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Exercise Exercise Physiology Physiology Topic Cue Cards Topic Cue Cards

Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

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Page 1: Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

Exercise Exercise PhysiologyPhysiology

Topic Cue CardsTopic Cue Cards

Page 2: Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

2ATPATP

Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the bodythe only usable form of energy in the body

The energy we derive from the foods we eat such as The energy we derive from the foods we eat such as carbohydrates, has to be converted into ATP before the potential carbohydrates, has to be converted into ATP before the potential energy in them can be usedenergy in them can be used

ATP consists of one molecule of adenosine and three phosphatesATP consists of one molecule of adenosine and three phosphates Energy is released from ATP by breaking down the bonds (which Energy is released from ATP by breaking down the bonds (which

are a source of a lot of potential energy) that hold it togetherare a source of a lot of potential energy) that hold it together Enzymes are used to break down compounds. ATPase is the Enzymes are used to break down compounds. ATPase is the

enzyme used to break down ATP into ADP + Penzyme used to break down ATP into ADP + P This reaction is exothermic because energy is releasedThis reaction is exothermic because energy is released A reaction that needs energy to work is called an endothermic A reaction that needs energy to work is called an endothermic

reactionreaction Rebuilding or re-synthesising ATP from ADP + P is an Rebuilding or re-synthesising ATP from ADP + P is an

endothermic reactionendothermic reaction Energy released from the breakdown of ATP is converted to Energy released from the breakdown of ATP is converted to

kinetic & heat energykinetic & heat energy ATPaseATPaseATP ATP ADP + P + energy ADP + P + energy

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Key point Make sure you know how the energy is released from ATP

Page 4: Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

4ATP-PC SystemATP-PC System

Phosphocreatine (PC) is an energy-rich phosphate compound Phosphocreatine (PC) is an energy-rich phosphate compound found in the sarcoplasm of the muscles, and is readily found in the sarcoplasm of the muscles, and is readily available. Its rapid availability is important for providing available. Its rapid availability is important for providing contractions of high power, such as in a 100 m sprint or in a contractions of high power, such as in a 100 m sprint or in a short burst of intense activity during a game, for example a short burst of intense activity during a game, for example a smash in tennis or a slam-dunk In basketball. However, there is smash in tennis or a slam-dunk In basketball. However, there is only enough PC to last for up to 10 seconds and it can only be only enough PC to last for up to 10 seconds and it can only be replenished when the intensity of the activity is sub-maximalreplenished when the intensity of the activity is sub-maximal

The ATP-PC system re-synthesises ATP when the enzyme The ATP-PC system re-synthesises ATP when the enzyme creatine kinase detects high levels of ADP. It breaks down the creatine kinase detects high levels of ADP. It breaks down the phosphocreatine (as potential energy is stored in the bonds of phosphocreatine (as potential energy is stored in the bonds of this compound) to phosphate and creatine, releasing energy. this compound) to phosphate and creatine, releasing energy. This energy is then used to convert ADP to ATP in a coupled This energy is then used to convert ADP to ATP in a coupled reaction (where more than one reaction takes place)reaction (where more than one reaction takes place)

For every molecule of PC broken down, enough energy is For every molecule of PC broken down, enough energy is released to create one molecule of ATP. This means that the released to create one molecule of ATP. This means that the system is not very efficient but it does have the advantage of system is not very efficient but it does have the advantage of not producing fatiguing by-products and its use is important in not producing fatiguing by-products and its use is important in delaying the onset of the lactic acid systemdelaying the onset of the lactic acid system

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Key point The advantages of this system are that it is quick and easy to use and there are no by-products. The disadvantage is that the energy yield is only one molecule of ATP

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6The Lactic Acid SystemThe Lactic Acid System

Once PC is depleted, the lactic acid system takes over and re-Once PC is depleted, the lactic acid system takes over and re-synthesises ATP. This system, like the ATP-PC system, is an synthesises ATP. This system, like the ATP-PC system, is an anaerobic process where the energy comes from the food we anaerobic process where the energy comes from the food we eat namely carbohydrate, which is digested to glucoseeat namely carbohydrate, which is digested to glucose

Glucose is stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Before Glucose is stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Before glycogen can be used to provide energy to make ATP, it has to glycogen can be used to provide energy to make ATP, it has to be converted to glucose, This process is called glycolysisbe converted to glucose, This process is called glycolysis

The lactic acid system is sometimes referred to as anaerobic The lactic acid system is sometimes referred to as anaerobic glycolysis due to the absence of oxygen, In a series of glycolysis due to the absence of oxygen, In a series of reactions, the glucose molecule is broken down into two reactions, the glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid, which are then converted to lactic molecules of pyruvic acid, which are then converted to lactic acid because oxygen is not availableacid because oxygen is not available

The main enzyme responsible for the anaerobic breakdown of The main enzyme responsible for the anaerobic breakdown of glucose is PFK (phosphofructokinase), activated by low levels of glucose is PFK (phosphofructokinase), activated by low levels of phosphocreatine, The energy released from the breakdown of phosphocreatine, The energy released from the breakdown of each molecule of glucose is used to make two molecules of ATPeach molecule of glucose is used to make two molecules of ATP

The lactic acid system provides energy for high-intensity The lactic acid system provides energy for high-intensity activities lasting up to 3 minutes but peaking at 1 minute, for activities lasting up to 3 minutes but peaking at 1 minute, for example the 400mexample the 400m

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7The main disadvantage of using this energy system is the formation of lactic acid. If lactic acid accumulates in the muscle, the pH of the body is lowered and this has an effect on enzyme action. PFK, the controlling enzyme, is then inhibited andthe ability to re-generate ATP is reduced. This affects performance, for example ‘burning out’ at the end of a race

Key point When stating the use of this system, always refer to the intensity and duration of the activity in your examples

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8 The Aerobic System: The Aerobic System: Glycolysis Glycolysis

The aerobic system needs oxygen. Glucose can be fully The aerobic system needs oxygen. Glucose can be fully broken down in the presence of oxygen. However, at the broken down in the presence of oxygen. However, at the start of exercise more oxygen is needed to break down start of exercise more oxygen is needed to break down glucose at a rate that matches the demand for ATP. Until glucose at a rate that matches the demand for ATP. Until more oxygen can reach the working muscle, through an more oxygen can reach the working muscle, through an increase in heart rate and ventilation rate, we have to use increase in heart rate and ventilation rate, we have to use the ATP-PC and lactic acid systems. This means the aerobic the ATP-PC and lactic acid systems. This means the aerobic system usually becomes predominant within 1-2 minutessystem usually becomes predominant within 1-2 minutes

The aerobic system is a complex chain of events consisting The aerobic system is a complex chain of events consisting of three stages. The first stage is glycolysis. This is similar to of three stages. The first stage is glycolysis. This is similar to anaerobic glycolysis. ATP is re-synthesised from the anaerobic glycolysis. ATP is re-synthesised from the breakdown of glucose. In a series of reactions, the glucose breakdown of glucose. In a series of reactions, the glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid. molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid. But since, in this case, oxygen is present the reaction can But since, in this case, oxygen is present the reaction can proceed further than in anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid is proceed further than in anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid is not producednot produced

This reaction occurs in the sarcoplasm of the muscle and the This reaction occurs in the sarcoplasm of the muscle and the energy released from the breakdown of each molecule of energy released from the breakdown of each molecule of glucose is used to make two molecules of ATPglucose is used to make two molecules of ATP

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Key point The aerobic system uses oxygen. The complete breakdown of glucose yields 38 molecules of ATP, as opposed to two in the lactic acid system and one in the ATP-PC system. Therefore the aerobic system is a much more efficient method of re-synthesising ATP

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10 The Aerobic System: Krebs The Aerobic System: Krebs CycleCycle

Pyruvic acid is broken down and diffuses into the matrix of the Pyruvic acid is broken down and diffuses into the matrix of the mitochondria, combining with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl mitochondria, combining with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl coenzyme Acoenzyme AA coenzyme is a molecule that can transport atoms from one A coenzyme is a molecule that can transport atoms from one reaction to anotherreaction to anotherA complex cycle of reactions then occurs in a process known as A complex cycle of reactions then occurs in a process known as the Krebs cycle:the Krebs cycle:

The acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid, forming The acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid, forming citric acid, which is then oxidisedcitric acid, which is then oxidised

The reactions that occur result in the production of two The reactions that occur result in the production of two molecules of ATPmolecules of ATP

Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated and the whole series of Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated and the whole series of reactions begins againreactions begins again

Carbon dioxide is formed as a waste product and this is Carbon dioxide is formed as a waste product and this is simply breathed outsimply breathed out

Hydrogen is removed during the oxidation process and Hydrogen is removed during the oxidation process and taken to the electron transport chaintaken to the electron transport chain

This cycle is also referred to as the citric acid cycle or the tri-This cycle is also referred to as the citric acid cycle or the tri-carboxylic acid (TCA) cyclecarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle

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Key point The three main features t o remember about the Krebs cycle are:

• carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product

• hydrogen is removed

• The energy yield is two molecules of ATP

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12 The Aerobic System: Electron Transport The Aerobic System: Electron Transport ChainChain

The function of the electron transport chain is to enable the The function of the electron transport chain is to enable the controlled release of free energy to drive the re-synthesis of controlled release of free energy to drive the re-synthesis of ATP. The electron transport chain is the final stage of the ATP. The electron transport chain is the final stage of the aerobic pathway. It is a complex system which is simplified as aerobic pathway. It is a complex system which is simplified as followsfollows

The hydrogen atoms removed during the Krebs cycle are The hydrogen atoms removed during the Krebs cycle are transferred to the electron transport chain by hydrogen transferred to the electron transport chain by hydrogen carriers (NAD and FAD)carriers (NAD and FAD)

This occurs in the cristae of the inner membranes of the This occurs in the cristae of the inner membranes of the mitochondriamitochondria

Within this inner membrane are the electron carriers of the Within this inner membrane are the electron carriers of the respiratory chainrespiratory chain

Here, the hydrogen splits into hydrogen ions and electrons, Here, the hydrogen splits into hydrogen ions and electrons, which are charged with potential energywhich are charged with potential energy

The hydrogen ions are oxidised to form water: while the The hydrogen ions are oxidised to form water: while the electrons provide the energy to re-synthesise ATPelectrons provide the energy to re-synthesise ATP

Water as a by-product is secreted as sweatWater as a by-product is secreted as sweat

In the course of this process, 34 molecules of ATP are formedIn the course of this process, 34 molecules of ATP are formed

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Key point The three main things to remember about the electron transport chain are:

Water is formed

It occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria

The energy yield is 34 molecules of ATP

If we add the energy yield from the electron transport chain (34 molecules of ATP) to that from the Krebs cycle (2 molecules) and glycolysis (2 molecules), we can see that the total breakdown of one molecule of glycogen can provide enough energy to resynthesise 38 molecules of ATP

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14 The Aerobic System: an The Aerobic System: an OverviewOverview

The aerobic system breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide The aerobic system breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide and water. The presence of oxygen makes it much more and water. The presence of oxygen makes it much more efficient than anaerobic glycolysis, The complete oxidation of efficient than anaerobic glycolysis, The complete oxidation of glucose can produce up to 38 molecules of ATP in three stages:glucose can produce up to 38 molecules of ATP in three stages:

GlycolysisGlycolysis the Krebs cyclethe Krebs cycle the electron transport chainthe electron transport chain

The aerobic system is the most efficient for producing energy The aerobic system is the most efficient for producing energy but the reactions that occur throughout this system rely on but the reactions that occur throughout this system rely on oxygenoxygen

At the start of exercise, or for high-intensity exercise such as At the start of exercise, or for high-intensity exercise such as sprinting, oxygen is not always available in sufficient quantities sprinting, oxygen is not always available in sufficient quantities for these reactions to occur: so other methods of replenishing for these reactions to occur: so other methods of replenishing ATP have to be usedATP have to be used

Since the aerobic system produces huge quantities of ATP, it is Since the aerobic system produces huge quantities of ATP, it is predominant in endurance-based activities where energy is predominant in endurance-based activities where energy is required over a long period of time. Examples of such low-required over a long period of time. Examples of such low-intensity exercise activities include jogging and power walkingintensity exercise activities include jogging and power walking

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Energy system:Energy system: AerobicAerobicType of reaction:Type of reaction: Aerobic, coupledAerobic, coupled

Chemical or food used:Chemical or food used: GlucoseGlucoseFatsFats

Site of reaction:Site of reaction: Krebs cycle – matrix of the mitochondriaKrebs cycle – matrix of the mitochondria Electron transport chain – cristae of the Electron transport chain – cristae of the

mitochondriamitochondria

Controlling enzyme:Controlling enzyme: PFKPFK

Energy yield:Energy yield:

Glycolysis = two molecules of ATPGlycolysis = two molecules of ATP Krebs cycle = two molecules of ATPKrebs cycle = two molecules of ATP Electron transport chain = 34 molecules of Electron transport chain = 34 molecules of

ATPATP

By-productsBy-products Krebs cycle – carbon dioxideKrebs cycle – carbon dioxide Electron transport chain – waterElectron transport chain – water

Duration:Duration: ContinuousContinuous

Key point The table above summarises what you need to know about the aerobic system for the exam

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16The Energy ContinuumThe Energy Continuum

When we start to exercise, the demand for energy rises rapidly. When we start to exercise, the demand for energy rises rapidly. Although all three energy systems are always working at the same Although all three energy systems are always working at the same time, one of them will be predominanttime, one of them will be predominant

The intensity and duration of the activity are the factors that decide The intensity and duration of the activity are the factors that decide which energy system dominates. For example, jogging is a long-which energy system dominates. For example, jogging is a long-duration, sub-maximal exercise, so the aerobic system will be the duration, sub-maximal exercise, so the aerobic system will be the predominant energy system. A highly explosive, short duration predominant energy system. A highly explosive, short duration activity, such as the 100 m, uses the ATP-PC system, However: activity, such as the 100 m, uses the ATP-PC system, However: during a game (e.g., football) there will be a mix of all three energy during a game (e.g., football) there will be a mix of all three energy systems in use, with the performer moving from one to another: systems in use, with the performer moving from one to another: This continual shifting between the energy system thresholds is This continual shifting between the energy system thresholds is known as the energy continuumknown as the energy continuum

The use of the energy continuum can be illustrated by looking at the The use of the energy continuum can be illustrated by looking at the 1500m. The energy sources for the 1500 m are very specific:1500m. The energy sources for the 1500 m are very specific:

During the first 10 seconds, the ATP-PC system is the main During the first 10 seconds, the ATP-PC system is the main method of re-synthesising ATPmethod of re-synthesising ATP

The lactic acid system is then used during the next minuteThe lactic acid system is then used during the next minute In the middle of the race the pace settles into a short aerobic In the middle of the race the pace settles into a short aerobic

phasephase This is followed by a return to the lactic acid system for the final This is followed by a return to the lactic acid system for the final

sprint for the linesprint for the line

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17The ATP-PC-lactic acid threshold is the point at which the ATP-PC energy system is exhausted and the lactic acid system takes overThe lactic acid-aerobic threshold is the point at which th3e lactic acid system is exhausted and the aerobic system takes overThe energy continuum

Key point Make sure that when you give examples of team games you always state the intensity and duration

Page 18: Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

18 Food fuels and energy Food fuels and energy systemssystems

Food is the basic form of energy for ATP resynthesis. The main Food is the basic form of energy for ATP resynthesis. The main energy foods are:energy foods are:

carbohydrates carbohydrates - stored as glycogen and converted into - stored as glycogen and converted into glucose during exerciseglucose during exercise

fats fats - stored as triglycerides and converted to free fatty acids - stored as triglycerides and converted to free fatty acids when requiredwhen required

protein protein - approximately 10- approximately 10%% of energy used during exercise of energy used during exercise comes from proteins in the form of amino acidscomes from proteins in the form of amino acids

Carbohydrates and fats are the main energy providers; the Carbohydrates and fats are the main energy providers; the intensity and duration of exercise play a key role in determining intensity and duration of exercise play a key role in determining which of these are used. The breakdown of fats to free fatty acids which of these are used. The breakdown of fats to free fatty acids requires more oxygen than is required to break down glycogen, so requires more oxygen than is required to break down glycogen, so during high-intensity exercise, when oxygen is in limited supply, during high-intensity exercise, when oxygen is in limited supply, glycogen is the preferred source of energyglycogen is the preferred source of energy

Stores of glycogen are much smaller than stores of fat It is Stores of glycogen are much smaller than stores of fat It is important during prolonged periods of exercise not to deplete important during prolonged periods of exercise not to deplete glycogen stores, as some needs to be conserved for later when the glycogen stores, as some needs to be conserved for later when the intensity could increase, for example over the last kilometre of a intensity could increase, for example over the last kilometre of a marathonmarathon

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Key point Lactic acid can also be used as an energy source. During low-intensity exercise, lactic acid can be oxidised to carbon dioxide and water and the energy released used to resynthesise ATP

Page 20: Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

20Carbo-loadingCarbo-loading

A performer in hard training and competition needs to A performer in hard training and competition needs to understand the importance of carbohydrate in the diet Training understand the importance of carbohydrate in the diet Training diets should be high in carbohydrates and low in fats and diets should be high in carbohydrates and low in fats and proteinsproteinsIf too little carbohydrate is eaten, the glycogen stores in the If too little carbohydrate is eaten, the glycogen stores in the muscles and liver will drop. Obvious signs of glycogen muscles and liver will drop. Obvious signs of glycogen depletion are tired, heavy muscles, poor performance and, at depletion are tired, heavy muscles, poor performance and, at times, complete fatiguetimes, complete fatigueCarbo-loading aims to prevent the onset of fatigue during Carbo-loading aims to prevent the onset of fatigue during endurance events. It is a form of dietary manipulation involving endurance events. It is a form of dietary manipulation involving glycogen loadingglycogen loadingBefore an important competition, a performer eats a diet high Before an important competition, a performer eats a diet high in protein and fats for 3 days and exercises at a relatively high in protein and fats for 3 days and exercises at a relatively high intensity to burn off any existing carbohydrate stores. This is intensity to burn off any existing carbohydrate stores. This is followed by 3 days of a diet high in carbohydrates and some followed by 3 days of a diet high in carbohydrates and some light training. This greatly increases the stores of glycogen in light training. This greatly increases the stores of glycogen in the musclethe muscleIf completed properly, carbo-loading can almost double the If completed properly, carbo-loading can almost double the average amount of stored carbohydrate found in a trained average amount of stored carbohydrate found in a trained individual. However; a disadvantage is that bloating can occur; individual. However; a disadvantage is that bloating can occur; together with water retentiontogether with water retention

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Key point The term carbo-loading can be misleading. You need to be specific and state the type of carbohydrate that you are loading e.g. glycogen

Page 22: Exercise Physiology Topic Cue Cards. 1 ATP Adenosine triphosphate, more commonly referred to as ATP, is the only usable form of energy in the body Adenosine

22Excess post-exercise energy consumption Excess post-exercise energy consumption

(EPOC)(EPOC)The recovery process involves returning the body to its pre The recovery process involves returning the body to its pre exercise state. The reactions that take place and how long the exercise state. The reactions that take place and how long the process takes depend on the duration and intensity of the exercise process takes depend on the duration and intensity of the exercise undertaken and the individual’s level of fitnessundertaken and the individual’s level of fitnessAfter strenuous exercise there are four main tasks that need to be After strenuous exercise there are four main tasks that need to be completed before the exhausted muscle can operate at full completed before the exhausted muscle can operate at full efficiency again:efficiency again:

replacement of ATP and phosphocreatinereplacement of ATP and phosphocreatine removal of lactic acidremoval of lactic acid replenishment of myoglobin with oxygenreplenishment of myoglobin with oxygen replacement of glycogenreplacement of glycogen

The first three tasks require a large amount of oxygen. Therefore, The first three tasks require a large amount of oxygen. Therefore, during recovery the body takes in elevated amounts of oxygen during recovery the body takes in elevated amounts of oxygen and transports it to the working muscles to maintain a high rate of and transports it to the working muscles to maintain a high rate of aerobic respiration. This surplus energy is then used to help return aerobic respiration. This surplus energy is then used to help return the body to its pre-exercise state. This is known as EPOC (excess the body to its pre-exercise state. This is known as EPOC (excess post exercise oxygen consumption). The term oxygen debt is no post exercise oxygen consumption). The term oxygen debt is no longer used to explain the whole of the recovery process. It is longer used to explain the whole of the recovery process. It is commonly thought that other processes occur in addition to those commonly thought that other processes occur in addition to those covered by oxygen debt. The term EPOC incorporates oxygen debt covered by oxygen debt. The term EPOC incorporates oxygen debt together with those processes requiring an elevated rate of together with those processes requiring an elevated rate of respirationrespiration

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Key point Glycogen replenishment occurs when you eat a carbohydrate meal

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24 Oxygen deficit and oxygen Oxygen deficit and oxygen debtdebt

Oxygen deficitOxygen deficit

When we start to exercise, insufficient oxygen is distributed to When we start to exercise, insufficient oxygen is distributed to the tissues for all the energy production to be met aerobically, the tissues for all the energy production to be met aerobically, so the two anaerobic systems have to be used. The amount of so the two anaerobic systems have to be used. The amount of oxygen that the subject was short of oxygen that the subject was short of during during the exercise is the exercise is known as the oxygen deficitknown as the oxygen deficit

Oxygen debtOxygen debt

The oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen consumed during The oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen consumed during recovery above that which would have been consumed at rest recovery above that which would have been consumed at rest during the same time. An oxygen debt occurs when the body during the same time. An oxygen debt occurs when the body has been working at high intensity (anaerobically). This usually has been working at high intensity (anaerobically). This usually arises during the first 3 minutes of exercise or when the arises during the first 3 minutes of exercise or when the anaerobic threshold is exceededanaerobic threshold is exceeded

Oxygen debt has two components:Oxygen debt has two components: the alactacid component (fast replenishment) restoration the alactacid component (fast replenishment) restoration

of muscle phosphagens (ATP and phosphocreatine)of muscle phosphagens (ATP and phosphocreatine) the lactacid component (slow replenishment) removal of the lactacid component (slow replenishment) removal of

lactic acidlactic acid

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Key point The graph alongside often accompanies questions on oxygen debt. Make sure you are familiar with it

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26 Alactic component of oxygen Alactic component of oxygen debtdebt

This is often referred to as fast replenishment and involves the restoration of ATP and phosphocreatine stores. Elevated rates of breathing continue to supply oxygen to provide the energy for ATP production and phosphocreatine replenishment. Complete restoration of phosphocreatine takes up to 3 minutes but 50% of stores can be replenished after only 30 seconds, during which time up to 4 litres of oxygen are consumed

This knowledge is useful for a coach or performer who will want to prevent the use of the lactic acid system with its fatiguing by-product. A time-out in basketball, for example, allows for significant restoration of PC stores

The table below shows the replenishment of muscle phosphagens after exercisePercentage of phosphagens replenishedPercentage of phosphagens replenished Recovery timeRecovery time

5050 30307575 60608787 90909393 1201209797 1501509999 180180

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The graph below shows the relationship between recovery time and the replenishment of muscle phosphagens after exercise

Key point The three main points to remember about the alactic component are:

It involves the restoration of muscle phosphagens

Full restoration takes 3 minutes; half takes 30 seconds

It uses up to 4 litres of oxygen

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28 Lactacid component of oxygen Lactacid component of oxygen debtdebt

The lactacid component of oxygen debt is concerned with the removal of lactic acid. It refers to the volume of oxygen required to remove lactic acid from the muscles. This process is slower than the alactacid component and full recovery may take up to an hour, depending on the intensity and duration of the exercise

Lactic acid can be removed in four ways: oxidation into carbon dioxide and water conversion into glycogen conversion into protein conversion into glucose

The lactacid oxygen recovery begins as soon as lactic acid appears in the muscle cell, and continues using breathed oxygen until recovery Is complete. This can take up to 5-6 litres of oxygen In the first half hour of recovery, removing up to 50% of the lactic acid

Performing a cool down accelerates the process of removing lactic acid as it ensures a quick and continuous supply of oxygen to the working muscles

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29DestinationDestination Approximate % of lactic acid involvedApproximate % of lactic acid involvedOxidised into carbon dioxide and waterOxidised into carbon dioxide and water 6565Conversion into glycogen, then stored in Conversion into glycogen, then stored in muscles/livermuscles/liver

2020

Conversion into proteinConversion into protein 1010Conversion into glucoseConversion into glucose 55

It is important to note that the removal of lactic acid also relies on the buffering capacity of the body. This weakens the inhibiting effect of lactic acid

In the blood, hydrogen carbonate ions produced by the kidneys absorb the lactate, which forms carbonic acid. This is then broken down to carbon dioxide and water, both of which are easily eliminatedKey point The three main points to remember about the lactacid component are:

How lactic acid is removed (quicker recovery if active)

It takes up to an hour or until the next meal It uses up to 6 litres of oxygen

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30 Myglobin and oxygen store Myglobin and oxygen store replenishmentreplenishment

Myoglobin is found in the sarcoplasm of the cell. It has a high affinity for oxygen, stores oxygen in the muscle and transports it from the capillaries to the mitochondria for energy provision

The role of EPOC

After exercise, oxygen stores in the mitochondria are limited or totally depleted. The surplus of oxygen supplied through EPOC (excess post-exercise oxygen consumption) helps replenish these stores, taking up to 2 minutes and using approximately 0.5 litres of oxygen

It is important to perform an active recovery to maintain elevated rates of ventilation and heart rate. This speeds up the replenishment of myoglobin

Aerobic training can increase the amount of myoglobin, especially in slow-twitch muscle fibres. This results in a greater oxygen supply to the working muscles so that the performer can work harder for longer

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31Key point It is important to have myoglobin stores replenished because if oxygen is present, energy can be produced aerobically. This means that the body does not have to rely on the anaerobic energy systems, saving ATP-PC for short energy bursts and preventing the use of the lactic acid system with its fatiguing by-product, lactic acid

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32 Onset of blood lactate Onset of blood lactate accumulationaccumulation

Lactate is a product of lactic acid. Lactic acid splits to give lactate molecules and hydrogen ions. Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) is the point at which lactate starts to accumulate In the blood. This occurs at around 4 mmol lactate per litre of blood

OBLA can be used to predict the endurance capacity of a performer; since the longer an athlete can delay the build up of blood lactate, the longer he/she can perform exercise

Lactate accumulation eventually reaches a point at which the concentration of lactate in the blood is high enough to cause complete muscle fatigue, with the result that the performer can no longer continue

The multi-stage fitness test is a good practical example to illustrate this. The performer eventually reaches a point due to the increasing intensity of the test, at which energy cannot be provided aerobically. This means that the performer has to use anaerobic systems to re-synthesise ATP. Blood lactate levels start to increase until eventually muscle fatigue occurs and the performer slows down or is no longer able to keep up with the bleep

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33

Key point Lactic acid is produced during anaerobic glycolysis but it will dissociate to form the salt lactate

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34Principles of trainingPrinciples of training

Overload is achieved by increasing one or more of the following (FIT):

frequency — the number of training sessions per week intensity — how hard the performer works time — the duration of the session

Progression involves the gradual application of overload. It is important to overload the body in order to improve fitness, but this should be done progressivelySpecificity involves keeping the training relevant. For example, a sprinter will do strength training on the muscles required for his event and speed training to improve the efficiency of the energy system he uses when competingReversibility is often referred to as detraining. If training stops, the adaptations that have occurred as a result of training deteriorateModeration - don't overdo it! Over-training can lead to injuryVariance — a training programme needs to have variety in order to maintain interest and motivation

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35 Training can improve and enhance fitness levels. The type of improvements will depend on the training method used. However, the principles must be applied to a training regime in order for any improvement to be made

Key point Make sure that you can define all these principles and apply them to a practical activity

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36Warm-upWarm-up

A warm-up has both physiological and psychological benefits. It helps prepare the body for exercise and should always be carried out before the start of a training session

The first stage of any warm-up is to perform some kind of cardiovascular exercise such as jogging, gently increasing the pulse. This increases cardiac output and breathing rate and, through the vascular shunt, directs more blood to the working muscles

The second stage is the performance of stretching/flexibility exercises, especially with those joints and muscles that will be most active during the training session. Each stretch should be held for at least 10 seconds and the stretching session should last for approximately 10 minutes

The third stage should involve the movement patterns that are to be carried out, for example practising shooting in basketball and netball, or dribbling in hockey and football

Together these three stages increase the amount of oxygen being delivered to the muscles and at the same time reduce the risk of injury

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37

Key point Not all activities follow this exact warm-up procedure. For example, a swimmer will complete stages 1 and 2 but not stage 3

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38Cool-downCool-down

It is important to perform a cool-down at the end of any physical activity as it helps to return the body to its pre-exercise state more quickly

A cool-down consists of some form of light exercise to keep the heart rate elevated. This keeps blood flow high and allows oxygen to be flushed through the muscles, oxidising and removing any lactic acid that remains

Performing light exercise also allows the skeletal muscle pump to keep working and prevents blood from pooling in the veins. If we stop exercising suddenly, the amount of blood going back to the heart drops dramatically. This is because there is little or no muscle action to maintain the skeletal muscle pump. Consequently, stroke volume drops and there is a reduction in blood pressure. The performer will begin to feel dizzy and light-headed

The cool-down is usually followed by a stretching session, working on the joints and muscles that have been used during the activity

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39

Key point A cool-down is performed to keep the heart rate elevated so that we can use the extra oxygen to recover more quickly

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40DOMSDOMS

One aim of training is to improve fitness levels. An individual who wishes to improve strength will often work at higher intensities to overload the muscle in order to stimulate muscle hypertrophy. When this occurs, the individual may experience tender and painful muscles some 24-48 hours after exercise. This is called DOMS, or delayed onset of muscle soreness

This muscle soreness results from structural damage to muscle fibres and connective tissue surrounding the fibres. DOMS usually occurs following excessive eccentric contraction when muscle fibres are put under a lot of strain. This type of muscular contraction occurs mostly from weight training and plyometrics

Avoiding DOMS

A thorough warm-up and cool-down can help to avoid the delayed soreness or at least keep it to a minimum

If eccentric muscle contractions are the major causal factor in DOMS, training should try to minimise the use of these or at least ensure training intensity Is increased gradually

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41

Key point It was previously thought that DOMS occurred from the build-up of lactic acid. However, it is now recognised as structural damage to soft tissue

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42Continuous trainingContinuous training

Continuous training involves exercise without rest intervals and concentrates on developing endurance. This places stress on the aerobic energy system. Examples include exercises such as cycling, jogging and swimmingIn order to gain any improvement in aerobic fitness, it is important to adhere to the following guidelines:

Frequency — training must be carried out a minimum of two or three times per week

Intensity — this should be at about 60-75% of maximum heart rate

Time — the duration of the training session should be at least 20 minutes but ideally between 30 minutes and 2 hours to ensure the aerobic system is working fully

After a few weeks, the body will adapt to the exercise, so resting heart rate is reduced. Therefore, to ensure the performer is working at 60-75% of maximum heart rate, he/she will have to work harder by increasing either frequency, intensity or time

Keep the session specific to the requirements of the activity. It has been suggested that training should be over a distance of between two and five times that covered in the activity

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43

Key point Continuous training develops aerobic capacity/VO2max

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44Fartlek trainingFartlek training

The word 'fartlek' is Swedish and means speed-play This is a slightly different method of continuous training

A typical fartlek session involves varying the pace of a run by integrating intense sprints into the workout, and following these with recovery runs in the form of slow

The route can also be varied to include both uphill and downhill work. Changing the pace and route in these ways will stress both the aerobic and anaerobic energy

systems,

Fartlek is a much more demanding type of training and improves an individual's VO; {max) and recovery process. A typical session lasts for about 40 minutes, with the intensity ranging from low to high.

The intensity and duration of training are determined by the individual. Fartlek training offers more variety through the use of both aerobic and anaerobic work and is greatly beneficial to the games player where the demands of the game are constantly changing, so that both types of respiration are required.

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45Session A

10 minutes jogging 6 x (20 seconds fast running with 80 seconds recovery 5 minutes walking 5 minutes jogging 2 x (run uphill for 1 minute, jog down 3 minutes jogging 2 minutes walking

Session B Easy jog for 100m Sprint for 30m Easy jog for 100m Sprint for 30m Repeat the above four stages three times Walk for 1 minute Jog at approximately 75% maximum heart rate for 5

minutes

Key point Although fartlek trainign is bcontinuous, it does include both aerobic and anaerobic respiration through variety of pace

Below are examples of two very different fartlek training sessions

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46Interval trainingInterval training

Interval training is popular especially among elite athletes. It is used most frequently in athletics, cycling and swimming and can improve both aerobic and anaerobic capacities. In interval training, periods of work are interspersed with recovery periods. Four main variables are used to ensure the training is specific:

duration of the work interval (or distance) intensity or speed of the work interval duration of the recovery period number of work intervals and recovery periods

It is possible to adapt interval training to overload each of the three energy systems. Anaerobic intervals would be short distance and high intensity: aerobic intervals would be long distance and sub-maximal intensity

ATP-PC intervals have to be short and very high intensity, for example at 90-100% of maximum effort This allows for increases in muscle stores of ATP and phosphocreatine

Lactic acid intervals need to be moderate to high intensity, lasting between 15 and 90 seconds. This is so that the athlete can train with some lactic acid present in order to improve the buffering capacity of the blood

Aerobic intervals are much longer — up to 10 minutes duration — and at lower intensity

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47

Energy systemEnergy system ATP-PCATP-PC Lactic acidLactic acid AerobicAerobicDuration/distance of work intervalDuration/distance of work interval 10s/60m10s/60m 35s/200m35s/200m 6min/1500m6min/1500mIntensity of work intervalIntensity of work interval HighHigh HighHigh Sub-maximalSub-maximalDuration of recoveryDuration of recovery 30s30s 110s110s 5 min5 minNumber of work intervals/recovery periodsNumber of work intervals/recovery periods 1010 88 33

Aims of interval training ATP_PC system – to improve ATP and PC stores Lactic acid system – to increase the buffering capacity of the

blood Aerobic system – to improve the oxidative capacity of the

body

Key point The advantage of interval training is that it can be adapted to suit most requirements, ranging from the sprinter to the endurance athlete to the games player

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48Strength trainingStrength training

Some individuals do a form of strength training to improve performance in their chosen activityImprovements in strength result from working against some form of resistance. In this instance, it is also important to make any strength-training programme specific to the needs of the activity. To do this, the following factors must be considered:

the type of strength to be developed — maximum, elastic or strength endurance

the muscle groups to be improved the type of muscle contraction performed in the activity —

concentric, eccentric or isometricOther individuals do strength training for muscle growth. They need to ensure that any exercises they perform will overload the anaerobic energy systems, which will result in hypertrophy of fast-twitch fibresStrength can be improved by carrying out the following types of training:

weights — high weights for maximum and dynamic strength; low weights for strength endurance

circuits for strength endurance pulleys and plyometrics for dynamic strength

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49

Key point In some textbooks, elastic strength is also referred to as power or dynamic strength

Strength training is important to avoid muscle loss that occurs through ageing. It can help to increase physical capacity, improve athletic performance and reduce injury risk

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50WeightsWeights

Weight training is usually described in terms of sets and repetitions. The number of sets and repetitions and the amount of weight lifted depend on the type of strength to be improvedBefore a programme can be designed, it is important to determine the maximum amount of weight that the performer can lift with one repetition. Then, if maximum strength is the goal, it will be necessary to lift high weights with low repetitions, e.g. three sets of 2-6 repetitions at 80-100% of maximum strength. However, if strength endurance is the goal, it will be necessary to perform more repetitions of lighter weights, e.g. three sets of 10 repetitions at approximately 50% of maximum strengthIn addition, the choice of exercise should relate to the muscle groups used in sport — both the agonists and antagonists. The exercises are usually classed in four groups:

shoulders and arms, e.g. bench press, curls, pull downs trunk and back e.g. sit-ups. back hyperextensions legs. e.g. squats, calf raises, leg press all-body exercises, e.g. power clean, snatch, dead lift

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51

Key point Weight training is excellent for improving strength but it does not replicate movement patterns that are performed during an activity

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52Circuit trainingCircuit training

In circuit training, the athlete performs a series of exercises in succession. These exercises should include;

arm exercises, e.g. triceps dips and press-ups leg exercises, e.g. squats trunk exercises, e.g. srt-ups and dorsal raises cardiovascular exercises, e.g. jogging and skipping

The resistance used is the athlete's body weight and each exercise concentrates on a different muscle group to allow for recoveryStructuring circuit trainingA circuit is usually designed for general body conditioning and it is easily adapted to meet the needs of an activityMost circuits involve the performer working for a period of between 30 seconds and 1 minute, with a similar recovery period. This recovery period is usually active, involving jogging or walkingMost circuits are completed in pairs, with one person recovering while the other works

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53

Key point Circuit training can be adapted to include skill training while at the same time developing strength. A series of skills related to a particular game is performed, interspersed with jogging

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54PulleysPulleys

These are rope or small bungee-type harnesses which allow an athlete to tram against a resistance. Swimmers are often attached to an elastic-type harness. They then swim until the elastic is tense and try to maintain this position. If they stop or slow down, the elastic rope drags them in a backwards direction. The advantage of this method of strength training is that the exact movementpattern is performed while the resistance is applied

The resistance band shown here is a type of pulley. During skills practice, resistance can be applied by wearing ankle weights or wrist weights

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55Pulleys are useful for building strength. Depending on the types of pulley used, it is possible to improve motor skill coordination , increase motor unit activation and allow for neurological adaptation

Key point Pulleys are nor generally used for maximum strength. Depending on how they are used, they can improve elastic strength and muscular endurance

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56PlyometricsPlyometrics

If leg strength is crucial to successful performance, for example in the long jump and the 100m sprint in athletics, or rebounding in basketball, then plyometrics is one method of strength training that improves power or elastic strength

Plyometrics works on the concept that muscles can generate more force if they have previously been stretched. This occurs in plyometrics when, on landing, the muscle performs an eccentric contraction (lengthens under tension) followed immediately by a concentric contraction as the performer jumps up. This stimulates adaptations within the neuromuscular system and results in a more powerful concentric contraction of the muscle group being worked

To develop leg strength, a line of benches, boxes and hurdles is made and the performer has to jump, hop and leap from one to the other. Recovery occurs during the walk back to the start line and the exercise is repeated

Arm strength can be developed by performing press-ups with mid-air claps or by throwing and catching a medicine ball

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57Strength gains through plyometrics usually become apparent following a training period of about 8-19 weeks. This is due to muscle hypertrophy (an increase in the size of the muscle)

Key point Plyometrics should only be performed by individuals with a reasonable amount of leg strength. The constant use of eccentric muscle contractions can easily lead to DOMS

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58Flexibility trainingFlexibility training

Sometimes called mobility training, flexibility training involves stretching muscles and connective tissue. A stretch should be held for at least 10 seconds and a session should last for 10 minutes. With regular and repeated stretching, this soft tissue can elongate and this may be beneficial in avoiding injury. There are three main types of flexibility training:

Static stretching can be active or passive:− Active — the performer works on one joint, pushing it

beyond its point of resistance, lengthening the muscles and connective tissue surrounding it

− Passive — a stretch occurs with the help of an external force, such as a partner, gravity or a wall

Ballistic stretching involves performing a stretch with swinging or bouncing movements to push a body part even further: it is important that this type of stretching should only be performed by an individual who is extremely flexible, such as a gymnast or a dancer

PNF stands for proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. This is where the muscle is isometrically contracted for a period of at least 10 seconds. It then relaxes and is contracted again, usually going further the second time

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59

Key point For improvements to be made, flexibility training needs to take place three times per week and best results occur when the body is warm. Wearing warm clothes helps to maintain body temperature during flexibility training

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60 Planning a training Planning a training programmeprogramme

to structure a programme so that the individual can achieve optimum performance. usually in readiness for the competitive season. Periodisation involves dividing the year into periods when specific training occurs. Some athletes prefer to use the seasonal approach where the periodised year is divided into three parts:

off-season — the period where general conditioning work is carried out

pre-season — training is more specific to the activity and builds in intensity

competitive season — levels of fitness are maintained but the performer focuses on competition-specific aspects

This seasonal approach can be adapted to macro-, meso-and microcycles, which describe periods of time that are more prescriptive for individual needs:

An athlete will identify a macrocycle (the 'big period') of 6-12 months to achieve a long-term goal

The mesocycle relates to a short-term goal within the macrocycle, which may last for 6-8 weeks

The microcycle is normally a 1-week training schedule which is repeated throughout the length of the mesocycle

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61When planning a training programme, it is important to take note of:

The aim of the training programme, for example a faster time, a longer distance or simply to score more goals

Macro-, meso- and microcycles Which energy systems need training, for example a a sprinter

would do anaerobic training Which fitness components need improving; tests these first and

re-test at the end to see if there is any improvement The main muscle groups used The type of contractions needed The most suitable method of training – for example, if stamina

is important, then some form of continuous training should be undertaken

Ways of applying the principles – progression, overload, specificity, variance, moderation and, to some extent, reversibility

Key point Applying the principles of training to a programme is crucial if improvement is to be made. As exercise gets easier, progression should be made to overload the session

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62Fitness componentsFitness components

Physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily tasks without becoming overly tired or fatigued. Components of fitness are usually considered to be either health related or skill related

Physical/health components are physiologically based and deal with the physical demands of the activity. They include aerobic capacity, strength, flexibility and body composition

Skill/motor components are based on the neuromuscular system and determine how successfully a skill can be performed. They include coordination, agility, speed, balance and reaction time

All of these fitness components can be measured, but it is important to remember that there are differences according to gender:

The average female has a higher percentage of body fat than the average male, which arguably can have an effect on VO2(max) and therefore stamina

More weight leads to an increase in effort and consequently a decrease in VO2(max) when this is measured per kilogram of body mass

Higher levels of the male sex hormone testosterone can lead to greater strength gains

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63

Key point Make sure you can define each fitness component, describe a method of evaluation and know how each can be improved

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64Aerobic capacityAerobic capacity

This is often referred to using terms such as stamina. VO2(max) and cardiovascular endurance. Whichever term is used, aerobic capacity can be defined as the ability to take in and use oxygen. This is dependent on three factors:

how effectively an individual can inspire and expire once they have inspired, how effective the transportation of

oxygen is from the lungs to where it is needed how well the oxygen is then used

Aerobic capacity is important for participation in continuous sub-maximal activity, such as jogging and cyclingIn an average performer, it is usual to work at around 65% of VO2(max). Working harder than this results in crossing the anaerobic threshold, when the aerobic system is no longer the main energy provider and instead the ATP-PC and lactic acid systems are the predominant methods of resynthesising ATP. Elite athletes can work at a much higher percentage of their VO2(max) before crossing the anaerobic threshold (usually 85%)

VO2(max) is largely determined genetically and there are also differences due to gender and age

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65

Key point A definition of VO2(max) is the maximum volume of oxygen consumed per unit of time. It is often expressed as millilitres per minute per kilogram of body weight

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66 Factors affecting aerobic Factors affecting aerobic capacitycapacity

Differences in genderA male long-distance runner has a VO2(max) of approximately 70ml/min/kg. A female long-distance runner has a VO2(max) of around 60ml/min/kg. This is because the average female is smaller than the average male. Females have:

a smaller left ventricle and therefore a lower stroke volume a lower maximum cardiac output a lower blood volume, which results in lower haemoglobin levels lower tidal volumes and ventilatory volume

Differences in ageVO2(max) declines as we age and our body systems become less efficient

Maximum heart rate drops by around 5-7 beats per minute per decade

An increase in peripheral resistance results in a decrease in maximal stroke volume

Blood pressure increases at rest and during exercise Less air is exchanged in the lungs due to a decline in vital

capacity and an increase in residual air

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67In terms of health, a good aerobic capacity is undoubtedly beneficial. Regular aerobic training can reduce blood pressure and lower the risk of blood clots and heart attacks

Key point Differences in gender and age are two key factors most exam questions focus on

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68 Evaluation of aerobic Evaluation of aerobic capacitycapacity

There are various methods of evaluating aerobic capacity/VO2(max). The Douglas bag is an accurate technique, carried out under laboratory conditions. An individual runs on a treadmill to the point of exhaustion while the air that is expired is collected in a Douglas bag. The volume and concentration of oxygen in the expired air is measured and compared with the percentage of oxygen in atmospheric air to see how much oxygen has been used during the task

Another method of evaluating aerobic capacity or VO2(max) is the multi-stage fitness test developed by the National Coaching Foundation (NCF). An individual performs a 20m progressive shuttle run in time with a beep, until he/she reaches complete exhaustion. The level reached depends upon the number of shuttle runs completed and is ascertained from a standard results table

The multi-stage fitness test gives only an estimate of VO2(max) and is much less accurate than the Douglas bag. However, it is easy to set up and does provide a guide from which progress can be monitored. The equipment required is limited, making it a cheap alternative. It is also possible to test large numbers simultaneously, so it is not as time consuming as the Douglas bag

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69

Key point Make sure you can talk about the advantages and disadvantages of methods of testing

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70StrengthStrength

Strength is the maximum force that can be exerted by a muscle or group of muscles during a single contraction. In sport we use various types of strength:

Maximum strength is the maximum force a muscle is capable of exerting in a single voluntary contraction. It is used, for example, in weight lifting. Due to higher levels of testosterone, men have a larger muscle mass and so can exert greater maximum strength than women. Fast glycolytic fibres are important for maximum strength as they can produce more force than slow-twitch fibres

Elastic strength (power) is the ability to overcome resistance with a high speed of contraction. This can be seen in explosive events such as sprinting, throwing or hitting, where a high percentage of fast glycolytic fibres is needed for a good performance

Strength endurance is the ability of a muscle to perform repeated contractions and withstand fatigue. It is important for rowers and swimmers. In addition. when a team game goes into extra time, the players with better strength endurance will be in a stronger position to maintain a high level of performance

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71Strength decreases with age by about 1% per year. This occurs due to a loss of mean muscle mass though a decreases in the ability to synthesise protein

Key point Some textbooks refer to elastic strength as dynamic or explosive strength; others call it power. These terms are all interchangeable

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72Evaluation of strengthEvaluation of strength

One simple method of assessing maximum strength is the One simple method of assessing maximum strength is the handgrip handgrip test, test, using a muscle dynamo meter: However, it must be noted that using a muscle dynamo meter: However, it must be noted that this test concentrates on the muscular strength of the forearmthis test concentrates on the muscular strength of the forearmA method of assessing elastic strength is the A method of assessing elastic strength is the Wingate test, Wingate test, performed under laboratory conditions on a cycle ergometer. performed under laboratory conditions on a cycle ergometer. Maximum effort is required for a period of over 30 seconds and the Maximum effort is required for a period of over 30 seconds and the number of pedal revolutions is counted every 5 seconds of the test. A number of pedal revolutions is counted every 5 seconds of the test. A simpler test is the simpler test is the vertical jump vertical jump which can be performed to which can be performed to measure leg power. The table below gives a rating scale for this testmeasure leg power. The table below gives a rating scale for this test

Distance (cm), Distance (cm), malesmales

Distance (cm), Distance (cm), femalesfemales

RatingRating

>59>59 >46>46 ExcellentExcellent51-5951-59 36-4636-46 GoodGood41-5041-50 29-3529-35 AverageAverage<41<41 <29<29 PoorPoorA test for strength endurance assesses the ability of one or A test for strength endurance assesses the ability of one or more muscle groups to work continuously. The more muscle groups to work continuously. The NCF NCF abdominal curl test abdominal curl test measures the endurance of the measures the endurance of the abdominals. The test involves doing sit-ups in time with a beat abdominals. The test involves doing sit-ups in time with a beat until complete exhaustion is reacheduntil complete exhaustion is reached

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Key point You need to know a test for each type of strength and be able to explain how to carry it out. You do not need to know the results of the tests

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74FlexibilityFlexibility

Static Static flexibility is the range of movement around a joint, for example flexibility is the range of movement around a joint, for example doing the splitsdoing the splits

Dynamic Dynamic flexibility is the resistance of a joint to movement, for example flexibility is the resistance of a joint to movement, for example kicking a football without hamstring and hip-joint resistancekicking a football without hamstring and hip-joint resistance

Many factors determine the flexibility of an individual:Many factors determine the flexibility of an individual: the elasticity of ligaments and tendonsthe elasticity of ligaments and tendons the amount of stretch allowed by surrounding musclesthe amount of stretch allowed by surrounding muscles the type of joint - the knee is a hinge joint allowing movement in one the type of joint - the knee is a hinge joint allowing movement in one

plane only (flexion and extension); a ball-and-socket Joint, such as plane only (flexion and extension); a ball-and-socket Joint, such as the shoulder, allows movement in many planes (flexion, extension, the shoulder, allows movement in many planes (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation, circumduction)abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation, circumduction)

the structure of a joint - the hip and shoulder are ball-and-socket the structure of a joint - the hip and shoulder are ball-and-socket joints but the hip joint has a deeper joint cavity and tighter ligaments joints but the hip joint has a deeper joint cavity and tighter ligaments to keep it more stable but less mobile than the shoulderto keep it more stable but less mobile than the shoulder

the temperature of surrounding muscle and connective tissuethe temperature of surrounding muscle and connective tissue training - flexibility can decrease during periods of inactivitytraining - flexibility can decrease during periods of inactivity age - older people tend to be less flexibleage - older people tend to be less flexible gender - women tend to be more flexible than men due to hormonal gender - women tend to be more flexible than men due to hormonal

differencesdifferences

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75 It is imperative for flexibility training to be carried out after a thorough warm-up. All of the movements need to be smooth to avoid injury and to ensure that the stretch reflex is not triggered

Key point Increasing flexibility helps to improve performance and avoid injury. For example, a footballer with good hamstring flexibility can stretch that bit further in a tackle

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76Evaluation of flexibilityEvaluation of flexibility

The The sit-and-reach test sit-and-reach test gives gives an indication of flexibilityan indication of flexibility

of the hamstrings and lower of the hamstrings and lower back. To complete this test, a back. To complete this test, a sit-and-reach box is requiredsit-and-reach box is required

Cvcb

Sit on the floor with your feet Sit on the floor with your feet flat against the box, legs flat against the box, legs straightstraight

Reach forward as far as Reach forward as far as possible, pushing the marker possible, pushing the marker with yourwith your

MaleMale FemaleFemale RatingRating>34>34 >38>38 ExcellentExcellent

31-3431-34 33-3833-38 GoodGood27-3027-30 29-3229-32 AverageAverage<27<27 <29<29 PoorPoor

fingertipsfingertips Read off your score and get a rating from tabulated Read off your score and get a rating from tabulated

values (see values (see the table below)the table below)

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77To test shoulder flexibility: Raise your right arm, bend the elbow, then reach down your

back as far as feels comfortable At the same time, bend the left elbow but with this arm reach

up your back and try to overlap the fingers of both hands Measure the amount of overlap in centimetres; if the fingers

fail to meet, record a minus Repeat the test with the left arm at the top and the right arm

at the bottom Record your results from a standard rating scale (see the table

below)MenMen WomenWomen

Right upRight up Left upLeft up Right upRight up Left upLeft up RatingRating7+7+ 7+7+ 8+8+ 8+8+ ExcellentExcellent66 3-63-6 6-76-7 3-73-7 GoodGood

4-54-5 0-20-2 4-54-5 0-20-2 AverageAverage44 00 44 00 FairFair

Key point The main drawback with flexibility testing is that it measures only one muscle group

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78Body compositionBody composition

This is the physiological make-up of an individual in terms of the This is the physiological make-up of an individual in terms of the distribution of lean body mass and body fat. On average, men have distribution of lean body mass and body fat. On average, men have less body fat than women approximately 15% as opposed to 25%less body fat than women approximately 15% as opposed to 25%

Somatotyping is a classification of body shape into three categories:Somatotyping is a classification of body shape into three categories: endomorph - a pear-shaped bodyendomorph - a pear-shaped body mesomorph - a muscular shaped bodymesomorph - a muscular shaped body ectomorph - a lean bodyectomorph - a lean body

Body composition obviously has an important role in sport. Excess Body composition obviously has an important role in sport. Excess body fat can lead to health problems, such as cardiovascular body fat can lead to health problems, such as cardiovascular disease, and any exercise requires greater energy expenditure as disease, and any exercise requires greater energy expenditure as more weight has to be moved aroundmore weight has to be moved around

It is generally agreed that the less body fat the better the It is generally agreed that the less body fat the better the performance, although some sports have specific requirements for performance, although some sports have specific requirements for larger amounts of fat, such as a defensive linesman in American larger amounts of fat, such as a defensive linesman in American football or a prop in rugby leaguefootball or a prop in rugby league

In most team games, excess body fat would affect a performer's In most team games, excess body fat would affect a performer's ability to move freely around the court or field, and would increase ability to move freely around the court or field, and would increase the onset of fatigue during a gamethe onset of fatigue during a game

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79 A performer with a high percentage of body fat could be at a disadvantage in activities involving speed or vertical jumping such as rebounds in basketball. Excess body fat can also decrease heat loss over the skin by conduction, convection and radiation

Key point Most sports performers carry less fat than the average person simply because fat is a fuel used for aerobic respiration

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80 Evaluation of body Evaluation of body compositioncomposition

When assessing body composition, it is important to take into account factors such as age, gender, adipose levels (storage of body fat), physical activity and ethnic origin, as these can all influence the choice of method used

Body composition can be assessed by: the skin fold test — skin fold callipers are used to take

measurements from one side of the body, from the biceps, triceps, sub-scapular (below the shoulder blade) and supra iliac (hip region). The sum of all sites is calculated and standard tables give an indication of the percentage of body fat

body mass index — the mass of an individual (in kilograms) divided by his/her height (in metres)

hydrostatic weighing — the water displaced when the body is submerged in water

bioeleetrical impedance — electrodes are attached at the ankles and wrists and a small electrical current is passed through them. Fat restricts the flow of current, so the amount of impedance gives an estimate of body fat percentage

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81

Key point The simplest evaluative method is the skin fold test. Hydrostatic weighing is only available under laboratory conditions

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82AgilityAgility

Agility is the ability to move and position the body quickly and effectively while under control. The combination of speed, coordination and flexibility is very important. For example, it is used in netball for catching and passing on the run or in basketball for dribbling around opponents

Method of evaluation

Agility is assessed by the Illinois agility run. The performer runs around a 10m course as fast as he/she can, weaving and sprinting between a series of four evenly spaced cones (see overleaf). The run is timed and rated by standard tablesMalesMales FemalesFemales RatingRating

<15.3s<15.3s <17s<17s ExcellentExcellent

15.3-16s15.3-16s 17-17.9s17-17.9s GoodGood

16.1-18s16.1-18s 18-21.7s18-21.7s AverageAverage

18.1-19s18.1-19s 21.8-23s21.8-23s FairFair

>19s>19s >23s>23s PoorPoor

Agility can be improved to some extent through various activities, but development of this component is limited

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83

Key point The Illinois agility run is a recognised national test. More detail can be found in most A-level textbooks

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84BalanceBalance

This is the ability to keep the centre of gravity over the base of support. Balance can be static, such as in a handstand in gymnastics, which has to be kept still, or dynamic, where balance is retained while in motion, for example when side-stepping in rugby to get around an opponentTo be in a balanced position, the centre of gravity needs to be in line with the base of support. If you lower your centre of gravity, your stability increases, while if your centre of gravity starts to move near the edge of the base of support, you will start to overbalance.Method of evaluationBalance can be assessed using a balance boardThe performer stands on the board and tries to keep the sides of theboard away from the floor. The time spent balancing is recorded and compared with the results of other performersIt is difficult to provide specific methods of training to improve balance, but it can be done as part of a skills session

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85

Key point another method of assessment is the bench test. Place a gym bench upside-down so the beam support is uppermost. Stand on the beam on one foot. Record

how long you stay on the beam. Compare your results with others in the class and repeat the test at a later date to see if improvement has occurred

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86SpeedSpeed

This refers to how fast a person can move over a specified distance or how quickly a body part can be put into motion. Speed is important in most sports: a winger in rugby needs to be a fast sprinter and a pace bowler in cricket needs to be able to move his arm quickly

Fibre type plays a major role in terms of speed. A greater number of fast glycolytic fibres means that stimuli are received more rapidly and energy is released anaerobically, making the performer faster than someone with a greater number of slow-twitch fibres. The proportion of fast glycolytic fibres is determined genetically

Method of evaluation

In the 30 m sprint test the performer runs 30 m as fast as he/she can. The time is compared with a rating tableMalesMales FemalesFemales RatingRating

<4s<4s <4.5s<4.5s ExcellentExcellent4-4.2s4-4.2s 4.5-4.6s4.5-4.6s GoodGood

4.3-4.4s4.3-4.4s 4.7-4.8s4.7-4.8s AverageAverage4.5-4.6s4.5-4.6s 4.9-5s4.9-5s FairFair

>4.6s>4.6s >5s>5s PoorPoor

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87

Key point Increasing speed does nota always result in an improvement in performance. It is possible to be too quick to the point of making mistakes

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88Reaction timeReaction time

This is the time taken from detection of a stimulus to initiation of a response, for example the time taken between the starting pistol going off and movement from the blocks, or reacting to a tennis serve

Method of evaluation

Various computer tests and electrical reaction timers are available. A simple, cheap method is the metre ruler test but this is less accurate. A partner holds a metre ruler at the zero end. The performer places the index finger and thumb of his preferred hand on either side of the 50cm mark but not touching it. Without warning the partner lets go of the ruler and the performer must close his finger and thumb to catch it. The results can be compared with a rating tableReaction gap (cm)Reaction gap (cm) RatingRating

>42.4>42.4 ExcellentExcellent37-42.437-42.4 GoodGood29-36.929-36.9 AverageAverage22-28.922-28.9 FairFair

<22<22 PoorPoor

Reaction time can be improved indirectly through skills training

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89

Key point An individual with a high percentage of fast twitch glycolytic fibres has a better reaction time because these fibres respond more rapidly than other types. The speed of conduction of nerve impulses and thespeed of muscular contractions are both higher in this fibre type

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90CoordinationCoordination

Coordination is the ability of the motor and nervous systems to interact so that motor tasks can be performed accurately. Examples include the hand-eye coordination required to hit a tennis ball, and being able to coordinate the swing of a golf club to hit the ball correctly. Speed, precision, rhythm and fluency of execution of the skill are all important components of coordination

Method of evaluation

An easy self-evaluation test is the alternate hand/wall ball toss. The performer stands 2 metres from a wall with a tennis ball in her right hand. She throws the ball underarm against the wall and catches it with her left hand. Then she throws the bail from her left hand and catches it with the right. The number of successful catches made in 30 seconds is recorded

There is no rating for this test but a retest can be done at a later date to check for improvement

Coordination can be improved indirectly by learning new skills and by performing those already learnt in a continuously changing and competitive environment

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91

Key point You need to be able to define coordination and describe a method of testing it

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92 Physiological adaptations to aerobic Physiological adaptations to aerobic trainingtraining

If you perform continuous, fartlek or aerobic interval training over a period of time, physiological adaptations take place that make the initial training sessions appear easy. This is because your aerobic capacity/VO2(max) improves as the following adaptations take place:

heart — hypertrophy of the cardiac muscle (myocardium): stroke volume increases; maximum cardiac output increases; resting heart rate decreases

blood — slight increases in red blood cells and haemoglobin; blood plasma volume increases; in addition, during maximal exercise, blood activity increases as there is a greater tolerance to lactic acid

vascular system — arterial walls become more elastic; number of capillaries in the lungs and muscles increases

muscle — increase in size and number of mitochondria, enzyme activity, myoglobin levels and muscle glycogen stores

lungs — respiratory muscles become more efficient: lung volume increases due to use of more of the available alveoli: greater tidal volume and an increase in breathing rate lead to an increase in maximum pulmonary ventilation

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93

Key point Physiological adaptations are long-lasting changes that occur in the body as a result of following a training programme

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94 Physiological adaptations to strength Physiological adaptations to strength trainingtraining

The type of strength training determines the specific adaptations. For example, weight training with light weights and high repetitions allows adaptations to occur in the slow oxidative fibres: heavy weights and low repetitions allow adaptations in the fast glycolytic fibres

Aerobic adaptations in slow oxidative fibres

Hypertrophy of the muscle fibres occurs together with an increase in mitochondria number and myoglobin. There is an increase in glycogen and triglyceride stores and in capillarisation surrounding the muscle tissue

Anaerobic adaptations in fast-twitch fibres

Hypertrophy of muscle fibres occurs due to a growth in muscle cell size, and an increase in total protein. There are also increases in ATP, PC, glycogen stores and lactic acid tolerance

Neural adaptations

The number of motor units recruited is increased, synchronisation of contraction is improved and the effects of the inhibition of the Golgi tendon organ are reduced. allowing the muscle to create more force during contraction

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95

Key point Hyperplasia theory suggests that a muscle fibre can split and develop two new fibres. This is still in the early stages of research

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96 Physiological adaptations – Physiological adaptations – flexibilityflexibility

Most sports performers undertake flexibility training to improve the range of motion around their joints. For example, swimmers have good flexibility in their shoulders. which allows them to glide their arms through the water using shoulder elevation, easily accommodating the required joint angles without placing stress on the surrounding tissues

Adaptation to flexibility training is one of the least understood areas of sports science research. Some argue that flexibility training can cause the tendons, ligaments and muscles surrounding a joint to increase their resting length due to greater elasticity. Others argue that long-term adaptation to a regular, static, stretching training programme increases the stretch tolerance (the ability to withstand the force of the stretch) This is because the muscle spindle can become used to the increase in length caused by the stretch and reduce the stimulus to the stretch reflex, which when activated will work to prevent elongation of the muscle being stretched. This means the muscle can stretch further. Most of this increase occurs in muscle tissue rather than connective tissue

With regular ballistic stretching, the nervous system learns to accommodate by delaying the stretch reflex until near the end of the range of movement

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97 If the change in length is temporary (after a warm-up), it is referred to as an elastic change. If it is permanent (following a period of flexibility training), it is known as a plastic change

Key point An increase in flexibility can help in the prevention of injury and in recovery. It can lead to improvement in posture and may improve motor performance andskill execution through a better range of movement around the joints

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98Ergogenic aids (legal)Ergogenic aids (legal)

Method of enhancementMethod of enhancement Reasons usedReasons used Side effectsSide effectsHigh carbohydrate diet – High carbohydrate diet – increased intake of pasta, increased intake of pasta, rice, bread etcrice, bread etc

Compensates for lower Compensates for lower levels of glycogen during levels of glycogen during exerciseexercise

NoneNone

Glycogen loading (see Glycogen loading (see slide 19)slide 19)

Raises glycogen levels and Raises glycogen levels and hence increases hence increases endurance performanceendurance performance

More water stored in the More water stored in the muscle; possible muscle; possible psychological problemspsychological problems

Caffeine – stimulantCaffeine – stimulant Thought to improve the Thought to improve the mobilisation of fatty acids mobilisation of fatty acids in the bodyin the body

Increased danger of Increased danger of dehydrationdehydration

Creatine monohydrate – Creatine monohydrate – used to increase used to increase phosphocreatine stores in phosphocreatine stores in the musclesthe muscles

Allows the ATP-PC Allows the ATP-PC system to last longer and system to last longer and can improve recovery timecan improve recovery time

No harmful side effects No harmful side effects knownknown

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99 With the huge demands and expectations placed on top sports performers, together with the extrinsic rewards that can be gained for winning, it is understandable why the use of legal ergogenic aids is important. Anything that can help in the pursuit of excellence needs to be considered

Key point ‘Ergogenic’ refers to anything that improves performance

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100Ergogenic aids (illegal)Ergogenic aids (illegal)

Method of enhancementMethod of enhancement Reasons usedReasons used Side effectsSide effectsAnabolic steroidsAnabolic steroids Promote muscle growth Promote muscle growth

and lean body weightand lean body weightLiver damage; acne; Liver damage; acne; excessive aggressionexcessive aggression

Beta blockersBeta blockers Can improve accuracy in Can improve accuracy in precision sports by slowing precision sports by slowing the heartbeatthe heartbeat

TirednessTiredness

EPO – hormone that EPO – hormone that increases red blood cell increases red blood cell countcountBlood doping – blood is Blood doping – blood is removed and stored; body removed and stored; body makes more red blood makes more red blood cells to compensate; cells to compensate; stored blood is then stored blood is then injected backinjected back

Improve aerobic capacity Improve aerobic capacity by increasing the oxygen-by increasing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the carrying capacity of the blood; this allows the blood; this allows the performer to work for performer to work for longerlonger

Increased viscosity of the Increased viscosity of the blood could lead to clotting blood could lead to clotting and a risk of stroke or and a risk of stroke or deathdeath

Amphetamines – Amphetamines – stimulantsstimulants

Decrease tiredness; Decrease tiredness; increase metabolismincrease metabolism

Insomnia; weight loss; Insomnia; weight loss; cardio-vascular problemscardio-vascular problems

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101

Key point Unfortunately, the use of illegal ergogenic aids is more prevalent than ever, despite increasingly sophisticated drug-testing methods. The use of such performance- enhancing drugs is not a new phenomenon. It can be

traced back through history. For example, the Ancient Greek Olympians supposedly ate ergogenic mushrooms, while in the late 1800s cyclists were known to take heroin and cocaine