: Aug 6,1945, US plane destroyed Hiroshima; 2 days later, Soviet Union declared war on Japan in Manchuria; next day, Nagasaki destroyed; Emperor Hirohito intervened, forced govt surrender

The Cold War Era

Emergence of the Cold War

• Initially blamed on the tensions created by Roosevelt/Truman, Churchill and Stalin at the end of WWII

• Disagreements between Allies over previous agreements– Russia wanting permanent control over

Poland and Romania– US over German reparations to Russia

US Inaction

• US took no action to stop Soviets at the end of WWII – Reflected US peacetime plans and goals

• Self determination• Autonomy• Democracy• Open Door Policy regarding economics

– US Goals did create tension with the UK and France, but mostly the USSR

• France saw rise of large Communist groups

Soviet Perspective

– Extending borders would give extra protection– Compensation for losses in WWII– Saw American resistance as a threat to their goals

• Feb 1946- Stalin and Molotov publicly declared the Western Democracies-enemies– Churchill responded with “Iron Curtain” speech

• Warned against Communist threat• Urged unity in the West

Containment

1947- American policy of resisting the expansion of Soviet influence

• Hope that the Soviet system would collapse

– Forced America into overseas alliances• Supported anti-communist governments• Expend funds on military• Foreign Aid

– Truman Doctrine• Support free peoples resisting communism

– Funds to support Greece and Turkey

Marshall Plan

• Economic Aid plan to rebuild Western Europe– Created by George C Marshall– Only requirement to work together for

mutual benefit• Invited the USSR and other communist

governments• Finland, Czechoslovakia- willing to join• Poland, Hungary interested- USSR forbid them

Soviet Domination

• Soviets wanted control over E. Europe due to historical and ideological reasons– Napoleon and Crimean Wars– WWI and WWII

• Tsars – controlled Poland until 19th century– Crushed the Hungarian revolution in 1849– Long history of desiring the Black sea region

Stalin – Post WWII• 1947- International meeting of all communist parties

– Formed the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) • Dedicated to spreading Communism world wide• Officially ended cooperation with noncommunist parties

• February 1948- Stalin expelled Democratic members of Hungary’s government– Included Jan Masaryk- son of Czech founder– President Benes forced to resign– Hungary completely controlled by Soviets

• Required other E. Europe countries to follow– Caused by Josip Tito freeing Yugoslavia from the Soviets – Stalin wanted to stop other countries from following

Post-War Germany

• West and Soviets differed on postwar treatment and economic policy– Russia dismantled German industry in the

East– Americans rebuilt industry in the West

• Didn’t want to economically support Germany• No rebuild- chaos and communism

– Soviets feared a strong Germany

Berlin Blockade• Feb 1948- Soviets left joint Allied Control Commission• Summer 1948- Allies issue new currency in western

Berlin– Stronger than East German currency

• Soviets seal off city access– Intent- drive Allies out of Berlin– US responded with 11 month airlift of supplies into Berlin

• Incident increased tensions– Sped up official separation of Germany

• West- German Federal Republic• East- German Democratic Republic• Berlin remained split between two sides

NATO and Warsaw Pact

• Marshall plan drew nations closer together– April 1949- Western Europe, Canada, and US

formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization• Mutual assistance organization• US committed to defend allies outside of Western

Hemisphere

– 1949 Soviets and Eastern Europe• Form Council of Mutual Assistance (COMECON)-

integrate economies

– May 1955- Warsaw Pact• Formal recognition of Soviet control of Eastern Europe• Dominated by Red Army

Creation of Israel• Middle East became hot spot during the Cold War

– Controlled by Great Britain after WWI– Zionist groups

• Originally created by Theodor Herzl

– Arab Nationalists challenged British authorities

• Balfour Declaration– 1917- Arthur Balfour declared Britain favored creating a

nation for Jews in Palestine– Between WWI- WWII- Jews immigrated to British-ruled

Palestine• (Yishuv)

– Created its own political, labor and education system

• Arabs considered Jews intruders

– WWII and the Holocaust- united Jews behind the Zionist cause

Israel- U.N and Independence• 1947- U.N. inherited Israel problem from the British

– Divided Palestine- Jewish and Arab states– Arab states resisted

• May 1948– British withdrew from Palestine– May 14- Israel declares independence

• David Ben Gurion made first P.M.

– Arab states invade

• 1948-49: Fighting between Arab-Israel– Israel expanded territory– Jerusalem divided– Peace = Armed Truce

• Conflict drew in Superpowers– US made Israel ally– Soviets supported Arab nations

Korean War• 1910-1945: Korea controlled by Japan

– US and USSR divided Korea at 38th parallel, but eventually would be united

• 1948- Two separate states– Democratic People’s Republic- Supported by USSR– Republic supported by US

• June 1950: N. Korea invades S. Korea– US intervened, U.N sent other nations (Soviets boycotted

the UN during the key vote)• Seen as another attempt at containment

• Late 1950- Chinese sent troops to support N. Korea– US retreated– US saw Chinese as Soviet controlled, not independent

nation (1949- China became communist under Mao Tse Tung)

• June 1953- Eisenhower administration – Signed Armistice- ended fighting, not war

Shifting Times

• 1953- Stalin dies, replaced by Nikita Khrushchev

• 1955- Soviets leave Austria- Austria declares neutrality

Premier Nikita Premier Nikita KhrushchevKhrushchev

About the capitalist About the capitalist states, it doesn't states, it doesn't depend on you depend on you whether we whether we (Soviet Union) exist.(Soviet Union) exist.If you don't like us, If you don't like us, don't accept our don't accept our invitations, and don'tinvitations, and don'tinvite us to come invite us to come to see you. Whether to see you. Whether you like it our not, history is on you like it our not, history is on our side. our side. We will bury youWe will bury you. -- . -- 19561956

De-Stalinization De-Stalinization ProgramProgram

Khrushchev Domestic Policies• 1953-64- retreat from Stalinism

– Wanted to reform Soviet system– Intellectuals freer

• Solzhenitsyn (One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich)

– Reformed economy• More consumer goods, • Removed restrictions on agriculture

– Reforms caused grain shortage

• 1956- Secret Speech– Attacked policies of Stalin and the crimes of

purges– Started to remove Stalinist officials– Seen by E.European leaders as easing of

restrictions

The Three Crisis of 1956

1. The Suez Canal– Controlled by a French-British Company– Egypt Nationalizes the Canal– Egypt and Israel Go to war– U.K. and France use war as an opportunity to

occupy canal. – USSR vehemently opposes action– US refuses to support Allies– British and French have to withdraw– Proof that US and USSR control international

politics.– United Nations Introduces “Peace Keepers”

The Suez Crisis: 1956-The Suez Crisis: 1956-19571957

2. Poland Strives for Independence 1956

• Puppet Prime Minister Dies• Lack of consumer goods lead to uprisings• Poland refuses to ascend Soviet nominee• Poland elect their own candidate, Gomulka• Soviets approve after Gomulka agrees to

cooperate with USSR• Maintained military alliances but modifies

economic policy• Improves Relationship with R.C.C.• Russia mobilizes troops at the boarder but

Gomulka reassures Khrushchev of his good intentions

Hungarian Uprising 1956

• Gomulkan Reforms Spread to Hungary• Student Demonstration in Budapest

escalates into revolution• Imre Nagy put in power, wants more

independence for Hungary• Soviets invade and execute Nagy

• The USSR and USA are the Hegemonic powers of the world.

The Hungarian Uprising: The Hungarian Uprising: Cont.Cont.

Imre Nagy, Imre Nagy, HungarianHungarian

Prime MinisterPrime Minister} Promised free Promised free

elections.elections.

} This could lead to This could lead to the end of the end of communist rule in communist rule in Hungary.Hungary.

Space Race

• United States and The Soviet Union compete to explore space– Origins in Military Rockets (German V2)– The ability to deliver Nuclear Warheads

drive the race (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles) ICBM

– Also opportunity for espionage

• Russians take the early Lead

Sputnik I (1957)Sputnik I (1957)

The Russians have beaten America The Russians have beaten America in space—they have the in space—they have the

technological edge!technological edge!

Nixon-KhrushchevNixon-Khrushchev“Kitchen Debate”“Kitchen Debate”

(1959)(1959)

Cold War ---> Cold War --->

TensionsTensions

<--- Technology <--- Technology

& Affluence & Affluence

1959

• Cuba falls to Communism– Rebels under Fidel Castro overthrew

Batista’s government – Seen as a failure in containment of

Communism

U-2 Spy Incident (1960)U-2 Spy Incident (1960)

Col. Francis Gary Col. Francis Gary Powers’ plane was Powers’ plane was

shot down over shot down over Soviet airspace.Soviet airspace.

Thwarts 1960 Paris Conference between Eisenhower and Khrushchev

Demonstration of Soviet Revolutionary Zeal

Socialist revolution is being split between China and USSR.

Vienna, 1961Vienna, 1961

Khrushchev & JFK meet to discuss Berlin Khrushchev & JFK meet to discuss Berlin and nuclear proliferation. Khrushchev and nuclear proliferation. Khrushchev

thinks that JFK is young, inexperienced, thinks that JFK is young, inexperienced, and can be rolled.and can be rolled.

The Berlin Wall Goes Up The Berlin Wall Goes Up (1961)(1961)

CheckpoinCheckpointt

CharlieCharlie

Goal: Stop the Goal: Stop the Refugee Crisis From Refugee Crisis From East to WestEast to West

Berlin Wall

• East Germany built wall to keep E. German refugees from escaping into W. Berlin.

Ich bin ein Ich bin ein Berliner!Berliner!

(1963)(1963)

President President Kennedy tells Kennedy tells Berliners that Berliners that

the West is the West is with them!with them!

Cuban Missile Crisis• 1962- Soviets secretly began placing missiles

in Cuba– Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded missiles

removed• Closest two nations came to nuclear war• Soviets backed down

– Undermined Khrushchev’s administration

• Increased China’s status among other Communist countries

• Last major Cold War threat to Europe

• 1963- US and Soviets sign nuclear test ban treaty

Cold War: Brezhnev and Gorbachev

• Supreme Soviet from 1964-1982• Invasion of Czechoslovakia 1968

– Remembered as the Prague Spring– Dubcek experiments with liberal

communism– USSR and allies invade an promote the

pro-Moscow Husak– He reversed all of Ducek’s reforms

• The Brezhnev Doctrine: USSR will intervene in all communist countries in the name of preserving the revolution

• Brezhnev Stagnation: Economic Recession, Ignored

US Soviet Relations: Détente 1964-1980

• Brezhnev attempts to reach out to Americans, while promoting socialist expansion

• Period characterized by a reduction in arms and the understanding of spheres of influence

• Helsinki Accords: Supported by NATO, recognized Human Rights

• USSR and US continue to promote their agendas around the world

• Arms Race Continues• USSR has largest military force in the world, and

nuclear parity with the US• Relations deteriorate after USSR invades

Afghanistan.• US Boycotts Soviet Olympics(1980), provides aid

and arms to the Taliban.

Poland and Solidarity• Country suffered under Soviets

– Food shortages– Economic mismanagement

• 1978- Pope John Paul II- advocate of Polish resistance, • 1980- Food prices raised

– Causes strikes

• August 14- Shipyard strike in Gdansk– Led by Lech Walesa, strikers refused to negotiate

• Wanted independent union (Solidarity)• By Sept- Head of Communist party replaced

– Solidarity made independent

• 1981- Secret elections allowed with real choices for party congress, allowed debate– New freedoms crushed by General Wojciech Jaruzelski

• Martial law declared- until 1983• Solidarity leaders arrested

Reagan and Gorbachev• Reagan puts pressure on the Soviets• Increases defense spending and

develops “Star Wars”• Communist economic problems plague

the eastern bloc (Poland)• Gorbachev and Perestroika

– Attempt at Economic Revival– Glasnost: A Communist Debate– Easing of political and economic restrictions– 1989 New Constitution and Elections– Gorbachev’s economic policies fail but he

opens the door for future democracy. – Brandenburg Gate Speech

Decolonization: the achievement of independence by the various western colonies and protectorates in Asia and Africa following World War II.

• European Empires Post WWII

India • British had controlled India directly since 1858

– Required Indians to pay for British rule– Indian cotton went to British textile mills, to be sold

back to India– Caused widespread Indian migration to other parts

of the British Empire

• 1885- Indian National Congress (Hindu)– Goals- modernize India, liberalize British policy

• 1887- Muslim League– Wanted independent Muslim nation

• Indian nationalism grew after WWI

Indian Nationalism

• Primary Indian Nationalist leader-– Mahatma Gandhi

• Trained in British law• Advocated passive resistance – influenced MLK Jr.

• 1920s-40s- Nationalist movement grew– Protest marches– Fasting by Gandhi

• 1942: Gandhi calls for British to leave• 1947- British decide to leave

– Created India and Muslim Pakistan• Pakistan led by Muhammed Ali Jinnah

– Two parts- Pakistan and East Pakistan (Bangladesh)

• Caused religious violence– Gandhi assassinated

British Empire shrinks• Costs of Empire too high• Wanted to create self-government in former

colonies– 1948- Burma and Sri Lanka became independent– 1950s- British prepared African colonies for

independence• Ghana first• Some peaceful withdrawals, others under nationalist

pressure– Cyprus, Kenya and Yemen

Independence of the Developing World

France and Algeria• France in Algeria since 1830 under Charles X

– 1848- made part of France– Thousands of French settled in Algeria– Government rigged to give French settlers as much power

as natives• WWI- France gives Algerians full citizenship• WWII- Free France controlled Algeria

– Bloody riot at the end of the war,led France to repress Muslims– Seen as Algerian “Bloody Sunday” – Start of pro-Algerian independence movement

• After WWII– France attempted to give more representation to Muslims

• 1954- National Liberation Front founded– Fighting and civil war broke out until 1962– Divided France

De Gaulle and Algeria• 1958 – De Gaulle becomes President

– End of 4th Republic– New constitution– Start of 5th Republic

• Started retreat from Algeria– Long process, lots of violence

• 1962- Algeria becomes independent– FLN takes over- led by Mohammed Ben Bella

• French settlers and Pro-French Muslims fled Algeria– Those who stayed- massacred

Vietnam War: 1965-1973Vietnam War: 1965-1973

Vietnam War 1959-1973

• French– Second Indochina War– Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Communist)

v. Republic of Vietnam (US Supported)– French ask for US support in finance and

small arms– French are defeated at the Battle of Dien Bien

Phu.– As part of the Geneva Convention, Laos

Cambodia and Vietnam are given independence.

– Vietnam was partitioned temporarily at the 17th parallel .

– Political turmoil ensues

Vietnam War: Cont.

• The Domino Theory• The pro-western regimes of Laos and

Cambodia align with communist movement.• US pledges aid to Diem and South Vietnam• Later fell in a coup, and was executed• Political chaos follows• Kennedy increases “advisors” from 800 to

16,000• Throughout the 60’s the crisis escalates• Only was America has ever lost.• To Be Continued if time allows!

Legacy of Decolonization

• Extreme Poverty• Political instability• Civil War• Famine• Poverty• Disease• Regions with

natural wealth but human poverty.

The End of The Cold War: Revolutions in Eastern Europe• Poland:

– The Elections of 1989 end the dominance of the Communist Party

– Gorbachev approves the Solidarity Parties nominee

• Hungary: 1989, opened its border with Austria – Mass exodus of East Germans– Democratic elections by October

• Romania: 1989 Violent Revolution• Gorbachev Renounces the Brezhnev

Doctrine

The Day the Wall Came Down

• Popular Movements in East Germany call for unification

• Protests and demonstrators force the communist government to step down.

• In November of 1989, West and East Germans embrace and begin the long hard struggle of tearing down the political, social and economic wall that was the greatest symbol of the cold war

The Fall of the USSR• Gorbachev recognizes the need for reform• Eliminates the Single Party State• Republics wage a “War of Laws”• Gorbachev allies with the conservatives,

Bad Move!• August 1991 the Conservatives attempt a

coup and place Gorbachev under house arrest.

• The People Speak: the largest protest in the History of Russia, The Communist Party disintegrates

• Yeltsin gains favor• December 1991, under a revised

constitution the Soviet Union ceases to exist: The Cold War is Over!

Yeltsin and Putin• Yeltsin- First president of Russia

– Opposed by Parliament• 1993 -He suspended it

– Parliament tried to lead uprisings– Military supported Yeltsin

• Oct 4 1993- Yeltsin ordered tanks to stop rioters- established his authority

– West supported him

• December 1993- New constitution• 1994- War with Islamic province of Chechnya

• 1990s – Process of dismantling Soviet economy and government– Created small groups of very rich individuals

• 1998- Yeltsin replaced by Vladimir Putin– Renewed war on Chechnya– Supported US in Afghanistan in 2001– Has sought to regain central control over independent states

End of Yugoslavia• Created after WWI as a multi-ethnic nation• Controlled by Josif Tito from 1940s to 1980

– Dictator, cult of personality– After death, country fell into civil war

• 1980s- Ethnic tensions erupted– Milosevic- Serbian leader– Tudjman- Croatian leader– Both nations declared independence in 1990

• Ethnic violence increased, especially over Bosnia-Hezegovina – Serbs practiced “ethnic cleansing”

• 1995- NATO forces carried out air strikes to end the war– Bosnia declared independent

• 1999- NATO sent in troops to protect Kosovo to protect ethnic Albanians

• 2000- Milosevic overthrown and arrested

Radical Political Islam• Sept 11 2001- Terrorist Attack

– Beginning of “War on Terror” by US

– Radical Islam- Interpretation of Islam with a radical anti-Western perspective

Arab Nationalism• Add your own notes

– What is Arab Nationalism?– Where did it begin?– Who supports it now?

Iranian Revolution and Afghanistan

• Group Notes in Class- In Theory