Evolution 1G to 4G

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    CHAPTER 1

    WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

    1. INTRODUCTION

    Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of

    electrical conductors or "wires". The distances involved may be short (a few meters as in

    television remote control) or long (thousands or millions of kilometers for radio

    communications). Wireless communication is generally considered to be a branch of

    telecommunications.

    It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way radios, cellular telephones,

    personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples ofwireless

    technology include GPS units, garage door openers and or garage doors, wireless computer mice,

    keyboards and headsets,satellite television and cordless telephones.

    Wireless operations permits services, such as long-range communications, that are impossible or

    impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the

    telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and

    receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some form of

    energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laserlight, visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to

    transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both

    short and long distances.

    In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi opened the way for modern wireless communications by

    transmitting the three-dot Morse code for the letter S over a distance of three kilometers using

    electromagnetic waves. From this beginning, wireless communications has developed into a key

    element of modern society.

    From satellite transmission, radio and television broadcasting to the now ubiquitous mobile

    telephone, wireless communications has revolutionized the way societies function.

    Wireless communications and the economic goods and services that utilise it have some special

    characteristics that have motivated specialised studies. First, wireless communications relies on a

    scarce resource namely, radio spectrum. Second, use of spectrum for wireless communications

    required the development of key complementary technologies; especially those that allowed

    higher frequencies to be utilised more efficiently. Finally, because of its special nature, the

    efficient use of spectrum required the coordinated development of standards. Those standards in

    turn played a critical role in the diffusion of technologies that relied on spectrum use.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garage_door_openerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headset_(telephone/computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garage_door_openerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headset_(telephone/computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser
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    1.1 PRINCIPLES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

    Wireless communications begin with a message that is converted into an electronic signal by a

    device called a transmitter. There are two types of transmitters: analog

    and digital. An analog transmitter sends electronic signals as modulated radio waves. The analog

    transmitter modulates the radio wave to carry the electronic signal and then sends the modified

    radio signal through space. A digital transmitter encodes electronic signals by converting

    messages into a binary code, the series of zeros and ones that are the basis of all computer

    programming. The encoded electronic signal is then sent as a radio wave. Devices known as

    receivers decode or demodulate the radio waves and reproduce the original message over a

    speaker.

    Wireless communications systems involve either one-way transmissions, in which a person

    merely receives notice of a message, or two-way transmissions, such as a telephone conversation

    between two people. An example of a device that only receives one-way transmission is a pager,

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    which is a high-frequency radio receiver. When a person dials a pager number, the pager

    company sends a radio signal to the desired pager.

    The encoded signal triggers the pagers circuitry and notifies the customer carrying the pager of

    the incoming call with a tone or a vibration, and often the telephone number of the caller.

    Advanced pagers can display short messages from the caller, or provide news updates or sports

    scores.

    Two-way transmissions require both a transmitter and a receiver for sending and receiving

    signals. A device that functions as both a transmitter and a receiver is called a transceiver.

    Cellular radio telephones and two-way radios use transceivers, so that back-and-forth

    communication between two people can be maintained. Early transceivers were very large, but

    they have decreased in size due to advances in technology. Fixed-base transceivers, such as those

    used at police stations, can fit on a desktop, and hand-held transceivers have shrunk in size as

    well. Several current models of handheld transceivers weigh less than 0.2 kg (0.5 lb). Some

    pagers also use transceivers to provide limited response options. These brief return-

    communication opportunities allow paging users to acknowledge reception of a page and torespond using a limited menu of options.

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    1.2 TYPES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

    1.2.1

    Infrared Wireless Transmission- "Transmission of data signals using infrared-light waves".

    These infrared-light waves are at a frequency too low for human eyes to receive and interpret.

    Infrared ports can be found in digital cameras, laptops, and printers as well as wireless mice.

    Broadcast Radio- a wireless transmission medium that sends data over long distances (regions,

    states, countries) at up to 2 megabits per second (AM/FM Radio)

    Microwave Radio- Transmission of voice and data through the atmosphere as super high-

    frequency radio waves called microwaves. These frequencies are used to transmit messages

    between ground-based stations and satellite communications systems.

    Communications Satellites- are microwave relay stations in orbit around the earth.

    1.2.2

    Infrared Wireless Transmission: Wireless infrared communications refers to the use offree-space propagation of light waves in the near infrared band as a transmission mediumfor communication, as shown in Figure1. The communication can be between one portablecommunication device and another or between a portable device and a tethered device,called an access point or base station. Typical portable devices include laptop computers,personal digital assistants, and portable telephones, while the base stations are usuallyconnected to a computer with other networked connections.

    Fig 1: A typical wireless infrared communication system

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    Wireless infrared communication systems can be characterized by the application for which they

    are designed or by the link type, as described below.

    Applications

    The primary commercial applications are as follows:

    Short-term cable-less connectivity for information exchange (business cards, schedules, file

    sharing) between two users. The primary example is IrDA systems

    wireless local area networks (WLANs) provide network connectivity inside buildings. This can

    either be an extension of existing LANs to facilitate mobility, or to establish ad hoc" networks

    where there is no LAN. building-to-building connections for high-speed network access or

    metropolitan- or campus-area networks. wireless input and control devices, such as wireless

    mice, remote controls, wireless game controllers, and remote electronic keys.

    Link Type

    Another important way to characterize a wireless infrared communication system is by the link

    type", which means the typical or required arrangement of receiver and transmitter. Figure 2

    depicts the two most common configurations: the point-to-point system and the diffuse system.

    The simplest link type is the point-to-point system. There, the transmitter and receiver must be

    pointed at each other to establish a link. The line-of-sight(LOS) path from the transmitter to the

    receiver must be clear of obstructions, and most of the transmitted light is directed toward thereceiver. Hence, point-to-point systems are also called directed LOS systems. The links can be

    temporarily created for a data exchange session between two users, or established more

    permanently by aiming a mobile unit at a base station unit in the LAN replacement application.

    In diffuse systems, the link is always maintained between any transmitter and any receiver in the

    same vicinity by reflecting or bouncing" the transmitted information-bearing light off reflecting

    surfaces such as ceilings, walls, and furniture. Here, the transmitter and receiver are non-

    directed; the transmitter employs a wide transmit beam and the receiver has a wide field-of-view.

    Also, the LOS path is not required. Hence, diffuse systems are also called non-directed non-LOS

    systems. These systems are well suited to the wireless LAN application, freeing the user fromknowing and aligning with the locations of the other communicating devices.

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    Fig. 2: Common types of infrared communication systems

    Wireless infrared communication systems enjoy significant advantages over radio systems in

    certain environments. First, there is an abundance of unregulated optical spectrum available. This

    advantage is shrinking some what as the spectrum available for licensed and unlicensed radio

    systems increases due to modernization of spectrum allocation policies.

    Radio systems must make great efforts to overcome or avoid the effects of multipath fading,

    typically through the use of diversity. Infrared systems do not suffer from time-varying fades due

    to the inherent diversity in the receiver. This simplifies design and increases operational

    reliability.

    Infrared systems provide a natural resistance to eavesdropping, as the signals are confined withinthe walls of the room. This also reduces the potential for neighboring wireless communication

    systems to interfere with each other, which is a significant issue for radio-based communication

    systems.

    In band interference is a significant problem for both types of systems. A variety of electronic

    and electrical equipment radiates in transmission bands of current radio systems; microwave

    ovens are a good example. For infrared systems, ambient light, either man-made or natural, is a

    dominant source of noise.

    The primary limiting factor of infrared systems is their limited range, particularly when no good

    optical path can be made available. For example, wireless communication between conventional

    rooms with opaque walls and doors cannot be accomplished; one must resort to using either a

    radio-based or a wire line network to bypass the obstruction.

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    Radio broadcasting is an audio (sound) broadcasting service, broadcast through the air as radio

    waves (a form of electromagnetic radiation) from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a

    receiving device. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming,

    either in syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable FM,

    local wire networks, satellite and the Internet.

    Types

    Transmission and reception schematic

    The best known type of radiostation is the ones that broadcast via radio waves. These include

    foremost AM and FM stations. There are several subtypes, namely commercial,public and

    nonprofit varieties as well as student-run campus radio stations and hospital radio stations can be

    found throughout the developed world.

    Although now being eclipsed by internet-distributed radio, there are many stations that broadcaston shortwavebands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles(especially at night). For example, the BBC has a full schedule transmitted via shortwave. Thesebroadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and solar activity.

    Also, many other non-broadcast types of radio stations exist. These includebase stations for

    police,fire and ambulance networks, militarybase stations, dispatchbase stations fortaxis,trucks, and couriers,emergency broadcast systems, and amateur radio stations.

    Shortwave

    Used largely for international broadcasts by organs of state propaganda, religious organizations,militaries and others.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_broadcasting&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprofithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispatchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxicabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Broadcast_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radio_transmition_diagram_en.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_broadcasting&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprofithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispatchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxicabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Broadcast_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_station
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    AM

    AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitudemodulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal inresponse to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted. Many countries outside of the U.S. usea similar frequency band for AM transmissions. Europe also uses the long wave band. In response to the growing popularity of FM radio stereo radio stations in the late 1980s and early1990s, someNorth American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this never gained

    popularity, and very few receivers were ever sold.

    FM

    FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves in the frequency range of 88 to108 MHz everywhere (except Japan and Russia). Japan uses the 76 to 90 MHz band. Russia hastwo bands widely used by the Soviet Union, 65.9 to 74 MHz and 87.5 to 108 MHz worldwidestandard. FM stations are much more popular in economically developed regions, such as Europeand the United States, especially since higher sound fidelity and stereo broadcasting becamecommon in this format.

    FM radio was invented by Edwin H. Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose ofovercoming the interference (static) problem of AM radio, to which it is relatively immune. Atthe same time, greater fidelity was made possible by spacing stations further apart. Instead of 10kHz apart, they are 200 kHz apart. This was far in advance of the audio equipment of the 1940s,but wide interchannel spacing was chosen to take advantage of the noise-suppressing feature ofwideband FM.

    The AM radio problem of interference at night was addressed in a different way. At the time FMwas set up, the available frequencies were far higher in the spectrum than those used for AMradio - by a factor of approximately 100. Using these frequencies meant that even at far higherpower, the range of as given FM signal was much lower, thus its market was more local than for

    AM radio. The reception range at night is the same as at daytime.

    The original FM radio service in the U.S. was the Yankee Network, located in New England.Regular FM broadcasting began in 1939, but did not pose a significant threat to the AMbroadcasting industry. It required purchase of a special receiver. The frequencies used, 42 to 50MHz, were not those used today. The change to the current frequencies, 88 to 108 MHz, beganafter the end of World War II, and it was to some extent imposed by AM radio owners so as toattempt to cripple what was by now realized to be a potentially serious threat.

    FM radio on the new band had to begin from the ground floor. As a commercial venture itremained a little-used audio enthusiasts' medium until the 1960s. The more prosperous AM

    stations, or their owners, acquired FM licenses and often broadcast the same programming on theFM station as on the AM station ("simulating"). The FCC limited this practice in the 1970s. Bythe 1980s, since almost all new radios included both AM and FM tuners, FM became thedominant medium, especially in cities. Because of its greater range, AM remained more commonin rural environments.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstronghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong
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    Satellite

    Satellite radiobroadcasters are slowly emerging, but the enormous entry costs of space-based

    satellite transmitters, and restrictions on available radio spectrum licenses has restricted growth

    of this market. In the USA and Canada, just two services, XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite

    Radio exist. Both XM and Sirius are owned by Sirius XM Radio, which was formed by the

    merger of XM and Sirius on July 29, 2008, whereas in Canada,XM Radio Canada and Sirius

    Canada remain separate companies.

    Microwave Radio:

    Microwave radio relay is a technology for transmitting digital and analog signals, such as long-

    distance telephone calls and the relay oftelevision programs to transmitters, between two

    locations on a line of sight radio path. In microwave radio relay, radio waves are transmitted

    between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed radio connection between

    the two points. Long daisy-chained series of such links form transcontinental telephone and/or

    television communication systems.

    How microwave radio relay links are formed

    Relay towers on Frazier Mountain, Southern California

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM_Satellite_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_XM_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_in_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM_Radio_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_callhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_antennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy-chainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frazier_Mountainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frazier_Peak,_tower_and_Honda_Element.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM_Satellite_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_XM_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_in_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM_Radio_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_callhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_antennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy-chainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frazier_Mountainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California
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    Because a line of sight radio link is made, the radio frequencies used occupy only a narrow path

    between stations (with the exception of a certain radius of each station). Antennas used must

    have a high directive effect; these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as large radio

    towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in

    radio relay link installations areparabolic reflectors, shell antennas and horn radiators, which

    have a diameter of up to 4 meters. Highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the

    available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances.

    Over-horizon microwave radio relay

    In over-horizon, ortropospheric scatter, microwave radio relay, unlike a standard microwave

    radio relay link, the sending and receiving antennas do not use a line of sight transmission path.

    Instead, the stray signal transmission, known as "tropo - scatter" or simply "scatter," from the

    sent signal is picked up by the receiving station. Signal clarity obtained by this method depends

    on the weather and other factors, and as a result a high level of technical difficulty is involved inthe creation of a reliable over horizon radio relay link. Over horizon radio relay links are

    therefore only used where standard radio relay links are unsuitable (for example, in providing a

    microwave linkto an island).

    Usage of microwave radio relay systems

    During the 1950s the AT&T Communications system of TD radio grew to carry the majority of

    US Long Distance telephone traffic, as well as intercontinentaltelevision networksignals.

    Similar systems were soon built in many countries, until the 1980s when the technology lost its

    share of fixed operation to newer technologies such asfiber-optic cable and optical radio relaylinks, both of which offer larger data capacities at lower cost per bit. Communication satellites,

    which are also microwave radio relays, better retained their market share, especially for

    television.

    At the turn of the century, microwave radio relay systems are being used increasingly in portable

    radio applications. The technology is particularly suited to this application because of lower

    operating costs, a more efficient infrastructure, and provision of direct hardware access to the

    portable radio operator.

    Communication Satellite:

    A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to SATCOM) is an artificial satellitestationed in space for the purpose oftelecommunications. Modern communications satellites usea variety of orbits including geostationary orbits,Molniya orbits, otherelliptical orbits and low(polarand non-polar) Earth orbits.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_antennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_reflectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shell_antenna&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_(telecommunications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_scatterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_scatterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Communicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_cablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_cablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_satelliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_satelliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptical_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_antennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_reflectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shell_antenna&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_(telecommunications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_scatterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Communicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_cablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_satelliteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptical_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_orbit
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    For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relaytechnology complementary to that ofsubmarine communication cables. They are also used formobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals,and for TV and radiobroadcasting, for which application of other technologies, such as cable, isimpractical or impossible.

    U.S. military MILSTAR communications satellite

    Geostationary orbits

    A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer. A

    geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at a constant speed once per day over the

    equator.

    The geostationary orbit is useful for communications applications because ground basedantennas, which must be directed toward the satellite, can operate effectively without the need

    for expensive equipment to track the satellites motion. Especially for applications that require a

    large number of ground antennas (such as direct TV distribution), the savings in ground

    equipment can more than justify the extra cost and onboard complexity of lifting a satellite into

    the relatively high geostationary orbit.

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    Low-Earth-orbiting satellites

    A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 400 kilometers above the earths

    surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes.

    Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly

    1000 kilometers from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their

    position relative to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, a large number of

    satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity.

    Molniya satellites

    As mentioned, geostationary satellites are constrained to operate above the equator. As a

    consequence, they are not always suitable for providing services at high latitudes: at highlatitudes, a geostationary satellite will appear low on the horizon, affecting connectivity and

    causing multipath (interference caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground

    antenna).

    The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on April 23,1965and was used for

    experimental transmissionof TV signal from a Moscow uplinkstation to downlinkstations

    located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, inNorilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok.

    In November of1967 Soviet engineers created a unique systemof national TV networkof

    satellite television, calledOrbita, that was based on Molniya satellites.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downlinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downlinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norilskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magadanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladivostokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downlinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norilskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magadanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladivostokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbita
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    1.3 APPLICATIONS

    Broadcasting services: including short wave, AM and FM radio as well as terrestrial

    television

    Mobile communications of voice and data: including maritime and aeronautical mobile

    for communications between ships, airplanes and land; land mobile for communications

    between a fixed base station and moving sites such as a taxi fleet and paging services,

    and mobile communications either between mobile users and a fixed network or between

    mobile users, such as mobile telephone services

    Fixed Services: either point to point or point to multipoint services

    Satellite: used for broadcasting, telecommunications and internet, particularly over long

    distances .Professional LMR (Land Mobile Radio) and SMR (Specialized Mobile Radio)

    typically used by business, industrial and Public Safety entities Consumer Two Way

    Radio including FRS (Family Radio Service), GMRS (General Mobile Radio Service)

    and Citizens band ("CB") radios Consumer and professional Marine VHF radios

    Cellular telephones and pagers: provide connectivity for portable and mobile

    applications, both personal and business.

    Global Positioning System (GPS): allows drivers of cars and trucks, captains of boats

    and ships, and pilots of aircraft to ascertain their location anywhere on earth.

    Cordless computer peripherals: the cordless mouse is a common example; keyboards

    and printers can also be linked to a computer via wireless.

    Cordless telephone sets: these are limited-range devices, not to be confused with cell

    phones.

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    Satellite television: allows viewers in almost any location to select from hundreds of

    channels.

    Wireless gaming: new gaming consoles allow players to interact and play in the same

    game regardless of whether they are playing on different consoles. Players can chat, send

    text messages as well as record sound and send it to their friends.

    Security systems: Wireless technology may supplement or replace hard wired

    implementations in security systems for homes or office buildings.

    Television remote control: Modern televisions use wireless (generally infrared) remote

    control units. Now radio waves are also used.

    Cellular telephony (phones and modems): These instruments use radio waves to enable

    the operator to make phone calls from many locations world-wide. They can be used

    anywhere that there is a cellular telephone site to house the equipment that is required to

    transmit and receive the signal that is used to transfer both voice and data to and from

    these instruments.

    Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi (for wireless fidelity) is a wireless LAN technology that enables laptop

    PCs, PDAs, and other devices to connect easily to the internet. Technically known as

    IEEE 802.11 a,b,g,n, Wi-Fi is less expensive and nearing the speeds of standard Ethernet

    and other common wire-based LAN technologies

    Wireless energy transfer: Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy

    is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load thatdoes not have a built-in power

    source, without the use of interconnecting wires.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
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    1.4 SERVICES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

    Common examples of wireless equipment include:

    Telemetry control and traffic control systems Infrared and ultrasonic remote control devices Modulated laser light systems for point to point communications Professional LMR (Land Mobile Radio) and SMR (Specialized Mobile Radio) typically

    used by business, industrial and Public Safety entities. ConsumerTwo way radio including FRS Family Radio Service, GMRS (General Mobile

    Radio Service) and Citizens band ("CB") radios. The Amateur RadioService (Ham radio). Consumer and professional Marine VHF radios. Airband and radio navigation equipment used by aviators and air traffic control Cellular telephones and pagers: provide connectivity for portable and mobile

    applications, both personal and business. Global Positioning System (GPS): allows drivers of cars and trucks, captains of boats and

    ships, and pilots of aircraft to ascertain their location anywhere on earth. Cordless computer peripherals: the cordless mouse is a common example; keyboards and

    printers can also be linked to a computer via wireless using technology such as WirelessUSB orBluetooth

    Cordless telephone sets: these are limited-range devices, not to be confused with cellphones.

    Satellite television: Is broadcast from satellites ingeostationary orbit. Typical servicesuse direct broadcast satellite to provide multipletelevisionchannels to viewers.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_way_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_way_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Radio_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_USBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_USBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetoothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_way_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Radio_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_USBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_USBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetoothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television
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    1.5 ADVANTAGES

    Anywhere, Anytime Work

    Through wireless communication, working professionals and mobile workers can work and

    access the Internet just about anywhere, anytime without the hassles of wires and network cables.

    Enhanced Productivity

    Workers, students, professionals and others need not be constrained by wired Internet

    connections or dial-up connectivity. Wireless Internet connectivity options ensures that work and

    assignments can be completed anywhere and enhance overall productivity of all concerned.

    Remote Area Connectivity

    Workers, doctors and other professionals working in remote-location hospitals and medical

    centers can keep in touch with anyone through wireless communication. Non-profit organization

    volunteers working in remote and underserved areas can stay connected to the outside world with

    the help of wireless communication.

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    On-Demand Entertainment Bonanza

    For those unable to keep away from their daily soap operas, reality-programs, online TV shows

    and Internet surfing or download activities, wireless communication ensures an entertainment

    bonanza on--demand and anytime.

    Emergency Alerts

    Through wireless communication, many emergency situations and crisis situations can beaddressed quickly. Help and other assistance can reach affected areas quickly through early alerts

    and warnings provided with the help of wireless communication.

    1.6 DISADVANTAGES

    Wireless communications are limited by the range of the transmitter

    Cost of wireless communication system and components are high

    When transmitting data, users must sometimes send smaller bits of data so the information

    moves more quickly. The size of the device that's accessing the information is also still an issue.

    Many applications need to be reconfigured if they are going to be used through wireless

    connections.

    Most client/server applications rely on a persistent connection, which is not the case with

    wireless.

    Since radio waves travel through the atmosphere they can be disturbed by electrical interferences

    (such as lightning) that cause static.

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    CONCLUSION

    Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of

    electrical conductors or "wires". It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-

    way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking.

    Wireless communications begin with a message that is converted into an electronic signal by a

    device called a transmitter. The encoded electronic signal is then sent as a radio wave. Devices

    known as receivers decode or demodulate the radio waves and reproduce the original message

    over a speaker.

    There are 4 types wireless communication; they are Infrared Wireless Transmission, Broadcast

    Radio, Microwave Radio, Communications Satellites.

    Wireless communication is employed for a wide range of applications such as Broadcasting

    services, Mobile communications of voice and data, Fixed Services, Satellite, Cellular

    telephones and pagers, Global Positioning System , Cordless computer peripherals, Wireless

    gaming, Security systems, Wi-Fi, Wireless energy transfer.

    Therefore wireless communication is advantageous over the wired communication as we can

    work without the hassles of wires and network cables and enhance overall productivity and also

    at a higher speed.

    CHAPTER-2

    EVOLUTION FROM 1G 2G 3G 4G

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    2.1 INTRODUCTION TO 1G

    First generation

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    Almost all of the systems of this generation were Analog systems where voice was considered to

    be the main traffic.

    1G wireless networks used analog radio signals. Through 1G, a voice call gets modulated to a

    higher frequency of about 150MHz and up as it is transmitted between radio towers. This is done

    using a technique called Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA).

    These systems could often be listened to by third parties.

    Drawbacks of 1G

    1G compares unfavorably to its successors. It has low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice

    links, and no security at all since voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls

    susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties.

    2.1.1

    1G -Standards.

    Advanced Mobile Phone System

    (AMPS) was a 1G standard used in the United States.

    Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) was a 1G standard used in Nordic countries (Denmark,

    Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), as well as in its neighboring countries Switzerland and

    Netherlands, Eastern Europe, and Russia. Italy used a telecommunications system called RTMI

    Radio Telefono Mobile Integrato.In the United Kingdom, Total Access Communication System (TACS) was used. France used

    Radiocom 2000.

    2.2 Second generation:-

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    2G refers to second generation wireless telecommunication technology. While its predecessor,

    1G, made use of analog radio signals, 2G uses digital radio signals. Based on what type of

    multiplexing (the process of combining multiple digital data streams into one signal) is

    employed, 2G technologies may be categorized by whether they are based on time division

    multiple access (TDMA) or code division multiple access (CDMA). Around 60% of the current

    market is dominated by standards. of second Generation.

    TDMA-based 2G standards

    It includes the following:

    Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), used worldwide;

    Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (IDEN), developed by Motorola and used in the United

    States and Canada;

    Interim Standard 136 (IS-136) orDigital Advanced Mobile Phone System (D-AMPS), used

    in North and South America; and

    Personal Digital Cellular (PDC), used in Japan. IS-95, on the other hand, is CDMA-based. Itwas developed by Qualcomm, and is alternately known as TIA-EIA-95 or cdmaOne.

    2G cellphone units were generally smaller than 1G units, since they emitted less radio

    power.Another advantage of 2G over 1G is that the battery life of a 2G handset lasts longer,

    again due to the lower-powered radio signals. Since it transmitted data through digital signals,

    2G also offered additional services such as SMS and e-mail. Its lower power emissions also

    made 2G handsets safer for consumers to use.

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    2.3

    2.5 Generation

    2.5G, which stands for "second and a half generation," is a cellular wireless techno logy

    developed in between its predecessor, 2G, and its successor, 3G. "2.5G" is an informal term,

    invented solely for marketing purposes, unlike "2G" or "3G" which are officially defined

    standards based on those defined by the Intern ational Teleco mmunication (ITU). The term

    "2.5G" usually describes a 2G cellular system comb ined with General Packet Radio Services

    (GPRS), or other services not generally fou nd in 2G or 1G networks.GPRS is a service

    commonly associated with 2.5G technology. It has data transmission rates of 28 kbps or higher.

    GPRS came after the development of the Global System for Mobile (GSM) service, which is

    classified as 2G technology, and it was succeeded by the development of the Universal Mobile

    Telecommunication Service (UMTS), which is classified as 3G technology.

    Improved 2G networks (GPRS) manages to support few of applications like web browsing,

    emailing, video streaming, Multimedia messaging service etc. therefore GPRS can also be said

    that it is 2.5 generation technology.

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    2.4

    Third generations:-

    3G is the third generation of mobile phone standards and technology, superseding2G, and

    preceding 4G.To meet the growing demands in network capacity, rates required for high speed

    data transfer and multimedia applications, 3G standards started evolving. It is based on the

    International Telecommunication Union(ITU) family of standards under the International

    Mobile Telecommunications programmer,IMT-2000.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMT-2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMT-2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMT-2000
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    2.4.1 TECHNIQUES USED IN 3G

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    GSM

    Mobile

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    Mobile Station (MS)

    Mobile Equipment

    Fixed

    Portable

    International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number

    Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

    Personal Identification Number (PIN)

    International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number

    Enables access to subscribed services

    Smart card

    Base Transceiver Station - BTS

    Usually referred to as the Base Station

    Provides the interface to the network for the MS

    Handles all communications with the MS

    intelligence now deployed on MS

    for example, when to perform a handover

    Transmitting power determines cell size

    Base Station Controller - BSC

    Controls Base Stations

    up to several hundred depending on manufacturer

    Manages radio channels

    allocation and release

    Coordinates Handover

    Physical location may vary

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    Abis interface

    between BSC and BTS

    Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

    Performs all switching/exchange functions

    Handles registration authentication location updating

    A GSM network must have at least one MSC

    May connect to other networks

    Gateway MSC (GMSC)

    Administrative information for all subscribers

    Home Location Register (HLR)

    IMSI number actual phone number permitted supplementary services current location i.e. whichVLR subscriber is currently registered with One HLR per GSM PL GPRS

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    Mobile

    GPRS NSS

    Two new nodes introduced for packet data

    Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

    handles all packet data for the appropriate geographic area

    monitors GPRS users

    handles security and access control

    may be regarded as the packet switched equivalent of the circuit-switched MSC

    Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

    internetworking functionality

    routes incoming data to correct SGSN

    translates between different protocols and formats

    Details of data services added to HLR

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    EDGE

    EDGE, or the Enhanced Data Rate for Global Evolution, is the new mantra in the GlobalInternet Connectivity scene. EDGE is the new name for GSM 384. The technology was namedGSM 384 because of the fact that it provided Data Transmission at a rate of 384 Kbps. It consistsof the 8 pattern time slot, and the speed could be achieved when all the 8 time slots were used.The idea behind EDGE is to obtain even higher data rates on the current 200 KHz GSM carrier,by changing the type of the modulation used.Now, this is the most striking feature. EDGE, asbeing once a GSM technology, works on the existing GSM or the TDMA carriers, and enablesthem to many of the 3G services.

    Although EDGE will have a little technical impact, since its fully based on GSM or the TDMAcarriers, but it might just get an EDGE over the upcomming technologies, and ofcourse, theGPRS. With EDGE, the operators and service providers can offer more wireless data application,including wireless multimedia,e-mail (Web Based), Web Infotainment, and above all, thetechnology of Video Conferencing.Now all these technologies that were named earlier, were the clauses of the IMT-UMTS 3GPackage. But, with EDGE, we can get all these 3G services on our existing GSM phones, whichmight just prove to be a boon to the user.

    2.4.2

    STANDARDS USED IN THE 3G MOBILES ARE FOLLOWING

    W-CDMA also known as UMTS

    CDMA2000

    TD-CDMA / TD-SCDMA

    UWC (often implemented with EDGE)

    DECT

    WIMAX

    IMT-2000

    It is the term used by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) for a set of globally

    harmonized standards for third generation (3G) mobile telecoms services and equipment. 3G

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-CDMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-CDMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-SCDMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_Wireless_Communications&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-CDMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-CDMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-SCDMAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_Wireless_Communications&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECT
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    services are designed to offer broadband cellular access at speeds of 2Mbps, which will allow

    mobile multimedia services to become possible.

    WIDEBAND CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

    (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)

    WCDMA is a wideband spread-spectrum 3G mobile telecommunication air interface that

    utilizes code division multiple access .It provides simultaneous support for a wide range of

    services with different characteristics on a common 5MHz carrier.

    The term WCDMA also refers to one of the International Telecommunications Union's IMT-

    2000 standards, a type of 3G cellular network. WCDMA is the technology behind the 3G UMTS

    standard and is closely allied with the 2G GSM standard. It provides new service capabilities,

    increased network capacity and reduced cost for voice and data services.

    The term 'WCDMA Evolved' describes the evolution of WCDMA, addressing both operators'

    needs for efficiency and users' demands for enhanced experience and convenience. The first

    steps of this evolution are HSDPA and Enhanced Uplink.

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    Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various radiocommunication technologies. It should not be confused with the mobile phone standards called

    cdmaOne and CDMA2000 (which are often referred to as simply "CDMA"), which use CDMAas an underlying channel access method.

    One of the basic concepts in data communication is the idea of allowing several transmitters tosend information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several usersto share a bandwidth of different frequencies. This concept is called multiplexing. CDMAemploys spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter isassigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. Bycontrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form of "spread-spectrum" signaling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth thanthe data being communicated.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-95http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-95
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    CDMA2000 Technologies

    CDMA2000 represents a family of standards and includes:

    CDMA2000 1X

    CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Technologies

    CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rel 0

    CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rev A

    CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rev B

    CDMA2000

    It is a hybrid 2.5G / 3G technology of mobile telecommunications standards that use CDMA, a

    multiple access scheme for digital radio, to send voice, data, and signalling data (such as a dialed

    telephone number) between mobile phones and cell sites. CDMA2000 is considered a 2.5G

    technology in 1xRTT and a 3G technology in EVDO. CDMA2000 is also known as IS-2000.

    Even though "W-CDMA" and "CDMA2000" both have "CDMA" in their names, they are

    completely different systems using different technologies. However, it is hoped that mobile

    devices using the two systems will be able to talk to each other.

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    CDMA2000-1xEVDO System Architecture (Basic)

    BTS: Base Station, which creates a single cell

    BSC: Base Station Controller, which controls roaming and channel allocations amongst

    various BSTs and is also referred to as a Radio Network Controller (RNC).

    MSC: Mobile Switching Center, which performs the telephony switching functions and is

    usually connected to an SS7 network.

    PDSN: Packet Data Serving Node, maintains IP communications between all MNs and the

    Packet Data Network (PDN), which in this diagram is the Internet.

    Broadband data: Provides a peak data rate of 2.4 Mbps in the forward link and 153 kbps in the

    reverse link in a single 1.25 MHz FDD carrier

    Offers an "always on" user experience

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    Applications: Supports broadband data applications, such as broadband Internet or VPN access,

    MP3 music downloads, 3D gaming, TV broadcasts, video and audio downloads.

    Evolution-Data Optimized orEvolution-Data only, abbreviated as EV-DO orEVDO and

    often EV, is a telecommunications standard for the wireless transmission of data through radio

    signals, typically for broadband Internet access. It uses multiplexing techniques including code

    division multiple access (CDMA) as well as time division multiple access (TDMA) to maximize

    both individual user's throughput and the overall system throughput. It is standardized by 3rd

    Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) as part of the CDMA2000 family of standards and has

    been adopted by many mobile phone service providers around the world particularly those

    previously employing CDMA networks.

    A Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN) provides access to the Internet, intranets and applications

    servers for mobile stations utilizing a cdma2000 Radio Access

    The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the network of the world's public circuit-

    switched telephone networks

    Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a general term for a family of transmission technologies

    for delivery of voice communications over IP networks such as the Internet or other packet-

    switched networks. Other terms frequently encountered and synonymous with VoIP are IP

    telephony, Internet telephony, voice over broadband (VoBB), broadband telephony, and

    broadband phone.

    Key features of CDMA2000 are:

    Leading erformance.

    Efficient use of spectrum.

    Support for advanced mobile services.

    Devices selection.

    Seamless evolution path .

    Flexibility .

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    CDMA2000 Advantages

    Superior Voice Clarity

    High-Speed Broadband Data Connectivity

    Low End-to-End Latency

    Increased Voice and Data Throughput Capacity

    Improved Security and Privacy

    Lower Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)

    Time Division Code Division Multiple Access

    Or

    Time Division Synchronous Code

    Divi\sion Multiple Access

    TD-CDMA, an acronym forTime-division - CDMA, is a channel access method based on using

    spread spectrum across multiple time slots.[1] It is shown that a mixture of TDMA and CDMA

    provides better quality of service for multimedia communications in terms of data throughput

    and voice/video quality.

    TD-SCDMA is being pursued in the People's Republic of China by the Chinese Academy of

    Telecommunications Technology (CATT), Datang and Siemens AG, in an attempt not to be

    dependent on Western technology. This is likely primarily for practical reasons, other 3G

    formats require the payment of patent fees to a large number of Western patent holders [4].

    TD-SCDMA uses the Time Division Duplex (TDD) mode,

    Time-division duplexing (TDD) is the application of time-division multiplexing to separate

    outward and return signals. It emulates full-duplex communication over a half-duplex

    communication link. Time-division duplex has a strong advantage in the case where there is

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    asymmetry of the uplink and downlink data rates. As the amount of uplink data increases, more

    communication capacity can be dynamically allocated, and as the traffic load becomes lighter,

    capacity can be taken away. The same applies in the downlink direction.

    In January 2009 the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) in China took the

    unusual step of assigning licences for 3 different third-generation mobile phone standards to

    three carriers in a long-awaited step that is expected to prompt $41 billion in spending on newequipment. The Chinese-developed standard, TD-SCDMA, was assigned to China Mobile, the

    world's biggest phone carrier by subscribers. That appeared to be an effort to make sure the new

    system has the financial and technical backing to succeed. Licences for two existing 3G

    standards, WCDMA and CDMA-2000, were assigned to China Unicom and China Telecom,

    respectively. Third-generation, or 3G, technology supports Web surfing, wireless video and other

    services and the start of service is expected to spur new revenue growth.

    DECT

    Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), known as Digital EuropeanCordless TelephonE until 1995, is an ETSI standard for digital portable phones (cordless hometelephones), commonly used for domestic or corporate purposes. It is recognised by the ITU asfulfilling the IMT-2000 requirements and thus qualifies as a 3G system. Within the IMT-2000group of technologies, DECT is referred to as IMT-2000 Frequency Time (IMT-FT)

    DECT was developed by ETSI but has since been adopted by many countries all over the world.The original DECT frequency band (1880MHz1900 MHz) is used in all countries inEurope.Outside Europe, it is used in most of Asia, Australia and South America. In the United States, theFederal Communications Commission in 2005 changed channelization and licensing costs in a

    nearby band (1920 MHz1930 MHz, or 1.9 GHz), known as Unlicensed PersonalCommunications Services (UPCS), allowing DECT devices to be sold in the U.S. with onlyminimal changes. These channels are reserved exclusively for voice communication applicationsand therefore are less likely to experience interference from other wireless devices such as babymonitors and wireless networks.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIIThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETSIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMT-2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GHzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cordless.phone.750pix.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIIThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETSIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMT-2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3Ghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GHz
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    2.4.3

    THE GROWTH OF 3G IN INDIA

    India is seeing an unprecedented increase in the mobile users. According of one of the latest

    TRAI reports released in November 2008, the total number of mobile users in India has reached

    325 million. In October 2008 alone, 10.42 million new subscribers added. These figures are

    bound to shoot up with the launch of 3G network.Some of the major mobile players in India are

    BSNL mobile, Airtel mobile, Reliance mobile and Tata mobile. At one time Aircel mobile wasleading the market; however, it has now lost the market share to BSNL mobile, Airtel mobile and

    other leading mobile players.

    With 3G network, mobile internet will have its internet capabilities enhanced and we will be able

    to have mobile broadband. BSNL mobile is planning to launch 3G network in January 2009.

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    Airtel is expected to follow suit with 3G network. Airtel has already launched the Apple 3G

    iPhone in India in August 2008.

    With so much of competition in the mobile telecom industry, we can expect the tariffs for mobile

    broadband network from BSNL broadband, Airtel broadband and other leading players to behighly competitive. We can expect a great reception from the Indian mobile consumers. Mobile

    broadband is bound to change the entire internet experience. People who are currently using

    GPRS connection to surf the internet while they are on the move using their mobile phones,

    PDAs and Laptops know how convenient it is to have internet on the move. You can accom

    plish a lot of work even as you move from one place to the other and your business will not

    suffer because you are travelling. However, one of the pains of using GPRS connection is their

    painfully slow connections. We can over come these internet speed issues with 3G mobile

    network. We can enjoy internet at the speed of broadband not only at our homes and offices we

    can enjoy high-speed internet connections even while travelling.

    Most of us are closely following the announcements from all leading mobile players in India on

    their efforts to bringing 3G network to the Indian mobile community. It is rather surprising to

    note why Airtel who brought a revolution in the mobile industry, competitive rates and excellent

    services have not managed to launch 3G service yet.

    All those who have been waiting for the 3G network in India has reached the state of frustration

    as there is no word from the telecom department regarding when exactly we will be able to enjoy

    mobile broadband in India except for the occasional remarks from the leading mobile players in

    India such as BSNL mobile. Though BSNL mobile has plans to launch 3G network in January2009, we can never be sure when exactly this will be realized. Interestingly, not many

    international players are interested in bidding in the 3G network auctions. However, if

    international players come in there will be an increased competition in the industry that will

    work for the advantage of the end users in terms of better-priced 3G solutions.

    3G ENABLED HANDSETS IN INDIA

    Here are the top ten 3G phones of 2009 and their price in Indian Rupees

    1. Nokia E 71 Rs. 19,700

    2. Apple iphone 3G Rs. 29800

    3. Samsung Pixon Rs.30999

    4. Nokia N85 Rs.22,000

    5. Blackberry Bold Rs 34990

    6. Blackberry Storm Rs 27990 (Only available bundled with Vodafone connection)

    7. LG Secret Rs. 22000

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    8. INQ 1 (Price not available)

    9. Sony Ericsson C905 Rs.31,000

    10. Samsung Omnia Rs.31,200

    3G in India by mid 2009 but with spectrum curbs

    With the Government issuing guidelines for 3G, high speed mobile downloads and live

    television on mobile will finally become a reality by middle of 2009. But customers in Delhi or

    Mumbai may not have much to look forward to.

    Due to spectrum constraints, there are merely three Global System for Mobile (GSM) operators

    that can offer 3G services. With one slot already reserved for MTNL and the other two open for

    global bids, customers in Delhi and Mumbai may end up missing the 3G bus if they dont switch

    operators.But customers in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala could have as many as 10

    operators to choose from.

    "Subject to the availability of 3G spectrum, we will have five operators to start with and

    gradually we may go up to having ten operators. In Mumbai and Delhi, however, we can only

    have 2-3 operators, Communications and IT Minister D Raja said.Even private GSM operators

    admit that limited spectrum will lead to overbidding and could render 3G services unaffordable.

    "If there is a supply constraint and demand excess, obviously there will be overbidding, which

    could make 3G very expensive in Delhi and Mumbai," Director General, Cellular Operators

    Association of India (COAI), T V Ramachandran cautions.But analysts say it is unlikely that the

    big GSM players like Airtel and Vodafone will not bid aggressively to ensure they get 3G

    spectrums, primarily because most customers with an appetite for 3G are locked in the two

    networks.

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    2.4.4

    ADVANTAGES OF 3G TECHNOLOGY

    3G has supplied a fresh way of living amongst cellular phone and handset users with consumersrapidly getting on the bandwagon and putting money into 3G-powered devices and tools. 3G canalter the way in which you look at network, with the various features as well as effects. Youcould move forward and take advantage of the highest details as well as tools by understandingthe operations and applications of the system, as well as the current networks.

    The Operations

    Individuals can perform many operations such as sending information and data and getting thesevia wireless access. You can obtain information no matter the time and location. 3G is thecurrent mobile technology and is currently the most rapidly growing host among mobilehandsets, giving you the greater speeds, in comparison to other technologies that preceded it.

    You are able to have faster connection, audio entertainment with greater quality and fasterInternet access. You also receive the advantages of video calling because of the greater speed,

    enjoying phone calls to family as well as friends all over the world with the video calling feature.The caliber and clarity are enhanced, with the ability usable provided the two parties areemploying the 3G innovations.

    Utilizing the Technology

    People may utilize their phones and allow them to work as a modem for their computer to mailand send necessary documents. Downloading audio tracks as well as games would be a lot

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    quicker compared to older technologies. The tech additionally allows extremely quickdownloads, so you need only a couple minutes to download albums and movie clips.

    Getting Info

    Obtaining info is among of the best features of 3G technology which means you can also watchthe latest news and newspaper headlines, receiving information such as weather reports, sportsnews and even economy related information. You have the ability to acquire the latest scores in

    an ongoing baseball match and other favorite sports or shows. The improved caliber of facilitiesas well as speed of 3G devices may permit you to see music clips as well as film clips with veryclear photographs, when held in comparison to 2.5G technology devices.

    Faster Speed

    Using 3G technology, you get to enjoy data transmission speed leading up to 2Mbps, providingyou have a phone stationary. It additionally provides you heightened level of connectivity as wellas greater networking, in addition to noise resistance. The tech has raised the bit rate, allowingservice providers to give high speed Internet capabilities, greater call numbers and lot of themultimedia apps that can be given to the consumers. All of the facilities can be given to the

    customers based on the data quantity sent and not upon the time used for the service, so theservices given to customers are more inexpensive.

    On Price

    In spite of the new speeds and capabilities of 3G tech, the costs of handsets are relatively thesame, with the most recent types, though, being priced higher to those featuring 2.5G, althoughInternet bargains are around.

    Disadvantages of 3G technology

    Expensive input fees for the 3G service licenses

    Numerous differences in the licensing terms

    Large amount of debt currently sustained by many

    telecommunication companies, which makes it a challenge to build the necessary infrastructure

    for 3G

    Lack of member state support for financially troubled operators

    Expense of 3G phones

    Lack of buy-in by 2G mobile users for the new 3G wireless services GE

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    2.5 Fourth Generation:-

    The 4G working group has defined the following as objectives of the 4G wirelesscommunication standard:

    A spectrally efficientsystem (in bits/s/Hz and bits/s/Hz/site),

    High network capacity: more simultaneous users per cell,

    A nominal data rate of 100 Mbit/s while the client physically moves at high speeds relative to the

    station, and 1 Gbit/s while client and station are in relatively fixed positions as defined by the

    ITU-R,

    A data rate of at least 100 Mbit/s between any two points in the world,

    Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks

    Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple networks,

    High quality of service for next generation multimedia support (real time audio, high speed data,

    HDTV video content, mobile TV, etc

    Interoperability with existing wireless standards, and

    An all IP, packet switched network

    In summary, the 4G system should dynamically share and utilize network resources to meet the

    minimal requirements of all the 4G enabled users

    2.5.1

    SWOT ANALYSIS OF 4G

    Strengths in 4G:

    4G visions take into account installed base and past investments

    Strong position of telecommunications vendors expected in the marketplace

    - Faster data transmission and higher bit rate and bandwidth, allow more

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiency
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    business applications and commercialization

    - Has advantage for personalized multimedia communication tools

    Weakness in 4G:

    No large user community for advanced mobile data applications yet

    - Growing divergence between telecommunications vendors and operators

    - Not possible to offer full internet experience due to limited speed and

    Bandwidth

    - Comparatively higher cost to use and deploy infrastructure compared fast

    mobile generation

    Opportunities in 4G:

    Evolutionary approach may yield opportunities for the 4G.

    - Sophisticated and mature commercialization of 4G technology would

    encourage more applications of e-commerce and m-commerce

    - Worldwide economy recover stimulates consumption and consumer

    confidence, therefore bring in opportunities for telecommunication sections

    - It is expected and predicted that consumers will continue to replace handsets

    with newer technology at a fast rate.

    - Desirable higher data capacity rates, the growth opportunity for 4G is very

    bright and hopeful

    Threats in 4G:

    Faster rate of growth and developments in other region

    - Since 3G mobile is still in the market, it squeezes the market competition in

    the mobile industry

    Conclusion

    As we come up with the SWOT analysis out of this 4G technology, it is inevitable that 4G

    would completely replace 3G in a long run. Nevertheless, 4G and 3Gtend to keep a co-

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    competitive relationship in a short run. In order for 4G to grow in the future market, it is

    unavoidable to compete with 3G and acquire 3Gs customers.

    2.5.2

    Future of 3G and 4G networks

    Like any new technological development, 4G is a lot closer than you think. Tests are alreadyunderway and some battle lines are being drawn with regards to how the market for theseservices will emerge. This development is on track to coincide with the equally rapiddevelopment of real time systems like Twitter and Google Wave. What is likely to emerge areservices that create instantaneous streams to deliver and share not just text and hyperlinks, butvideo, audio, whiteboarding and files. This will be:a) Fasterb) From a static or mobile device

    c) With more reliable synchronization via the cloudd) Easily archivable and searchable

    Even more exciting is the continued evolution in hardware and always on devices. Taking theiPhone as an example, its gyroscope has redefined gaming and sent the experience into a muchmore physical dimension. The Wii is another case, even being used as part of physical therapyregimens.

    The near future will bring devices that rapidly stream real time data that can be manipulatedphysically via mobile devices around the world. This data will be searchable and archivable viathe cloud. Data will also be semantically organized and re-configurable into other views that

    reveal insights for business owners and managers.

    With all of the possibilities that this brings, planning for the roll out of these technologiesrequires a broad knowledge of what will become available, but it also requires significant focusbecause, taking Twitter as an example, the most compelling applications often use a subset ofwhat is available. Technologically, Twitter is not particularly complex, but it has met a humanneed.

    4G will provide the playing field for the next Twitter or Facebook, provided that a developersand entrepeneurs are able to ask the right questions and stay focused on meeting human needs,rather than geeking out.

    More importantly, is poses the questions that need to be asked by anyone who will be taking partin that space. It is important to remember that 4G, beyond being a mobile technology, will be aconvergence of technologies. Desktop, remote, mobile, and new interfaces will continue to makeit impossible to focus on one single type of device for anyone hoping to compete in the nextseveral years.

    http://microgeist.com/2009/09/the-future-of-4g-twitter-and-google-wave/http://microgeist.com/2009/09/the-future-of-4g-twitter-and-google-wave/
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    2.5.3

    DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 3G AND 4G TECHNOLOGIES

    There has been more talk about 4G (fourth generation) mobile broadband recently and Nokia

    Siemens Networks (NSN's) has announced that the first 4G field trials have been completed in

    Berlin.

    As 4G seems to have taken a step closer to reality, I decided to do some research and find out

    what advantages 4G may offer over 3G. The specifications for 4G are not standardized yet but

    the following 3G vs 4G table gives an idea of what 4G is likely to provide.

    Technology3G 4G

    Frequency band1.8 - 2.5GHz 2 - 8GHz

    Bandwidth5-20MHz 5-20MHz

    Data rateUp to 2Mbps 100Mbps moving - 1Gbps stationary

    AccessW-CDMA VSF-OFCDM and VSF-CDMA

    Switching Circuit/Packet Packet

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    The existing 3G W-CDMA standard will be replaced in 4G by VSF-OFCDM and VSF-CDMA.

    VSF-OFCDM allows extremely high downlink connections, both indoors and outdoors. VSF-

    CDMA provides high-efficiency, high-speed packet transmissions for the uplink.

    The 4G adoption of concatenated FEC (Forward Error Correction) will allow much larger data

    packets to be transmitted and at the same time reduce the bit error rate. This will increase the

    overall data through-put.

    One of the main advantages that 4G technology will have over 3G is higher data rates. This will

    benefit the end user by allowing faster access to multimedia and video while on the move.

    We may still have to wait a while for 4G though, as it looks like 4G networks won't be launched

    until 2008 and won't become widely available until 2010.

    Conclusion:

    Availability could be years off

    4Gs predecessor, 3G wireless, is still taking off. The fourth-largest wireless-service provider, T-

    Mobile. So if 3G is just getting going, what does that mean for 4G?

    Opinions on when 4G services might be available differ.

    But if standards dont come before 2015, as Gartners Redman predicts, true 4G services could

    come only after 2015.

    4G will open the door to a variety of mobile apps

    Some analysts agree there is no killer app for 4G today. But with the mobile speeds being

    proposed with 4G, customers could participate in live video conferences while on the go or

    access bandwidth-intensive applications.

    Abstract:

    Wikipedia,

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G

    http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid40_gci505555,00.html

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3Ghttp://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid40_gci505555,00.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3Ghttp://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid40_gci505555,00.html
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    http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/TCDMA

    http://www.dectweb.com/default.html

    http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/TCDMAhttp://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/TCDMA