CINEMATOGRAPHY 101:Ten Essential Lessons for the Noob Cinematographer

101 SeriesVolume 3

ByFilm School Online!

www.FilmSchoolOnline.com

Copyright © Film School Online!

Preface

As NYU Film School's production supervisor for the past twenty years, I have observedcommon questions and misconceptions that film students have when they enter theprogram. This is true for many noob filmmakers outside the halls of NYU, as well; hence,this eBook.

The "ten essential lessons," as I call them, focus on several key areas in cinematographythat are a source of interest and potential concern for the newbie. Along with demystifyingthese issues, I hope to provide you with insight into the job and tools of the professionalcinematographer.

The material is a compilation of several lessons and articles from the Film School Onlinewebsite. I hope that you find the information well worth the small investment.

If you are a fundamentals level instructor, this eBook may be helpful in providing yourstudents with an overview of the art and craft of cinematography.

For tips, advice, and online courses in filmmaking, please visit FilmSchoolOnline.com.Thanks for checking out the material and best of luck in your creative endeavors.

-Louis La Volpe

Table of Contents

1. The Cinematographer

2. Attributes of the Visual Image

3. The Cinematographer's Team

4. Understanding HD Video

5. HD Video vs. 35mm Film

6. Soft Lighting Techniques

7. Video Camera Basics

8. Understanding RAW Files

9. DSLR Cinematography

10. Technical Infringement

1The Cinematographer

Cinematography is how the visual elements of the movie are framed, lighted, and recordedon film or video. The cinematographer is the person charged with this responsibility.

It is perhaps the most mysterious of the filmmaking crafts because of the technology andequipment involved. Film students either love it or hate it. Tech types love it, while non-techtypes fear it with a passion!

Even if you are in the latter group, once you understand the basics of cinematography, itbecomes no more mysterious than, say, directing or screenwriting. Not only is it a powerfultool for screen storytelling, but fascinating, as well, because of the ongoing breakthroughsin digital technology.

Job of the Cinematographer

Most people associate cinematography with camerawork. While this is true, camerawork isonly a small part of the cinematographer's job and, generally, he does not do it himself! Theactual shooting is performed by a camera operator.

In fact, the cinematographer rarely touches the camera except to check the operator'sframing. With that said, let's take a look at the real job of the cinematographer, also knowas the director of photography or "DP."

The cinematographer is hired to translate the director's visual interpretation of the script tothe screen. He does this using a variety of creative and technical skills, as discussed below.

He also plays a vital leadership role on the set by working closely with other departmentheads in maintaining quality and continuity. These department heads include the setdesigner, sound mixer, and special effects supervisor.

Lighting the Image

The foremost creative job of the cinematographer is lighting the image. Again, mostnewbies are surprised by this because they see the cinematographer's job in terms ofoperating the camera. Camerawork is generally straightforward, but lighting the image is achallenge. It sets the mood of the scene and supports the emotional tone of the actors.

This job is complicated by the fact that there are usually different ways to get a job done.Some approaches are more expensive than others, depending on the cinematographer'screative goals.

Unfortunately, budgets and schedules are the bane of filmmaking, so the cinematographermust find an approach that strikes the right balance between creativity and economy.

Equipment

The actual lighting of the set involves two components: equipment and setup.

Lighting equipment remained pretty much the same until the late 1990s. Tungsten lightswere standard with the occasional use of high intensity HMI units for simulating daylight orlighting expansive areas.

Color gels were used to adjust the light's hue for either creative purposes or colorcorrection. The latter was particularly helpful at locations with fluorescent light fixtures,which generated an objectionable green tinge.

As digital filmmaking became prevalent, lighting fixtures became smaller and "softer,"spearheaded by an innovated company called Chimera. In a strange twist of fate,fluorescent and LED lighting became indispensable tools, rather than scourges.

The most popular of these units are Kino Flo (fluorescent lights) and Litepanels (LED lights).In a later lesson, we will take a closer look at these contemporary forms of soft lighting.

Setup

Setting up the lights involves placing the units around the set and adjusting their intensity(brightness) based on the mood and emotion of the scene. To use a simplistic example, asuspenseful scene may require a lower intensity with lots of shadows, while a daytime partymay require the opposite. Of course, this depends on how the director visualizes it.

While this sounds technically straightforward, it requires a great deal of artistry on thecinematographer's part since there are countless ways to manipulate light and shadow.Because of this, the cinematographer's job is often characterized as "painting with light."We will examine the techniques used to accomplish this in the next lesson.

In addition to supporting the mood of the scenes, the cinematographer must maintain somelevel of realism in terms of the location and the source of light that would normally be foundat such a location. Unless, of course, the style of the film is surreal.

Most lighting setups are variations on a setup known as three point lighting. While muchcan be written on this technique alone, it essentially boils down to the use of three lights:one light acts as the main source, one light is used to control the amount of shadows, andone light is used to separate the subject from the background.

The size of a lighting setup can vary greatly, depending on whether you are lighting forclose detail or broad movement by the actors. The latter, obviously, covers much largerareas.

Capturing the Image

After lighting the image, the cinematographer must then capture it on film or video. Prior tothe digital revolution in the late 1990s, theatrical movies were shot exclusively on 35mm film.This was very costly.

The alternative was 16mm film, which was primarily a teaching format. Unfortunately, 16mmwas not taken seriously by the industry and such films rarely found distribution. Two of thelucky ones were Spike Lee's She's Gotta Have It (1986) and Robert Rodriguez's ElMariachi (1992). A 16mm film had to win a key festival award or attract a major Hollywoodplayer for this to happen.

Today, the playing field is much different. 35mm is no longer a prerequisite. Digital camerasare smaller, cheaper, and record higher quality than most cameras prior to the digitalrevolution. The cost of this equipment is so low that independent filmmakers can buy theequipment rather than rent it.

Keep in mind that we are talking about high definition (HD) video, which has reachedresolution levels comparable with 35mm film. If you are unfamiliar with HD, the concept iseasy to understand. Standard definition video (what you see on tube style TVs) iscomposed of 525 horizontal "scan" lines. This resulting image is acceptable, but nowherenear theatrical quality.

High definition video has reached an amazing 4,000 lines of resolution. So high, in fact, thatas of this writing there are no projectors or monitors on the market that can show the full4,000 lines. HD televisions are only 1,180 lines. Pretty amazing--but there is more.

The latest development in independent filmmaking is DSLR cinematography. DSLRs are stillcameras capable of shooting high quality video. They are reasonably priced, costing $1,000- $2,000, but the image sensor and lens capability are comparable to professionalcamcorders costing $30,000 or more.

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2Attributes of the Visual Image

The visual image involves the interplay of several photographic variables. While thesevariables can provide wonderful aesthetic value, their primary function is to support orconvey the underlying emotion of the scene.

In other words, they are used to help tell the story. This is the primary goal of cinematiclighting and image processing. The variables are as follows:

Brightness

Photographic images can vary in overall brightness, which is used to support the underlyingemotion of the scene. High-key lighting means an overall brighter picture, while low-keylighting means an overall darker picture. Mid-key lighting falls in the middle, yielding averagebrightness.

The dramatic content of the scene dictates its brightness. Generally, you will find that high-key lighting is favored for upbeat scenes, and low-key lighting is the choice for slow or tautdramatic action.

Although high-key and low-key refer to a picture's overall brightness, parts of the frame canbe illuminated differently to affect attention or composition. For example, parts of a low-keyimage can be brightened to facilitate perception, while parts of a high-key image can bedarkened to create a more interesting composition.

Contrast

Contrast is the range of tones between pure white and pure black. Low contrast imageshave a wide range and appear soft to the eye, while high contrast images have a smallrange and appear stark.

Quality of Light

The quality of light is its perceived hardness or softness. A hard quality has dark shadowswith sharp edges, while a soft quality has lighter, diffused shadows.

Focus

Focus is the overall sharpness of the image. It can range from very soft to very sharp. Softfocus is usually associated with romance or beauty.

Depth of field is the amount of acceptable focus behind and in front of the subject. Shortfocal lenses tend to produce a wide depth of field, where everything on the set appears infocus ("deep focus"). Long focal lenses produce a shallow depth of field, where only thesubject area is in focus.

Perspective

Perspective is the breadth and depth of the image, which can be manipulated with thechoice of lens. The foreground and background can appear closer together (compressed)or further apart (decompressed). The shots below were taken with different lenses,resulting variations in depth perspective:

Depth perspective can affect the perceived speed of movement. Specifically, movementcan appear sluggish when depth is compressed and faster when depth is decompressed.Manipulating perspective depends on several technical factors, particularly the choice oflens.

Color

Color, also called hue, is manipulated through lighting, art direction, and laboratoryprocedure. Shooting in color adds a new set of aesthetic variables:

Overall Hue - A scene can be tinted a certain color to convey scene variables like emotion,location, and time.

Emotionally, cool colors are associated with aloofness and strife, while warm colors areassociate with romance. Time of day is characterized by different hues: yellow for sunrise,red for sunset, and blue for night. Distant time periods can also be conveyed through theuse of hues. For example, an amber tint can be used to mimic the look of an oldphotograph.

Changing overall hue from sequence to sequence can help the audience perceive broaderchanges in scene variables. It also helps create a sense of variety. The Searchers andSophie's Choice rely heavily on the use of overall hue.

Saturation - Color saturation is how rich colors appear on screen. Highly saturated colorsare vibrant, while desaturated colors are muted. Saturation can be used to convey theemotion or time frame of a scene. For example, a flashback can be indicated usingdesaturated colors.

Emphasis - Certain colors have a tendency to draw the eye to them, depending on howthey are arranged in the composition. A carefully chosen color, therefore, can be used toemphasize an element or area within the frame.

Contrast- Contrasting colors within the frame can be used to convey character orcompositional tension. An unusual use of this technique is found in Coppola's One from theHeart, where a character is tinted a single hue and the background is in full color, and viceversa.

Grain

Grain is the tiny particles of dye crystals that make up a photographic image. It is usuallyinvisible, however, under certain exposure or processing conditions it can be verynoticeable. This results in gritty look that is often used for aesthetic purpose.

Look

"Look" is the visual feel of the movie. It is often equated with its surface texture (i.e., grain,focus), but the meaning is much broader. Different looks are achieved by systematicallymanipulating any photographic element, including grain, focus, contrast, lighting, color, lensfocal length, and depth of field. This can be obvious or very subtle.

Look supports the underlying dynamics of the movie. For example, The FrenchConnection makes use of grain and stark lighting to give the film a sense of gritty realism,almost like newsreel footage, while Rear Window uses high contrast and saturated colorsto convey a sense of romance and intrigue.

The look of the movie can be constant throughout or changed in relation to certain storyvariables. For example, it may be desirable to alternate between different looks to reflectshifting story variables like location or time period. Another approach would be toprogressively change the look to convey character growth and development.

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3The Cinematographer's Team

As discussed above, the cinematographer is responsible for lighting and photographingeach scene. The position is more commonly know as the director of photography or "DP,"for short. As you read below, you might find these acronyms a bit humorous, even hard toremember. They are not here for shorthand, however, this is the actual language used onmovie sets.

The DP reports to the director, and accordingly, translating the director’s visualrequirements to the screen. Some directors give the DP free reign in this process, whileothers maintain strict control. It depends on the director's style and his working relationshipwith the DP.

The DP plays a vital role on the set. In addition to supervising his own crew of camera andlighting technicians, he works closely with all craft department heads to assure quality andcontinuity in the making of the movie. The DP is second in importance only to the director,and his approach can determine whether the production stays on schedule and withinbudget.

Film crew structure evolved over many years with heavy input from different craft unions.Each position is clearly defined in terms of job duties and scope.

Video crews developed much differently, responding to ongoing and sometimes rapidchanges in technology and production needs. As a result, video location crews tend to besmaller and somewhat less structured (there are exceptions, of course, as with majorsports and music events).

Technicians on both sides of the fence have adapted to the recent explosion in digitaltechnology and media convergence by learning how to work in all the major formats.Consequently, the lines between crew types are quickly disappearing as people move backand forth between film and digital video projects. Generally, you will find that thecinematographer's team is made up of:

Camera Operator

The camera operator, as the name indicates, oversees operation of the camera. He isresponsible to the DP for maintaining focus, composition, and smooth camera movement.

To accomplish the many tasks involved, he relies on one or more camera assistants, calledACs for short:

1st Assistant Camera Operator - The 1st AC maintains the camera's exposure and focusduring each take. He is also responsible for setting-up/breaking-down the camera, loadingit, and maintaining camera reports. The 1st AC reports to the camera operator. This

position is also known as the focus puller.

2nd Assistant Camera Operator - The 2nd AC is responsible for procuring raw film stock,maintaining the film stock inventory, loading magazines, slating scenes, and moving thecamera to another setup. The 2nd AC reports to the 1st AC. This position is also known asthe clapper or loader.

Digital Imaging Technician

The digital imaging technician, or DIT for short, is responsible for the camera's imageprocessing and digital data workflow on video productions. The DIT works on equal footingwith the camera operator and, likewise, reports directly to the DP. This is relatively new keyposition.

Gaffer

The gaffer is the head electrician on the set. He is responsible for setting up the lights ineach shot, as stipulated by the DP. This includes choosing the appropriate light fixtures androuting electrical power as needed. His 1st assistant is called the best boy.

Key Grip

The key grip is responsible for setting-up heavy equipment on the set, including: lightingcontrol (C stands, gobos, reflectors, butterflies, etc.), camera movement (dollies, boomscranes), scenery, backdrops, and scaffolding. The key grip reports to the DP and gaffer.

Second Unit Cameraman

On larger productions, a second unit is used to shoot scenes that don't involve principalactors. It is a time saving technique used when the budget permits. The second unitcameraman supervises the second unit crew and reports to the DP.

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4Understanding HD Video

The concepts associated with high definition (HD) video can be confusing to those of youunfamiliar with video camera function. If you are a beginning filmmaker, terms like scanlines, SD, HD, and 4k technology, will certainly make your head spin!

Fear not, for the concepts are surprisingly straightforward. In this lesson, we will cover thebasics of high definition video and provide you with a working understanding of theterminology. In addition, we will look at 4k technology, also known as ultra HD. Thistechnology is used by the groundbreaking Red One camera, introduced by the Red DigitalCinema Company in 2007.

To understand high definition video, we must start at the beginning and examine howimages are recorded by a video camera.

Recording

There are three mediums used to record video images:

magnetic taperemovable memory cardhard drive

The preferred medium for cameras (and audio recorders) is removable memory card.Initially it was expected to be hard drive, but removable cards proved to be simpler andmore portable. Today, hard drives are primarily used for editing, while magnetic tape ispreferred for archiving.

Although the hardware has moved from analog to digital technology since the inception ofvideo recording, the principles are essentially the same. It's based on electromagnetism.

The easiest way to illustrate the principles of electromagnetism is with magnetic tape. Therecording head is essentially an electromagnet, which is activated by an electrical signalfrom the image processor. As the videotape travels over the head, the iron particles in thetape are magnetized. This is, in essence, the recorded image.

Scan Lines

The video image is recorded one horizontal line at a time. These lines are called scan linesand the process is known as scanning. If you look closely at a TV screen you will see thescan lines. You probably can't see them on your computer monitor because the lines arenarrower than on a TV.

Standard Definition (SD)

The term "definition" basically means the visible detail in the video image. It is measured bythe number of horizontal scan lines in a single frame. In the United States and Japan,standard definition video is 525 lines. In most European countries, standard definition is 625lines. (The former is known as NTSC; the latter is PAL).

High Definition (HD)

Although much hype has been made about HD, the concept itself is simple to understand.Technically, anything that breaks the PAL barrier of 625 lines can be called high definition.The most common HD formats feature 720 and 1080 scan lines.

Ultra High Definition

Ultra high definition features an amazing 4,520 lines of horizontal resolution. Known as "4k"technology because the scan lines exceed 4,000, it will no doubt be the future industrystandard.

The following photos show the relative size of the different formats. The first one representsthe typical digital video frame (DV and DVCAM). Notice how detail improves as the numberof scan lines increases. The final photo illustrates the huge leap in image detail 4ktechnology provides.

As a point of reference, the typical flat computer monitor has 2,000 lines of resolution.35mm film--as perceived by the human eye--falls in the mid HD range. More on 35mm inthe next lesson.

4k technology is based on the proprietary 12 megapixel chip developed by the Red DigitalCinema Company. Their affordable Red One camera can shoot at all popular scan rates,including those shown above. 4k technology may prove to be the death knell for 35mm film.

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5HD Video vs. 35mm Film

Aspiring filmmakers are quite lucky compared to years ago. Today, you can make a moviein just about any format and still be taken seriously, assuming that you have a great storyand reasonably good production values. As mentioned, The Blair Witch Project is one of themost successful independent features ever made, yet it was shot with a consumer videocamera (non-digital).

Prior to the digital revolution of the 1990s, things were a lot different. If the movie was shoton a format other than 35mm, it did not stand a chance of being distributed. 16mm was nottaken seriously and video was a joke. These standards were so ingrained in the industry,that even actors were reluctant to work on non-35mm shoots.

All that has changed now. Affordable, high-quality digital cameras have democratized theindustry. Still, 35mm film is the standard by which all video formats are judged.

Has video reached the same quality level as 35mm? Old school filmmakers say "no"because the image capturing ability of 35mm is a "gazillion" times greater than video. Is thisreally the case? Let's take a closer look. The truth may surprise you.

Note: the study below is based on classic HD with 1080 lines of horizontal resolution. In2007, the first ultra HD camera was introduced featuring an amazing 4,520 lines. Keepthat in mind while reading!

Comparison

Their are two factors that can be compared: color and resolution. Most casual observerswill agree that, assuming a quality TV monitor, HD color is truly superb. To avoid a long-winded mathematical argument, let's accept this at face value and focus on comparingresolution, which is the real spoiler.

Resolution is the visible detail in an image. Since pixels are the smallest point of informationin the digital world, it would seem that comparing pixel count is a good way to comparerelative resolution.

Film is analog so there are no real "pixels." However, based on converted measures, a35mm frame has 3 to 12 million pixels, depending on the stock, lens, and shootingconditions. An HD frame has 2 million pixels, measured using 1920 x 1080 scan lines. Withthis difference, 35mm appears vastly superior to HD.

This is the argument most film purists use. The truth is, pixels are not the way to compareresolution. The human eye cannot see individual pixels beyond a short distance. What wecan see are lines.

Consequently, manufacturers measure the sharpness of photographic images andcomponents using a parameter called Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). This processuses lines (not pixels) as a basis for comparison. Notice the lines in this resolution chart:

Since MTF is an industry standard, we will maintain this standard for comparing HD with35mm film. In other words, we will make the comparison using lines rather than pixels. Scanlines are the way video images are compared, so it makes sense from this viewpoint, aswell.

HD Resolution

As discussed previously, standard definition and high definition refer to the amount of scanlines in the video image. Standard definition is 525 horizontal lines for NTSC and 625 linesfor PAL.

Technically, anything that breaks the PAL barrier of 625 lines could be called high definition.The most common HD resolutions are 720p and 1080i lines.

35mm Resolution

There is an international study on this issue, called Image Resolution of 35mm Film inTheatrical Presentation. It was conducted by Hank Mahler (CBS, United States), VittorioBaroncini (Fondazione Ugo Bordoni, Italy), and Mattieu Sintas (CST, France).

In the study, MTF measurements were used to determine the typical resolution of theatricalrelease prints and answer prints in normal operation, utilizing existing state-of-the-art 35mmfilm, processing, printing, and projection.

The prints were projected in six movie theaters in various countries, and a panel of expertsmade the assessments of the projected images using a well-defined formula. The resultsare as follows:

Conclusion

As the study indicates, perceived differences between HD and 35mm film are quicklydisappearing. Notice I use the word "perceived." This is important because we are notshooting a movie for laboratory study, but rather for audiences.

At this point, the typical audience cannot see the difference between HD and 35mm. Evenprofessionals have a hard time telling them apart. We go through this all the time at NYU("Was this shot on film or video?").

Again, the study was based on standard HD with 1080 lines of horizontal resolution. Wenow have ultra HD with 4,520 lines.

Based on this, the debate is moot. 16mm, 35mm, DV, and HD are all tools of thefilmmaker. The question is not which format is best, but rather, which format is best for yourproject? The answer, of course, is based on a balance between aesthetic and budgetaryconsiderations.

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6Soft Lighting Techniques

Generally, filmmaking techniques change slowly over time. For example, directing practicesare pretty much the same now as they were fifty years ago.

Cinematography techniques were equally stable until the 1990s when digital cameras tookthe industry by storm. Techniques then changed dramatically within in a short period oftime.

More recently, there has been a change in lighting technology and aesthetics. Though thishappened with little fanfare, it has been significant nonetheless.

Softer, Lower Intensity

In a nutshell, there has been a shift towards softer, lower intensity lighting. The illuminationis achieved primarily with Chinese lanterns, Kino Flos, and most recently, LED panels. Alllighting setup practices still apply (i.e., three point lighting, exposure ratios, etc.).

Softer lighting is used in both film and DV, small and big budgets. Cinematographer LanceAcord often uses it in his work, including the acclaimed Lost in Translation. In the shotbelow the lanterns are right in the frame (the bedside lamps).

High vs. Low Key

In the past, soft lighting was typically used for high key setups. The current breed ofcinematographers use soft lighting for both high and low key setups. In fact, a number ofscenes in Lost in Translation are low key:

The trick to avoiding the flat look usually associated with soft light is to use side lighting.This results in shadow areas which serve to model the subject. Of course, the precise angleof the light depends on the look you are trying to achieve.

Setup

To create side lighting, the Kinos and Chinese lanterns are placed at strategic points aroundthe perimeter of the set, usually at eye level.

On locations where you want to preserve the natural light, the existing light sources areused as a guide for placement. The Kinos and Chinese lanterns will then serve to enhancethe natural light. This approach is often used for documentaries and productions with tightschedules.

Whether you use Kinos or Chinese Lanterns (or both) is a matter of personal choice. Thequality of the light is similar, but the fixtures are radically different. Some cinematographersfavor Kinos, while others favor the simplicity of the Chinese lanterns.

Fill Light

The fill light is important in creating the key level (mood) of the shot by increasing ordecreasing shadows. This principle still holds true here, but with an interesting twist as tohow the fill is achieved.

Kinos and Chinese lanterns are low intensity lights. They are so low, in fact, that ambientlight on the set is usually enough to act as fill. In other words, in most cases you will notneed a dedicated fill light.

If the ambient fill light is not adequate, you can:

use a reflector board to bounce light into the shadow areasuse an additional fixture (bounced) to raise the ambient light of the set

Exposure Metering

The principles of exposure and contrast previously discussed still apply, too. The catch isthat using an exposure meter at such low light levels becomes increasingly difficult.

Film stocks are becoming faster and DV cameras are approaching the sensitivity of thehuman eye. It makes sense, then, that your eyes are your best tool in judging exposure andcontrast.

Consequently, when light levels are too low for the proper use of a meter, the bestapproach is to make the lighting look as natural as possible to your eye. Do the finaltweaking by checking the shot against a video monitor, particularly highlights and shadows.

Lighting Control

Kino Flo Lighting, Lite Panels, and other brands have their own accessories for lightingcontrol, including louvers and dimmers. Louvers are used to control directionality andspillage:

Chinese lanterns are a bit tricky because you must improvise. A black skirt made ofDuvetyn can be used to direct the light and control spill. Professional Chinese lanterns likethose made by Chimera Lighting have their own accessories for lighting control:

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7Video Camera Basics

Digital cameras have become very affordable with broadcast quality cameras starting atunder $1,000. The very best cameras cost over $75,000. Essentially, there is a camera forevery budget. When looking for a camera, consider these features:

Sensor

In video cameras, the image is focused on a flat electronic chip called a sensor. The job ofthe sensor is to convert light into an electronic signal. This signal is then recorded for laterplayback.

There are two types of sensors:

CCD (Charged Couple Device)CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

CCDs and CMOSs use different technologies to achieve the same goals. They bothemployee photoelectric sensing cells, called pixels. The main difference is in how pixeloutput is handled. In CMOS sensors, each pixel's charge is outputted individually, in theform of digital bits. This is the newer of the two technologies.

In CCD sensors, pixel output is grouped in the form of an analog signal that is laterdigitized. The grouping can involve one or more sensors. Consumer video cameras use oneCCD. Professional cameras use three, with each sensor controlling one of the three primarycolors: red, green, and blue.

After the image passes through the lens of a three-chip CCD camera, a beam splittertrisects the light into red, green, and blue paths. Each color beam is focused on a screenthat activates the corresponding CCD. The red, green, and blue CCDs must align preciselyto create a single image in the composite signal. This is called registration. If registration isoff, it results in color fringing and image softness.

As of this writing, the surface of a sensor can consist of up to 1,500,000 photoelectricsensing cells (pixels). The sensor itself can vary in size from 1/2" to 1". Because pixels arethe key to a camera's performance, the larger the sensor, the better the image quality.

Format

The most popular formats are listed below, from highest to lowest resolution. Keep in mindthat even Mini DV is broadcast quality with only a 5:1 compression ratio:

4k (Red Digital Cinema)2k (Silicon Imaging)HDCAM SR (Sony)Varicam HD (Panasonic)Digital-S/ D-9 (JVC)DVC PRO (Panasonic)DVCAM (Sony)DV (Mini DV)

Memory Cards

For many decades, magnetic tape stock was the standard recording medium for videocameras and audio recorders. Around 2010 this decisively shifted to removable memorycard.

Removable memory card is now the standard for several reasons:

No moving parts - The cards are small, rugged, and solid-state. Because there are nomoving parts, they are vibration and shock resistant. No tape related problems - Cards have none of the problems associated with tape,such as dropout.Simplified work flow - When you are ready to edit, just take the card and plug it intoyour computer. Each shot is in the form of a file, so you transfer the files as you wouldany computer file. There is no "capturing" of video, which is time consuming.Multi format - Perhaps the most amazing aspect of memory cards is that they canrecord any format as long as the camera supports it and the card has a large enoughmemory.

The cards have different capacities and speed class ratings. They range from class 0 toclass 16, as of this writing. It is important to use the capacity and speed class ratingspecified by your equipment.

Standard vs. High Definition (HD)

Resolution is the visible detail in the video image. It is measured by the number of horizontalscan lines that make up each frame of video.

In the US, video images contain 525 lines (NTSC). In most Europe countries, video imagescontain 625 lines (PAL). This is standard definition video.

Although much hype has been made about high definition, the concept itself is simple.Technically, anything that breaks the above standards could be called high definition. Themost common HD resolutions are 720p and 1080i lines.

In 2007, the first ultra HD camera was introduced featuring an amazing 4,520 lines ofhorizontal resolution.

Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is essentially the "shape" of the recorded image. It is a function of thecamera's CCDs.

There are two video aspect ratios in use today. The standard ratio is 4:3, which providesthe square broadcast TV image. The widescreen ratio is 16:9 and conforms to theatricalfilm and HDTV standards. Most professional cameras allow one button switching betweenratios.

Some mid-range cameras have a 16:9 mode but do not have a true 16:9 CCD. Rather, theyuse a 4:3 CCD and simulate the wide-screen aspect ratio by masking the top and bottom ofthe image. This creates a widescreen effect, but uses less vertical lines in the process.

A true 16:9 chip uses all vertical scan lines, so resolution is superior. It has side panelsthat are used in the 4:3 mode and ignored in the 16:9 mode.

You can tell whether the camera has a true 16:9 CCD by observing the image whileswitching to the 16:9 mode. If the horizontal view expands, the chip is 16:9. If the verticalview crops, the chip is 4:3 masked to simulate 16:9. In some cameras the both the verticaland horizontal changes. If this happens, the acid test is whether the horizontal view reallybroadens. If so, the chip is 16:9.

Whether you use 4:3 or 16:9 mode the resolution inside the visible frame is the same (yousimply mask the top and bottom scan lines in the 16:9 mode). Consequently the choice isreally a matter of aesthetics rather than quality.

When transferring to 35mm it is desirable to use all vertical scan lines (rather than masksome) to maximize resolution. That's why a true 16:9 chip is important. In the absence of a16:9 camera, some filmmakers use an anamorphic lens to squeeze all the vertical scanlines into to the 16:9 aspect ratio. You should consult the lab when attempting this.

If a 16:9 camera or anamorphic lens are not available, take comfort in the fact that the 4:3chip yields surprisingly good results in both 4:3 and 16:9 modes when transferred to 35mm.Whatever approach you take, it is important to do a test transfer beforehand. The testshould include short clips under various lighting conditions and ratios. Also, shoot differentclose-knit patterns to see how your camera handles aliasing.

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8Understanding RAW Files

The latest generation of HD cameras (e.g. the Red One made by Red Digital Cinema)record images differently than traditional video cameras. Specifically, they use a variation ofthe format known as RAW, which has traditionally been used in still photography.

RAW Files

Adobe Systems was the first software company to use RAW for image storage.Photoshop, their flagship product, uses the PSD format, essentially a RAW codec.

RAW files are so named because they are not processed. In other words, everything thecamera "sees" is recorded. Consequently, the highly detailed RAW files are considered theequivalent of film negative.

RAW files are too large for anything but storage. For practical use, such as in documents,they must be compressed into smaller formats like JPEG or GIFF.

Benefits

The main benefit of using RAW is that such files can contain large amounts of information.This makes it possible to record extremely high resolution images. In fact, the amount ofrecorded information is so great that all image adjustments can be saved forpostproduction, including color, gain, and sharpening (diffusion).

Does this mean you don't have to white balance? Yes. You can white balance to give theRAW images a uniform look, but it is not necessary. Cinematographers are fond of diffusionfilters to soften the image. Again, this can be applied in postproduction (although anycinematographer worth his salt will be reluctant to surrender such creative control).

Amazingly, correct exposure is the only adjustment that has to be made to the camera, andeven this can be estimated. An unusual approach to camera setup, to say the least!

Enter REDCODE RAW

RAW files are proprietary and differ from from one manufacturer to another. Red DigitalCinema's version of RAW is called REDCODE RAW.

REDCODE RAW enables the huge 4K video images to be compressed into manageable filesizes, and then uncompressed with virtually no loss of image quality. Because they areRAW files, the compression is minimal--just enough for practical storage.

As of this writing, REDCODE RAW offers two levels of compression, REDCODE 28 andREDCODE 36. The latter provides less compression and is appropriate for highly detailedscenes such as, for example, wide shots.

As other manufacturers venture into the realm of ultra HD, they will invariably develop theirown version of RAW.

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9DSLR Cinematography

Still cameras have had the capacity to shoot video for some time now. The video wasrather noisy and nowhere near camcorder quality. It was more of a novelty, certainly notuseful in filmmaking.

Today's technology, however, is quite different. The better cameras, known as DSLR(Digital Single Lens Reflex), have high quality sensors and lenses, with the resulting videonothing short of astounding. This has caused a budding revolution in filmmaking.

Benefits

One of the finest camcorders available is the Red One, by Red Digital Cinema. It has a 12megapixel CMOS sensor, measuring .96 inch.

DSLRs have larger sensors and tests show that the resulting video is every bit as nice asthe Red One’s. DSLRs, however, start at less than $1,000 while the Red One costs$25,000. Big difference.

The most expensive DSLRs are priced below $3,000. That’s eight times cheaper than theRed One camera, yet they feature massive CMOS sensors--some approaching 25megapixels, 1.5 inches, as of this writing.

Another important benefit of DSLRs is that the large sensor and interchangeable lensesallow unparalleled control of depth of field. This enables you to isolate the subject in theframe for a more “filmic” look.

Because of the “bigger bang for the buck,” low budget filmmakers are flocking to DSLRs.Even established producers are looking into them for future projects or at least questioningthe relative cost of camcorders.

Drawbacks

Even though DSLRs have equal if not better image quality and are considerably cheaper,they are prone to the rolling shutter effect (aka, “jello effect”). This is distortion that occurswith certain types of swift movement.

If you have never seen the jello effect, examples can be found on YouTube. Needless tosay, you would not want to have a day’s shooting ruined by this. Such a disaster can easilyoffset savings in camera costs.

Until this problem is solved, you must use caution and carefully plan any shots where thecamera and/or subject are moving. That could put quite a damper on certain types ofmovies.

If you are willing to risk the jello effect, you should also consider the following essentialfeatures, which are standard on a camcorder but not present on a DSLR:

1. Articulating Video Monitor2. Electronic Viewfinder3. Power Zoom4. Zebra Stripes5. Time Code6. Stereo Sound7. XLR Audio Inputs8. Multi Channel Audio Input9. Manual Audio Controls

10. Audio Monitoring

That’s a lot of missing stuff! Features you take for granted on even the cheapestcamcorders but not available on DSLR cameras.

Manufactures have recognized this and are either adding the features to the cameras oroffering add-ons, as you can see in the BH Photo promo below:

Hidden Drawback

A hidden drawback of DSLRs is that they do not record in the coveted RAW format. Inaddition, the video is compression to some degree, depending on the camera.

Manufactures do this to protect their high end video products. If they put all the "bells andwhistles" in a $3,000 DSLR, why would anyone buy a $50,000 camcorder?

Despite this, the image quality is so great that the compression is indiscernible to all buttrained eyes. It is for this reason that DSLRs have caught the attention of not only indiefilmmakers, but established producers as well.

While DSLRs have certainly become a great filmmaking tool, it may be awhile before theybecome a true alternative to camcorders. In any event, it looks like there is a lot ofexcitement on the technological horizon!

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10Technical Infringement

Aspiring filmmakers go through similar learning curves and, as a result, make many of thesame mistakes. One of the goals of Film School Online is to help you avoid these hardknocks. At the very least we hope to provide you with enough awareness that you can spotthe telltale signs of trouble and take corrective action in timely manner.

A common mistake is to confuse technology with filmmaking. In other words, you get caughtup in the process of making a movie and loose track of telling a great story. It seemsfoolish to approach a project this way, yet countless filmmakers are obsessed with thelatest cameras, lighting, effects, etc.

Hollywood

If you doubt that you can fall into this trap, take a look at Hollywood. How many potentiallygreat movies have been compromised because of overly zealous special effects? GeorgeLucas was praised for striking the right balance in the first three Star Wars movies, butmany fans feel he dropped the ball with The Phantom Menace.

If seasoned pros can fall into this trap, students are particularly prone. Because of theirinexperience, students don't see the difference between making a movie and transcendingthe process to tell a story. To them, it's one big ball of wax. Understanding the difference iswhat separates great filmmakers from mediocre ones.

The special effects department is not the only culprit. All craft areas can be guilty ofinfringing on the story, from cinematographers with their cameras; to gaffers with theirlighting; to production designers with their sets, and so forth.

Recall Christian Bale's tirade against cinematographer Shane Hurlbut on the set ofTerminator: Salvation (2009). If are unfamiliar with this infamous sound clip, I urge you tolisten to it because it drives home the point of this lesson. It is readily found on the

Internet and Youtube.

Bale certainly handled himself unprofessionally and there is no excuse for the way headdressed Hurlbut, but the point he was trying to make is valid. Hurlbut was so concernedabout setting the lights that he was hindering the actors performances, which is, in essence,the telling of the story.

Student Filmmakers

From a pedagogical point of view, it's easy to see how student filmmakers get caught in thetechnology trap. To many of them, "learning filmmaking" means learning the latest camerasor lights or editing software. It's not the same thing.

Filmmaking is the application of the principles and conventions of screen storytelling. Theseprinciples were developed over many decades and encompass both visual and audioaesthetics. Technology involves the tools that facilitates this application, it's not "filmmaking"per se.

Instinct vs. Knowledge

Too often, students become experts in the technology of filmmaking and go on to makefilms based on aesthetic instinct. A truly gifted filmmaker can probably get away with this,but not everyone is born with such ability. Most filmmakers work through a considerablelearning curve to become great a what they do.

Even if you are a natural born instinctive filmmaker, your creativity and problem solvingability can be stifled by not having a solid base of knowledge from which to pull from.

For example, let's say you are instinctively using the technique of action compression.Wouldn't it be nice to know how and why this technique works? Wouldn't such knowledgehelp you apply it in better and perhaps unexpected ways?

Understanding the principles and conventions of filmmaking (or any art form, for that matter)not only provides you with a foundation from which to practice your skills, but also allowsyou to unleash the creative potential associated with those skills.

Don't fall into the technology trap. Keep your eye on the ball. No matter what your area ofspecialty is, your ultimate goal is always to tell a great screen story.

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