Food, exercise and lifestyle: an initial teacher training perspective

188 | International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 3, September 2002, pp188–197 © 2002 Blackwell Science Ltd

Food, exercise and lifestyle: an initial teacher training perspective

Liz Lakin

School of Education, University of Gloucestershire, Francis Close Hall, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 4AZ, UK

it has been produced. The pilot phase of the researchculminated in a presentation of findings at the firstannual conference of the Institute of Consumer Sci-ences1 (ICSc) at the University of Sheffield, in June2001.The findings of this pilot phase were put into prac-tice on the South Atlantic island of St Helena during a science in-service training programme for primaryteachers. Outcomes of this training, supported by otherresearch in this field [Turner (1997)2 Banet & Núñez(1997)3 Mauthner, Mayall & Turner (1993)4], informedthe second phase of the research, the contents of whichare reported in this paper. This was a more focusedphase drawing on trainee teachers’ perception of food,diet, exercise and lifestyle. The findings have redefinedthe way we teach ‘food and nutrition’ on our under-graduate and postgraduate programmes at the Univer-sity of Gloucestershire. Greater emphasis is given to the role of nutrient types and the unique relationshipbetween the food we eat and the lifestyle we lead.

Motivation

In 1997 the results of a survey conducted on behalf of the National Farmers Union5 were broadcast acrossthe media. The findings indicated an alarming lack ofknowledge amongst 8–11 years olds about food andfarming. Of the two hundred and fifty pupils inter-viewed findings indicated:

• 50% of the children thought margarine was pro-duced from cow’s milk;

• 33% thought oranges were grown in Britain;• less than 50% thought that spinach was grown

abroad;• 10% did not know that ham came from a pig;• 25% thought that bread was made from something

other than wheat.

It was this that prompted the current line of researchwith a view to developing new and inspiring ways of

Abstract

All too often, we are told via the media that our children are

overweight, under-exercised and eating poor diets. This is

disconcerting at the best of times but even more so when

we, as a country, are reviewing our farming and food pro-

duction practices. So what is our perception of food and how

does this relate to the lives we lead? These questions were

put to initial teacher-trainees (ITT) at the University of

Gloucestershire. They will be the teachers of tomorrow,

playing a significant role in the development and lifestyles

of our children. The answers received were varied; both

encouraging and giving cause for concern. This paper

describes an action research project based around the

analysis of those answers in the light of current research

into food and health. Throughout the paper, published

research findings relating to school children’s perception of

food and nutrition are compared with the trainee teachers’

views. The comparison draws striking similarities. The impli-

cations of this point to the way we teach food and nutrition

in schools and on our ITT programme at the University of

Gloucestershire. Whilst praising the good practice that

already exists, this paper recognises that there is a need to

adequately equip trainee teachers, especially at primary

level, to educate children towards a more holistic under-

standing of the food we eat and how it relates to the

lifestyles we lead.

Keywords Balanced diets, lifestyle, food, nutrient, construc-

tivist approach to teaching and learning.

Introduction

This paper forms part of a wider field of research intotrainee teachers’ perception of the food we eat and how

CorrespondenceLiz Lakin, Senior Lecturer, School of Education, University of Glouces-tershire, Francis Close Hall, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 4AZ,UK. E-mail: [email protected]

L. Lakin • Food, exercise and lifestyle

encouraging youngsters to make more informed choicesabout diet and the food they eat. Perhaps a good placeto start was with the trainee teachers themselves?

Positioning the paper within the overall research framework

This research has three clearly defined phases:

• pilot phase• lifestyle phase• proteins and genetics

The pilot phase explored initial teacher trainees’ per-ceptions of food, food production and farming practicesand revealed two major areas for further research:

• students’ perception of risk in terms of geneticallymodified foods;

• the students’ understanding of diet, its componentsand the role of nutrient groups.

The paper presented in June 2001 at the Institute ofConsumer Sciences Annual Conference1 detailed thefindings and implications of the second area. It is to thisthat we must now focus our attention.

Pilot phase outcomes

The findings of the pilot phase were encouraging interms of general knowledge, yet alarming in terms of scientific misconceptions. Students were able to recall the main food groups and were reasonably knowledgeable about sources of these foods, but theirknowledge waned when they tried to explain their sig-nificance. Few students mentioned the insulatory role offats and even less could explain clearly the role of vita-mins. If students have serious misconceptions within thisfield, these could be passed on to the pupils they teach.Turner’s (1997)2 study on children’s understanding offood and health in the primary classroom discovered asimilar lack of understanding about specialist nutrients.Turner goes on to reinforce concerns by stating that the outcomes of her research have implications ‘. . .concerning issues of teaching and learning, and[teacher’s] personal knowledge and understanding

about food and nutrition.’ (Turner, 1997, p. 503).2 This isa genuine problem and one that needs to be addressed,for its implications can go way beyond the classroomenvironment.

Attention was turned to the way we teach foodscience both in primary schools and as part of our ownprimary science programme at the University ofGloucestershire. Food groups are introduced early, withan emphasis on healthy and unhealthy foods; we quicklymove on to the systems of the body. This sequence ofevents is mirrored in English schools, reflecting the pro-gression indicated by the National Curriculum (1999).6

Far less emphasis is given to the role of the foods andthe circumstances in which we eat them. Informationconcerning issues such as: bodily requirements varyingaccording to age, circumstance, exercise and activity; thedetailed role of food types and; what a balanced dietreally means is assumed knowledge and not addressedduring our ITT science sessions.

The relationship between dietary intake, exercise andlifestyle is studied in secondary school during HomeEconomics. With the advent of the revised NationalCurriculum (2000)6 Home Economics is now compul-sory at Key Stage Three (11–14 years). By this stage,however, it is too late to rectify the often deeplyentrenched misconceptions, attitudes and eating habitsthat primary children have developed. During the pre-sentation at the ICSc conference1 a recommendationwas made that we reconsider the dietary messages beingsent out to primary school children. Labelling foods ashealthy and unhealthy should be revisited and the factthat children at this age (7–11 years) are expected toappreciate the significance of a balanced diet and thediffering demands exercise, or lack of it, places on thebody, was seriously questioned.

Questions like these formed the basis of the secondphase of this research.

The study: food, exercise and lifestyle

Methods

The framework for data collection was as follows:questionnaires were administered to one hundred andsixty-five Initial Teacher Trainee students. The sampleincluded final year Bachelor of Education (B.Ed)

© 2002 Blackwell Science Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26, 3, September 2002, pp188–197 | 189

Food, exercise and lifestyle • L. Lakin

students, Post Graduate Degree in Education (PGCE)primary students and PGCE secondary science stu-dents. There was no significant difference between thethree groups in terms of age or gender, so the outcomesof the research focused on the sample as a whole.The total sample was predominantly female (79%) and covered an age range of 18–50 years. Fifty per cent of the sample was between 18 and 25 years. All students were at the same stage in their professionaldevelopment and studying similar science educationprogrammes. None had yet received the session on‘Food and Nutrition’ scheduled for later in the autumnsemester.

When the trainees attended the ‘Food and Nutrition’session, feedback was given on their responses to thequestionnaire and the outcomes discussed. This servedto clarify comments and secure reliability of interpreta-tion of questionnaire responses.

Questionnaire details

The questionnaire aimed to identify the trainees’ under-standing of diet and related issues. The first set of ques-tions explored the trainees’ understanding of thedifference between a healthy diet and a balanced diet.It sought to elicit their interpretation of the commonlyused terms ‘good foods’ and ‘bad foods’. The secondgroup of questions focused on the relationship betweenfood, exercise and lifestyle. This section concluded witha question about a marathon and the type of food acompetitor would be advised to eat, hours before theevent. The final question asked the trainees to decidewhich of a series of phrases best described their owneating habits.

Findings

Findings are reported according to the questionnairesections to which they relate.

Healthy diets/balanced diets

All trainees answered the first set of questions knowl-edgeably. They wrote with confidence about the foodgroups, basing their classifications on nutrients such as

carbohydrates, proteins and fats as opposed to foodtypes (bread, fish and dairy products). This supportsfindings by Turner (1997).2 They wrote with convictionabout the similarities and differences between ‘healthy’and ‘balanced’ diets. Several trainees described a‘healthy diet’ as ‘. . . eating a variety of foods, includingfoods from all food groups.’ A ‘balanced diet’ however,was seen as ‘. . . eating the “right” balance of fats, car-bohydrates, proteins’. This interpretation was typical ofmany responses, but there was generally no indicationof what this balance may entail. The consensus was thatyour diet should consist of ‘. . . an equal amount of allthe food groups’.

One trainee did attempt a more detailed explanation,stating that ‘A balanced diet is the right combination of foods to ensure that the body receives the level ofnutrients it needs (my emphasis) from each group of“healthy” foods eaten’. PGCE Primary ITT.

Good foods/bad foods

Several trainees were unhappy with the use of thisphrase and explained that all foods are good for you inmoderation. ‘I would be reluctant to group foods like this – I have an approach to food . . . that if you eat too much of anything and not enough of somethingelse it’s not going to be great for you. I wouldn’t say that fatty foods are “bad” because we all need some fat in our diet. Anything is okay in moderation, your diet should be as varied as possible.’ PGCE Primary ITT

This approach was of particular interest, but only12% of the sample offered it.The remainder kept rigidlyto the suggested headings, categorizing foods accord-ingly. (Fig. 1) Fruit and vegetables were the mostpopular ‘good foods’ selected. Only 0.1% suggested fishand an equal percentage, chicken, highlighting that itwas a good source of protein. Refined sugar and fattyfoods were perceived in a detrimental way, either beingbad for your teeth or containing too much fat. 30% ofthe sample included chocolate on their list of ‘badfoods’. This supports similar research findings (seeTurner, 1997).2 A trainee on a strict diet with ‘WeightWatchers’ reinforced the use of the terminology ‘good’and ‘bad’ foods, stating that it featured highly in the language used by this organization.




Diet, exercise and lifestyle

The questions in this section explored the trainees’ per-ception of the relationship between what we eat andwhy we eat it.The majority of trainees recognised a rela-tionship between diet and exercise, but 13% stated thatthere was no such relationship. Of the trainees giving apositive response, the majority saw the association asweight-related. Exercise was a means of losing weightand was therefore ‘food’ driven. ‘If someone eatshealthy food – not too much fatty . . . then I think thatthey’re more likely to want to exercise, and have moreenergy to exercise.’ PGCE Primary ITT

Only a small minority (3%) recognised that the moreenergetic a lifestyle you lead, the more your body needsin terms of calorific intake, ‘. . . I feel the more exercise Ido the more food I need to replenish energy’. This astute

trainee went on to state that ‘. . . we often don’t relate theamount we eat to what exercise we take’. This was thetype of response being sought, but it was in the minority.

The trainees’ response to the question concerning themarathon revealed their real understanding of the rela-tionship between exercise and diet. Of the total sample,97% selected carbohydrate as the main food type a par-ticipant should eat, prior to taking part in a marathon.Any explanation given stated that carbohydrates werea good source of energy. Several trainees included vita-mins and minerals, explaining that these would be lostthrough sweating.The most worrying responses (40% ofthe sample) were that the competitor should stock upon protein, explaining that this was a long-term sourceof energy (Fig. 2). The inclusion of fats reinforced find-ings from the pilot study, suggesting that these traineesdo not fully understand the role of fats in the human

Figure 1 Good foods/bad foods.



diet. The question implied that the race was imminent(within 24 hours) and was not therefore referring to atraining programme.

The final question in this section referred to lifestyleand diet. All trainees recognised the influence lifestylehas on food preparation, types of food eaten and atti-tudes towards food. A small percentage highlighteddomestic welfare, religious beliefs and dietary values,whilst the majority of trainees focused on the plight ofstudents struggling with time management and the pres-sures of their academic commitments. Their responsesdescribed the extended role of food and its significancein our lives, beyond its nutritional value. Severaltrainees mentioned ‘comfort eating’ and eating out ofboredom. Mention was given of the use of conveniencefoods and the poor quality diet many felt they hadlapsed into. This was put down to time constraints onpreparation, and the availability of pre-prepared foods.

‘If you are “on the go” – college/school/home-life –you do opt for the easy options – canned, packet, readymade meals. If you have time you will cook a meal usingfresh ingredients.’ PGCE Primary ITT. This view is sup-ported by Humphrys (2001)7 who states ‘. . . (it) is a“lifestyle” choice and one that is encouraged by indus-try. Quite simply, there is more profit in a bag of crispsthan in a pound of potatoes.

Eating habits

Despite the fact that trainees seemed knowledgeableabout what constituted a healthy diet, it was apparentfrom their responses that few transferred this knowl-edge into practice (Fig. 3). Although there is consider-able debate over the most appropriate style or approachto eating, there was a general consensus amongst thetrainees that their diet could not be described as‘healthy’. Less than 20% stated that they planned their meals carefully. These trainees could be ascribedto one of three categories: having a growing family;particularly interested in health and fitness; on a strict diet with an established organization (i.e. WeightWatchers).

Their responses to the earlier questions indicated asound knowledge of food, its nutritional value and therelationship between diet and lifestyle. This final pointwas especially evident in a verbal response from onePGCE Primary student, who stated that her husbandand sons regularly sail at weekends. The type of packedlunch she gives them for these sailing trips is vastly dif-ferent from their school packed lunch. She recognisesthat it must be easy to handle, high in carbohydrate andnutritionally satisfying. She always includes a chocolatesnack.

Figure 2 Marathon: trainee-suggestednutrient options.



Limitations

Whilst recognising the value and significance of the dataacquired from the trainee teachers, certain factors mustbe taken into account when analysing and interpretingthis information.

Science Education

This research has been carried out and analysedthrough the eyes of a science educationalist. This willinfluence the outcome although consideration has beengiven to the very significant and highly successful roleplayed by Home Economists in schools. Food technol-ogy is now compulsory at Key Stage Three (11–14 years)but there is no specialist input at primary level.

Sample size

Although specifically selected, the sample size was small(n = 165), opportunist and disproportionately skewedtowards the female student, especially in the B.Edgroup.

Discussion

An important outcome of this research was a clearinsight into trainee teachers’ perceptions of food and

health, the relationship between diet, exercise andlifestyle and how this knowledge is translated into prac-tice. The data came from three groups of trainee teach-ers, B.Ed, PGCE Primary and PGCE Secondary Sciencespecialists. The range of responses and degree of mis-conceptions held within the different groups demon-strated marked similarities. The relationship betweenthese misconceptions and those identified by researchinto school children’s perception of food and nutrition(see Turner, 19972 and Banet & Núñez, 19973) suggestthat these ideas may have developed during thetrainees’ own school education.

Trainees who had specific undergraduate training infood and nutrition or had special dietary requirements,such as diabetics and weight watchers, were betterinformed about particular nutrients and were moreaware of the constraints which govern food choices.These findings agree with Turner’s (1997)2 research intochildren’s perception of food and diet. An alarminglylarge percentage however, had only a vague under-standing or held strong misconceptions about what abalanced diet consists of, and the roles of major nutri-ents such as proteins, vitamins and fats. Perhaps themost striking aspect is the explanation of a balanceddiet. The major barrier here is one of language. Thelexical definition of ‘balance’ describes an even distri-bution of weight or amount, Oxford University Press(1997)8. This approach is adopted in school in both

Figure 3 Eating habits.



mathematics and science: balanced forces and balancedequations, but one that does not apply to diets. The ‘bal-anced diet’, as described by the Department of Health(1996)9 promotes a system of food classification under‘food types’ and associated, approximate proportions(Fig. 4).

Recent research indicates that pupils at secondaryschool have some understanding of the need for‘balance’ in terms of variety and correct proportion, inthe diet (see Banet & Núñez, 1997).3 The difficultyarises, as indeed is evident from the trainees’ responses,when asked to apply this knowledge to specific situa-tions. The significance of the individual components isnot always appreciated and their definitive roles evenless so. A more detailed understanding of the term‘balance’ is required and a greater understanding of the role of the individual nutrients. The problembecomes even more pronounced when we consider theresponses to the ‘good foods/bad foods’ section of thequestionnaire.

Good and bad foods

If we take into account the myriad factors that influenceour decision as to what we eat and why (Fig. 5), itbecomes apparent that this reductionist form of foodclassification can be deceptive and misleading.The influ-ence of media and advertising was apparent in severalresponses, with the catch phrase ‘five a day’, featuring inmost, ‘. . . eating a healthy diet in general means eatingthe correct amount of each of the main food groupseach day i.e. five a day of fruit and vegetables’. B.Edtrainee. This supports findings from related studies (seeMauthner et al., 19934 and Turner, 19972).

All trainees agreed that lifestyle had a tremendousimpact on our diet, with several citing psychological andsocial influences as being especially significant. This iswhen they turn to food as a means of comfort.The foodsthey turned to were all categorised as ‘bad foods’.

The majority of trainees identified their choice of‘good’ and ‘bad’ foods based on ‘health’ grounds. Manyrecognised, however, that it was only if foods were eatenin excess that they became problematic. We need toappreciate that all foods have their role to play and thatour bodily demands do not fit neatly into parts of a foodtriangle (an approach often used in school) or rigid seg-ments of a ‘pie chart’. A more holistic approach to foodand nutrition is required. This need is emphasised whenwe consider the responses to the section of the ques-tionnaire dealing with exercise.

Food and exercise

Tomkins et al.10 (1999, p. 58) claim that the reduction inthe amount of exercise taken by young people has beenidentified as one reason for the increasing number ofoverweight pupils. We have evolved into an ‘exercise-phobic’ population with fewer people than ever takingregular, sustained exercise. The trainees’ attitudetowards exercise was directly food related, but seem-ingly for the wrong reasons. ‘If I do a lot of exercise, Ican eat more chocolate’. PGCE Secondary Science.

Statements such as this illustrate a reductionist atti-tude to exercise and diet; the chocolate is the reward fordoing the exercise. There is an element of truth in this,but is this the message we want to get across? Traineesperceived exercise as a means of reducing the effects of

Figure 4 Balanced diets (Based on Department of Health,1996).



eating. Only three trainees were able to equate themetabolic effect of exercise with the need to compen-sate in terms of increased carbohydrate intake, ‘. . .when I am exercising I tend to crave food such as pasta’.The following response takes the idea a stage further:‘When I am exercising three or four times a week I findI make a conservative effort to eat healthily, however,when I stop exercising the reverse happens and I “slip”and start eating a high carbohydrate/fat diet.’ (PGCEPrimary)

This reinforces the ‘bad food’ syndrome, instead ofthe more positive ‘nutrient role’ approach.

It has become increasingly clear that a significantminority of trainees have a mismatch of ideas relatingto the role of food and nutrients within their diet. Thisfactor alone was illustrated in the following response tothe question about the marathon, ‘. . . eat more proteinif you exercise a lot’.

Several trainees stated that the function of proteinswas to give a slow release of energy. This has importantimplications when we consider the role these traineeswill play in school. Turner’s findings indicate that

‘. . . a surprising number of schools were teachingabout nutrients in the final two years of primary school.However, only two children (from the research sample)had any real understanding of the function of protein.’(Turner, 1997, p. 503).2

Could this be the consequence of teacher misconcep-tion and poor explanation? The significance of this typeof situation goes beyond the classroom environmentand into the broader populace. If people are receivingmixed and ill-conceived ideas about the role of nutri-ents within their diet there is a strong possibility thatthis could be reflected in their own eating habits.Surveys investigating nutrient intakes among 5–16 yearsolds (Department of Health, 1989)11 have indicated that,

Figure 5 Factors that influence food choice (After a Health Education Authority poster, 1996).


amongst other things, the average intake of protein andvitamins for both boys and girls was above the recom-mended amounts. These findings were substantiated byunpublished research presented at the first annual con-ference of the Institute of Consumer Sciences at theUniversity of Sheffield, in June 2001. Kilborn andBrown’s (2001)12 research into school meals indicatedthat all children within the research sample surpassedthe average daily requirements for protein.

Implications

As can be seen, there is a need to redress this reduc-tionist approach to food and nutrition. The reintroduc-tion of compulsory food technology at Key Stage Threeis a positive move, but it begs the question ‘too little, toolate?’. Many misconceptions and mistaken attitudestowards food are developed during the primary years.At this age educational input is largely through scienceand if this is not taught in a meaningful and holistic way,this valuable opportunity is lost.

By the time pupils complete Key Stage Two, theyshould, according to the science aspect of the NationalCurriculum for England6 have a detailed understandingof the food groups. They would not be expected to clas-sify them by nutrient group, but should be able to recog-nise the role of the different food types and how theyfeature within a balanced diet. It is down to the knowl-edge and experience of the teacher to ensure that thisis effectively covered. As this research indicates, traineeteachers do not always have a sound knowledge basefrom which to work.

Research by Banet and Núñez (1997)3 into students’perception of human nutrition substantiates my view.They claim that the misconceptions held by students inthe secondary schools they sampled may come about asa consequence of teaching methods that rely on teacherexplanations and the use of textbooks. The outcomesfrom their research support the constructivist approachto teaching and learning. The learner constructsmeaning and understanding based on active, as opposedto passive learning, developed and enhanced througheveryday explanation. This view of teaching assumesthat learning is ‘. . . seen as an adaptive process, one inwhich learners’ conceptual schemes are progressivelyreconstructed so that they are in keeping with a contin-

ually wider range of experiences and ideas.’ (Driver,1989, p. 482).13

To achieve this conceptual change Banet and Núñez(1997)3 advocate a move away from the predominantlydidactic approach to teaching, largely supported by rotelearning, towards the application of newly acquired conceptual information in everyday situations. Thisapproach was used with a class of six and seven yearolds on the South Atlantic Island of St Helena in July2001 and later with trainee teachers in Gloucestershire.

Relating learning to a real life scenario enables learn-ers to reformulate their conceptual understanding,giving them ownership of their learning. The wholeconcept of food, exercise and diet became more mean-ingful. By adopting this approach in the classroom,teachers and trainees will be in a better position toeducate children towards a more holistic understandingof the food they eat and how it relates to the lifestylethey lead.

Conclusions

From this discussion on trainee teachers’ perception offood, exercise and lifestyle, we have seen that thepurpose of teaching for effective learning is ‘. . . to facil-itate constructs which are both personally meaningfuland also congruent with scientific thinking.’ (Littledykeet al., 1998, p. 14).14 There are no ‘good’ or ‘bad’ foods,only different ways of eating and meeting our bodilyrequirements in tune with the lifestyles we lead. In orderto present this message effectively, we need to under-stand the science behind the food we eat and the myriadinfluences that affect the food choices we make. Learn-ing from our own experiences, supported within a con-structivist framework, we can begin to build a morecoherent relationship between the food we eat and thelifestyle we lead. Once this has been adopted within theclassroom environment, both teachers and trainees willbe better equipped to educate children towards a moreholistic understanding of food and nutrition.

Acknowledgements

I should like to express my thanks to all the traineeteachers who participated in this study, to the Univer-sity of Gloucestershire for supporting this research and




to George Burch for his assistance throughout thedevelopment of this paper.

References

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2. Turner, S.A. (1997) Children’s understanding of food andhealth in primary classrooms. International Journal ofScience Education, 19, 491–508.

3. Banet, E. & Núñez, F. (1997) Teaching and learningabout human nutrition a constructivist approach. Inter-national Journal of Science Education, 19, 1169–1194.

4. Mauthner, M., Mayall, B. & Turner, S. (1993) Childrenand Food at Primary School. University of London.

5. National Farmers Union. (NFU). (1997) Farming Today,Radio 4 Broadcast.

6. D.E.E. (1999) The National Curriculum for England:Science. Department for Education and Employment,Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, London.

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Compact Dictionary and Thesaurus. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford.

9. Department of Health (1996) Guidelines on EducationalMaterials Concerned with Nutrition. Department ofHealth, London.

10. Tomkins, S. & Turner, S. (1999) Nutrition, diet and photosynthesis. Teaching Secondary Biology (Ed. byReiss, M.), pp. 32–63. John Murray, London.

11. Department of Health (1989) The Diets of BritishSchoolchildren. Report on Health Social Subjects no. 36.Sub-Committee on Nutritional Surveillance, Committeeon Medical Aspects of Food Policy. HMSO, London.

12. Kilborn, V. & Brown, I. (2001) An investigation into theneed for the provision of school meals as a contributionto the diets of primary school children. Consumer Sciences Today, 2 (3), 8.

13. Driver, R. (1989) Students’ conceptions and the learningof science. International Journal of Science Education, 11,481–490.

14. Littledyke, M. (1998) Constructivist ideas about learning.Teaching the Primary Curriculum for ConstructiveLearning (Ed. by Littledyke, M. & Huxford, L.),pp. 1–16. David Fulton Publishers, London.

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Food, exercise and lifestyle: an initial teacher training perspective