17
Exploring Pupils' Perceptions of the Effects of Residential Schooling on Children with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties Paul W. Cooper Oxford University ABSTRACT: This paper is concerned with a study that was carried out into the ef- fects of residential schooling on boys of secondary school age with emotional and behav- ioral difficulties (Cooper, 1989). The particular and original focus of the study was pupil experience in two residential schools as revealed through the perceptions of the pupils themselves. The paper reports the reasons for mounting such a study, the meth- odology used, and the conclusions reached. It is suggested that there is an urgent need for further qualitative studies of this type in this and other areas of special education. Background Such a study was necessary for the following reasons: 1. Residential schools for children with educational and behavioral difficulties (EBD) have been and continue to be neglected by educa- tional researchers. Much of the existing literature on the subject tends to be by practitioners, and of the explanatory rather than exploratory type. Where research findings are presented (e.g., Bettelheim, 1950, 1955; Shields, 1962; Balbernie, 1966; Shaw, 1969; Lampen & Neill, 1985; Laslett, 1985), they tend to be of variable quality in relation to the degree to which they can be considered systematic in their data collection and analyses. They tend to be somewhat outdated, with very few such studies having been undertaken in the past 20 years. Furthermore, the existing research tends to focus on rather crude out- come measures (such as rates of recidivism and psychological mea- sures in later life) as indicators of school effectiveness. Only Dawson (1984) provides systematic data on pupils' contemporaneous percep- tions of their experience of residential schooling (EBD). Reprinted with permission from Therapeutic Care and Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1992, 22-34. Correspondence should be addressed to Paul W. Cooper, Depart- ment of Educational Studies, Oxford University, 28 Norham Gardens, Oxford OX2 6XQ England. Child & Youth Care Forum, 22(2), April 1993 125

Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Exploring Pupils' Perceptions of the Effects of Residential Schooling on Children with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Paul W. Cooper Oxford University

ABSTRACT: This paper is concerned with a study that was carried out into the ef- fects of residential schooling on boys of secondary school age with emotional and behav- ioral difficulties (Cooper, 1989). The particular and original focus of the study was pupil experience in two residential schools as revealed through the perceptions of the pupils themselves. The paper reports the reasons for mounting such a study, the meth- odology used, and the conclusions reached. It is suggested that there is an urgent need for further qualitative studies of this type in this and other areas of special education.

Background

Such a study was necessary for the following reasons: 1. Residential schools for children with educational and behavioral

difficulties (EBD) have been and continue to be neglected by educa- tional researchers. Much of the existing literature on the subject tends to be by practitioners, and of the explanatory rather than exploratory type. Where research findings are presented (e.g., Bettelheim, 1950, 1955; Shields, 1962; Balbernie, 1966; Shaw, 1969; Lampen & Neill, 1985; Laslett, 1985), they tend to be of variable quality in relation to the degree to which they can be considered systematic in their data collection and analyses. They tend to be somewhat outdated, with very few such studies having been undertaken in the past 20 years. Furthermore, the existing research tends to focus on rather crude out- come measures (such as rates of recidivism and psychological mea- sures in later life) as indicators of school effectiveness. Only Dawson (1984) provides systematic data on pupils' contemporaneous percep- tions of their experience of residential schooling (EBD).

Reprinted with permission from Therapeutic Care and Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1992, 22-34. Correspondence should be addressed to Paul W. Cooper, Depart- ment of Educational Studies, Oxford University, 28 Norham Gardens, Oxford OX2 6XQ England.

Child & Youth Care Forum, 22(2), April 1993 125

Page 2: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

126 Child and Youth Care Forum

2. Residential schools were/are becoming seen increasingly as a last resort: 'a pragmatic second best' (Cole, 1986). This is reflected in low staff morale. This is in spite of any concrete research evidence about what actually happens in residential schools and how they affect the lives of their pupils.

3. The negative image of residential school is related to the move towards the integration of special educational needs (SEN) pupils into mainstream schools. The good arguments for integration appear to have been tacitly accepted as justification for the condemnation of residential schooling (SEN). The value of residential provision, as rec- ognized in the Warnock (Department o f . . . , 1978) and Wagner (1988) reports, within an integrated continuum of services appears to have been forgotten in the face of the rising tide of uncritical integrationist dogma. This situation has been worsened by the contaminating ef- fects of work which has been done in allied fields of residential care: psychiatric hospitals (Goffman, 1961); children in long stay hospitals (Oswin, 1978); residential care for physically and mentally handi- capped (Shearer, 1980; Ryan & Thomas, 1980); and secure provision, approved schools and borstals (Millham et al, 1975; Millham et al., 1978). These studies tend to present the image of residential care as custodial and dehumanizing. Whilst these studies are of relevance and interest to anyone concerned with the nature of residential schools for children with EBD, they are no substitute for studies which take ac- count the distinctive character of such institutions. Of central impor- tance here is the fact that residential schools (EBD) are, unlike all the other institutions mentioned, essentially educational institutions, run by educationists, catering for pupils who are referred on educa- tional grounds. These distinctive qualities alone suggest a need for independent research.

4. The integrationist dogma tends to ignore the effects of bad main- stream schools. Whilst integration may be desirable, is it always pos- sible? When we come to consider the practical realities of integration, we have to recognize that some schools are simply unfit places for vulnerable children. This point is supported by the work of school effectiveness researchers who show clear differences between appar- ently similar schools, in terms of the behavior and attendance of their pupils. The commitment of these researchers to the idea that schools can make a difference is matched only by their caution in prescribing precisely how to improve the effectiveness of schools (Rutter et al., 1979; Reynolds & Sullivan, 1979; Reynolds, 1976, 1984; Purkey & Smith, 1983; Mortimore et al., 1988). The fact is, we still do not know how to prevent certain schools from producing deviant pupils.

5. The dogma of integration is being questioned in areas of social work (Davis, 1981; Potter, 1986), where residential care is coming to

Page 3: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 127

be seen by some as a positive option in certain circumstances because it offers the possibility of supplementing and complementing family care, rather than replacing and undermining family solidarity with foster families. The Wagner Report (1988) argues this case forcefully, emphasizing the need for a continuum of care which includes both community based and residential options, with the possibility of free movement between the various stages on the continuum.

6. There are interesting conceptual links between school and teacher effectiveness research and the writings of the pioneer residen- tial workers with EBD children, such as Neill (1916, 1968), Wills (1960), Lyward (Burn, 1956), Shaw (1965, 1969), Balbernie (1966), Bettelheim (1950, 1955), and Lennhoft (1966); see Bridgeland, 1971). These pioneers stress the importance of good quality staff-pupil rela- tionships, the value of pupil participation and "shared responsibility," the need for a responsive school environment, and the importance of therapeutic rather than coercive responses to behavioral problems. School effectiveness research is pointing out the important role these (and other) ideas play in effective mainstream schools.

Also, the emphasis on good quality relationships, pupil needs, and opportunities for involvement in school life stand in direct opposition to the "institutionalization" arguments noted above. The pioneers were in fact among the first to advocate the importance of these values in educational contexts, and were putt ing these ideas into practice long before they had even gained acceptance among teachers in mainstream schools. The pioneers often complained about the de- humanizing and destructive effects of mainstream schools, to which they claimed to offer a positive alternative. Dawson (1981) suggests that some of the central concepts professed by the pioneers are detect- able in modern residential school practice, a point which further un- dermines the "instutionalization" argument.

Taken together these issues leave us with a great many un- answered questions about residential schools for pupils with EBD. This study, therefore, set out to answer some of these questions. The main research questions were:

1. What are the effects of residential schooling on pupils with EBD?

2. What patterns of organizational features exist in such schools? 3. How might staff-inmate relationships be best characterized in

such schools? 4. What forms of inmate adaptation do such schools engender? 5. To what extend, if any, does the residential school experience con-

tribute to the resolution of pupils' perceived emotional and behav- ioral difficulties?

Page 4: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

128 Child and Youth Care Forum

T h e S t u d y

The "Grounded" Approach

In order to answer these questions, the grounded approach was adopted (Glaser and Strauss, 1968). This approach seeks to develop theory out of data, rather than collecting data in order to test theories. The ethnographic case study method is most commonly associated with this approach, its intention being to gather data which describe the per- ceptions and behavior patterns of participants in the research setting. The analysis of the data is intended to uncover theories which are im- plicit in the everyday actions and activities of the participants.

Apart from the pragmatic considerations which inevitably con- strain degree level research, it was felt that such an approach was particularly relevant to a study of this topic, because the scale of con- cerns is more particular and individualized in special schools than it is in mainstream schools (i.e., effectiveness is more properly under- stood in special schools in terms of the progress of individual children, rather than in relation to a normative measure, such as the General Certificate of Elementary Education grades attained by a year group). Furthermore, the intention to employ a grounded approach implies a recognition of the ways in which institutions (such as resi- dential schools) are socially constructed.

The concern with grounded theory was of central importance be- cause there was so little existing research on which to base hypoth- eses about the possible nature and effects of residential schooling on EBD pupils. Although the research sought answers to specific ques- tions relating to modes of pupils' adaptation and institutional ar- rangements, it was necessary to recognize that answers to these ques- tions may not be of central significance in the final analysis. The adoption of an open-ended, "grounded" approach was therefore an ap- propriate means of allowing information about teachers and pupils' central concerns to come to the fore.

A further consideration which made the grounded approach appro- priate is the central significance that is attributed to pupil percep- tions in this research. This approach derives from the view that any understanding of how human behavior relates to experience must take account of the ways in which the experience is perceived by ac- tor, since human beings behave in accordance with the ways in which they interpret their experience. This view has particular resonance for those interested in behavioral problems, recognizing as it does the distinctions that need to be made between the knowledge that can be gained from the individuals' first hand account of their own behavior and that which can be gained from observation alone. This is now a widely accepted view which has penetrated even the depths of behav-

Page 5: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 129

ioral psychology (see Hughes, 1988, on cognitive behaviorism). To un- derstand the ways in which schools, teachers, and classrooms influ- ence pupil behavior we must explore the mediating effects of pupil cognitions (Wittrock, 1986) and analyze the meanings they attach to everyday events (Woods, 1990; Cronk, 1987; Schostak, 1983; Willis, 1978; Tattum, 1982; Rosser & Harre, 1976).

Methodology

Two residential EBD schools were selected for the study. They were both for secondary school aged boys. Two was felt to be the optimum number of schools, given the constraints of a study of this type, since it gave a basis for comparison between schools, whilst maintaining a manageable number of subjects, and opportunities to develop a de- tailed knowledge of each school. The two schools adhered to a broadly similar pattern, though having interesting individual and apparently contrasting features. Considerations of accessibility and willingness to participate were prime considerations in the choice of schools, along with a desire to find schools which presented some obvious points of contrast.

Both schools were independently operated, although tuitions came from public sources, and they were located in rural surroundings. There were 32 pupils on roll at Lakeside and 45 on roll at Farfield. Pupils were referred to both schools solely by local educational au- thorities (LEAs). Farfield school charged considerably higher fees than Lakeside (on average: double), though Farfield took some pupils on 52-week placements, whilst Lakeside only catered for pupils dur- ing in-school term time. The officially espoused policies of both schools was to adopt a therapeutic approach. In many ways Lakeside had more of an "institutional" feel about it, on first visit, with few of the obvious home comforts visible that were always in evidence at Farfield. In fact, the economic disparities between the two schools were clearly evident on a superficial level. Lakeside had more of the appearance of a formal school about it, with boys wearing a secondary school style uniform (grey trousers, white shirt and school tie, whilst Farfield boys wore no uniform. Yet Lakeside boys addressed the staff by their Christian names, whereas at Farfield the usual mode of ad- dress was "Sir," "Miss," or title and Christian name. These superficial differences suggested possible deeper points of contrast that it was felt would repay research.

D a t a collection methods included:

1. Participant/nonparticipant observation; 2. Tape recorded interviews;

Page 6: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

130 Child and Youth Care Forum

3. Self-completed questionnaires; and 4. Document analysis.

Reflexivity

A key principle which should underpin all ethnographic studies is that of "reflexivity" (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983). "Reflexivity" refers to the researcher's need to maintain an awareness of the effect that he or she is having on the situation which he or she is studying. This involves paying careful attention to the way in which the re- searchers present themselves to their subjects, the kinds of relation- ships ("field relations") they develop with subjects, the indications they receive as to how they are perceived by subjects, and methods that researchers employ to motivate subjects to cooperate.

Reflexivity was of particular importance to this study, since I was teaching in one of the schools I was studying (Farfield), and had been for over two years. This situation forced me to consider the differences between the role of the teacher and that of the researcher, and to develop procedures which effectively communicated the researcher role. The most obvious difference (for me) between researcher and teacher was the difference in power relations that the two roles im- plied, and the different constraints and expectations that each role implies for both teacher-researcher and pupils. As a teacher, one is required to take a lead and to make judgments; as a researcher one adopts a non-judgemental, impartial attitude and tries to empower the subject to lead. What is common to both roles is the importance of trust in the relationship. Subjects will not reveal their beliefs and attitudes unless they have reason to believe in the integrity of the researcher; similarly, pupils who do not trust their teachers will often withhold their cooperation (Rosser & Harre, 1976; Tattum, 1982). In retrospect, I think that the kinds of relationships that I have devel- oped with pupils as a teacher made the transition to researcher less difficult than it might have been. I think this has something to do with relative informality of the small residential school setting, and the emphasis, which is common in such schools, on fairly informal and cooperative relationships between staff and pupils.

Formal procedures that were developed to deal with the transition from the teacher to the researcher role (at Farfield) involved:

1. portraying the study to pupils as one concerned with the experi- ence of residential schooling as they perceive it, indicating to pu- pils their expert status in relation to this knowledge, and describ- ing the possible beneficial outcomes of such a study to themselves and other consumers of educational services;

Page 7: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 131

2. establishing to pupils the voluntary nature of their involvement in the study, and accepting refusals without question (only one pupil refused to be interviewed in the entire study);

3. carrying out interviews during pupils' free time, in my own off- duty hours;

4. carrying out some participant observation in my own off-duty hours;

5. asking pupils to choose a time when it would be convenient for them to be interviewed (if they chose to be);

6. assuring pupils of the strict confidentiality of their interview data;

7. deliberately avoiding judgemental responses during interviews; 8. deliberately showing empathy and acceptance during inter-

views; 9. deliberately avoiding references to the study during lessons/duty

periods, unless the subject was raised by pupils.

The off-duty participant observation was particularly valuable, as this often invited comment from pupils. As is often the case in such schools, pupils are keen students of staff duty rosters, and my appear- ance on my "nights off' often stimulated questions from pupils, and led to pupils volunteering to be interviewed.

The Lakeside study was less complicated than the Farfield study, in that I was known only to the staff and students of Lakeside as a researcher only. There were, however, other problems to negotiate there. The major problem, which is common to most studies of this type, was that of motivating the subject to cooperate. This was partic- ularly critical in relation to the pupils. Whilst at Farfield I already had an established identity with the pupils, this was not the case at Lakeside and, therefore, it was not easy to predict whether or not the pupils would be willing to cooperate. In order to gain the confidence of the Lakeside boys, I attended the school on several occasions before I embarked on the interview program, mixing with pupils on an infor- mal basis and joining in with their leisure activities. As at Farfield, the boys became increasingly curious about my study and I had no trouble in recruiting interviewees.

Questionnaires

Interviews were carried out with a total of 24 boys (15 from Far- field and nine from Lakeside). These boys were all over 14 and made up the 'senior' pupil groups of both schools (only one boy in this age group refused to be interviewed). In addition to the interviews, two

Page 8: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

132 Child and Youth Care Forum

questionnaires were developed for use with pupils. These question- naires were constructed after an initial analysis of the interview data, in order to test the generalizability of some of the findings across both school populations.

Staff

Although the primary focus of the study was the pupils' perspec- tive, interviews and questionnaires were applied to staff also. Staff were considered to be a valuable source of information about the for- mal organizational features of the schools. There was also a good deal of informal data gathering on the staff side; this included notes made on conversations I had with staff, and notes on staff discussions at which I was present. The first staff questionnaire sought to identify teachers' opinions about the effectiveness of the school, and a second questionnaire asked staff to rank in order of perceived importance, a list of school aims that had been generated from the interviews and conversations with staff.

Interview Procedures

Interviews with both staff and pupils were intended to be of the "informant" type, as opposed to the "respondent" type (Powney & Watts, 1987). The interviewer's role in such interviews is to facilitate the subject's disclosure of ideas and attitudes that are of importance to them, rather than to seek responses to preordained questions. Each interview, therefore, was intended to take the form of a conversation, the direction of which was largely dictated by the subject, with the interviewer prescribing broad areas of discussion, where it was neces- sary to direct the subject's focus. Pupil interviews opened with the question:

"Can you remember what you thought of this school when you first came here?"

Staff interviews often began with a question such as: "Could you tell me something about what it is like to work in this school?"

The interview then developed on the basis of the subject's response to this question, with the interviewer seeking elaboration and exem- plification.

Because the interviews were such an important source of data, it was essential that measures be taken to encourage subjects to provide accounts of their authentic knowledge and beliefs about the schools, as opposed to simply plausible responses. In order to achieve this end,

Page 9: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 133

interviewees were encouraged to concentrate on specific experiences. When subjects did talk in generalized terms they were asked to pro- vide concrete examples from their own experience.

The interview procedures owed a great deal to techniques devel- oped in counselling psychology, particularly Roger's Person-Centred approach (Rogers, 1951; 1980). This involves the utilization of a num- ber of interpersonal skills designed to encourage the interviewee to feel secure, accepted, and able to disclose his or her own concerns.

Observation

The participant and non-participant observation was essentially an impression gathering exercise. The primary data was always the in- terview material. The participant observation involved mainly my engagement in leisure and hobby activities with the pupils, meal- times, and my presence in staffrooms during some breaks and lunch- times. Non-participant observation took place in classrooms, during lessons, in assemblies, and in school and staff meetings. Obviously, at Farfield my participation was much more that of a staff member, in addition to these other areas. The observation also provided a com- mon experience for the interviewees and myself, which was an impor- tant source in interviews. I based no conclusions on observational data alone, only using this data when it proved of relevance to infor- mation gained in interviews. Sometimes observed events were used as a basis for interview questions. Observational data was also used to exemplify and, in some cases, qualify insights derived from inter- views.

Document Analysis

This involved the study of various official documents that the schools produced for the public, in which they professed school aims. It also included internal discussion documents, as well as pupils' re- ports and records. The aim of this analysis was to develop an image of the formal espoused aims and concerns of the schools, as well as their organizational structures.

Data Analysis (Interviews)

The principle of progressive focussing was applied in the analysis of interview material. This involves the systematic distillation of the data down to a number of essential elements which can be expressed in terms of a series of key descriptors and propositions. The intention

Page 10: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

134 Child and Youth Care Forum

was to develop an analytic procedure which accounted for all of the data and could be replicated. The procedure was as follows:

1. read transcripts; 2. note points of interest, recurrent themes; 3. propose categories; 4. test categories against transcripts; 5. revise categories until all data is accounted for; 6. propose theories; 7. reread transcripts in order to verify/falsify theories; then 8. return to 6.

The following categories emerged from the pupil interview data:

1. the pupils' overall impressions of the school (including their first impressions);

2. the pupils' degree of satisfaction with the school; 3. comparisons between the pupils' present situation and their expe-

rience of other institutions and situations; 4. the pupils' relationships with other people at the school; 5. freedom, restrictions, and rules in school; and 6. pupils' perceptions of the personal effects of their placement.

These categories represent the preoccupations expressed by the pu- pils in interviews and are, therefore, claimed to represent areas of special importance to these pupils.

F i n d i n g s

1. What Are The Effects Of Residential Schooling On Pupils With EBD?

These findings do not refer to all pupils, but are represented across the sample:

Pupils showed evidence of improvements in their levels of self es- teem and confidence, based on their own descriptions of the ways in which they had changed since being in the schools.

Pupils displayed mastery of a wide range of skills (interpersonal, social, academic, and practical) which they claimed to have developed as a result of attending the schools.

Pupils often claimed to have experienced welcome relief from diffi- cult circumstances they experienced in their home situations (school,

Page 11: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 135

family, peer group) as a result of being placed away from home. These circumstances are often closely related to the reasons for their place- ments.

Pupils often claimed to have developed deeper understandings of themselves and their personal situations as a result of their residen- tial experience and claimed that this led to improved mastery of their own behavior, and improvements in their manner of relating to other people, particularly family members.

Pupils with high academic aspirations complained of the restricted nature of the educational experience provided by the residential schools, in comparison with mainstream schools they had experi- enced.

Pupils with learning difficulties claimed to have made academic advances in both schools, owing to the quality of staff support.

Pupils complained of the stigmatizing effect of attending a special boarding school.

2. What Patterns Of Organization Features Exist In Such Schools?

Staff in both schools professed to pursue the same list of aims (in order of priority; the last two listed were tied):

1. to aid pupils' social and emotional development; 2. to reintegrate pupils into their home situations; 3. to aid pupils' academic development; = 4. the reintegration of pupils into their local schools; = 4. the preparation of pupils for the world of work.

Staff at Farfield experienced the management style as strong and autocratic, and found this to be a source of dissatisfaction.

Staff at Lakeside experienced the management style as weak and lacking in direction, and found this to be a source of dissatisfac- tion.

Pupils in both schools experienced the management style of staff to be liberal and pupil-centered. Whilst pupils in both schools saw this as desirable, a small subgroup at Lakeside expressed some dissatis- faction, and claimed a preference for the more coercive regime which the recently retired former headmaster had run.

Pupil participation in the organisation and running of the schools was common to both institutions, though it took on a more formalized guise at Lakeside.

There were clear areas of pupil autonomy in both schools (more so at Lakeside).

Page 12: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

136 Child and Youth Care Forum

In both schools, success and achievement in a wide range of areas was acknowledged through the formal privilege and status system.

In both schools, the formal hierarchy of status reflected closely the informal pupil hierarchy.

In both schools, pupils stated dissatisfaction with aspects of school life which they experienced as depersonalized and de-humanizing.

Pupils in both schools believed that channels existed for their con- cerns to be aired to the community at large, and valued this.

3. How Might Staff-Pupil Relationships Be Best Characterized In These Schools?

Staff-pupil relationships in both schools were perceived by both staff and pupils to be characterized by mutual trust and caring.

Pupils tended to nominate particular members of staff with whom they had particularly close relationships, or in whom they placed par- ticular trust.

Relationships within the pupil group tended to reflect the positive values identified in staff-pupil relationships, to the extent that pupils engage in informal peer counselling.

Staff-pupil relationships formed a central part of the therapeutic purpose of the schools as identified by staff, and the therapeutic effect of the schools as identified by pupils.

By and large, pupils valued most highly those staff who they felt were prepared to listen to them and be sympathetic, and they were less inclined to resist these staff when they made demands on them. Staff who they perceived to be uncaring were inclined to be the focus for resistance.

4. What Forms Of Pupil Adaptation Do Such Schools Engender?

By and large, the pupils showed commitment to the formal values of their schools, judging their own success and progress in terms simi- lar to those used by staff.

Pupils varied in the extent of their commitment, some being more calculative than others.

Those whose mode of adaptation could be characterized as resistant (a small group at Lakeside) tended to express frustration at the lack of institutional control they experienced.

The overwhelming majority of pupils in both schools (including the resistant group) claimed to prefer their current placement to other placements that they had experienced.

Page 13: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 137

5. To What Extent, I f Any, Does the Residential School Experience Contribute To The Resolution of Pupils" Perceived Emotional And Behavioral Difficulties ?

Evidence from pupils, staff, and parents (data obtained in an ear- lier study carried out at Farfield) indicate progress toward the alle- viation of presenting problems which is attributed to the residential experience in particular.

Pupils claim improved mastery and control over their own emotions and behavior.

Pupils claim to have developed social and interpersonal skills that enable them to deal constructively with problem situations (e.g., with parents, peers, teachers) that in the past their reactions would have escalated. They employ these skills to therapeutic effect in their peer relationships in school.

D i s c u s s i o n : S o m e T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s

The Problem Of Institutionalization

Whilst there was evidence of institutionalization in the two schools, this was not experienced as a major problem by the pupils. Pupils in both schools were subjected to certain "deprivations" that are associated with institutionalization, such as curtailments on their freedom of movement and their access to certain privileges which elsewhere might be considered rights. However, these pupils did not suffer the stripping away of their personal identities and consequent dehumanization, which is the most serious consequence of institutionalization. On the contrary, it appears that many of these pupils discovered, as a result of the residential experience, new personal identities, which were, for the first time for many of them, a source of pride and satisfaction. The evidence from some of these pupils is that their mainstream school experience had far more of a dehumanizing effect than the residential school.

There are three aspects of the residential experience, as described by the pupils of Lakeside and Farfield, that are repeatedly and consistently related to positive outcomes; these are summarized under the headings of respite, relationships, and re-signification. It is argued that these three features of the residential experience are the most critical in achieving the positive outcomes suggested.

A. Respite. Respite from the distressing situations which many of these pupils encounter in their home settings, in the form of negative

Page 14: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

138 Child and Youth Care Forum

family relationships, delinquent peer group associations, and dis- turbed schooling. These problems can be summarized in terms of:

�9 in the family: _economic and social disadvantage _severe emotional tension and discord in the family _ the presence of delinquent influences in the family

�9 at their former, mainstream school: _unsatisfactory relationships with school staff _belief that they are victims of inconsistent and unfair t reatment

by school staff _belief that they receive insufficient personal and academic sup-

port from staff _perceived inability to tolerate institutional demands of schools

�9 within the neighborhood peer group: _peer pressure to engage in delinquent activity

It is interesting to note that this range of problems is reflected in the research literature on deviant and disturbed young people (e.g., see West & Farrington, 1973; Dunlop, 1974; Pringle, 1975; Hoghughi, 1978; Tattum, 1982; Rutter & Giller, 1983). Whilst few pupils experi- ence all of these problems (though some do), all of the interviewees in this study experienced a combination of some of these problems. Par- ticularly prominent were school and family problems. Whilst it would be over-simplistic to think of these problems as causes of EBD, it seems to be the case that for these pupils the experience of having to cope with these circumstances occupied their energies to the exclu- sion of all else. And often, although the boys themselves were seen by others as being a source of some of these problems, the boys felt pow- erless to change their behavior, whilst feeling responsible for it. The respite provided by the residential situation enabled many of these boys to simply break the cycle of their involvement in these distress- ing circumstances. Respite in itself is for these pupils a necessary starting point for their positive development, since it gives them re- lief from circumstances which maintain their problems.

B. Relationships. Relationships of a high quality with staff and fellow pupils in the residential community contribute to the development of more positive self-images by giving pupils a sense of being valued and cared for by significant others whom they have learned to trust. Rela- tionships are perhaps the single most important mechanism at work, since it is through relationships that pupils are often first exposed to an image of themselves which challenges their own low opinions of themselves as bad and worthless individuals. It is the reflection of

Page 15: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 139

themselves that they see in others' responses to them that enable pu- pils to develop a positive self-image. This in turn gives them the con- fidence to take on new challenges (educational, social, emotional, etc.) in the knowledge that they will be accepted and valued by others, even if they fail.

C. Re-Signification Or Positive Signification. The term "signification" has been employed by Hargreaves et al. (1975) to describe a key com- ponent of the process by which pupils come to be labelled as "devi- ant." The term is used by Matza (1976) to describe the point at which an individual's persona becomes identified with a particular form of deviance. It is the process by which a pupil becomes objectified as a "truant," "yob," or "bully." Signification is when the pupil's deviant acts are taken to be his or her most representative acts. Positive sig- nification occurs when the pupil is labelled with a positive identity. In both cases, the labelling is likely to have the effect of a self-fulfill- ing prophecy, whereby the pupil comes to internalize the image of him or herself that is projected by others. Re-Signification, argues the present writer, describes the process that many of the boys in the present study appear to be undergoing in their residential schools. Re-signification involves the development of new and positive identi- ties as a consequence of relationships and experiences which under- mine the pupil's original negative view of self, by revealing evidence of desirable, positive qualities.

Re-signification is achieved through the availability in these two schools of opportunities for pupils to take on new challenges, learn new skills, develop a deeper knowledge of themselves, and move to- ward a more willing acceptance of themselves. To succeed, this pro- cess depends upon the supportive structure of good quality staff-pupil relationships, a secure environment, as well as the provision of care- fully controlled but challenging situations in which effort and success are rewarded and community involvement is encouraged and ac- knowledged. In its early stages, positive signification involves the re- warding and highlighting of positive attributes that the pupils already possess. For its success, however, it has to be progressive, providing an impetus to take on new challenges.

C o n c l u s i o n s

This paper has reported a study of two residential schools for pupils with emotional and behavioral difficulties. The study is the first of its kind to focus on pupils' perceptions of the experience and effects of attending such schools. The study shows that for the pupils in these

Page 16: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

140 Child and Youth Care Forum

two schools the residential experience had many positive outcomes, chief among them being improvements in the pupils' self-images. These improvements are attributed to three major features of the res- idential experience: respite from problems located in the home situa- tion, the high quality of staff-pupil and pupil-pupil relationships in the schools, and the process of re-signification, which is achieved through a wide range of opportunities for success and achievement in the two schools.

It is not claimed that these conclusions refer to anything other than the two schools that were the subject of the study. However, this research offers a basis from which informed hypotheses might be formed, as well as an indication of the shape that future studies of this important, but neglected area might take.

References

Balbernie, R. (1966). Residential work with children. London: Pergamon. Bettelheim, B. (1950). Love is not enough. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Bettelheim, B. (1955). Truants from life. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Bridgeland, M. (1971). Pioneer work with maladjusted children. London: Staples. Burn, M. (1956). Mr. Lyward's answer. London: Hamish Hamilton. Cole, I. (1986). Residential special education. Milton Keynes, England: Open Univer-

sity. Cooper, P.W. (1989). Respite, relationships, and re-signification: A study of the effects of

residential schooling on pupils with emotional and behavioral difficulties, with par- ticular reference to the pupils' perspective. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Uni- versity of Birmingham, Birmingham, England.

Cooper, P. (1993). Effective schools for disaffected students: Integration and segregation. London, New York: Routledge.

Cronk, K. (1987). Teacher-pupil conflict in secondary schools. London: Falmer. Davis, A. (1981). The residential solution. London: Tavistock. Dawson, R. (1981). The place of four pioneer tenets in modern practice and opinion.

New Growth, 1(2), 44-47. Dawson, R. (1984). Disturbed pupils' perceptions of their teachers' support and strict-

ness. Maladjustment and Therapeutic Education, 2(1), 24-27. Department of Education and Science. (1978). Special educational needs (The Warnock

Report). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Dunlop, A. (1970). The approved school experience. London: HMSO. (]laser, B., & Strauss, A. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory. London: Weidenfeld

and Nicolson. Goffman, E, (1961). Asylums. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (1983). Ethnography principles in practice. London:

Routledge. Hargreaves, D., Hester, F., & Mellor, F. (1975). Deviance in classrooms. London: Rout-

ledge. Hoghughi, M. (1978). Troubled and troublesome: Coping with severely disordered chil-

dren. London: Burnett Books. Lampen, J., & Neill, T. (1985). A bucket of cold water: A follow-up study in a residen-

tial special school. Journal of Adolescence, 8, 271-287. Lennhoff, F. (1966). Exceptional children. Northampton, England: John Dickens. Laslett, R. (1985). A follow-up study of children leaving three residential schools for

the maladjusted. Maladjustment and Therapeutic Education, 3(1), 13-19.

Page 17: Exploring pupils' perceptions of the effects of residential schooling on children with emotional and behavioral difficulties

Paul W. Cooper 141

Matza, D. (1976). Signification. In P. Hammersley & P. Woods (Eds.), The process of schooling. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press.

Millham, S., Bullock, R., & Cherrett, P. (1975). After grace--teeth: A comparative study of the residential experience of boys in approved schools. London: Chaucer.

Millham, S., Bullock, R., & Hosie, K. (1978). Locking up children. Farnborough: Saxon House.

Mortimore, P., Sammons, L., Stoll, L., & Ecob, R. (1988). School matters. London: Open Books.

Neill, A.S. (1916). A dominie's log. London: Herbert Jenkins. Neill, A.S. (1968). Summerhill. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. Oswin, M. (1978). Children in long stay hospitals. London: Allen Lane. Potter, P. (1986). Long term residential child care: The positive approach. Norwich,

England: University of East Anglia. Powney, J., & Watts, M. (1987). Interviewing in educational research. London: Rout-

ledge. Pringle, M. (1975). The needs of children. London: Hutchinson. Purkey, S., & Smith, M. (1983). Effective schools: A review. The Elementary School

Journal, 83(4), 428-452. Reynolds, D. (1976). The delinquent school. In M. Hammersley & P. Woods (Eds.), The

process of schooling. Milton Keynes, England: Open University. Reynolds, D. (1984). The school for vandals: A sociological portrait of the disaffection

prone school. In N. Frude & H. Gault (Eds.), Disruptive behavior in schools. Chichester, England: Wiley.

Reynolds, D., & Sullivan, M. (1979). Bring schools back in. In L. Barton & R. Meighan (Eds.), Schools, pupils, and deviance. Nafferton, England: Nafferton Books.

Rogers, C. (1951). Client centered therapy. London: Constable. Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rosser, E., & Harre, R. (1976). The meaning of trouble. In P. Hammersley & P. Woods

(Eds.), The process of schooling. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press. Rutter, M., & Giller, H. (1983). Juvenile delinquency: Trends and perspectives. Har-

mondsworth, England: Penguin. Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours.

London: Open Books. Ryan, J., & Thomas, D. (1980). The politics of mental handicap. Harmondsworth, En-

gland: Penguin. Schostak, J. (1983). Maladjusted schooling. London: Falmer. Shaw, O. (1965). Maladjusted boys. London: Allen and Unwin. Shaw, O. (1969). Prisoners of the mind. London: Allen and Unwin. Shearer, A. (1980). Handicapped children in residential care. London: Bedford Square

Press. Sheilds, A. (1962). A cure of delinquents. London: Heinemann. Tattum, D. (1982). Disruptive pupils in schools and units. Chichester: Wiley. Wagner Report for the National Institute for Social Work. (1988). Residential care: A

positive choice. Report of the independent review of residential care. London: HMSO. West, D., & Farrington, D. (1973). Who becomes delinquent? London: Heinemann. Willis, P. (1978). Learning to labor. Aldershot, England: Gower. Wills, W.D. (1960). Throw away thy rod. London: Gollancz. Wittrock, M. (1986). Students' thought processes. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of

research on teaching. New York: Macmillan. Woods, P. (1990). The happiest days? How pupils cope with schools. London: Falmer.