EV Contrastive Approach

EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup

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Syntax as a Level of Linguistic Analysis

Introduction definition: Syntax is a level of linguistics analysis which deals with combination of phrases, clauses

and sentences

approaches to syntax: a) Structuralist approach (description) b) Generative approach

other levels (mutual dependence) syntax-phonology: influence on stress

syntax-morphology: influence on inflections; in English, syntax is now described in more details

which was not the case during the history

Main part

units (phrases, clauses, sentences)

phrase-clause: phrase does not have the relation of predication

tests: substitution, movement

syntactic functions (S, Pred, Cs/Co)

semantic roles and syntactic functions (agent, experiencer, theme)

syntactic ambiguities e.g. She made [a good model]. O/Cs

Conclusion

sum up


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Contrastive Studies (CS)

definition: Contrastive studies is comparison of languages (A and B) whose goal is to establish

similarities and differences between these two languages which can be illustrated through

translation and interpretation.

translation is sometimes not done consciously and is usually not systematic e.g. 1 Where was he last night?

They asked me where he had been last night.

2 Gde je on bio prole noi?

Pitali su me gde je on bio prole noi.

Contrastive studies should be systematic, scientific comparison.

3 basic areas in CS:

a) Contrastive analysis (CA)

b) Translation theory: trying to find translation equivalence from language A to language B

c) Error analysis: in teaching; not most common errors

shifting of tenses: Past Perfect in English

word order in indirect questions: Aux precedes S in English


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Contrastive Analysis (CA)

CS vs. CA: CA is procedure (technique) in CS while CS is a more general term phases in CA:

a) collection of data: corpus of examples made by the surveys, by finding translation of a text in

language A to language B and analyzing word order, tenses, etc.

b) description of corpus: examples, structures of these examples, frequency of structures

c) comparison of two languages

d) formation of contrasts

more detailed description of these phases: a) collecting data

b) establishing comparability criterion: we define one feature to analyse

c) defining the nature of similarity and formulating the initial hypothesis

e.g. what is used in Serbian for something that is said in Present Perfect

d) testing of the hypothesis

e) revised hypothesis

CA can also be denoted by parallel description, interlingual comparison or analytical comparison.

Contrastive linguistics vs. Comparative linguistics

in both cases we have comparison and description but in case of comparative linguistics there is diachronic comparison (we compare historical development) while in the case of contrastive

linguistics we have synchronic comparisons (we compare modern languages)

CA-Directional

we compare from language A to language B (AB)

we can have one or opposite direction

Contrastive analysis vs. Confrontative analysis

confrontative analysis compares everything while contrastive analysis deals with differences only

some linguists use CA for both similarities and differences

CA as Pedagogical Tool (Teaching)

hypothesis: linguistic difference = learning/teaching difficulty?

it is not the case anymore

Phases in the development if CA 1. Traditional phase (19

th c. - WW2)

the initial phase

linguists simply did comparisons between e.g. German and English, French and English and compare sound systems, etc.

Leonard Bloomfield (USA linguist, 1930s): supported CA

Prague School: supported CA

Benjamin Lee Whorf: coined the term Contrastive Linguistics in his article from 1941 and compared

it with Comparative Linguistics


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2. Classical phase (WW2-c.1965)

CA was fully established and recognized as scientific discipline

different kinds of comparisons

successfully applied in teaching and translation Charles Fries (Teaching and Learning Language as a Foreign Language, 1945):

the most effective materialsbased on scientific description and carefully compared with the description of the native language

Uriel Weinreich (Languages in Contrast, 1954): introduced the term interference (something that influences learning of foreign language)

Robert Lado (Linguistics across Culture, 1957): established the CA while Whorf only coined the

term

3. Modern phase (c.1965-today)

conferences in 1968, 1971 etc. and projects on CA

development of theoretical framework

project The Yugoslav Contrastive Project ed. by R.Filipovi (Zagreb, 1969-1976 and later)

Compatibility, Tertium Comparationis

we start from comparison of languages A and B and we also think about (one) general feature(s) which we want to compare systematically

something like the 3rd member in a comparison of language A and language B tense/articles/animacy

A B

Equivalence vs. Correspondence

in these languages, A and B, we have both formal and semantic similarities equivalence

in these languages we have one form in language A and different form in language B for the same meaning correspondence

e.g. 1 Do you drive? No.

Da li vozite? Ne.

2 Present Perfect (English) preterit (Serbian)

present (Serbian)

language A: source language

language B: target language

equivalence

correspondence


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Relations Convergent relation is the situation when we have 2 or more items in language A that

corresponds one item in language B in the same segment of reality.

e.g. 1

2

Divergent relation is the situation when we start from 1 item in language A and relate it to several

items in language B, in the same segment of reality.

e.g. 1 at (P)

2

1 to 1 relation

1 word in language A and 1 in language B e.g.

A (English) B (Serbian)

earth land

soil

ground country

zemlja

A (Serbian) B (English)

ujak stric

tea uncle


Shes good at driving. Hes at home. They are at seaside.

at someones expense at all costs at the steering wheel

Ona je dobar voza. (zero) Ona je kod kue. Oni su na moru.

o neijem troku po svaku cenu za volanom


me mene meni

mnom


I have brought by bag. Doneo sam svoju/*moju torbu.


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Partial correspondence

partial because while translating some parts of the original language are lost e.g. 1

Zero relation

no equivalent in language B in the form of one lexeme e.g.

Strong and weak versions of CA in foreign language teaching Strong (1950s, 1960s)

systematic comparison between languages A and B at all levels (pronunciation, meaning etc.)

we should be able to predict the difficulties in teaching or learning foreign language

linguistically different = difficult

unrealistic because of psychological reasons: motivation of the group, linguistic competence/previous knowledge,

intellectual abilities

linguistic reasons

a) interference: influence of native language

b) intrusion: influence of foreign language, wrong analogy e.g. *buyed, avoiding similarities

Weak

much simpler than strong

comparison may help to observe possible difficulties in teaching e.g.


They have arrived. They arrived.

Stigli su. /

A (Serbian) B (English)

apsolvent /


// sat /


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Verb as a Part of Speech

Oldest definitions a) Aristotle: rhema is a verbal element in a clause (anoma is the nominal element) which indicates a time reference and represents the predicate b) Dionysius Thrax: rhema (verb): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone c) Verro: a class with tense inflection d) Prescian: verbum (verb): the property of verb is to indicate an action or being acted on; it has tense and mood forms, but is not case inflected

Criteria and approaches to these definitions a) Aristotle used criterion of function of the verb in a clause (predicate) and of meaning using tense

b) Dionysius Thrax used criterion of form (morphology) and of meaning

c) Verro also used criterion of form (morphology) and of meaning

d) Prescian used criterion of meaning

This means that we can have formal, functional and semantic criterion or definition of a verb.

1. Formal criterion or definition of a verb

in English: morphology (inflections and word-formation) -s, -ed, -en, -ing; to infinitive Positive sides: explicit, we specifically indicate which infinitive

Negative sides: a) irregularities e.g. *be + -s/-ed

b) modal verbs e.g. *can + -s/-ed/-ing

2. Functional criterion or definition of a verb

verb is the main part of the predicate, predicator (Adj and N could be parts of predicate)

it depends on a verb whether we have one kind of predicate

frames: a) The man is pale. copula/Cs b) The man brought the book. Vt

c) The man ran quickly. Vi

Negative sides: we can use Aux with lexical verbs but they cannot be the main part of a predicate so

Aux are excluded from this definition

3. Semantic criterion or definition of a verb

the meaning of the verb

a verb is a part of speech that denotes activities, processes and states

less explicit than the formal definition because not everybody would realize what an activity, process or state is

Negative sides: a) Aux dont denote action, process or state but they have grammatical meaning, not lexical

b) possible polisemy: the same verb would or might denote activity and state

e.g. They think that Tom is cleaver. state

They are thinking about having a coffee. activity

General definition of a verb

Verb is a part of speech which has inflections for tense, person and number and possibly mood and voice.


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Conclusion about the definitions

we actually need a combination of all Verb is a part of speech which is inflected for tense, person, number and possibly mood and

voice, has the function of a predicate in a clause and denotes an activity, process or state.


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Morphology of the English Verb

Inflection

4 suffixes and no inflectional prefixes and irregularities

4 suffixes: -s: Present Simple 3rd p.sg.

-ing: Present Participle, Progressive Aspect (with be)

ambiguity: e.g. His paintings are very expensive. derivational inflection -ing

-ed: Past Simple

-en: Past Participle, Passive, Present/Past/Future Perfect

Finite and non-finite verb forms

tense, person and number finite

participles and infinitives non-finite Regular verbs

5 deferent forms e.g. to walk, walk, walks, walking, walked

Irregular verbs

4 or 6 different forms e.g. put (4): to put, put, puts, putting

take (6): to take, take, takes, took, taking, taken

Aux and irregularities

9 different forms e.g. to be

idiosyncratic: not formed regularly by adding suffixes e.g. * be + -s bes

Aux and non-finite forms

Be

e.g. He is being examined by the doctor. aux (Present Participle)

She has been examined by the doctor. aux (Past Participle)

He will be working. aux (Bear Infinitive)

They seem to be working. aux (To Infinitive)

You are being silly. Vlex/copula

be as an Aux has all non-finite forms Have

e.g. Having done that, she left. aux (Present Participle)

He seems to have done it. aux (To Infinitive)

She will have done it. aux (Bear Infinitive)

They had had lunch. aux (Past Simple, finite form)

They have had much. Vlex

Aux doesnt have Ven but lexical verb does


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Do

doesnt have any as Aux e.g. They are doing their homework. Vlex

She has done her homework.

DO-operator: we dont really use non-finite forms Weak forms

in an unstressed position syllabic: has to have a syllable or i.e. a vowel

non-syllabic: doesnt have a syllable or i.e. a vowel Strong Weak

am m m,s / m,s

is z s,z

have hv v,v

shall l l ,l

Word formation

different morphological processes e.g. blending, derivation

Simple and Complex Verb Structure simple: 1 clause, 1 predication, 1 Vlex (+Aux)

e.g. have done, could have visited

complex: 2 or more Vlex with subordination, predication, clause

e.g. [Helen wanted][to see the results]. non-finite clause

Tests:

1. TNP (Time marking, Negation, Passivization) Tests

a) Time marking

there should be a possibility for each Vlex to be marked by time e.g. 1 Ben seems to have seen Kate. 2 Vlex: seems: -s for time

have (Aux): time-marking (have seen precedes seems)

2 Lin intended to visit them the next day. 2 Vlex: intended: -ed for tense

to visit: have (Aux) is not possible

3 Tom wants to see the results. 2 Vlex: wants: -s for tense

to see: have (Aux) is not possible

There are 2 ways to mark time: tense suffixes and have (Aux) if the other Vlex is preceding.

b) Negation

Vlex cant be negated in all clauses e.g. 1 Nora doesnt like that book. theoretically possible with some modals

2 Brian prefers not to answer them.

3 Brian doesnt prefer to answer them.

4 Laura doesnt prefer not to go there. theoretically possible; grammatical because we have 2

negations in 2 clauses

5 ? Bill cant not see them. both possible and not possible; 2 negations with one Vlex; with

modal+Vlex 2 negations are theoretically possible

c) Passivization


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voice neutrality: when active and passive sentenced have the same factual meaning; we can change

the emphasis but not the factual meaning

e.g. 1 Bill has seen Mary.

Mary has been seen by Bill.

2 Kate is writing a book.

A book is being written by Kate.

3 Bill wants to meet Mary. Vlex+Vlex n-f

*Mary is wanted to meet by Bill.

Mary wants to be met by Bill. passivization of subordinate clause

Bill wants to be met by Mary.

Bill wont meet Mary. modal Vlex (simple structure)

Mary wont be met by Bill.

When we passivize, we cannot skip Vlex, we have to pay attention to ?

future (voice netruality)

will

volition (no voice neutrality)

2. Subject and Complex Verb Structure

simple: Aux + Vlex

complex: Vlex + Vlex n-f

e.g. The water runs down the street.

The water is running down the street.

The water may run down the street.

Aux can be inserted without any influence on the S.

The water intended to run down the street.

Insertion of Vlex influences the S semantically so it is semantically incompatible.

The water kept running down the street.


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Classification of Verbs

different criteria for classification monomorphemic (Vlex)

a) linking or copulative

b) non-linking (direct/indirect)

syntactic because has something to do with the structure semantic

Aux and Vlex

criteria: syntax and meaning

meaning: Vlex have lexical or referential meaning; they denote concepts from the physical world and Aux have grammatical meaning

Syntactic Behaviour (NICE properties) 1. Negation

we can attach not to the Aux but not to Vlex copula be (exception)

e.g. He isnt a teacher

Infinitival clause

e.g. I prefer not to ask him.

infinitives are negated by not Negative and semi-negative adverbials

e.g. They never stayed long.

We seldom went that far.

2. Inversion

placement of Aux in front of NP in questions Discontinuous VP in questions

we have something in between e.g. Are they leaving?

May he go?

*Works he? Vlex cant be placed in front of NP

Aux cant be placed in questions, Vlex can Non-interrogative inversion (NII)

not in questions

2 types: a) with Vlex

e.g. [Into the room] walked the president. place adverbial

[In the corner] stood an armchair. place adverbial

in literature, not in everyday conversation

usually used with verbs of position and movement

with Present or Past Simple


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b) with Aux

e.g. Seldom have they seen such a sight.

Rarely have I been treated like that.

caused by negative adverbials which come in initial position such as hardly (ever), not often, at no time, not till, not one (word) etc.

e.g. Not a single word did he say for an hour.

In no way am I responsible for that.

Only on very rare occasions does he give you a word of praise.

adverbials e.g. Through the fog loomed an eerie castle.

Away went the coach and horse.

Up went a mountain of luggage onto the racks.

Exercise:

1. In non of his books Dickens (show) grater understanding of human heart than in Bleak House.

2. Not a soul (meet) as I walked there.

3. The pirate ship lay far out.

4. I wouldnt offend you on no account.

5. The car sped round the corner.

6. The children scrambled into the coach.

7. A pheasant rose out of the bushwood.

3. Code

avoiding the repetition of Vlex

instead, we use Aux in code, not to repeat Vlex, in specific contexts e.g. I can visit the and so can she. so is context

You saw them as did we. as is context

Yes, I did. in answer

Yes, you may.

Helen knows where Russell is, but Peter doesnt.

we can use Aux but not Vlex

4. Emphatic affirmation

emphasis

not fully reliable test because sometimes Vlex can also be used for emphasis e.g. You must see that film.

I do like it.


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uses:

a) emphatic affirmation of doubtful statements

b) denial of negative

e.g. 1 Im not sure we can get there on time. doubtful statement

We can get there on time.

2 I dont want to go there.

You must go there. denial of negative

we use both Aux and Vlex for emphasis c) question tags

only Aux, not Vlex e.g. *They play tennis, playnt they?

similar to code because we dont repeat Vlex e.g. They have never tried, have they?


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Primary and Secondary Auxiliaries

primary: be, have, do

secondary: modals

differences: a) semantic: primary have meaning, while secondary have modality (no Vlex except for need and

dare)

b) morphosyntactic: modals dont have infinitives, -s and finite forms while primary Aux can be

used as Vlex

on the basis of this division we can create a paradigm of the English VP primary paradigm: combination of primary Aux and Vlex

secondary paradigm: combination of secondary Aux and Vlex

Primary Paradigm

positive declarative only, 3rd p. sg.

only be and have, not do

modal meaning is not included e.g. He is to arrive tomorrow.

Active

1. takes / / /

2. took / / /

3. is / talking /

4. was / talking /

5. has taken / /

6. had taken / /

7. has been taking /

8. had been taking /

Passive

9. is / / taken

10. was / / taken

11. is / being taken

12. was / being taken

13. has been / taken

14. had been / taken

15. has been being taken (?)

16. had been being taken (?)


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Secondary Paradigm Active

1. will take / / /

2. would take / / /

3. will be / taking /

4. would be / taking /

5. will have taken / /

6. would have taken / /

7. will have been taking /

8. would have been taking /

Passive

9. will be / / taken

10. would be / / taken

11. will be / being taken

12. would be / being taken

13. will have been / taken

14. would have been / taken

15. will have been being taken (?)

16. would have been being taken (?)

for some Aux e.g. must, we dont have all 16 forms because they dont have past forms

with can and could, could is not always used for past


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Lexical Verbs

syntactic criteria (structures in which they occur):

a) linking or copulas e.g. appear, look, become, prove, feel

b) non-linking: Vt and Vi

complementation (Cs and Co) semantic criteria

a) dynamic

b) stative

Criteria: 1. change or development, segments

2. internal and external velocity, input of energy

3. 3 basic phases: initial stage, process or development, final stage or end

to initiate a state, we need some input of energy e.g. buy a house DYN, input of energy

to own a house ST, no input of energy

velocity can be:

a) external (the flow of time)

b) internal (inside the situation)

DYN: external and internal velocity which dont have to be the same ST: external is the same as internal

only DYN have these 3 phases but not all DYN have all 3 stages e.g. jump momentary verb (not all 3 stages)

walk durative verb

4. prediction of behavior

ST: we know that we cannot do something in syntax

Definitions

Quirk, fundamental discussion about DYN and ST verbs (because it influences syntactic behavior of verbs)

Dynamic: verb situations requiring an input of energy implying change, sometimes motion,

development and phases

Stative: verb situation without motion, development, just existence in time without segments

Dynamic verbs a) activity verbs e.g. drink, eat, learn (S is agent)

b) process verbs e.g. change, grow, widen (S is patient)

c) verbs of bodily sensations e.g. ache, hurt

d) transitional event verbs e.g. arrive, die, fall, leave

e) momentary verbs e.g. jump, hit, kick

semantic criteria

overlapping (activity and movement verbs)


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duration as criteria

a) durative: activity verbs, process verbs, verbs of bodily sensations

b) momentary: verbs of bodily sensations, transitional event verbs, momentary verbs

Stative verbs a) verbs of perception or sensation e.g. see, hear

b) verbs of cognition and emotions e.g. believe, dislike, think

c) relational verbs e.g. belong, consist, contain, possess, resemble

polisemy

e.g. think dynamic (process) or stative (opinion)

syntactic behavior (general tendencies):

a) Progeressive aspect

e.g. She is leaving/*knowing a language.

He is buying/*owning a house.

progressive implies process while stative verbs dont b) Imperative

e.g. Learn/*Know that language!

Buy/*Own that house!

at the beginning we need some dynamic to get in certain state but not to be in that state

exception: e.g. Know that we have access to that! know=be aware of c) force someone to do something

e.g. They forced her to learn/*know that language.

d) some adverbs of manner (speed, willingness)

e.g. He learnt/*knew the language quickly.


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Vendlers Classification

4 groups: a) activities

b) states

c) accomplishments

d) achievements

criteria: meaning and syntactic behavior

syntactic tests a) for x time/in x time (PP, adverbial of time)

for x time: duration

in x time: duration + goal

e.g. He walked for an hour/*in an hour.

b) how long did it take to V?

e.g. How long did it take to paint a picture?

*How long did it take to walk?

no goal in take to walk c) if one stops Ving, one did V

e.g. If one stops running, one did run.

If one stops painting, one did paint a picture. stopped before completion

kind of conditional, interested in logical consequences

Activities (ACT) Dynamic verbs which have structure and successive segments. These segments are qualitatively equal

and any segment can represent the whole situation. There is no cumulation, growth goal, natural limit

and there is duration.

e.g. run, drink, swim

no goal

tests:

a) *in x minutes e.g. *He walked in 10 minutes. implies a goal

for x minutes e.g. He walked for 10 minutes.

b) *how long did it take to V? e.g. *How long did it take to walk?

how long did someone V? e.g. How long did they walk? duration

c) if one stops Ving, one did V

segments are equal, we can stop at any time

States (ST) States dont have structure or development, there is just lasting in time with no input of energy. They

have possible duration.

e.g. desire, know, possess


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tests:

a) *in x minutes

b) *how long did it take to V (no goal)?

but e.g. How long did they possess a car? the same as activities

c) if one stops Ving, one did V

d) *carefully, deliberately, quickly, etc.

Accomplishments (ACC) Accomplishments are dynamic situations which have structures and segments but not of equal quality.

They have cumulative development, growth and their segments can acquire a new quality, e.g. while

writing a poem, every segment is different. They also have goal, final and terminal point, natural end

and duration. They are VPs since they have goal.

e.g. paint a picture, draw a circle, run a mile

tests:

a) in x minutes


c) *if one stops Ving, one did V (we have to include NP in VP)

activities dont have goal and accomplishments do

Achievements (ACH) Achievements are momentary verbs with only brief segments and goal.

e.g. find, kick, jump

tests:

a) in x minutes


c) *if one stops Ving, one did V (not applicable because its momentary verb)

ACC vs. ACH

e.g. 1 How long did it take to find the key? ACH (how long was the finding)

How long did it take to paint a picture? ACC (duration)

2 She found the key in 5 minutes. ACH

She painted the picture in an hour. ACC


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Distinctive features

Vendler didnt use those features

Brinton 1988: 29: stative, durative, goal, voluntary

we exclude voluntary +/- stative durative goal

ACT - + -

ST + + -

ACC - + +

ACH - - +

- stative = dynamic verbs

- durative = momentary verbs

+ durative = possible duration (cant last for minutes or hours)

Contexts and Vendlers types

one English verb may belong to more than one type depending on the context e.g.read

there are ambiguities of some verbs even without a contexts

ACT, ACH and ST are lexemes while ACC are VPs telicity = having a goal (adj. (a)telic)

contexts: 1. Direct Object (Od)

present or absent

structure (article, determiner, countable or uncountable) e.g. 1 He drank. ACT

He drank beer. ACT (beer is not a goal, no determiner)

He drank a/the beer. ACC (beer with determiner is goal and is countable)

2 She read. ACT

She read books. ACT

She read a/the book. ACC (book with determiner is goal; duration)

3 They owned a car/cars. ST (NP doesnt change anything)

- ST are not influenced by Od

tendencies (not rules)

a) VACT + Det + N(S) = VP ACC e.g. He drank a beer.

b) VACT + N(S)/NUNC = VP ACT e.g. He drank beer.

c) VST + NP=VST e.g. They owned a car/cars.

2. Verbs with prefixes, phrasal verbs and copulas

prefixes

e.g. live-outlive by adding a prefix we add a goal

build-rebuild

cook-overcook

e.g. like-dislike ST remains ST even with prefix


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phrasal verbs

e.g. eat-eat up ACC, buy adding a particle up/out we add a goal

find-find out both momentary verbs, both ACH

different influence of the particle copulas

e.g. turn red ACC, some kind of change

grow old ACC

become rich ACC

Vendlers Article

Vendler, Z. (1957/67) Verbs and Times

topics 1. Time schemata presupposed by various verbs (e.g. hit vs. know)

2. PROG in English (I am running/*I am possessing a car)

3. Successive phases (run) or no phases (know)

4. Terminal point (run vs. draw a circle) and telicity

5. Segment of situation as the representative of the whole situation

6. ACT, ST, ACC,ACH

7. Habits as states?

8. Generic and specific states

times: a) external time (present/past/future)

b) internal time/ time schemata: temporal patterns inside a various situations

temporal patterns (inside the verb): a) distribution of possible segments

b) if the segments are there or not

c) if the segments are equal or not

d) if it has a goal or not

he thinks that the notion of time is very significant for verb and believes that patterns could serve as criteria for classification

ACT (atelic)

a) + prog ACC (telic)

verbs

b) - prog ST

ACH

with ACT any subtract of e.g. run represents the entire situation

ACC have terminal point or goal

ACH: we can use them as progressive but with the meaning of repetition (of segments) e.g. He was jumping.

He climbed that mountain in 2h. ACC (duration of climbing)

He reached the top of that mountain in 2h. ACH (duration of climbing before reaching a point)

ACT are habit forming

e.g. Are you smoking? not habit

Do you smoke? habit and sounds like state

You are a smoker.

if we repeat an ACT long enough it might become a ST generic ST


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longer period of time, includes several different activities e.g. to rule

to drive a cab specific ST (ACT but some state in different meaning; you just drive, no dozens of

ACT)

specific ST: smokers, painters etc.

generic ST: educator, ruler

some examples cannot be classified by this classification

Suddenly, he was standing on a short turf, on a summer evening when the slanting rays of the sun

glided the ground. The landscape he was looking at recurred so often in his dreams that he was ever

fully certain whether or not he had seen it in the real world. In his walking hours he called it the Golden

Country.

1. stand: ambiguous without a context

ST e.g. The building stands

ACT e.g. He was standing (+animate S, + duration, - goal)

2. glide: ambiguous without a context (not morphologically marked)

ACH e.g. The sun glided (if it happened in a moment)

ACC telic, if it happened in a period of time

3. look: ACT (+animate S, + duration, - terminal point)

ST e.g. They look fine. (+ animate S, - volitional)

4. recur: ACH (+ repetition)

5. see: ST e.g. Some animals can see in the dark.

e.g. He can hardly see without his glasses.

ACH e.g. He had seen it (+ animate S)

6. call: ACH e.g. to call someone

ST e.g. to use the name

...probudio me vedar susret...naiao je deak, kidao je cvee i bacao iznad glave, gaao ptice, izvikivao

nerazumljive rei.. Ugledavi me, umirio se i poao u stranu. Nisam spadao u njegov svet.

Vendlers tests (Serbian) a) in/for x time = za x vreme/x vremena

b) how long did it take to...? = koliko dugo je trebalo da...?

c) if...

1. probudio: ACH e.g. Probudio se za 10 minuta.

2. naiao: ACH

3. kidao: ACT e.g. Koliko dugo je kidao?

4. bacao: ACT e.g. Ako neko prestane da baca, on je bacao.

5. gaao: ACT

6. izvikivao: ACT

7. ugledavi: ACH

8. umirio: ACC e.g. Umirio se za 10 ninuta.

9. poao: ACH

10. spadao: ST


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almost

e.g. Chris almost walked. ACT (wanted to talk but didnt)

Chris almost painted a picture. ACT (began painting but didnt finish)

almost doesnt affect the change of type

Conclusion (English-Serbian) In Serbian there are morphological markers at the lexical level-prefixes.

Exercise:

1. fall (ACH: goal, one moment); His work falls into 3 parts. (ST-relational)

2. grow up (ACC: takes time, goal)

3. make (ACT + Od ACC); It makes sense (ST)

4. buy (ACT, ACH)

5. sleep (ST)

6. say (ACH)


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Be as an Auxiliary and as a Lexical Verb

Auxiliary Be

progressive aspect, passive, modal-like function modal-like function: obligation, arrangement

e.g. They are to arrive tomorrow.

constructions with non-finite forms, only Present and Past Simple (*be to, *being to) uses of modal-like function:

a) order, command, prohibition

Present Simple, impersonal way or 2nd p. sg. and pl. for order, negation-often prohibition e.g. You are not to leave this town.

b) plan, arrangement for future

e.g. We are to meet tomorrow.

They were to be married in June. in the past, not necessarily realized

c) past events following other past events

e.g. She was to make amends later.

d) possible, reasonable, unavoidable

e.g. He feels certain that this is not to be.

Mistakes were to be expected.

set expressions: be + infinitive

e.g. Kate is to blame. (to be blamed)

The house is to let. (to be let)

*Helen is to praise.

*The house is to sell.

Lexical Be

copula or linking V to connect S and Cs

similar to become e.g. Barbara is well-educated.

progressive aspect: temporary behavior

e.g. He is being silly. is: Aux, being: Vlex

finite and non-finite forms

e.g. She is being polite. present participle

They have been very tired. past participle

non-linking verb

to exist and similar e.g. Therefore, I am. Vi

Where sensitivity is, conflict is absent. Vi

no object or complement


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Have as an Auxiliary and as a Lexical Verb

Auxiliary Have

perfect aspect, modal-like function (have to, necessity, obligation) perfect aspect: NICE properties only

modal-like function: NICE properties and sometimes DO

e.g. Does he have to go? Has he to go?

Lexical Have a) stative verb

b) dynamic verb

c) causative Have and affected S

a) Stative verb

possession and similar, of mental and physical features and material objects

relations and connection e.g. They have a new house.

She has blue eyes.

This room has 3 windows.

have got: more colloquial in BrE

characteristics:

a) weak forms

e.g. Ive plenty of time.

b) can be replaced by have got

e.g. Hes got some money.

c) NICE properties and also DO

more colloquial e.g. I havent any money.

Have you any money?

I have a pencil and so has he. code

standard English e.g. I dont have any money.

Do you have any money?

I have a pencil and so has he.

d) not in passive

e.g. *Some money is had by me.

e) e.g. The shop hasnt any ice cream. dont have it now

The shop doesnt have ice cream. dont sell it at all

f) e.g. The shop assistant hasnt any ice cream, but it does have ice cream. dont have now, but do sell

ice cream in general


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b) Dynamic verb

variety of meanings, experience, achievements etc. e.g. They had sandwiches. ambiguity: had (DYN) or carry

They have a holiday.

They have a good time.

They have a child.

They have difficulties.

collocations

e.g. *have an eat

have a drink/meal

characteristics:

a) no weak forms

e.g. *Shed a baby.

b) no NICE properties DO

e.g. *We hadnt a holiday.

*Had you a good time?

Did you have a good time?

c) passive only exceptionally

e.g. Breakfast can be had at 7.

A good time was had by all.

*A sleep was had by him.

*A child was had by them.

c) Causative Have and affected S

make someone do something

someone suffered something e.g. He had all the prisoners punished.

She had her bag stolen.

ambiguity: causative (organized or possessed it) e.g. He had a book stolen from library.


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Grammatical Categories Related to Verbs

grammatical category: a system of two or more elements which denote a grammatical meaning

basic categories: tense, aspect, modality, voice

Modals

definition: speakers attitude

mood ,traditional grammar, inflections

indicative, subjunctive, imperative

speakers attitude or opinion: certainty, doubt, wish, order, request, etc subjunctive in subordinate clauses:

verb and structure in the main clause e.g. Its high time

markers of subjunctive in English

mood in English: in the specific contexts, not fully productive

modality, modals to distinguish statement of fact and speakers assessment of possibility, ability, necessity etc.

modal structures: contain a modal

non-modal structures: dont contain a modal

more regularly used than subjunctive in English

Characteristics: a) modal meaning: possibility, ability, obligation

b) + bare infinitive, except ought to

c) no -s

d) no non-finite forms

e) pasttense forms

f) always first in VP

g) they dont co-occur in the same VP (in standard English)

h) no imperative e.g. *May!

i) Dare and Need are also Vlex

Uses a) epistemic

b) deontic

c) dynamic

every modal has its own meaning but these 3 are general

modal logic explains modality and proposition proposition: indicates a situation that is denoted b y a verb and participants; simple declarative

clause

modality: presence or absence of modal and the meaning that it introduces; speakers attitude e.g. Kevin may visit us. proposition: Kevin visits us.

modality: may (possibility)

one and the same modal may belong to more than one group


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a) Epistemic use (EP)

episteme (gr.) = knowledge

possibility, necessity

modals: may, must, will, should, can

e.g. That will be your sister. It is possible that it is your sister.

They should be on their way home now.

You cant be serious.

It is possible that is used to replace a modal

b) Deontic use (DE)

deont (gr.) = something obligatory

permission, obligation, other promise

modals: may, ought to, can, shall, should, need

usually performative, influencing someones behavior e.g. I pronounce you husband and wife.

someone is permitted or allowed to do something e.g. He can go now.

c) Dynamic use (DY)

ability, willingness, habit

modals: can, could, will, would

e.g. Susan can help you to sell that computer.

They will sit for hours watching TV. = They have the habit of sitting for hours.

Someone is able/willing to do... can replace a modal

something about S (ability, willingness, etc.)

EP vs. DP e.g. 1 He cant be here. (I dont believe it) EP

It is not possible

2 He should be here. (He has an obligation) DP

He is permitted

3 He wont be here. (He is ill) EP

4 He must be here. (Its an order) EP/DP

5 He must be here. (Theres his hat) EP

6 He should be here. (He doesnt live far) EP

7 He may be here. (Thats my guess) EP

EP, DE and DY uses and Time Marking, Negation and Voice

tendency to behave in certain way

prediction of syntactic behavior

if the modal is EP we can guess how to mark tense (past), negation or voice

a) Time Marking

EP


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proposition, not modality, normally marked for past

Have as a marker e.g. David may have seen him yesterday.

It is possible that David saw them yesterday. modality in present, proposition in past

problems in:

e.g. 1 Tom may have been hurt.

Tom might have been hurt. might: a less direct attitude, a lower degree of possibility on unreality,

possibility nor realized; not marked for past!

2 She may have had an accident. possibility still exists, we are not sure

She might have had an accident. might: unreality; we know that luckily she didnt have an

accident; the possibility existed in the past but was nor

realized

DE

usually neither modality nor the proposition

marked for past but it refers to now, not the past e.g. 1 Robert may come. performative, past

2 He might come in. =He is allowed to come in (- past)

He may come early. have to: semi-modal (obligation, + past)

3 He ought to have done it. EP necessity

He should have paid the bill. EP necessity

have to as semi-modal

e.g. He will have to arrive on time. proves that this is semi-modal because modals cant co-occur

EP necessity: conclusion about something on the basis of circumstances, conclusion that something

is necessary

DE obligation: something that is planned

DY

e.g. Kate could run 10 miles with ease when she was younger. =She was able to run

Kate could have run 10 miles with ease when she was younger. EP (possibility in the past not

realized; could denotes

unreality, not past)

b) Negation

EP

either modality or the proposition can be negated (not at the same time) e.g. Helen cant be in her office. =It is not possible that

Andy may not be in his office. =It is not possible that


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DE

either modality or the proposition can be negated (not at the same time) e.g. Kate may not come now. =Kate is now allowed to come now. (modality negated)

Lenny may not go swimming. =Lenny is allowed not to go. (proposition negated)

DY

modality usually negated e.g. Ken cant run 10 miles. =Ken is not able to run 10 miles. (modality negated)

c) Voice

EP and DE used modals are voice neutral

e.g. Tom may meet Mary on the train.

Mary may be met by Tom on the train.

DY used modals are usually not voice neutral

e.g. 1 Martha can speak Japanese.

?Japanese can be spoken by Martha. not fully unacceptable but awkward

2 Ron can beat Roger. EP (possibility)/ DY (ability)

Roger can be beaten by Ron. EP (not voice neutral)

Discuss:

e.g. 1 Sarah may visit them tomorrow. EP/DE

Sarah may be visiting them tomorrow. EP (no voice neutral)

2 He cant be working. EP (possibility)

They will tell awful lies. DY (habit)

Michael must be working. =It is certain that he is working. EP (possibility)


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Can, Could

ability to do something, permission to do something, possibility, characteristic behavior

Secondary meanings a) ability/capability (DY)

be able to, be capable of, know how to

2 kinds: physical e.g. He can lift that box.

mental/learnt skill/knowledge e.g. She can type very fast.

They can speak Swedish.

could as past

restricted or general ability, not specific

standard English, not colloquial

could depends on the meaning

we have to think about the meaning

general ability e.g. She could read Latin and she was 10. (general ability; habit in past, not specific single occasion)

The ship sand and they *could/were able to/managed to swim to the shore. (specific occasion when

negated)

He could pass the exam. (but he didnt; could does not refer to past, but present ability) He was able/managed to pass the exam.

He could have passed the exam. (EP, not ability anymore, possibility existed in past but was not

realized)

specific past ability if negated

e.g. *They ran fast and could catch the bus. (not negated, specific, not grammatical)

They ran fast, but couldnt catch the bus. (negated, grammatical)

Robert was so drunk that he couldnt find the front door. (negated, grammatical ,specific)

I could almost reach the branch. (implicit negation; enough to be negated, grammatical; didnt

managed to)

b) permission (DE)

more often in colloquial style but my be formal

be allowed to, be permitted to e.g. You can go have fun.

You cant smoke near a petrol station. could as past

general permission the past e.g. When she lived at home, she could watch TV whenever she wanted to. (lived is past, so could has to

be in past too)

particular permission if negated e.g. We could bring our dog to the restaurant. (often regularly, in single occasion is not acceptable)

Mike could see her yesterday evening. (he was allowed to)

more tentative requests (present, future) e.g. Could I borrow your dictionary?

Can you pass me the salt?


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c) possibility (EP)

both can and could for present possibility or likelihood

usually theoretical possibility, not factual (may and might usually factual) e.g. Accidents can happen. (theoretical possibility; generally speaking, not specific occasion)

Measles can be dangerous. (theoretical possibility; generally speaking, not specific occasion)

Will you answer the phone. It could/may/might be your sister. (factual)

They cant/couldnt be hiding anymore now. (factual) This could be your big chance. (factual)

past: could have Ven

e.g. 1 You have helped them. (possibility in the past, not realized)

He could have been delayed by the fog. (possibility in the past, not realize)

2 The money has disappeared; who could have taken it?(we dont know what happened, possibility)

can have Ven (rare; questions, negation)

e.g. 1 Where can she have gone?

She cant have gone to school.

2 We could see him at any time. (present)

We could have seen him at any time. (past)

d) Characteristic behavior

characteristic or habit, something typical e.g. Children can sometimes be restless.

That area can be very warm in September. (- animate)

be able to is not used instead; could is used for past e.g. She could be very unkind at times. ambiguous, refers to: a) tentative present (both present or past;

less direct; possibility

in the present)

b) habitual past

Secondary uses a) questions (surprise, impatience) e.g. What can he mean?

What on earth could that be?

b) with verbs of perception

hear, feel, taste, smell, etc e.g. I can hear you. =ujem te (no full meaning of possibility or ability)

I could feel pepper in the soup.

could is used for past or tentative present c) in reported speech

can shifts to could if the reporting verb is in the past


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May, Might

contracted negation: mightnt, *maynt

Primary meanings a) permission (DE)

be allowed to, be permitted to

usually speakers permission, not extended to general permission can is less formal

e.g. You may smoke in this room. (speakers permission) You can smoke in this room. (general permission)

asking for permission

e.g. May I do smoke?

Ill have another biscuit, if I may. might in questions: greater degree of hesitation or uncertainty about the answer

e.g. Might I borrow your PC? (less directly, more polite)

might in past: only in indirect speech (be allowed/permitted to is used instead), not for direct speech

e.g. 1 He said that you might borrow his book.

2 They were allowed to/*might take every afternoon off last week. (general permission)

might for asking a permission, usually not for giving permission

e.g. Might I have some more tea? Yes, you may/*might.

b) possibility/probability (EP)

usually denotes factual possibility e.g. 1 The gun may be loaded. =It is possible that the gun is loaded

2 The road can be blocked. =It is possible to block the road. (general possibility)

The road may be blocked. =It is possible that the road is blocked. (factual possibility)

3 He may fly to Barcelona next week. (factual possibility)

We may be moving to Thessaloniki soon. (factual possibility)

They might get a job in the spring. (factual possibility but no to certain might)

might usually not used in questions about possibility e.g. *May it rain? =Is it likely to rain?

might has a lower degree of possibility than may e.g. She might arrive soon, but its doubtful. (lower degree of possibility) He may/might tell his wife. (higher/lower degree possibility; might increases doubt)

may have Ven: past

e.g. They may have lived there. (possibility existed but we dont know) What was that noise? It might have been a cat. (might expressed lower degree of possibility)

might have Ven: past + more tentative active

e.g. You might have told me. (implication of reproach)

may/might Ven also speculations about past

e.g. 1 He came home alone. You shouldnt have let him do that; he might have got lost. 2 You shouldnt have drunk that wine; it may/might been poisoned. (may: we dont know; might:

we know that it wasnt poisoned) 3 Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might have been quicker. (possibility existed for

something else)

4 You might be right. (possibility, but I doubt it)

5 Take your raincoat, it may rain. (possibility exists)

Youd better take your raincoat, it may rain. (possibility, but not likely)


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6 Clair may have gone to the cinema.

Clair might have gone to the cinema. (we are not certain, more tentative)

7 He may/might have heard it from Kate. (may have: possibility neutral; might have: lower degree

of possibility)

might have Ven

a lower degree of possibility

unreality, nonrealization

Secondary uses a) wishes and hopes (health, success) e.g. May you both be happy!

May the New Year bring you all you wish!

b) suggestion e.g. He may come with us.

c) reproach e.g. They might have phoned him. =Ba su mogli da ga zovu.

d) consession (although, though, but condition) e.g. He may only be a shopkeeper but hes well educated.

e) surprise, impatience e.g. Who may you be?


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Must, Have to

Primary uses a) strong obligation, compulsion (DE) must: speakers awareness of the obligation; at least with partial agreement have to: external obligation, imposed by external authority and circumstances

e.g. Vivian gas to practice the piano every day.

Ken must stop smoking. (speakers awareness) 1

st p. sg/pl: self-compulsion

e.g I have to/must work from 9 to 6.

must in questions: the hearers authority or asking about someone elses intentions, wishes, etc. e.g. Must I answer all these letters myself?

Must I clean all the rooms?

have got to: informal, more in BrE

must: mo morphological past tense form

in direct speech: had to or must e.g. He reminded us that we must be back on time.

negation: do not have to, do not need to, neednt V e.g. We dont have to be back at 10. You neednt work tomorrow. must not: prohibition

e.g. You mustnt play with ?

b) necessity (EP) in affirmative sentences

e.g. You must be tired.

They must be having dinner now.

speakers conclusion after reasoning in questions and negatives can or cant/cannot e.g. What do you think this letter can mean?

You cant be hungry. =Its not possible that you are hungry.

have to is less frequently than must in this meaning e.g. There has to be a mistake. =It is possible that There cannot be a mistake. =It is not possible must have Ven: past

e.g. You must have heard it. =Its highly possible

They must have been here.

a high degree of possibility, it is highly probable

Secondary uses a) something is desirable, advisable e.g. When you come to Barcelona, you must visit Sargada Familia. (advice)

b) annoyance, disapproval e.g. Must you take that dreadful noise?

He must come and worry her with questions.


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Shall

shall vs. should: no modal meaning; shall means present and should means past

shall often combines future and modal uses but there are some typical modal meanings

Modal meanings a) a speakers determination/decision

2nd and 3rd person subjunctive

formal, rare in spoken language, found in legal documents e.g. You shall obey his order.

Every citizen shall be face to choose her/his job.

b) speakers intention, obstinate attitude

1st person subjunctive e.g. We shall let you know our decision.

I shall do it if I want to.

c) threat, command e.g. They shall be punished.

d) questions (offer, command) e.g. Shall we have coffee outside?

in reported speech we use should for past


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Should

discussed separately, no direct present-past relation within one meaning between shall and should (except in indirect speech)

Meanings a) obligation, duty (DE)

speakers awareness, conscience

not necessarily to be fulfilled, like a recommendation e.g. 1 You should attend lectures regularly.

They shouldnt work so much. 2 I must/should practice at least an hour a day. (should: external obligation)

no past because they are performative

obligation in past: had to b) necessity, possibility (EP)

not very high degree of certainty e.g. Tom should be here soon.

The plane should be landing soon.

should have Ven: past

usually possibly not fulfilled or fulfilled but it was not desirable (negated) e.g. She should have finished her book last week. (not finished)

Ben should have arrived by now. (we dont know what has happened) They shouldnt have told her the truth. (realized but not desirable)

not with assumptions displeasing the speaker e.g. Lets not go shopping now. The shops will/*should be crowded. Lets go shopping now. The shops will/should be fairy empty now.

c) putative should

specific contexts, both in the main and subordinate clauses

specific modal use: less directly expressed doubt, surprise, disapproval, a slower degree of possibility polite attitude

its a pity/strange/odd/lucky/surprising that

after verbs expressing sorrow, joy, surprise, wonder, etc.

if clauses for tentative condition (unlikelihood) e.g. Its a pity that he should drink so much. How should I know? (surprise, annoyance, impatience)

If the phone should ring, please let me know.

Ill get some beer in case uncle should come. (low probability) Should you see Helen, give her my regards.

d) offer, suggestion e.g. Should I help you with the dishes?


39

Ought to

rare, more frequent in BrE than in AmE

meanings similar to should, but with a stronger sense of obligation

both ought to and should denote a lower degree of confidence and necessity than must

more objective necessity than should (speakers opinion implied) e.g. I must/should/ought to pay for the broken window. (must: obligation; should: desirable; ought to: in

between must and should)

Primary meanings a) obligatory, duty (DE) e.g. He ought to phone his parents tonight. (strong recommendation)

You oughtnt work so much.

no past, performative b) necessity (EP) e.g. That ought to be enough fish for 2 persons.

Larry ought to be here soon.

ought to have Ven: past

e.g. He ought to have gone to school. (necessity, but we are not certain)

You ought to have told Sarah the truth. (something was not done in the past, regret)

Secondary meanings e) advisable e.g. You ought to see that film.

in reported speech no change e.g. She said we ought to be there soon.

in question tags to is omitted e.g. They ought to see a doctor, oughtnt they?


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Will, Would

Primary meanings a) willingness, determination (speakers or someone elses) (DYN)

stressed, not shortened to ll e.g. He will have his own way. (not only future but modal of willingness)

would: past for general willingness, not concrete situation or when negated

e.g. 1 He wouldnt help me yesterday. He would have his own way.

*I invited him to the party and he would come.

I invited him to the party but he wouldnt come. 2 All he would do was say he was shy. (implicit negation)

subject: inanimate noun

e.g. The door wont open. The car wont start.

speakers irritation, subjects resistance b) characteristic behavior, habit

repeated willingness e.g. She will leave that door open.

They will sit for hours watching TV.

You will keep forgetting things. (critical attitude)

would for past

e.g. When we were children, we would go skating every winter,

similar to used to e.g. I used to/would go to Africa often when I was younger.

c) probability (EP) e.g. This will be the book youre looking for. This will be the road to the station.

would is not past, just more tentative present (lower degree of possibility) e.g. He wouldnt be a friend of yours, I suppose? That would be their house.

will/would have Ven: past

e.g. That will/would have been our cousin Kim.

That would have been the postman.

d) order (DE)

performative, usually for irritation, annoyance e.g. You will wait here until I return.

Will you sit down!

Secondary meanings a) general truths e.g. Boys will be boys. =Deaci k'o deaci. Accidents will happen.

general truths vs. characteristic behavior

general truths is characteristic without implication of repetition

characteristic behavior can change b) polite requests or offers e.g. Would you come in now? (present)


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Need

a modal, auxiliary and lexical verb

Lexical need

transitive, followed by to infinitive or NP, inflected meaning require want

no NICE properties (we have to use the DO-operator) e.g. Laura needs a new dress.

He didnt need that money. Do I need to answer that question?

He needs to work more.

They needed to get up early.

Auxiliary need

followed by bare infinitive

NICE properties

in negative and interrogative clauses only meaning: necessity, obligation

e.g. He neednt visit us. (lexical version: He doesnt need to) Need he visit us? (lexical version: Does he need to)

negative adverbials, implicit negation e.g. He need hardly say how much he enjoyed the party.

You need never wait for us.

need vs. must & ought to

e.g. 1 You must get a haircut.

2 You need to get a haircut. (lexical version: *You need get a haircut)

3 You ought to get a haircut.

speaker expressing his/her authority, pointing to the fact and necessity negated auxiliary = absence of necessity

e.g. You neednt do that.

You mustnt do that. (prohibition)

in questions, sometimes (not always!) no is expected as an answer and lexical need is not emotionally colored (neutral)

e.g. 1 Need I take the exam in February?

2 Do I need to buy anything for lunch?

lexical verb is inflected for past: needed

auxiliary verb is inflected for past: need have Ven

negated past: different implications

e.g. He didnt need to pay for that both. (lexical verb: situation did not take place because it was not necessary)

She neednt have filled the glass, than in wouldnt have spilt. (auxiliary verb: situation did take place but it was unnecessary)

e.g. We didnt need to take an umbrella. (lexical verb) We neednt have to take an umbrella. (auxiliary verb)


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sometimes difference in the present tense:

e.g. 1 The hedges neednt be trimmed this week. (auxiliary verb; absence of obligation) The hedges dont need to be trimmed this week. (lexical verb; absence of necessity) 2 Need you wake him up? sometimes the meaning is the same, but 1

st one is more neutral

Do you need to wake him up?

reported speech: needed (lexV) and neednt or didnt have to/had to (auxV) e.g. 1 You neednt wait. He said that I neednt/didnt need to wait. 2 Need I finish my soup?

He asked if he had to finish his soup.


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Dare

lexical verb and auxiliary

rare

Lexial dare

transitive, to infinitive Meanings:

a) to challenge e.g. He dared me to jump!

I dare you!

b) to take a risk e.g. Few men dared this experiment. (inflected, to infinitive, Vt)

this meaning also with the auxiliary

dare as a lexical verb can also be used with bare infinitive in affirmative, interrogative and negative clauses (rare, literary)

e.g. 1 He dares do it.

He dared do it.

2 He dares to do it.

He dared to do it.

Auxiliary dare

questions and negatives

not inflected

has NICE properties

bare infinitive e.g. Dare he do it?

He darent do it. He hardly dare ask. (implicit negation)

reported speech: dare or dared e.g. Cora told me that she darent tell the truth. Mary wondered if Tom dare(d) come.

dare with will/would

e.g. No one will dare (to) oppose.

I would almost dare (to) shout.

Ving e.g. He left the house, not daring to call anybody.


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Conditionals

speakers attitude about possibility

in some conditionals modals are used

Definition and structure

a complex sentence with 2 clauses, the main clause and the subordinate clause

structure: If A than B

a causal link between 2 situations indicating dependence of the situation on the main clause on the realization of the if-clause

Basic division

2 types: a) real

the speaker/writer merely states that the dependency exists, specifying what will happen if something else happens

for the future: he/she does not declare that the condition will or will not be realized, leaving that issue open

for the past: he/she specifies that something was realized of it is highly likely to have been realized b) unreal

speakers/writers or general doubt about the possibility for the realization of the condition in the if-clause

not just indicating dependency, but also doubt

for the future: implication that it is highly unlikely that the condition will be finished

for the past: implication that the condition was not fulfilled

Basic patterns a) with or without a conjunction

the 2 clauses are usually linked with a conjunction (if, unless (negative condition), so long as, as long as, suppose/supposing, provided that, on condition that/ in case)

e.g. You wont catch the train, unless you take a taxi. So/as long as you return the book by Friday, Ill lend it to you. Suppose/supposing your friends new that, what would they think?

Hell accept the post provided that/on condition that the salary is satisfactory. Youd better take an umbrella in case it rain.

without a conjunction e.g. Were you in my place, would you do the same?

Had she known that, she would have Should he be late again, he will be dismissed. (real conditional: will is not possible in unreal;

putative should)

b) modals in the if-clause

no future modals (shall/will) in the if-clause

will and would for willingness, not future e.g. If you will/would/ wait a moment, Ill ask the doctor to see you. If you will/would/ help us, well succeed.

other modals also possible: can, could, must, should e.g. If you can get here soon, well have enough time for some tea. If you must act the fool, please go away.

I she should arrive, let me know.


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Real conditionals

basic combinations of verb forms in the if-clause and the main clause\

If-Clause Main Clause Temporal Reference

1. present present present/all time/future 2. present imperative present/future

3. present future present/future

4. past past past 5. past future future

6. present perfect future future

7. modal future/imperative future 8. past perfect* past perfect before past

*theoretically possible but unlikely; real, before past; context: another past situation which follows

e.g. If the weather is fine, he walks to his office.(1)

If you are thirsty, buy some juice. (2)

If he said that, he told lies.(4)

If Vivian left London 2 hours ago, she will/can/must/may reach Brighton at 3 oclock.(5)

If Dan has repaired the car, well/can drive to the seaside on Sunday.(6)

If harry will come to the party, Beth will be delighted. (7)

If you must go, go! (7)

If Peter had arrived, Helen had left. (8)

Unreal conditionals

just the following 3 combinations of tense forms If-Clause Main Clause Temporal Reference

1. past would + bare infinitive present/future

2. past perfect would have Ven past

3.* past perfect would V if: past, main: present

* mixed type

other modals can be used, not just would

the main clause has to contain a modal (modal enables to recognize that it is an unreal conditional) e.g. If Kevin left London this morning, he would be here at 2 oclock. (1) If you had bought the thickets in advance, you would have seen that film. (2)

If Mona had gone to college, she would be a doctor now. (3)

If you had taken mu advice, you wouldnt be in such a mess now. (3)

other modals in the main clause are possible e.g. If Ben had arrived, Kate could have left.

If he worked hard, he could pass the exam.

Types of conditionals

in addition to basic division (real-unreal) conditionals could also be divided into the following types (Palmer):

a) predictive b) implicit and elliptic c) whenever d) inference


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a) Predictive

direct causal link for particular situation; this is the most frequent type divided into real and unreal

all elements are specified: if-clause and main clause b) Implicit and elliptic

all elements are not specified, some parts are omitted implicit

if-clause is omitted, it is implied or understood from the context e.g. In fact, I would have said that Barcelona was worth going through. (if you had asked me)

It would be very nice. (the pronoun it implies a condition; if that was done or attempted)

I wouldnt be in such a hurry. (if I were you) explicit

a part of the main clause is missing, usually Ill tell you e.g. If you are going out, its raining. If you want to know, I havent seen her.

the missing part is understood and makes a logical link between the main clause and the condition

specified clauses d not express cause and effect, there is no proper semantic link without the omitted part of the main clause

c) Whenever

habitual situation, not a specific single occasion if=whenever

e.g. If it rains, I go by car.

If it rained, I went by car.

Whenever rained, I went by car.

d) Interference

indicates drawing conclusions rather than causality

both clauses are false and not possible

ironical comment, disapproval e.g. If hes the prime minister, I am a Dutchman.

Serbian equivalence

ako, da, kada, ukoliko

without a conjunction e.g. Bude li se popravio, ii e s nama. Popravi li se, ii e s nama. English real conditional-translations

e.g. If he knows that, hell tell us.

Ako on to zna, rei e nam.

English unreal conditional-translations

e.g. 1 If I were in your position, I would accept that offer.

Da sam na tvom mestu, prihvatio bih tu ponudu.

2 If he had been there, he would have done the same.

Da je bio tamo, uinio bi to isto.

Exercises

1. We don't have any matches, so we can't light a fire.

If we had any matches, we would light a fire. (present, real)

2. The shop didn't pack the goods properly, so the got damaged.

If the shop had packed the goods properly, they wouldn't have damaged.


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Voice

also called diathesis

Active, Passive and Middle

the basic voice opposition in modern English is active and passive

in some language (e.g. modern Greek) there is the third member-the middle middle

denotes activities which the subject does on himself; similarly to English reflexive verbs

some linguists believe that in Proto-Indo-European language the basic voice opposition was active-middle, which had different suffixes (as today Greek); passive later developed

the middle was used to denote position (like verbs sit, lie) or emotional states (feel, fear, rejoic) which the speaker can't control

in Proto-IE active was used to denote processes outside the speakers, in the objective world, which the speaker can control

English Active, Passive and Markedness

passive as the marked member (markers: be + Ven, possible by agent, specific word order)

sometimes get is used instead of be

only transitive verbs can be passivized, all verbs are active

active is more frequent (unmarked)

Definitions of voice

relatively difficult to provide the definition which would cover all the cases

a) D. Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics

voice includes the change in the relation between the grammatical subject and object without changing the factual meaning of the sentence

relation between the doer of the action and the sufferer

grammatical subject is not the agent, it is passivized

change of emphasis or arrangement in information

reflexive and causative structures as a degree of the active-passive scale reflexive

NP1(S) V reflexive pronoun

subject is the agent and the patient

specific subject-object relation

in-between active and passive causatives

subject is the initiator, object may perform the action as the actual doer

act pass

e.g. have someone do something

b) B. Comrie, Language Universals and Linguistic Typology

writes thar voice allows other semantic roles than the agent to appear as the grammatical/formal subject

in passive, we assign some subject properties to the patient rather than to the agent (verb agrees with the patient/subject, initial position, inversion in questions)

some linguists also write about the verb and its arguments (participiants in the situation) e.g. The child broke the vase with a hammer.


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The hammer broke the base. (semantic roles don't change, only syntactic function)

The vase broke.

semantic relations between the verb break and the NP the vase are the same but the syntatic functions change (object in subject position, even the instrument can come in subject position)

passive is a structure requiring a non-agentive subject

passive impulses the rearrangement of verb's arguments

other arguments/semantic roles can also fill the subject position in passive (recipient, instrument, location)

e.g. The Mayor was written a letter. (recipient)

The waiter was left a tip. (recipient)

This bed has been slept in. (location; PP passivized into VP)

semantic roles: specified in the lexicon for every verb-arguments) e.g. Sam broke the window.

The window broke. (subject position filled by the patient)

The wind broke the window. (subject position filled by the cause)

semantic roles are sometimes difficult to establish e.g. He met her.

They met. (he, her: co-agents)

They met each other.

They were met by somebody. (someone met them; patient and object)

ambiguity

e.g. Mona fell. (experiencer)

What happened to Mona? (experiencer)

What did Mona do? (agent)

causatives

e.g. Nathan walked the horse. (initiator, performer)

The horse walked. (agent)

Nathan made the horse walk. (initiator, performer)

subject: not agent e.g. 1 Detergents sell well. (patient; lexical passive)

They sell detergents.

2 The books sold quickly. (patient; books were sold their quality)

The books were sold quickly. (patient; morphologically marked passive; someone was skilled in

selling books)

c) Quirk et al, A Grammar of Contemporary English

passive makes it possible to view the situation of the sentence in two ways, with the change of meaning

voice includes 2 levels: VP and clause level d) Palmer, The English Verb

the meaning is not always the same in passive e.g. 1 Every student read one book.

One book was read by every student.

2 Many students didn't read that book. (more negative implication)

That book wasn't read my many students. (more positive implication)

examples with quantifiers (e.g. every) slightly change the meaning

functional sentence perspective discuss the arrangement of information in a sentence


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familiar/predictable into first (topic, theme) than new/less predictable (comment, theme)

passive makes it possible to place the object in the initial (thematic) position-topicalization e.g. I met my old friend. She is said to be a successful lawyer. (something familiar; topicalization)

stylistic difference, how to link causes

Summary

To define passives one should take into account both syntactic and semantic levels.

syntactic: the passive formula

NP1 (S) Vt NP2 (Od) NP2 be/get Ven (by NP1)

sentences with passive meaning but without this pattern e.g. The door open. (not covered by the passive formula, no by NP1)

semantic: roles should be also included

The category of voice deals with the repetition between the syntactic function of subject and object on

the one hand and semantic roles of agent and patient (and other roles) on the other.

passivization provides the means to change the emphasis or to make a different arrangement of factual information

a combination of syntactic and semantic definitions is necessary


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Transitivity

the notion comes from traditional grammar; the activity starts from the subject and passes to the object

animate/human subject-inanimate/nonhuman object

human subject do something and transfer something to the nonhuman object

this process in traditional grammar is seen as transition

it is not always the case e.g. 1 Wealth attracts robbers. (animate)

I hear you. (starts from object and subject receives something)

2 Nick moved the stone.

Nick moved.

The stone moved. (lexical passive: -animate; active morphology)

agentivity connected with animacy

animate nouns are usually doers

inanimate subject is not agent

transitivity is a necessary condition for passivization

so, typical transitive structure is the one with the direct object (NP1 Vt NP2)

Basic characteristics of direct object (Od) a) NP or clause that follows the verb (if the object direct doesnt intervene) b) in most cases it can be passivized c) typically patient d) selected by the verb (Vt requires O) e) usually affected/created by the subject e.g. They danced all night. (not an object; even though NP follows, the V cannot be passivized)

They went that way. (not an object; even though NP follows, the V cannot be passivized)

Who did you see? (precedes the V)

Harry resembles Lionel. (Od but cannot be passivized)

Barry is a lion-tamer. (Cs, cannot be passivized)

Shawn gave Lisa a book. (Oi and Od)

Tim became an actor. (Cs, cannot be passivized)

Out went the light. (S)

some do do not have all the basic characteristics (e.g. do with resemble) e.g. He weighed 75 kg. (Cs)

The greengrocer weighted the potatoes. (Od)

How much did he weight? (question for Cs)

What did he weight? (question for Od)

in addition to the division into transitive and intransitive verbs, there are also terms one-place, two-place, three-place predicates which denote intransitive verbs, transitive verbs and ditransitive ones

this traditional classification into intransitive and transitive is not adequate

Transitive and intransitive uses of verbs

a more complex classification of English verbs is into: a) transitive only (contain, make)

with structure NP1 Vt NP2 (NP1 and NP2 are different) e.g. This box contains sugar.

Documents

EV Contrastive Approach