Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture ...The study is comparative in nature as two samples were extracted from Egypt (127 participants) and Mexico (116 participants)

International Journal of Management and Administrative Sciences (IJMAS) (ISSN: 2225-7225)

Vol. 4, No. 06, (01-15) www.ijmas.org

Copyright ©Pakistan Society of Business and Management Research

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Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture, Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Job Satisfaction: A

Comparative Study between Egypt and Mexico

Tarek A. El Badawy Assistant Professor of Management

Auburn University at Montgomery, Alabama, USA [email protected]

Juana Cecilia Trujillo-Reyes

Universidad de las Américas Puebla, Mexico [email protected]

Mariam M. Magdy Research Assistant

German University in Cairo, Egypt [email protected]

Abstract This study examines the interactions between organizational culture, organizational citizenship behaviors and job satisfaction. The study is comparative in nature as two samples were extracted from Egypt (127 participants) and Mexico (116 participants). A questionnaire with a 7-point Likert scale was used. The analysis was conducted using SPSS software. Results reported higher mean levels of organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction in Mexico than in Egypt. Associations between the three variables were significantly positive with small differences between the two cultures. Job satisfaction did not moderate the relationship between culture and citizenship behavior. Further implications and future research directions are provided. Keywords: Organizational Culture; Organizational Citizenship Behavior; Job satisfaction; Egypt; Mexico; Comparative Study

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]




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1. INTRODUCTION “Cultures are a natural outgrowth of the social interactions that make up what we call organizations”

(Trice et al., 1993 cited in Mohantyet al., 2012, p. 67). Organizational culture is also conceptualized as a set of shared ideologies, philosophies, values, behaviors, attitudes and norms in an organization (Balay et al., 2010). Organizational cultures can become a competitive edge if they effectively deal with external environmental changes, maintain internal consistency (Ubius et al., 2009) and strengthen employee’s commitment (O'Reilly, 1989). Additionally, Cameron et al. (2006) reported that successful organizations are those which have strong consistent cultures that are easily identifiable. They also reached the conclusion that cultures have direct significant effects on performance and effectiveness.

Organizational culture affects a spectrum of organizational variables including job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Positive association was found between employee’s attitudes such as job satisfaction and organizational culture (e.g. Harris et al., 1996; Odom et al., 1990; Zavyalovaet al., 2010) specifically when it helps employees in decision making, increasing their skills, encouraging co-worker relations especially teamwork that focuses on trust and high morale (Griffin et al., 2001; Park et al., 2009). Job satisfaction is the positive emotional feelings that results from the evaluation of an employee’s responsibilities in an organization. It can be used for evaluating working conditions such as job content. Satisfaction can be related not only to the job but also to dimensions related to the job such as pay, supervisors and morale (Wharton et al., 2000; Dormannet al., 2001; Volkweinet al., 2003; Lee et al., 2007; Park et al., 2009).

Organizational culture and organizational citizenship behavior are associated together in a positive direction (Mohanty et al., 2012). The concept of organizational citizenship behavior appeared recently in the literature. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is defined as all thebehaviors that are informal, performed by employees, and exceed the required task and duties. Those behaviors will not be either rewarded or compensated but they will be beneficial for the company and the work group as they will support the social and psychological environment of the organization (Vigoda-Gadot, 2007; Boerner et al., 2008; Tang et al., 2008). Successful organizational cultures are the ones which encourage OCB and acknowledge the individual acts of employees. OCB enhances the smooth flow of organization’s operations, increases productivity and decreases the amount of resources used by careful and efficient use (Coyne et al., 2007; Rego et al., 2010). OCB helps managers and co-workers to perform more effectively and reduces interpersonal conflicts that cause distractions. This is achieved through helping co-workers to solve work related problems and reduce the workload by helping them to learn new tasks or orienting new employees (Ryan, 2002; Dipaolo et al., 2005; Bolinoet al., 2005; Messer et al., 2006; Coyne et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2008; Boerner et al., 2008).

In the present study, an attempt was made to examine the relationships between organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior, and job satisfaction in a cross-cultural sample. Two samples were extracted from Egypt and Mexico to analyse the interactions between the three organizational concepts and examine if there are cultural differences between Egypt and Mexico. The paper is organized as follows. The following sections provide an overview on organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction. This will be followed by the research questions developed, methodology, results, and ending with discussion, limitations and future research directions.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Organizational Culture

Organizational culture (OC) is never considered an outdated topic of investigation. Organizational culture erupts from the individual employees whose interactions together create rites, rituals, common language and eventually a code of conduct is created that can help or hinder the organization’s managerial goals.“Cultures are a natural outgrowth of the social interactions that make up what we call organizations” (Trice et al., 1993 cited in Mohantyet al., 2012, p. 67). Organizational culture is also conceptualized as a set of shared ideologies, philosophies, values, behaviors, attitudes and norms in an organization (Balayet al., 2010). Organizational cultures can become a competitive edge if they effectively deal with external environmental changes, maintain internal consistency (Ubius et al., 2009) and strengthen employee’s commitment (O'Reilly, 1989). Additionally, Cameron et al. (2006) reported that successful organizations are those which have strong consistent cultures that are easily identifiable. They also reached the conclusion that cultures have direct




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significant effects on performance and effectiveness. Wallach (1983) identified three separate organizational cultures labelled as bureaucratic,

innovative,and supportive cultures. However, it was Cameron et al. (1991) who developed the most famous typology of organizational culture presented in the figure below (Figure 1). As shown in the figure, each type has specific characteristics along the two axes. The market culture is concerned with external stakeholders focusing on competitiveness and productivity through controlling the market and having high reputation (Ubius et al., 2009). The hierarchy culture is a very formal and well organized type of organizational culture. It enhances mainly the stability, predictability, and the internal efficiency of the company. This culture is characterized by having strict internal control policies as it emphasizes rules and regulations clearing out what needs to be done (Ubius et al., 2009).

The adhocracy culture is about being flexible, accepting change and adapting to it. Innovators and risk takers are the main types of individuals who work efficiently with this type of culture because they know how to cope and deal with new opportunities and changes in the market and they know how to produce new innovative products to satisfy the market changes (Ubius et al., 2009). Moreover, Conrad et al. (1997) mentioned that the adhocracy cultures are the second most effective type of culture after the market culture. Finally, the Clan culture is characterized by having a strong and rigid internal control system with a degree of flexibility. This type of culture is very famous in most family-owned businesses. The clan culture promotes teamwork, wide-sharing discussions, participation from all employees, and job involvement (Ubius et al., 2009).

It is worthy to note that the types are not mutually exclusive; an organization can have traces of more than one type at the same time. Recently, Cameron et al. (2006) created the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI), based on the four culture types mentioned.




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Figure 1. Typology of Culture

2.2 Culture and Different Organizational Variables

Job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, commitment, motivation and leadership are among few of the variables associated with the features of the organizational culture. Empirical research on organizational culture indicates positive correlations with job performance (Shahzad et al., 2013), leadership behavior (Tsai, 2011), and organizational effectiveness (Gregory et al., 2009). Waris (2005) provided evidence that there is a positive relationship between the Market type of culture and employee attitudes, including job satisfaction. Waris also found positive correlation between the market culture and OCB. In addition, he provided support to the claim that job satisfaction acts as a moderator between culture and OCB, the indirect relationship was significantly positive.




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Azanza et al. (2013) reported that flexible organizational cultures yield higher rates of job satisfaction among the employees. In addition, the aforementioned authors analyzed authentic leadership, as a mediator between flexible organizational cultures and job satisfaction, and results showed partial mediation effect. Such results reveal the importance of the congruence between the organizational culture and the practiced leadership to ensure employees’ correct understanding of what is expected from them, and hence, employees reach high levels of satisfaction. 2.3 Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is a direct claimed reason behind the organization’s sustainability (Organ, 1988 cited in Batool, 2013). As Batool described it, “OCB is a work-related actions beyond the formal job description but vastly appreciated by workforce, for the reason that it can boost the efficiency and achievability of organizational goals (Organ, 1988)” (2013, p. 647). In other words, OCB is optional, it is not considered for neither rewards nor excess in compensation nor performance appraisals. However, OCB is beneficial for the company and the work group as it supports the social and psychological environment of the organization. OCB can be directed towards the organizations as a whole or towards certain individuals (Blakely et al., 2003; Ehrhart, 2004; Dipaolo et al., 2005; Lavelle et al., 2009).

Coyne et al. (2007) identified five main dimensions of OCB: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness and civic virtue. Altruism focuses on activities that help others in work-related problems. Courtesy aims to help in preventing problems for other employees. Sportsmanship tries to bear problems and avoid taking actions to handle a complaint. Conscientiousness emphasizes on abiding by rules and regulations by efficiently using time and performing more than expectations. Finally, civic virtue is to participate in activities related to the organization’s benefit (Dipaolo et al., 2005; Chu et al., 2006; Vigoda-Gadot, 2007; Rego et al., 2010).

OCB is demarcated from several sources. Katz (1964) described it as activities dedicated to help colleagues, actions to protect the organizational system, self-development to improve the organization’s operations and externally focused activities to support the organization’s reputation. Nevertheless, the conceptualization of OCB had an American inception. OCB developed from western cultures, similar to most of the organizational behavior variables known today. It is not known whether the concept is culture-versatile (Farh et al., 2004). In the Japanese culture, for example, little research has been done on OCB as the Japanese culture is collective in nature and employees see their organizations as family; hence, employees do as they are told without considering whether the tasks done are part of the job or not (Ueda, 2012).

Farh et al. (2004) investigated OCB in China. Their results showed that the five known dimensions of OCB (taking initiative, helping co-workers, voice, group activity participation, and promoting company image) appear to be universal (p. 248). However, sportsmanship, courtesy, and advocacy were not represented in the results. Results also showed other five dimensions that were more culture-related. They were self-training, social welfare participation, saving company’s resources, keeping workplace clean, and maintaining interpersonal harmony. Mohanty et al. (2012) investigated the relationship between organizational culture and OCB in three different industries. His results showed significant positive correlations between all the facets of organizational culture and OCB. Despite the differences between the organizations, the correlations were significantly positive and Mohanty attributed this to the strong prevailing cultures in each organization that make employees conform and hence, engage in OCB. Particularly, support (facet of culture) scored the highest correlation with civic virtue (facet of OCB) with r= .62 (P< 0.01).

The practical importance of organizational citizenship behavior is that it improves organizational efficiency and effectiveness by contributing to resource transformations, creativity, and adaptability (Williams et al., 1991 cited in Bonaparte Jr., 2008, p. 18). Although OCB is not formally recognized, research has shown that contextual performance does affect performance appraisals and rewards same as task performance. For example, in a military setting, it was found that contextual performance affected the distribution of rewards (medals and promotions) (Van Scotter et al., 2000).

OCB is also studied in relation to employee engagement, Rich et al. (2010) found that engaged employees are more connected with their organizations and more likely to show courtesy and involvement in the organization. Batool (2013) concluded that organizational commitment served as a stimulator of OCB as well (also supported by Bonaparte Jr., 2008). However, job satisfaction is the mostly recognized predecessor to OCB.




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2.3 Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction (JS) is multidimensional. It emphasizes on the specific task environment in which an

employee performs his or her duties (Mowday et al., 1982).Satisfaction is conceptualized in three ways: intrinsic, extrinsic, and total satisfaction (Weiss et al., 1967).Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as a positive emotional state that results from appraising one’s job. Job satisfaction can be related not only to the job but also to dimensions related to the job such as pay, supervisors and morale (Wharton et al., 2000; Dormann et al., 2001; Volkwein et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2007; Park et al., 2009). Lund (2003) examined the relationship between organizational culture types and job satisfaction of American marketing professionals. His results showed that clan and adhocracy cultures have significant higher levels of job satisfaction as opposed to market and hierarchy cultures. However, Shurbagi et al. (2012) found significant positive relationship between all organizational cultures (manifested in the 1991’s framework of Clan, Adhocracy, Market and Hierarchy) and job satisfaction. Vukonjanski et al. (2012) reported significant positive correlation between GLOBE dimensions of organizational culture and job satisfaction in a Serbian sample.

Zavyalova et al. (2010) reported that organizations with market and hierarchic cultures showed average job satisfaction with score 4.0 and 4.7 respectively. As for the clan and adhocracy cultures, high levels of job satisfaction with score of 5.2 was reported. Thus the satisfaction is higher in organizations characterized by being innovative, supportive than, hierarchical cultures.

Abbaspour et al. (2015) also reported significant positive correlation between organizational culture and job satisfaction. In addition, in their Iranian sample, organizational culture explained 50.4% of the variance in job satisfaction.Several scholars also confirmed the relation (Roodt et al., 2002; Jill et al., 2003; Navaie-Waliser et al., 2004; Arnold et al., 2006, Chang et al., 2007; Nayak et al., 2013). On the other hand, Belias et al. (2015) found that culture partially predicated job satisfaction in a sample of Greek employees working in the banking sector. In particular, researchers found that adhocracy and market types of cultures lead to dissatisfaction and they attributed this to the economic state of the country.

With relation to leadership, Chen (2004) found that idealized leadership features along with an innovative organizational culture were positively associated with higher commitment and job satisfaction. Olafsdottir (2008) reported from Iceland that leadership is important in creating a healthy and sustainable organizational culture. Consequently, employees can enjoy work-life balance at their organizations. Vukonjanski et al. (2012) supported the previous findings as they found that the leader-member exchange relationship moderated the organizational culture-job satisfaction relationship.

Lukić et al. (2014), in a sample from the Republic of Serbia, found significant positive correlation between job satisfaction and the creativity and innovation of employees. Nevertheless, the strength of the organizational culture was not correlated with the innovativeness of employees or their level of job satisfaction. Arifin (2015) also found positive, yet insignificant, relationship between organizational culture and job satisfaction in a sample of Indonesian high education teachers. His finding suggests that organizational culture is an important, but insufficient, factor in job satisfaction. The direct link between types of organization culture and job satisfaction still needs further investigations.

Most of the studies correlated job satisfaction with OCB suggesting that job satisfaction is an antecedent to employee OCB (Waris, 2005; LePine et al., 2002; Alotaibi, 2001; Kuehn et al., 2002; Murphy et al., 2002). Islam et al. (2014) reported that perceived organizational support and a learning organization culture both positively influence job satisfaction. In addition, a learning organizational culture affected OCB (specifically towards the organization) positively.

Swaminathanet al. (2013) revealed a positive relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior especially help-oriented behaviors (Civic Virtue, Conscientiousness and Altruism) and Courtesy. The positive correlation was also supported by Jena et al. (2013) whom showed that satisfaction with work ranked first, followed by satisfaction with supervision, satisfaction with co-workers, satisfaction with promotion, and satisfaction with pay respectively.

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on the previous literature, it was concluded that the nature of the organizational variables and

their interactions together are not static. They rather change according to characteristics related to the individuals, the working environment, the external market, the economy and even the country’s cultural




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framework. Hence, the researchers believe it is important to shed the light on the variables of OC, JS and OCB in countries underrepresented in the literature, specifically Egypt and Mexico. The purpose of this study is to analyze and compare how Egyptian and Mexican employees perceive and rate OC, JS and OCB in their organizations. Accordingly, the following research questions were developed: RQ1: What is the difference between the types of organizational cultures prevailing in Egypt and Mexico? RQ2: Are there significant differences between the levels of OCB in Egypt and Mexico? RQ3: Is job satisfaction statistically higher in Mexico than Egypt?

RQ4: Does the correlations, between the three variables organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction, differ between the Egyptian and Mexican samples?

4. METHODOLOGY 4.1 Sample and Procedure The study was based on two samples. The first sample was 127 Egyptian MBA candidates and the second sample contained 116 Mexican employees. Employees worked in private service and manufacturing organizations. The MBA programs run in the German University in Cairo, Egypt and University of the Americas in Puebla, Mexico. Data was collected using a questionnaire. Employees were asked to express their opinion on organizational culture, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. 4.2 Instrument Organizational Culture Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) was used having 24 items. The tool measures the culture in terms of six characteristics for each culture type. The questions are measured using seven-point Likert scale (Worley, 2010). 4.3 Organizational Citizenship behavior A 17-item tool that measures the five dimensions of OCB; altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue as classified by Coyne et al. (2007) was adopted. The questions are measured using seven-point Likert scales. 4.4 Job satisfaction A 5-item scale tool was used. The questions were measured using 7-point Likert scale in which 1 represented strongly disagree and 7 strongly agree (Judge et al., 1998). 4.5 Analysis Comparison of means, correlation and partial correlation analyses were conducted using SPSS software for the statistical analysis.

5. RESULTS

Country N Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

t df Probability

Hierarchy Egypt 127 4.34 1.18 0.11

-1.06 0.14 -7.75 241 .00000 Mexico 116 5.40 0.91 0.08

Clan Egypt 127 4.43 1.35 0.12

-0.70 0.16 -4.36 241 .00002 Mexico 116 5.14 1.15 0.11

Adhocracy Egypt 127 4.16 1.34 0.12

-0.93 0.16 -5.68 241 .00000 Mexico 116 5.09 1.20 0.11

market Egypt 127 4.54 1.07 0.09

-0.85 0.14 -6.16 241 .00000 Mexico 116 5.39 1.09 0.10

Table 1. Comparisons of Mean levels of Organizational Culture Table 1 shows the mean levels of each type of organizational culture in Egypt and Mexico. The results indicate that the means of the four types of organizational culture are slightly higher in Mexico than Egypt. The differences are statistically significant (p< 0.001).




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Country N Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Mean Difference


t df Probability

OCB Egypt 127 5.43 0.64 0.06

-0.32 0.08 -3.87 241 .00014 Mexico 116 5.75 0.65 0.06

Altruism Egypt 127 5.43 1.12 0.10

0.03 0.14 0.25 241 .79898 Mexico 116 5.40 0.98 0.09

Courtesy Egypt 127 5.93 0.86 0.08

0.02 0.12 0.17 241 .86505 Mexico 116 5.91 1.06 0.10

Sportsmanship Egypt 127 4.82 1.10 0.10

-0.38 0.15 -2.59 241 .01030 Mexico 116 5.21 1.22 0.11

Consciousness Egypt 127 5.57 1.10 0.10

-0.54 0.13 -4.29 241 .00003 Mexico 116 6.12 0.83 0.08

Civic Virtue Egypt 127 5.40 1.03 0.09

-0.74 0.12 -6.36 241 .00000 Mexico 116 6.15 0.75 0.07

Table 2. Comparisons of Mean Levels of OCB Table 2 reports the means of the five dimensions of OCB in both, Egypt and Mexico. For the overall OCB, the mean level is statistically significantly higher in Mexico than in Egypt (p< 0.001). However, when OCB is disaggregated, altruism and courtesy have mean levels higher in Egypt than Mexico; however, the difference is insignificant statistically (p> 0.05). For sportsmanship (P< 0.05), consciousness and civic virtue (p< 0.001), the mean levels are statistically significantly higher in Mexico than in Egypt.

Country N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Mean Difference


t df Probability

JS Egypt 127 4.73 1.00 0.09

-0.54 0.13 -4.08 241 .00006 Mexico 116 5.27 1.05 0.10

Table 3. Comparisons of Mean Levels of Job Satisfaction For job satisfaction, Mexican employees reported higher levels of job satisfaction (Table 3). The difference between Egypt and Mexico is statistically significant (p< 0.001).

Correlations Egypt

Hierarchy Clan Adhocracy market

OCB

Pearson Correlation .316** .414** .290** .358**

Probability .000 .000 .001 .000

N 127 127 127 127

Correlations Mexico


OCB


Probability .000 .000 .000 .000

N 116 116 116 116

Table 4. Correlation between OC and OCB




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Comparison, between Egypt and Mexico, of the correlations between the three variables was conducted. For the correlation between organizational culture and OCB. Both samples showed statistically significant positive correlations. The correlations were higher in Mexico than in Egypt, except for clan culture (Table 4).

Correlations Egypt


JS

Pearson Correlation .409** .458** .365** .206*

Probability .000 .000 .000 .020

N 127 127 127 127

Correlations Mexico


JS


Probability .000 .000 .002 .000

N 116 116 116 116

Table 5. Correlation between OC and JS Correlations between organizational culture and job satisfaction were also statistically significant for both Egypt and Mexico samples. Mexico reported higher correlation values except for adhocracy culture (Table 5). In both samples, the clan culture had the highest correlation value, followed by hierarchy.

Correlations Egypt

OCB Altruism Courtesy sports consc civic

JS

Pearson Correlation

.339** .174* .156 .410** .094 .198*

Probability .000 0.0497 .080 .000 .295 .025

N 127 127 127 127 127 127

Correlations Mexico

OCB Altruism Courtesy sports consc civic

JS

Pearson Correlation

.453** .174 .180 .396** .339** .472**

Probability .000 .062 .053 .000 .000 .000

N 116 116 116 116 116 116

Table 6. Correlation between OCB and JS

The results of the correlation analysis between OCB and job satisfaction were different. The overall OCB was significantly positively correlated with job satisfaction for both samples (p< 0.001). However, there was an insignificant correlation between courtesy and consciousness with job satisfaction in the Egyptian sample. Additionally, the correlation between altruism and courtesy with job satisfaction was insignificant in the Mexican sample (Table 6).




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6. DISCUSSION The present study was comparative in nature. The aim was to analyze the differences between

Egyptian and Mexican employees with relation to organizational culture, organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction.

The conceptualization of organizational culture was based on Cameron and Freeman’s typology of culture (market, hierarchy, adhocracy and clan). The average scores for all culture types were higher in Mexico than in Egypt. In addition, the difference between the two samples was significant indicating that Mexican organizations operate more effective organizational cultures that are easily identifiable by the employees. This study proves that strong consistent cultures that are easily identifiable by employees are more effective (Cameron et al., 2006; Gregory et al., 2009). In relation to the first research question, the sample from Mexico had significant higher mean levels of organizational culture types.

Organizational citizenship behavior is all the behaviors that are not part of the job tasks. However, they are performed by the employee voluntary to benefit the organization as a whole or certain individuals. The current study proved that the overall OCB was higher in Mexico that in Egypt, specifically acts of sportsmanship, consciousness and civic virtue (answer to second research question). Typically, those three acts are related to the organization as a whole; to avoid problems, abide by rules to achieve efficiency and to participate in activities that benefit the organization. Again, this provides support to the notion that organizational cultures are stronger in Mexican organizations that employees relate to them and naturally conform to their respective cultures.

Answering the third research question, the average level of job satisfaction was higher in Mexico than in Egypt. To answer the forth research question, associations between the three variables were inspected. The correlation between organizational culture and OCB was significantly positive in both samples. The strength of the relationship was higher in Mexico except for the clan culture supporting Waris (2005) and Mohanty’s (2012) findings.

The correlation between organizational culture and job satisfaction was significantly positive in both Egyptian and Mexican samples. These findings coincide with the findings of (Shurbagi et al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2000; Sempane et al., 2002; Mckinnon et al. 2003; Navaie-Waliser et al., 2004; Arnold et al., 2006, Chang et al., 2007; Mansoor et al., 2010; Nayak et al., 2013). Higher correlation values were reported from the Mexican sample except for adhocracy culture. In addition, the clan culture had the highest correlation value in both samples supporting Lund’s (2003) findings. Lund’s results showed that clan and adhocracy cultures had the highest correlation values.

However, The Egyptian sample reported the lowest correlation in the market culture contradicting Zavyalova et al.’s (2010) claim that innovative flexible cultures have higher levels of job satisfaction. In addition, the results contradict the perceived notion that hierarchy type of culture has less levels of employee job satisfaction (Ubius et al., 2009). In both samples, the relationship remained significantly positive. This could be attributed to the culture of the society. For example, Egypt is classified as having high power distance, individuals accept unequal distribution of power in organizations and institutions. Hence, hierarchical orders do not affect employees negatively.

The correlation between the overall OCB and job satisfaction was significantly positive. However, in Egypt, there was no association between courtesy and consciousness with job satisfaction. Moreover, in Mexico, altruism and courtesy with job satisfaction had insignificant association. This contradicts Swaminathan et al.’s (2013) study which reported that job satisfaction is specifically associated with the help-oriented dimensions of OCB such as Civic Virtue, Conscientiousness, Altruism and Courtesy. 6.1 Practical Implication and Future Research Recommendations

Managers can utilize the results of this study to focus on their organizational cultures. Managers should be aware of the importance of a strong consistent culture that is easily identifiable. In addition, they should be aware of the importance of having a strong leadership present in the organization that employees can relate to and hence, employees will conform to the culture in a positive manner. Human resource practitioners inside organizations should search for areas of development in employees such as providing cultural orientation sessions, providing training courses or even organizing social events to allow for better interactions between employees and their co-workers and managers.




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Managers should also be interested in eliciting advice from their employees on what makes them motivated and satisfied and what obstacles are hindering them from performing well. In addition, contextual performance should be monitored and awarded in the right moment to encourage employees to engage in citizenship behaviors more to serve the organization. The study has several limitations. The sample size is relatively small in relation to the whole population. The sample did not cover all cities in both countries nor all industries. The scope of the analysis did not cover the interaction between the society’s prevailing culture (e.g. Hofstede’s cultural model) and the organizational cultures.

Future studies could focus on bigger sample sizes, different industries and different underrepresented countries altogether. Further investigation of the effect of job satisfaction on the organizational culture-citizenship behavior is required. Future studies could also turn to observations and qualitative methods to gain in-depth data about the organizational behavior of employees.

7. CONCLUSION This study shed the light on the mechanisms evident in organizations from two different cultures;

Egypt and Mexico. The results of the study follow the logic concluded from previous studies; stronger cultures cascade to organizational citizenship behaviors and high job satisfaction. This was evident in the Mexican sample indicating that organizations in Mexico foster healthier working environments. The aforementioned suggested research endeavors will further validate the results of this study and provide more information on the different types of cultures, national and organizational.




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Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture ...The study is comparative in nature as two samples were extracted from Egypt (127 participants) and Mexico (116 participants)