Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
This article was downloaded by: [The Aga Khan University]On: 17 October 2014, At: 00:38Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 MortimerStreet, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Divorce &RemarriagePublication details, includinginstructions for authors and subscriptioninformation:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjdr20
Fathers' Involvementand Mothers' ParentingStress PostdivorceJoyce A. Arditti PhD a & Patricia BickleyPhD ba Faculty, Department of Familyand Child Development, VirginiaPolytechnic Institute and StateUniversity, Blacksburg, VA, 24061-0416b Faculty, Department of EducationalResearch, Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University, Blacksburg, VA,24061Published online: 18 Oct 2008.
To cite this article: Joyce A. Arditti PhD & Patricia Bickley PhD (1997)Fathers' Involvement and Mothers' Parenting Stress Postdivorce, Journal ofDivorce & Remarriage, 26:1-2, 1-23, DOI: 10.1300/J087v26n01_01
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J087v26n01_01
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy ofall the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications
on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and ourlicensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever asto the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose ofthe Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publicationare the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the viewsof or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verifiedwith primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall notbe liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands,costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with,in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and privatestudy purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply,or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Fathers' Involvement and Mothers' Parenting Stress
Postdivorce
Joyce A. Arditti Patricia Bickley
ABSTRACT. Self-report data from 212 divorced mothers was ana- lyzed to test a path model of father involvement postdivorce and parenting stress. Using multiple regression analysis, findings indi- cated that mothers report higher levels of father involvement post- divorce when they had supportive coparental relationships with their former spouses, lived nearby their children's father, and had higher incomes and child support. Higher levels of interparental conflict were also associated with greater involvement on the part of fathers. Fathers' involvement was not significantly related to mothers' parenting stress. Child characteristics and socio-econom- ic factors appeared most predictive of mothers' reports of their parenting st& Possible eiplanations for these finding, as well as policy implications, are discussed. fAr1icle copies available for a fee $om h e hwov fh ~ocurnent ~el iver~-service: j-800-342-9678. ~-mai1 address: [email protected]]
The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, a model of father involve- ment postdivorce was tested to determine the relationship key variables, included in the analysis because of their empirical and theoretical signifi- cance, have on mothers' reports of father involvement. We seek to clarify the role the coparental relationship has on fathers' involvement while con-
Joyce A. Arditti, PhD, is on the faculty, Department of Family & Child ~ e v i - opment and Patricia Bickley, PhD, is on the faculty, Department of Educational Rescarch, both at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 2406 1.
Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 26 (112) 1996 O 1996 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. I
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
2 JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
trolling for situationaVstructura1 factors like distance and legal custody ar- rangement. Second, the study sought to ascertain how fathers' involvement postdivorce impacts on custodial mothers' parenting. From a theoretical standpoint, it seems reasonable to presume that fathers' involvement with children would be systemically related to aspects of mothers' parenting, yct research examining this connection is virtually nonexistent. Empirical docu- mentation of this connection is especially important given the policy deci- sions that are increasingly emerging from the assumption that increasing fathers' level of involvement is not only good for children, but good for mothers as well.
BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE
The issue of fathers' involvement postdivorce has become increasingly salient in terms of how father-child contact influences children's adjust- ment to divorce (Furstenburg & Cherlin, 1991; Simons, Whitbeck, Bea- man, & Conger, unpublished manuscript) and men's adjustment to divorce and nonresidential parenting (Arditti &Allen, 1993; Stewart, Schwebel, & Fine, 1986). Unfortunatelj: it is not entirely clear how important involve- ment of the nonresidential parent is regarding children's adjustment, with some studies pointing to positive child outcomes and others finding either negative outcomes or no relationship between father-child contact and child adjustment (Maccoby, Buchanan, Mnookin, & Dornbusch, 1993; Simons et al.). More conclusive, is evidence suggesting that greater levels of father-involvement tends to be associated with greater well-being for men. The available body of research indicates that divorced fathers report preferring greater involvement with their children (Arditti, 1992b; Arditti & Allen, 1993), and that greater father-child contact is associated with feel- ings of competency and enhanced self-esteem for fathers (D'Andrea, 1983; Dominic & Schlesinger, 1980).
Crucial to understanding how fathers' involvement influences postdi- vorce outcomes for children, is understanding how fathers' involvement affects mothers' parenting. Simons et al. assert the impact of mothers' parenting on child adjustment must be taken into account if one is to establish the effect of involvement by nonresidential fathers. Whilc it has been suggested that increased father involvement may havc positive im- plications for mothers by virtue of relieving her parenting burden to a certain extent (see for example Wallerstein, 1980 and Luepnitz, 1986), such an assumption, while intuitively appealing, has yet to bc adequately tested and supported by empirical research. It is not well understood as to how father-child contact and participation postdivorce actually impacts on custodial mothers (Arditti, 1992b; Arditti & Keith, 1993).
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Arditti arid Patricia Bickley 3
Ccntral to the conceptual framework of this study is the importance of the quality of parenting for the functioning of the family system postdi- vorce. It has been well documented that parenting quality tends to dimin- ish following divorce and that this has profound implications for chil- dren's adjustment (Hetherington, Cox & Cox, 1976; Wallerstein & Kelley, 1980). For example, research has consistently shown single mothers to be less effective in the areas of discipline and control (Amato, 1987; Astone & McLanahan, 1991) and that mothers' vulnerabilities in these parenting practices are related to child conduct problems and dificulties at school (Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Maccoby, 1992).
The centrality of mothers' parenting is also reflected in policy debates prioritizing family members' interests postdivorce. An emerging view- point from recent reviews on children's adjustment postdivorce promotes policy that supports custodial mothers' parenting, even if it is at the ex- pense of noncustodial fathers, as this is seen as the most important deter- minant of healthy family functioning postdivorce (Furstenburg & Cherlin, 1991). Having a more complcte understanding of mothers' relationships with their ex-spouses, as well as their experienccs with visitation, is essen- tial in facilitating positive parenting outcomes postdivorce.
FATHER INVOLVEMENT AND FAMILY FUNCTIONING POSTDIVORCE
As previously discussed, the implications of fathers' involvement for children's adjustment postdivorce has received the most emphasis in re- search investigating fathers' role in divorced family systems. Rcsearch growing out of a more recent interest in men's adjustment and well-being has also addressed the implications of fathers' involvement postdivorce for men's functioning. While children's and men's functioning may have sys- temic significance for mothers' functioning (Arditti & Kclly, 1994; Sero- vich, Price, Chapman, & Wright, 1992), little is known regarding how father involvement directly affects mothcrs. Fishel and Scanzoni (1989) found that greater levels of father involvement postdivorce, measured as the amount of time the father spent with his children, was associated with mothcrs' perceptions of greater parcnting support. This finding suggests that mothers with more highly involved former spouses, and subsequently greater levels of perceived support, would have lower levels of parenting strcss. In a related study, Luepnitz (1986) found that joint-custody mothers, by virtue of increased levels of father involvement, reported being better able to rely on the othcr parent for childcare, thus avoiding maternal "bum out"-common amongst stressed single-mothers. Beyond thcsc particular
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
4 JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
findings, which are limited given that mothers' quality of parenting is not ditvctly measured, little documentation exists as to what the nature of thesc relationships are postdivorce. In contrast to thc prcsumption that increased levels of father involvement will positively impact mothers, it has also been speculatcd that highly involved fathers may have more problemalic rela- tionships with their former spouses (Hoffman, 1983; Kruk, 1992), and this may indirectly bear on mothers' parenting capabilities.
A variety of factors have been studied in terms of their contribution as to whether fathers visit their children. Furthermore, the literature is incon- clusive regarding what factors appear to be most important in predicting father involvement postdivorce. The lack of clarity regarding what vari- ables predict father involvement as well as the direction of these relation- ships is due in part to discrepancies in how father involvement is defined, subsequent measurement, and the source of reports concerning fathers' activities (i.e., mothers vs. fathers) (Arditti, 1994). Some studies point to the importance of the relationship between former spouses as influencing visitation outcomes. Hostile relations between ex-spouses, poor relation- ship quality, and little discussion regarding childrearing tend to be nega- tively associated with father involvement and contact with children (Ah- rons, 1983; Arditti & Keith, 1993; Lund, 1987). Other studies find situational factors, such as the proximity of fathers' residence to children's residence (Arditti, 1992a; Furstenburg, 1988), and custody status (Arditti, 1992b; Bowman and Ahrons, 1985) as being paramount. In gencral, joint legal custody status and greater physical proximity has been associated with more frequent father-child contact. Child support payment has also been found in some studies as being positively related to fathers' involve- ment with their children (Furstenburg, Peterson, Nord, & Zill, 1983; Teachman, 1991).
THE CENTRALITY OF COPARENTAL RELATIONS
In spite of discrepancies concerning the relative importance of certain variables, it is generally agreed that coparental relationships have much bearing not only on fathers' level of involvement with their children, but on mothers' functioning as well. For example, research has indicated that a supportive coparental relationship facilitates the adjustment of custodial mothers (Ahrons, 1981; Hcthcrington, Cox, & Cox, 1982; Kurdek & Blisk, 1983). Furthermore, in an earlier analysis of this data, Maddcn-Dcr- dich and Arditti (1994) found that thc quality of coparental relationships had bearing on mothers' level of preoccupation or attachment to their for- mer spouse and that this had implications for adjustment. The premise that
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Arditli and Palricia Bickley 5
coparental relationships are central to postdivorce family hctioning receives theoretical support from family systems thcory (Bowen, 1978; Kerr & Bo- wen, 1988). A major assumption of this particular theory is that even though divorce is a transition that changes family characteristics, the basic emotional processes of the family are still operating. From the Bowen Perspective, the emotional system in each individual is a basic life force that causes each family member to experience conncction with each other and to be influenced by one another. This emotional process is present even though family members are no longer living togethcr. Since it is belicvcd that there will always be some degree of unresolved emotional attachrncnt, divorce or even lack of contact does not end the father-child relationship, nor does it end the relationship between the parents (Ahrons, 1981). Thus ex-spouses with children often continue to be interdependent on one another and this continued interdependence has implications not only for mothers' parenting, but also for all family members' functioning postdivorce.
Unfortunately, little is known from an empirical standpoint with regard to how coparental relationships bear on mothers' parenting. In one of the few studies that considers this issue, Maccoby et al. (1993) found that conflict between the parents was not significantly related to the quality of parenting by the residential parent after separation. More commonly, re- search studies address how coparental relationships directly affect chil- dren's adjustment. Although we do not assess children's adjustment in the present study, the issue is relevant to the processes considered by this research. Research has indicated that the adjustment of children following divorce depends greatly on the level of interparental conflict between parents and the quality of their relationship postdivorce (Camera & Res- nick, 1987; Johnston et al., 1989; Maccoby et al., 1993). The lack of significance between coparental relations and mothers' parenting suggests a dircct link between coparental relationships and children's adjustment. Howcvcr, supporting evidence is sorely needed to solidify or rcfute this contention. The present study seeks to extend the scant empirical research pertaining to these relationships, by considering whether coparental rela- tionships directly influence mothers' parenting stress.
Various background factors were also included in our model because of their theoretical andlor empirical significance. Mothers' income and education, and number of children are included in the analysis because of their relevance to the quality of coparental relationships and potential to influence aspects of fathers' visitation (Fishel & Scanzoni, 1989; Maccoby et al., 1993; Arditti & Kelly, 1994). Child characteristics are virtually ignored in studies pertaining to fathcrs' involvement, but probably impor-
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
6 JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
tant. Different children elicit different responses from parents, different styles of parenting, and different levels of parental involvement (Belsky, Lerner, and Spanier, 1984). This has important implications for outcomes like fathers' involvement postdivorce and mothers' parenting stress. Ar- ditti (1994) points out that beyond considering superficial characteristics like gender or age of the children, studies which includc variables rclated to children's temperament or personality and their relationship to fathers' involvement are scarce or nonexistent. Again, since we are focusing on how mothers define their experiences (vs. "objective" reality) their per- ceptions and beliefs about their children are relevant in assessing the interrelationshios between variables.
In the presek study, we developed a multivariate modcl which sought to elucidate the connections between various background factors, coparen- tal relationships, fathers' involvement, and mothers' parenting stress as reported by mothers. Using path analysis, we tested the following hypoth- eses:
1. Mothcrs would report higher levels of father involvement when: they had joint custody, greater numbers of children, lower levels of conflict, better coparental relationships, lcss difficult children, fa- thers lived close by, they had higher levels of education, income, and received child support.
2. Higher levels of father involvement would be related to lower levels of parenting stress for mothers.
We acknowledge the fact that mothers' reports may be biased, particu- larly regarding mothers' tendency to underreport fathers' level of involve- ment (Ahrons, 1983) and payment of child support (Wright & Price, 1986), however, this is not necessarily a limitation given the main empha- sis is on how these factors interrelate and influence mothers' level of parenting stress. Mothers are a logical source of information regarding their own experiences, and their beliefs and perceptions about their ex- spouses are essential in understanding their experiences as parents. Wc were interested in exploring mothers' frame of refcrence and were opcrat- ing from the presumption that how people define the situation in which they find themselves has profound consequences (Thomas, 1949, cited in Marshall & Rossman, 1989). Although this approach is more common when using qualitative methodologies, it has particular utility in studying divorced families, where "multiplc rcalities" (i.e., different perspectives on the part of mothers, fathers, and children) predominate, and have far- reaching emotional and legal implications (Demo & Ganong, 1994). Fur- thermore, our model extends previous research in this area by seeking to
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Arditti and Patricia Bickley 7
include previously neglected factors, most notably child characteristics, and examines the systemic significance of conflict, coparental relation- ships, and fathers' involvement on mothers' parenting stress.
METHOD
Sampling and Procedures
A survey instrument was used to assess variables included in the study. Nine hundred and seventccn surveys were sent to custodial mothers drawn from public court records (divorce granted from 1988-1991) in southwest Virginia. Out of the 917 surveys sent out, 692 surveys were returned undeliverable, and 225 werc rcturned completed by the respondent. The estimated "cooperation" rate, calculated by dividing the number of re- turned surveys by the total number that were delivered, was 42%. Data from 2 12 divorced mothers was analyzed to test a model of father involve- ment postdivorce and parenting stress. The sample was predominantly white (87.3%) and educate&75% of the women had continued their education beyond high school with 36% being college graduates. The average age of mothers participating in the study was 36 years old and the mean number of children reported was 1.72. The women in the sample had been divorced an average of 37 months with the mean length of marriage being approximately 10.5 years. Twenty percent of the women reported being remarried at the time the survey was completed.
Variables in the Model
Variables included in the study were assessed using a survey instrument similar in format to one developed by Spanier and Thompson (1984) which gathers information relating to individuals' adjustment to separation and divorce. The survey instrument utilized for this study also collected in- formation pertaining to parent-child relationships and coparental relation- ships between former spouses. The model tested incorporated variables rclated to (a) economic factors (child support received, mothers' income), (b) backgmund characteristics (mothers' education, number of children resulting from marriage, distance father lives from children, custody ar- rangement), (c) child characteristics (temperamental difficulty/lack of fit with mothers' cxpectations), (d) interparental conflict, (e) coparental rela- tionship quality (relationship quality, support, and communication about childrearing), (Qfathers ' involvement (visitation frequency, visitation quali- ty, involvement in childrearing decisions), and (g)parenting stress.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
8 JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
Parenting Stress and Child Characteristics. Perceivcd parenting stress was measured utilizing the parent and social domains of a factor ana- lyzcd version of the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) (Abidin, 1986) (a = 38). These domains incorporated 33 5-point items, ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." Sample items include: "I have had more problems raising children than I expected," "I often have feelings that I can't handle things very well," and "I feel trapped in my responsibilities as a parent." Higher scores on this subscale reflect higher levels of parenting stress.
In addition, mothers were asked to respond to 28 items from the child domain of the PSI, which assesses the extent to which one of their chil- dren, chosen based on which child in the family the mother is most con- cerned about (a = 39). A high score on this scale suggests that certain characteristics of the child are major factors in contributing to stress in the parent-child system (Abidin, 1986). The scale assesses the degree to which a child is seen as temperamentally difficult and fails to fit parental expectations, as well as perceptions of a child's level of adaptability, distractibility, demandingness and overall mood. Sample items include: "My child is much more active than I expectcd," "My child rarely does things that make me feel good," "I feel that my child is very moody and easily upset." Higher scores reflect perceptions that a child is more diffi- cult to deal with and less likely to fit with parental expectations.
Analysis of the Model
Although the survey was designed to measure the variables of interest in this research, some preliminary analysis was necessary to prepare the data for further analysis. First, we conducted exploratory factor analyses to make sure the variables measure the constructs they were designed to measure. Second, we selected and when necessary, combined into com- posites those questionnaire items that preliminary logical and statistical analysis suggested would provide valid measures of the constructs of interest. Based on the factor analyses, as well as theoretical considerations, composites were created for the coparental relationship and father in- volvemcnt. Thc composites are believed to represent a more comprehen- sive approach to the variables of interest;
Coparenkd Relationship Quality. Coparental Relationship Quality (CPQ) encompasses mothers' reports of their relationship quality with their former spouses, their lcvcl of interaction with their former spouses regarding childrearing decisions, as well as levels of perceived emotional support for parenting. This particular composite variable was developed based on previous definitions of the coparental relationship which have
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Ardiini arid Patricia Bickley 9
encompassed childrearing issues and obligations and quality of the rela- tionship (Ahrons, 1981; Bohannon, 1970). The variable incorporated items from Ahrons' (1981) coparental interaction scale and mutual support scale, as well as a global rating of relationship quality (a = .86). Interpa- rental conflict (a = .87), which was assessed using items from Ahrons' (1981) conflict scale was not included in the composite based on statistical and theoretical considerations. Although Ahrons (1981) originally con- ceptualized conflict and support as part of a larger index of "coparental communication," factor analyses revealed that the conflict subscale was distinct from the other elements of the coparental relationship. Further- more, previous literature suggests that interparental conflict is a process that is distinct from processes of support (Fishel & Scanzoni, 1990; Mad- dcn-Derdich, 1994) and has bearing on the coparental relationship (Mac- coby et al., 1993). For these reasons, thc decision was made to conceptual- ize conflict as a separate variable rather than include it as partof CPQ.
Father Involvemenl. Typically, father involvement tends to be narrowly defined and unidimensional. Following logic introduced by Arditti and Keith (1993), we chose to create a composite which encompassed moth- ers' rcports of fathers' visitation frequency, the quality of visitation, and mothers' reports of fathers' level of involvement in various aspects of childrearing (a = .68). Exploratory factor analyses revealed that these aspects of fathers' involvement do indeed load together.
Upon completion of the preliminary analyses described above, a path analysis (using SPSS multiple regression) was conducted to test a model of father involvement and parenting stress. The following variables were incorporated into the model: mothers' income and education, custody arrangement (joint/sole), child support received, number of miles between fathers' and children's residence, child characteristics, interparental con- flict, coparental relationship quality, father involvement, and parenting stress.
RESULTS
Bivariate correlations, means, and standard deviations for variables used in the analysis are presented in Table 1. Significant (p < .05) correla- tions are noted for several of the background variables. The model was a fully recursive path model, however, Figure 1 shows only the significant standardized direct effects (p < .05). Table 4 presents the standardized effects and associated probabilities for all the paths estimated in the model. The first regression analysis, regressing conflict on the background vari- ables, revealed no significant paths to conflict.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
C - TABLE 1. Bivariate Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Arditfi and Patricia Bickley I1
Table 2 summarizes the results of the variables related to coparental relationship quality (CPQ). Custody arrangement had a significant effect (p = .37, p = .0001), as did mothers' reports of conflict between former spouses (p = - .34, p = ,000 1). Mothers reported more favorable coparen- tal relationships when parents held joint legal or physical custody of their children and when they perceived less conflict in the relationship. Al- though mother's income and number of children did not have statistically significant direct effects ($ = -.lo, p = .236 and P = - .08, p = ,294, respectively) both of thcse variables indicated inverse trends. Those moth- ers with higher incomes rated their CPQ lower as did those mothers with more children. The explained variance as reported by the multiple R~ coefficient for CPQ was .26 @ = .000 1).
The results of the multiple regression analysis, whereby fathers' in- volvement was the dependent variable, are summarized in Table 3. CPQ had the strongest effect on father's involvement (P = .65,p = ,0001). The more positive mothers rated the couple's coparental relationship, the great- er they reported father's involvement. As expected, miles had a significant negative direct effect on father's involvement ($ = -.24, p = .0001). Fathers who lived farther away had lower levels of involvement with their children. This finding has been well supported in the literature (Arditti & Keith, 1993; Furstenburg & Cherlin, 1988). Those fathers paying more support money were also more involved (P = .16,p = ,0081). Mothers who
TABLE 2. Regression of Coparental Relationship Quality on Predictors
b (SEI Beta
1 -.04 1 (.03) 1 - . I 0 11 ~ ~ ~ ~ o n a l Level (Mother's) I - .OO I LO81 I -.OO 11
. .
F = 6.53"' R2 adj = .22
p < .05 " p <: .01 "^ p < ,001
Custody Arrangement Child Support Received (Monthly) Conflict Miles From Former Spouse Number of Children Child Characteristics
1.01 4.30 - .30 4.38 - .09
.14
(.20) (1.42) (.06)
(2.83) (.08) (.14)
.37"'
.02 - .34'^'
.01 - .09
.07 Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
I2 JOURNAL O F DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
had greater income reported higher father involvement (P = .IS, p = .0178). Finally, mothers who reported greater conflict in their relationship with their former spouse, also reported more father's involvement (P = .12, p = .0463). The multiple R* for father's involvement was .55 (p = .OOOl).
Table 4 summarizes the results of the full model illustrated in Figure 1 and regresses mothers' parenting stress on the ten independent variables. The statistically significant effects on mother's stress came from the back- ground variables of child difficulty, income, and mother's education. The greater the mother reported their children as being temperamentally diffi- cult and not fitting with her expectations, the greater the parenting stress reported (P = .67, p = .0001). The higher the educational level of mothers, the more stress they reported (P = .19, p = .0047). Higher income for mother's resulted in less stress (P = - .18, p = ,0452).
The absence of significant effects for the variables coparental relation- ship quality and father's involvement on mother's stress is noteworthy. The direct effect for coparental relationship quality was fi = - .01, p = ,7937; for father's involvement, fi = .02, p = .8455. The lack of association with these two variables and mother's stress was unexpected. Neither the quality of the coparental relationship nor the level and quality of father's
TABLE 3. Regression of Father's Involvement on Predictors
F = 19.95"' R2 adj = .52
p < .05 " p < .01 "' p < ,001
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
TABLE 4. Regression of Mother's Parenting Stress on Predictors (Fully Recursive Model)
b (SE) Beta
F = 15.79"' R2 adj = .49
p < .05 " p < .01 "' p < ,001
involvement had an effect on mother's stress. The multiple R2 for moth- er's stress was S2, p = .0001.
Indirect EsJ-ects
Two indirect effects were calculated, by multiplying the corresponding direct effects, in our model of father involvement and parenting stress. Joint custody arrangements resulted in better coparental relationships, which in turn, resulted in higher levels of father involvement [El = ,241. Interparental conflict had a negative effect on coparental relationship q a i - ity, which in turn ncgativcly.influenccd levels of father involvelncnt (0 =
DISCUSSION
In this study, we set out to test a conceptual model of mothers' parent- ing stress postdivorce, by identifying factors related to fathers' involve-
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
\
4 FIGURE 1. Significant Effects of Background Variables, Conflict, CPQ, and Fathers' Involvement on Mothers' Parenting Stress.
pq/' EDUCATION
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Ar'ditli a~td Palricia Bickley I S
ment, and examining the influence of fathers' involvement on self reports of mothers' parenting stress. Our findings should be viewed with caution, however, due to the possibility of selection bias for the sample. It is unknown whether the mothers who returned the survey had different expe- riences as a group than mothers who chose not to return the survey or who could not be located. It is also unclear how the experiences of mothers in southwest Virginia with its particular political culture, compare with di- vorced mothers in other regions. We do not believe that given our empha- sis on describing the relationships emerging from this data, that selection bias, or the fact that we did not corroborate mothers' reports, is a serious detriment to the study. In this study, we were most concerned with ensur- ing that the mothers participating in the survey were accurately described, rather than generalizing the findings to all parents who experience divorce. This line of thinking, most predominant in qualitative research, empha- sizes a study's strength as resting in its ability to show the complexities of variables and interaction within the parameters of a given setting, popula- tion, and theoretical framework (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). The central questions of the study, as well as the significant paths of influence that emerged, may or may not be transferable to other settings and populations, even though much of what we found tied into previous rescarch and theory. The findings are an important contribution in understanding the complexity of family functioning postdivorce, and can be included in building responsive social programs and policy for divorcing families.
Custody, Coparental Relations, and Fathers' Involvement
The strongest predictor of CPQ was custody arrangement. As expected, couples who reported having joint custody had better CPQ. This finding is consistent with the hypothesized model put forth in the current study as well as previous research which indicated that both mothers (Luepnitz, 1986) and fathers may benefit from joint custody arrangements (Arditti, 1992b). Our results suggest, however, that perhaps the primary bcncfit from joint custody is centered around facilitating CPQ, rather than directly influencing aspects of the father's relationship with his children. The presence of an indirect effect from custody arrangement to fathers' in- volvement (p = .24) supports this contention. While it could be argued that parents who get along better might be more likely to obtain joint custody, the predominant conceptualization in the literature is that custody arrange- ments tend to influence and structure how former spouses feel about those arrangements as well as subsequent interaction. Furthermore, Arditti (1992b) found that there were no significant differences between joint custody and noncustody fathers in terms of the quality of their relationship
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
16 JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
with their ex-spouse, as well as the lcvel of hostility of their divorce proceedings, suggesting that couples with joint custody did not necessarily have more cooperative rclations prior to establishing thcse arrangements. This finding lends support to theconceptualization and of cus- tody arrangement as an antecedent (rather than an outcome) of coparental relationship quality given its significance when placed as a predictor: rather than a result of CPQ.
Given the absence of significant direct effects, it does not appear that custody arrangement directly increases father involvement or eases moth- ers' parenting burden. This is often the presumption that underlies policy development in this area as well as judicial decisions concerning custody. It is noteworthy that custody arrangements appear to be significantly re- lated to involvement based on fathers' reports (Arditti, 1992b), but not significant based on mothers' reports in this study. This could be related to the fact that mothers tend to underestimate involvement, while fathers tend to overestimate visitation. And as we point out further in the discussion, models of father involvement probably look different depending on whom you ask and what a particular family member deems salient.
As expected, results of our analysis suggest that the coparental relation- ship is significantly related to levels of father involvement, with less supportive, hostile relationships having a negative impact on fathers' in- volvement with their children. This is consistent with much of the research and thcory examining fathers' involvement postdivorce (Ahrons, 1983; Hetherington et al, 1976; Lund, 1987). We were struck by the strength of association between these two variables, as well as the amount of variance we were able to explain, and believed that our finding lends further sup- port for the central role coparental relations have in postdivorce family hnctioning. The relationship between CPQ and fathers involvement was even stronger than the influence of the number of milcs fathers lived from children, also typically an indicator of visitation frequency (Furstenburg & Cherlin, 1988; Arditti & Keith, 1993).
It is worth noting that Arditti and Keith (1993), in their study examining the context of fathers ' involvement based on fathers' reports, found that relationship quality between former spouses did not have any impact on aspects of visitation. Again, this points to "multiple realities" amongst divorced fathers and mothers who might emphasize different issues and have sharply contrasting experiences (Demo & Ganong, 1994). The find- ings of this study suggest that models of fathcrs' involvement are diffcrcnt depending on the source of information. For example, mothcrs might be more sensitive to variations in CPQ than fathers, since they are often the "gatekeepers" of visitation. This also points to differences in how mothers
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Ardilli and Patricia Bickley 17
and fathers view situations differently based on their needs, values, and attitudes (Safilios-Rothschild, 1969). It could be then, that CPQ is more central to a model of fathers' involvement based on mothers' construc- tions of family interaction postdivorce. Custody, and subsequent satisfac- tion, may be more salient in models of involvement based on fathers' reports (Arditti & Keith, 1993). It seems reasonable that fathers would attach great meaning to custody,,given that men's feelings about these arrangements are often a source of distress, loss, and dissatisfaction (Ar- ditti & Allen, 1993; Arditti & Keith, 1993).
The fact that conflict, which is significantly predictive of coparental relationship quality, is positively related to fathers' involvement is note- worthy. Most likely, the harmful effects of conflict are buffered by CPQ. Therapeutic applications of this finding are important and our results suggest that family practitioners should focus on ways of strengthening support, communication, and discussion about childrearing between for- mer spouses. Conflict is probably most important with regard to fathers' involvement, insofar as it influences CPQ. Greater conflict between former spouses rcsults in less support and communication in the coparental rcla- tionship, and indirectly, negatively influences fathers' involvement (P = - .22). The positive, direct relationship between conflict and involvement, probably reflects the fact that more involvement on the part of fathers nccessitates greater interdependence between former spouses. Greater in- terdependence between former spouses crcates more opportunity for con- flict to occur (Arnbert, 1989; Arditti & Kelly, 1994).
Fathers ' Involvement and Mothers ' Parenting
The fact that fathers' involvement is not significantly related to moth- ers' parenting stress, and the relative importance of child characteristics and socio-economic factors in determining parenting stress, deserves con- sideration. Two explanations for the lack of significance between father involvement and parenting stress include measurement error and the pos- sibility that fathers' involvement postdivorce actually has little bearing on
- mothers' parenting stress. With regard to the issue of measurement error, it is possible, despite the adequate reliability of the measure, that the PSI does not adequately capture aspects of mothers' parenting experience that are most influenced bv fathers' behavior. The scales were originally devel- oped for use with of relatively young children and may nit reflect stress that is associated with parenting older children. Furthermore, the PSI is a self-report measure; subsequently mothers' reports of the temper- amental difficulty of a given child and their views about their parenting might reflcct more about a mothers' "world view" or underlying adjust-
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
18 JOURNAL O F DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
ment difficulties, rathcr than the reality of one's parenting context. Given the theorctical perspective of this study, and our emphasis on the impor- tance of subjcctive meanings, these possibilities suggest a need for us to be sensitive to what we might have been tapping into with the PSI, and the kinds of conclusions that can be drawn from the data. It seems safe to assume that how one sees a particular child will certainly influence to a large extent, one's parenting self-image. Furthermore, our findings also suggest that there is little empirical basis for the policy prcmisc that fa- thers' involvement postdivorce enhances mothers' parenting.
It is noteworthy that mothcrs' income and education were significant predictors of parenting stress, albeit education did not relate to parenting stress in the expected direction. Our finding with regard to income adds to the existing body of literature pointing to the importance of economic adequacy for mothers' and children postdivorce (Furstenburg & Cherlin, 1991). Higher income.is most likely associated with greater access to resources (such as babysitting, quality day care, and leisure) that enhance mothers' ability to parent and minimize stress. Economic adequacy has generally been secn as an important mediating variable for children's adjustment-our research suggests that the relationship between socioeco- nomic indicators and children's adiustment may flow through mothers' parenting, although we do not directly test this. Assuming that-lcss parent- ing stress is good for mothers and children, the fact that divorccd mothers teid to be e~onomically vulnerable as a group puts them "at risk" for greater parenting stress.
Paradoxically, educated mothers, while perhaps being better off finan- cially, appear to report greater levels of parenting stress. This could be duc to the fact that educated mothers might have greater occupational stress or career demands which spill over into their family relationships, creating greater competition between their work and family lives (Emmons, Bier- nat, Tiedje, Lang, & Wortman, 1990). Role conflict and overload are seen as particularly problematic for professional women. As Emrnons et al. (1990) point out: ':professional occupations tend to be quite demanding, and the nature of the work is such that it is not finished when one leaves the ofice for the day. . . [and] increases the likelihood of conflict between work and home demands" @. 64). Related to this issue, based on their study investigating the implications of single-parenthood and employ- ment, Cohen, Johnson, Lewis, and Brook (1990) emphasize that single mothers are not necessarily at greater risk for role overload than other mothers, but that much of their problems regarding parenting and adjust- ment are predominantly accounted for by low income levels. It is our speculation then (since we do not have data on occupational types), that
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Ardilfi and Patricia Bickley 19
experiencing professional work, role overload, and perhaps the subsequent increases in parenting stress, is preferable to being uneducated, nonprofes- sional, and low-earning.
If parenting competence does indeed reflect a "buffered" system as Belsky (1984) and other thcorists have suggested, economic risk may subsequently intensify the salience of child characteristics in determining parenting outcomes for divorced family systems. Furthermore, a previous qualitative analysis of a subsample of the mothers participating in the survey rcvealed many mothers had feelings of defectiveness as mothers, as well as concerns and worries about how the divorce, and loss of involve- ment with the father, has affected their children (Arditti & Madden-Der- dich, 1994). Divorced mothers may be especially self-critical as parents, given their perceived "nonnormative status," as well as hypervigilent to variations in their children's behavior and mood, given their concerns about how the divorce might have "affected" them.
The strong connection we found between child characteristics and mothers' parenting stress emphasizes, once again, the important link be- tween children's functioning and mothers' functioning (Furstenburg & Cherlin, 1991). When utilizing mothcrs as a source of information, it appears that fathers' have little to do with how mothers view themselves as parents, as well as the degree to which a particular child might be seen as "difficult." Similar to the implications of economic risk, the absence of influence of fathers' involvement probably magnifies the link between child characteristics and mothers' parenting strcss. Furthermore, a child's relationship with one parent is often an important "buffer" influencing the relationship with the other parent (Belsky, Lerner, & Spanier, 1986). Mother-child relationships in divorced family systems may be prone to intensity, suggesting that if fathers' are not available as buffers, other types of relationships could be important in mediating the relationship between child characteristics and mothers' parenting stress. These relationships could include extended family, adult friends of the mother, stepparents, babysitters, teachers, coaches, etc. Community programs likc Big Broth- ers/Big Sisters, whereby an adult "friend" is matched with a child from a single parent home, are potentially important in terms of "buffering" the relationship between mother and child.
CONCLUSION
Our findings emphasize the importance of coparental relationship qual- ity for determining levels of fathers' involvement postdivorce, based on mothcrs' reports. Results did not suggest, however, that fathers' involve-
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
20 .IOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
mcnt influenced mothers' parenting stress. Policy aimed at facilitating fathers' involvement postdivorce should be developed and implemented cautiously, especially in tcrms of thc presumed benefits to mothers be- lieved to flow from greater involvement between fathers and childrcn postdivorce. Given the abscncc of a significant relationship between fa- thers' involvement and mothers' parenting stress, it rnay bc that other factors, not included in the model, such as mothers' level of social support and psychological adjustment, as well as the quality of relationships chil- dren have with adults who are not parents, have more explanatory power with regard to parenting stress than fathers' involvement. It is also plausi- ble that the processes associated with parenting stress may have little to do with divorce per se and the subsequent socio-etnotional demands of family reorganization, and more to do with economic factors, career demands, and child characteristics. These are family features which rnay not bc connected to the issue of divorce, other than by virtuc of the fact that most mothers suffer econo~nically as a result of divorce and are particularly vulncrable to role overload. It is unknown from our data, whether a moth- er's perception about a particular child might be affected by her divorce experience, or be relatively constant regardless of family structure. Such a possibility is worthy of investigation by researchers concerned with par- enting issues and divorce.
REFERENCES
Abidin, R. R. (1986). Parenting Stress Index. Charlottesville, VA: Pcdiatric Psychology Press.
Ahrons, C. R. (1981). The continuing coparental relationship between divorced spouses. Anierican Journal of Orthopsychiatty, 51, 41 5-428.
Ahrons, C. R. (1983). Predictors of paternal involvement postdivorce: Mothers' and fathers' perceptions. Journal of Divorce, 6, 55-69.
Aniato, P. R. (1987). Family processes in onc-parcnt, stepparent, and intact fami- lies: The child's point of view. Journal of Marriage arid the Family, 49, 327-337.
Ambert, A. (1989). Ex-spuuses atrd new spouses: A study ofrelatiotisliips. Grccn- wich, CT: JAl Press.
Ardilti, J. A. (1992a). Factors related to custody, visitation, and child support for divorced fathers: An exploratory analysis. Jourtial of Divorce & Retr~crwiage. 17, 23-41.
Arditti, J. A. (1992b). Investigating differences betwccn joint custody and non- custodial fathers. Atiiericari Journal of Ortlropsycliiat,y. 62, 186- 195.
Arditti, J. A. (1994). Noncustodial parents: Emergent themes of diversity and proccss. Marriage attd Fattiily Review, 20, 229-248.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
'Joyce A. Arditli and Patricia Bickley 21
Arditti, J. A., & Kelly, M. (1994). Fathers' perspectives of their coparental rela- tionships postdivorce: Implications for family practice and legal reform. Fami- ly Relalions, 43, 6 1-66.
Arditti, J. A,, & Madden-Derdich, D. (1994). No regrets: Custodial mothers accounts of the difficulties and benefits of divorce. Contemporary Family Tlierapy, 17(2), 229-248.
Arditti, J . A,, & Allen, K. R. (1993). Understanding distressed fathers' percep- tions of legal and relational inequities postdivorce. Family and Conciliation Courts Review. 31. 461-476.
Arditti, J . A., & Keith, T. Z. (1993). Visitation frequency, child support payment, and the father-child relationship postdivorce. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 699-7 12.
Astone, N. M., & McLananhan. S. S. (1991). Family structure, parenting practic- es, and high school completion. American Sociological Review, 56, 309-320.
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Devel- opment, 55. 83-96.
Belsky, J., Lemer, R. M., & Spanier, G. B. (1984). The child in the Jizmily. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Bohannon, P. (1970). Divorce and aJer New York: Anchor Books. Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinicalpractice. NY: Jason Aronson. Bowman, M. E., & Ahrons, C. R. (1985). Impact of legal custody on fathers'
parenting postdivorce. Journal of Marriage and the Family. 42, 481-488. Camera, K. A,, & Resnick, G. (1987). Marital and parental subsystems in mother-
custody, father-custody, and two-parcnt households: Effects on children's so- cial development. In J. Vincent (Ed.), Advances in family assessment, inter- vention and theory (Vol. 4, pp. 165-196), Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Cohen, P., Johnson, J., Lewis, S. A., and Brook, J. S. (1990). Single parenthood and employment: Double jeopardy? In J. Eckcnrode & S. Gore (Eds.), Stress behveeri work and family (pp. 1 17-1 32). New York: Plenum.
D'Andrea, A. (1983). Joint custody as related to paternal involvement and pater- nal self-esteem. Conciliation Courls Review. 2E, 81-87.
Demo, D. H., & Ganong, L. H. (1994). Divorce. In S. Pricc & P. McKenry (Eds.), Families and change: Coping with slressful events (pp. 197-218). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dominic, K. T., & Schlesinger, B. (1980). Weekend fathers: Family shadows. Journal of Divorce, 3, 24 1-247.
Emrnons, C., Biernat, M., Tiedje, B., Lang, E. L., and Wortman, C. B. (1990). Stress, support, and coping among women professionals with preschool children. In J. Eckenrode & S. Gore (Eds.), Stress between workandfanrily (pp. 61-93). New York: Plenum.
Fishel, A. H., & Scanzoni, J. H. (1989). An exploratory study of thc postdivorce coparental relationship. Journal of Divorce, 13, 95-1 19.
Furstenburg, F. F. (1988). Marital disruptions, child custody, and visitation. In S. Kamerman & A. Kahn (Eds.). Child support: Fronr debt collection to social policy (pp. 277-305). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
22 JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE
Furstenburg, F. F., & Cherlin, A. J. (1991). Divided fatnilies: What happens to childwn when parents part. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1982). Effects of divorce on parents and children. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), Nonttadirional families: Parenting and child developmenl (pp. 233-285). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1976). Divorced fathers. The Family Coordinator; 25. 41 7-428.
Hoffman, L. W. (1983). Increasing fathering affects on the mother, fatherhood, and family. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), Fathers and Social Policy (pp. 167-190). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Johnston, J. R., Kline, M., & Tschann, J. M. (1989). Ongoing post-divorce conflict in families, contesting custody: Effects on children of joint custody and fre- quent access. American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 59, 576-592.
Ken; M., & Bowen, M. (1988). Family Evaluation. New York: W. W. Norton. Kruk, E. (1992). Discontinuity between pre- and post-divorce father-child rcla-
tionships: New evidence regarding patcrnal disengagement. In C. Everctt (Ed.), The consequences of divorce: Economic and custodial impact on chil- dren and adults (pp. 195-227). New York: The Haworth Press, Inc.
Kurdek, L. A., & Blisk, D. (1983). Dimensions and correlates of mothers' divorce experiences. Journal ofDivorce, 6, 1-24.
Lund, M. E. (1987). The noncustodial father: Common challenges in parenting after divorce. In C. Lewis & M. O'Brian (Eds.), Reassessing fatherhood (pp. 212-224). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Luepnitz, D. (1982). Child Custody. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. Luepnitz, D. A. (1986). A comparison of maternal, paternal, and joint custody:
Understanding the varieties of post-divorce family life. Journal of Divowe. 9, 1-12.
Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. Developmental Psychologv. 28, 1006- 101 7.
Maccoby, E. E., and Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. Mussen, Ed., Handbook of Child Psychology (pp. 1-101). New York: Wiley.
Maccoby, E. E., Buchanan, C. M., Mnookin, R. H., Dornbusch, S. M. (1993). Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 24-38.
Madden-Derdich, D. A. (1994). The ties that bind: Relationship attachment be- tween former spouses. Unpublished dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, April, 1994.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1989). Designing qualitative research. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Safilios-Rothschild, C. (1969). Family sociology or wives' sociology. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 337, 290-301.
Serovich, J. M., Price, S. J., Chapman, S. F., & Wright, D. W. (1992). Attachment between former spouses: Impact on co-parental communication and parental involvement. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 17, 109- 1 19.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Joyce A. Arditti arld Patricia Bickley 23
Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Beaman, J., Conger, R. D. The impact of mother's parenting, involvement by nonresidential fathers, and parental conflict on the adjustment of children o f divorce. Journal Paper No. 15281 of thc Iowa Agri- culture and Home Economic Experiment Station, Ames, 1A. Project No. 2931.
Spanier, G., & Thompson, L. (1984). Parrirlg: 'The Ajlemalh of Separaliort and Divorce. Bevcrly Hills: Sagc.
Stcwart, J. R., Schwebal, A. I., & Fine, M. A. (1986). The impact of custodial arrangerncnt on the adjustment of recently divorced fathers. Jotrrnal of Di- vorce, 13, 55-65.
Wallcrstein, J., & Kelly, 5. (1980). Surviving the brzakup: How children cope with divorce. New York: Basic Books.
Wright, D., & Price, S. (1986). Court-ordered child support payment: The effect of the former spouse relationship on compliance. Journal of Marriage at~d ihe Family, 48, 869-874.
HAWORTH JOURNALS ARE AVAILABLE ON MICROFORM
All Howorth Journals ore avallable In elther mlcroflche or mlcrofllm from The Howorth Press. lnc.
Mlcroflche and mlcrofllms are avallable to hardcopy subscrlbers ot the lower "lndlvldual" subscrlptlon rote. Other mlcroform subscrlbers may purchase mlcroflche or mlcroform at the "library" subscrlptlon rate.
Mlcrofllm speciflcatlons: 35mm; dlazo or sllver. Mlcroflche speclflcatlons: 105mm x l84mm (4' x 6'): reduction ratlo: 24X:
nonsllver (dlazo) posltlve polarlty. Mlcroform are mailed upon completion of each volume.
For further Information, contoct Janette Holl. Mlcroform Contact. The Howorth Press. Inc.. 10 Allce Street. Blnghamton. NY 13904- 1580; Tel: (800) 342-9678 (ext. 328): Fax: (607) 722-1424: E-Moll: [email protected]
Orders for mlcroform may also be placed wlth University Mlcrofllms Internatlonol. 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, MI 48106: Tel: (303) 761-4700
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
The
Aga
Kha
n U
nive
rsity
] at
00:
38 1
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
