FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN INDONESIA

CECEP KUSMANA

FACULTY OF FORESTRY

BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Tropical Forest (Tropical Moist Forest) (Whitmore, 1990)

Tropical rain forests which develop in the hot and humid region (every month is wet, 100 mm rainfall or more) which lack of a pronounced dry seasons

Tropical seasonal forest which develop in seasonally dry climate (4 – 6 dry months with 60 mm rainfall or less)

The rain forest is prevalent over most part of Indonesia. There are considerable floristic variation which are related to differences in soils and topography. Broader variations are also reflected by the horizontal zonation (related to geologic history) and vertical zonation (related to elevation)

Climate Soil Water Soils Elevation Forest formation Seasonally dry Strong annual shortage Podsol, Renzina,

Latosol 0 – (750) 1000 m , Lowland Monsoon forest

(seasonal forest) Red yellow podsolic, latosol, andosol

1000 – 3000 m Montane monsoon forest

Ever-wet (perhumid)

Dryland Zonal (mainly oxisols, ultisols)

Lowland Lowland evergreen rain forest

Mo

un

tain

s

(750) 1200-1500 m

Lower montane rain forest

(1500) 2500 – 3300 m

Upper montane rain forest

(3350) m

3000 (3350) m to tree-line

Subalpine forest

Podozolized sands 0 – (750) 1000 m Heath forest Renzina, Latosol 0 – (750) 1000 m Forest over limestone Soils with high Mg, Fe, and Si content

0 – (750) 1000 m Forest over ultrabasic

Water table high (at least periodically)

Coastal salt-water

Regosol, Red yellow podsolic

0 – (750) 1000 m Beach forest

Alluvial < 0 m Mangrove forest Inland fresh water

Oligotrophic peats 0 – (750) 1000 m Peat swamp forest Eutrophic (muck and minerals) soil

0 – (750) 1000 m Freshwater swamp forest

Main Types of The Tropical Forest in Indonesia

Mangrove Forest Forest formation growing in the intertidal zone of tropical and sub-

tropical areas, mainly extensively grows in the sheltered coastline, delta,

lagoon, estuary and river bank

This forests can grow on muddy alluvial soils, sands, peat, and coraly soils

Marine ecosystem

Terestrial ecosystem INTERFACE

Biological Function Economical Function

Ecological Function

Mangroves as Interface Ecosystem

General characteristic of mangroves Halophytes, Salt-tolerant plants

Show a spesific adaptation to anaerobic waterlegged labile soils, tide flooding, and saline water, with:

Develop spesific root type

Develop viviparious fruit

Develop anatomical tissue to excerting salt (Avicennia, Sonneratia, Aegiceras, Acanthus, & Laguncularia), excluding salt (Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera, Acrostichum) and accumulation salt (Xylocarpus and Lumnitzera)

Commonly show zonation

1. Forest nearest the sea dominated by Avicennia and

Sonneratia, growing on deep mud rich in organic matter.

2. Forest on slightly higher ground is often dominated by

Bruguiera cylindrica and can form virtually pure stands

behind Avicennia forest.

3. Forest further inland is dominated by Rhizophora mucronata

and R. apiculata, the former preferring slightly wetter

conditions and deeper mud. These trees can be 35-40 m tall.

Example of Zonation in Mangrove

4. Forest dominated by Bruguiera parviflora can occur in pure

stands and whereas it often invades Rhizophora

5. The final mangrove forest is that dominated by Bruguiera

gymnorrhiza. The seedlings and saplings of this tree are

tolerant of shade

MANGROVE DISTRIBUTION IN INDONESIA

MANGROVE AREA IN INDONESIA

7.7 MILLION Ha, consist of:

3.7 M ha in the forest concession area and

4.0 M ha in the private own land)

in which about 32% of them are still good forest.

MANGROVE FLORA IN INDONESIA

TREES : 47 SPECIES

SHRUB : 5 SPECIES

HERBS & GRASS : 9 SPECIES

LIANA : 9 SPECIES

EPIPHYTES : 29 SPECIES

PARASYTES : 3 SPECIES

45 FAMILIES

75 GENERA

101 SPECIES

34

4840

78

43

24

49

33

6 71

101

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Thai Bur Viet Phil Mal PNGBrunQue Chin Yae NZ Ina

WORLD MANGROVE FLORA

GROUP OF MANGROVE FLORA

MAJOR MANGROVE

MINOR MANGROVE

MANGROVE ASSOCIATE

RHIZOPHORA BRUGUIERA CERIOPS KANDELIA

AVICENNIA SONNERATIA NYPA

EXCOECARIA XYLOCARPUS HERITERIA

AEGICERAS AEGIALITIS ACROSTICHUM

CERBERA HIBISCUS ACANTHUS DERRIS

CALAMUS IPOMOEA PES-CAPRAE DLL

RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA

CHIP

PULP

KONTRUKSI

ARANG

KAYU BAKAR

TIANG PERANCAH

TANIN

OBAT-OBATAN

CARBON TRADE

SIFAT EKOLOGI

• Tanah: spt R. apiculata tapi lebih

toleran thd substrat yg lebih keras &

pasir

• Umumnya di pinggir sungai dan

muara sungai

BRUGUIERA CYLINDRICA

CHIP

PULP

KONTRUKSI

KAYU BAKAR

TIANG PERANCAH

TANIN

OBAT-OBATAN

CARBON TRADE

Sonneratia alba

PULP

CHIP

KAYU BAKAR

BUAH DAPAT DIMAKAN

CAIRAN BUAH UNTUK

MENGHALUSKAN KULIT

DAUN UNTUK MAKANAN

KAMBING

PENGHASIL PECTINE

SIFAT EKOLOGI

S. alba

• Tanah: campuran lumpur & pasir,

kadang-kadang pada batuan dan

karang

S. caseolaris

• Tanah lumpur dalam, kurang asin

• Sepanjang sungai yg mengalir pelan

Avicennia marina

(Jampe hitam)

Pohon

Bunga & Daun Buah

Daun

NYPA FRUTICANS

DAUN UNTUK TIKAR, KERANJANG,

TAS, JAS HUJAN, TOPI

BIJI SEBAGAI BAHAN MAKANAN DAN

SUMBER GARAM, MANISAN

PENGHASIL ALKOHOL DAN CUKA

Xylocarpus granatum

PAPAN

BAHAN DASAR

KERAJINAN TANGAN

MINYAK RAMBUT

TRADISIONAL

OBAT-OBATAN

SIFAT EKOLOGI

• Daerah yg jarang tergenang di

sepanjang pinggiran sungai &

pinggir daratan dari mangrove

MANGROVE ASSOCIATE

OBAT-OBATAN

BAHAN MAKANAN

DLL

TERESTRIAL FAUNA MARINE FAUNA

MANGROVE FAUNA

INFAUNA

(CRUSTACEA)

EPIFAUNA

(MOLLUSC)

BENTOS (FISH)

BIRD

AMPHIBIA

&

REPTILE

MAMMALS INSECTS

Mangrove Fauna

Varanus salvator

Macaca fascicularis

Nycticorax nycticorax

Egretta sp.

Halcyon sp.

Esential Physical Environmental for Growing Mangroves

Availability of Nutrient

Good Growing

Mangrove

Stable Substrate

Balanced Supply

of Fresh water

and Sea water

Cause of Mangrove Destruction

Over exploitation

Convertion of mangroves into other land use

Water pollution

Natural disaster

Beach Forest (Hutan Pantai)

Forest formation growing in the supralittoral zone, sometimes subjected to extrem high tide (spring tide and storm)

To survive in the habitat of beach forest, plant must be:

Deep rooted

Tolerant to salt (saline water), wind, drought, high temperature, poor-nutrient soil

Capable of producing floating seeds

Able to survive being buried periodically under wind-blown sand

Pes-Caprae community occupied the outer fringe mounds of sand, where the beach tends to build

The plant in this community are low, sand-binding herbs/grass and sedges

Pes-caprae community shows low species diversity, about 15 species:

Spinifex littoreus

Ipomoea pes-caprae

Cyperus spp.

Canavalia spp.

Fimbristylis

Ischaemum muticum

Etc.

Barringtonia community occupied the area behind pes-caprae community on the stable soils or rocky soils, commonly covers the narrow space of 25 – 50 meters

Plants in this community must be tolerant to showering of sea water, poor nutrient soils, and to drought.

Barringtonia formation consist of more diverse species diversity than pes-caprae community (about 30 species)

Cocos nucifera

Casuarina equisetifolia

Barrinngtonia asiatica

Calophyllum inophyllum

Terminalia catappa

Hibiscus tiliaceus

Pandanus, etc.

Strand species are widely utilized by coastal villagers

Hibiscus : making rope and cordage

Pandanus : making mats, baskets, sails

Casuarina : firewoods

Cocos nucifera : coconut oil, woods

FAUNA Wader and seabird which nesting, resting and feeding in

beach forest

Sea turtle (green sea turtle, howksbill, leatherback, loggerhead) are nesting in beach forest (Tambelan island, Berau island, Paloh and Lemukuta island at West Kalimantan, Meru Betiri and Baluran NP)

Coconut Crab (Ocypode)

FRESH WATER SWAMP FOREST Fresh water swamp forest are wide spread over alluvial soils

that are periodically flooded for long periods with rich mineral fresh water (pH more than 6) associated with coastal swamp, inland lake and huge low-lying river basin

Fresh water swamp forest habitat is extremely heterogenous in soils and vegetation, where a few centimeters of peat may occur. So that, floristic composition varies from:

Floating grass, sedges and herbs

Pandan and palm swamp

Scrub

Similar to lowland rain forest

Trees of fresh water swamp forest often have to endure prolonged period of flooding. So, they develop pneumatophores in adapting to the anaerobic soils condition:

In Indonesia, the freshwater swamp vegetation occurs

in all islands in area where climate ranges from seasonally dry to very wet, in the lowlands and highlands. The great extern of freshwater swamp forest in Indonesia occur in the lowland of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua

Flora

The most important trees in freshwater swamp forest are the genera of:

Alstonia Barringtonia Campnospermae Dillenia Eugenia Shorea Calophyllum Canarium Koompassia

Mangifera Neesia Pholidocarpus Melanorrhoea Metroxylon sagu

Fauna Fauna diversity and abundance in freshwater swamp forest vary with the structure and floral diversity of the forest

Macaca fascicularis

Crocodillus porosus

Tomistoma schlegelii

Causes of Freshwater Swamp Forest Destruction

Convertion to Melaleuca cajuputi and agricultural cultivation (sugar cane, coconut, pineapple, rubber, palm oil, paddy field, etc.)

PEAT SWAMP FOREST

Peat : a soil type with a very high (> 65%) organic contents, at least 50 cm deep

It consist of:

Ombrogenous peat (rain-fed peat, poor in nutrient/oligotrophic, mainly calcium, in the behind of mangroves), drainage water are very acid, deep peat reached to 20 m

Topogenous peat are formed in topographic depressions (mesotrophic/nutrient coming from mineral subsoil, river water, plant remains and rain)

Peat swamp forests are extent in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Characteristics of peat swamp forest are: Low nutrient content of blackwater

High concentration of humic acid (pH 3 – 4,5)

Low concentration of dissolved oxygen

Have biconvex shape (in the margin of the river and in the center)

Mineral nutrient amount of the soil decreases toward the center of the swamp, markedly for Potassium and Phosphorus, reflected in the vegetation by the:

Decreasing tree height

Decreasing total biomass per unit area

Increasing leaf thickness (an adaption to poor soils)

Decreasing average girth of certain tree species

Flora Alstonia pneumatophora

Dyera lowii

Gonystylus bancanus

Tetramerista glabra

Palaquium burckii

Koompassia malaccensis

Salacca conferca Palm (Luciala spinosa, sealing

wax palm Parastemon urophyllum Shorea platycarpa, S. uliginosa,

S. albida Lephopetalum multinerviman Campnosperma coriceae

Fauna

Macaca fascicularis

Presbytis cristata

Pongo pygmaeus

Hylobates agilis

Macaca nemestrina

Nasalis larvatus

Causes of Forest Destruction

Over exploitation

Convertion to agricultural cultivation (palm oil, rubber estates, paddy field and horticultural field, etc)

Monsoon Forest Forest with abundant rainfall during wet season, which

alternates with a distinct drought period which may last from about 4 to 6 months, the total amount of rainfall varies from about 1,000 to 2,000 mm a year, may be subjected to strong winds.

In Indonesia this forests distribute in West Java (Karawang, Indramayu, Cirebon), East Java, Central Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi

General characteristic: During dry season, most of the trees shed their

leaves (leaf-shedding species or deciduous)

Trees have to develop deep root system and wood annual rings, thick barks, lack buttressed root

The A and sometimes also the B storey are more open and may disappear, so that only one tree stratum remains, those forests seem to consist of 3 layers all together:

The upper layer being the tree canopy which is often disturbed

The second layer is undergrowth (shrubby thickets and more grasses) which is often dense

The third layer is a ground layer of herbs

The trunk of the trees are rather massive but relatively short with widely spreading crowns, rather stout and gnarled branches, thick barks and often fissured

The leaves of deciduous trees are usually hygrophilous, thin and large. The few evergreen trees tend to have smaller and thicker leaves

Fewer climber and epiphytes

Undergrowth (grass, shrub) and geophytes are luxuriant

Trees, shrubs and geophytes are flower in dry season, herbs flower during rainy season

Forests grow on the various kinds of dry mineral soils at the low (2 – 1000 asl) and high elevation (1000 – 4000 asl)

Flora

Monsoon forest at low elevation (2 – 1000 asl)

Tectona grandis Dalbergia latifolia Acacia mangium Lagerstomia speciosa Tamarindus indica Honalium tomentosum Santalum album Eucalyptus alba

Melaleuca Scheichera obasa Albizia leobekosides Azadirachta indica Casuarina penghumiares Cassia fistula Salmalia malabarica Palms (Borassus flabellifer and Corypha utan)

Monsoon forest at medium to high elevation (1000 – 4000 asl)

Casuarina sumatrana

C. junghuhniana

Eucalyptus urophylla

E. deglupta

Pinus merkusii

P. insularis

Fauna Honey bee

Deer, buffalo, bull

Long-tailed monkey

Butterfly

Bird (Cypsiurus batasiurus)

Frogs

Not many published literatures on the fauna of monsoon forest

Causes of Forest Destruction

Fire

Grazing

Convertion to other land use for agriculture, resettlement, etc.

Heat Forest (Kerangas Forest) Forests grow on white sand soils derived from siliceous

parent materials, where the soil is poor in nutrients/bases, highly acidic, coarse textured and free draining. They are often covered by superficial layer of peat/humus which is quickly lost once the natural vegetation is cleared

In Indonesia, heat forest found be great extent in Central and East Kalimantan

General characteristic:

Trees are often densely packed difficult to penetrates with small thick leaves

Low, uniform, single-layered canopy formed by crowns of large saplings and small poles

Buttress are smaller, but still root are common

Small, thin climbers are common, as are ephiphytes

Plants with supplementary means of obtaining minerals are common, i.e Casuarina nobilis which has root noduls containing nitrogen fixing bacteria

Conspicuous epiphytes are ant plants (Myrmecophytes): Hydrophytum and Myrmecodia

Ground flora is sparse, with many mosses and liverworth as well as insectivore plants such as pitcher plants Nepenthes, sundews Drosera and bladderworm Urticularia growing on the poor soils

Endemic orchid of Bulbophyllum beccarii growth on the trunk of the trees to maximize its access to nutrients

In Indonesia, heat forest varies from tall closed forest similar to adjacent lowland mixed forest, to open scrubby vegetation or Padang (destroyed heat forest with small, short, crooked stem and thin crown trees, DBH < 30 cm and H < 15 cm high, forest floor is covered by herbs/dwarfs shrubs or completely bare).

Flora Tall-closed heat forest:

Eugenia palembanica

Ilex hypoglauca

Cotylelobium malayanum

Barringtonia sumatrana

Calophyllum soulattri

Shorea teysmanniana

Agathis borneensis

Open scrubby and Padang vegetation:

Casuarina sumatrana

Cratoxylum glaucum

Dacrydium elatum

Baeckia frutescens

Tristaniopsis obovata

Herb layer: Vaccinium baccanum, Nepenthes

Orchid: Dendrobium, Eria, Coelogyne, Bulbophyllum, and Liparis

Fauna Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)

Macaques

Orthotomus ruficeps (the ashy tailorbird)

Snakes, lizards, and frogs

Termites

Beetles

Causes of Destruction

Over exploitation

Convertion to other land use for agriculture, etc

Limestone Forest

Limestone forest is a climax community, old

and stable. A limestone forest grows on

limestone hill areas.

Limestone is a type of rock made naturally

from the shells of sea creatures that lived

millions of years ago.

Not all limestone area are described by

geomorphologists as karst landscapes that

have arisen from the abnormally high

solubility of the bedrock.

The karst landscapes are two major forms

typical of the humid tropics:

conical hill karst, examples: in Sulawesi

(north of Bone, on Buton and Muna), Bali

(Mt. Sewu and Nusa Penida southeast of

Bali)

tower karst, examples: Sulawesi (Maros

and Tonasa), Jawa (Padalarang)

Limestone Forest

Flora in Limestone Forest

Dipterocarpus hasseltii

Stelechocarpus burahol

Diospyros maritima

Croton tiglium

Pisonia grandis

Kleinhovia hospita

Cyanotis cristata

Peperomia laevifolia

Drynaria spp

Antrophyum reticulatum, etc

Fauna in Limestone Forest

No vertebrates are restricted in their distribution to the surface of limestone hill, but some species of snails are because they need calcium to form their shells.

Examples animals in limestone forest:

Graphium androcles

Macaca nigra

Macaca maura

Animal in Limestone Forest

Macaca nigra

Macaca maura

Causes of Disturbance

Intense limestone mining

Forests occurring on soils derived from ultrabasic parent material are often distinct from forest of adjacent, different soils.

The soil that developed on ultrabasic rocks are notoriously infertile due to combinations of the following factors: high levels of exchangeable magnesium and a skewed calcium; magnesium ratio, a deficiency of calcium, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, molybdenum, and zinc; and toxic concentrations of heavy metals such as nickel, cobalt, and chromium.

Ultrabasic Forest

Ultrabasic Forest

Flora in Ultrabasic Forest

Metrosideros

Agathis

Calophyllum

Eugenia

Kjellbergiodendron

Horsfieldia

Gymnacranthera

Knema

Deplanchea bancana, etc.

Fauna in Ultrabasic Forest

Butterfly

Flycatcher bird

Starlings bird

Ants

Causes of Forest Destruction

Over exploitation

Convertion

Lowland Rain Forest (LRF)

LRF is the most extensive occuring in Indonesia and is the most luxurious vegetation compared to other types of forest in the world.

Lowland Rain Forests are Lofty, dense, evergreen

forest 45 m or more tall, characterized by the large

number of species. Gregarious dominants

(consociations) are uncommon and usually 2/3 or more

of the upper-canopy trees are of species individually

not contributing more than 1% of the total number

Structure and Physiognomy Characteristic of LRF

Atribute Category

Canopy height 25-45 m

Emergent trees Characteristic, to 60(80) m tall

Pinnate leaves Frequent

Principal leaf size class of woody plants Mesophyll

Buttresses Usually frequent and large

Cauliflory Frequent

Big woody climbers Abundant

Bole climbers Often abundant

Vascular epiphytes Frequent

Non-vascular epiphytes Occasional

Bryophyte Rare

Bole Usually almost cylindrical

Canopy layer Conventionally 5 layer: Three tree layers, shrub layer, and herb layer;

1) A-Storey (upperanst tree layer) is made up of emergent trees about 30 – 45 m

high with discontinuous canopy. Those emergent trees show shallow rooting and

buttresses

2) B-Storey (second tree layer, main canopy) is made up of the trees of about 18 – 27

m high with continuous canopy layer

3) C-Storey (third tree layer) is composed of trees rising to a height of about 8 – 14

m, with form dense layer, particularly the B-Storey does not do so

4) Shrub layer consisting of species with heights mostly below 10 m

a. Shrub with branching near the base, no main axis

b. Small trees with prominent main axis (treelet) and including the saplings)

5) Herb layer consisting of smaller plants which are either seedlings or herbacious

species (Zingiberaceae, Acanthaceae, Commelinaceae, Araceae, Maranthaceae,

etc.)

Liana

Strangler

Liverworth

mosses

Lichen

Sisik naga

(epifit)

Flora Western Part of Indonesia (West Malesian/Sunda Shelf)

Species of Dipterocarpaceae, mainly the genera of Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Drybalanops, Parashorea and Shorea are dominating the large trees of the emergent layer, totaled about 350 species found in this region. Also this forest is characterized by rich ground layer palm flora of shade and moisture loving genera (Iguanusa, Pinanga, Areca, Nenga, Rhopalobaste)

Eastern part of Indonesia (East Malesia)

Dipterocarpaceae become less important and locally dominant. The important species are:

Araucaria cunninghamii

A. humsteini

Agathis labillardieri

Conifer species (Dacrydium elatum, D. novoguinense, Papuacedrus spp., phyllocladus hypophyllus, Podocarpus papuanus)

Fauna Big herbivores (elephants, rhino), deer, anoa, etc. Tiger and other Felidae Aves: hornbill, paradise bird, peacock, etc. Primates: macaques, gibbon, orangutan Reptiles and amphibians Others

Causes of Forest Destruction

Over exploitation and illegal logging

Convertion to agriculture cultivation, resettlement, etc.

Fire

Montane Rain Forest Upwards the luxurious vegetation at low an medium altitude, the forest

become a two storey with decreasing tree height as well as decreasing tree species richness, but it is very luxuriant in epiphytes (mainly mosses and liverworts) which cover the trunks and branches of the trees densely. Woody vines are very few present. This kind of forest is called SUBMONTANE FOREST

Above this forest, is the true montane forest made up of a single storey of twisted trees of massive growth and rich in branching, leaves of trees become smaller, trunks and branches are covered with a thick snat of mosses and liverworts which may hang down in festoon. This kind of forest is UPPER MONTANE FOREST in which often only 10 m tall or less and its shorter facies are sometimes called ELFIN WOODLAND. The trees may be heavily swatch in bryophytes and filmy fern, so this forest also known as MOSSY FOREST (mosses and liverworth dominate). Peat often forms, sometimes with the big moss Sphagnum. More light penetrate and the ground vegetation. Flowers of trees, shrubs and epiphytes are numerous (mossy forest as most striking type of tropical vegetation), strangler are usually absent, small climbers may be found near the upper limit of the forest

Upwards mossy forest is SUBALPINE FOREST with a shorter more gnarled formation with even tinier leaves (Nanophylls). It is the tree line at about 4.000 m asl.

Beyond the Subalpine forest is ALPINE VEGETATION (shrub heat, most tundra, fern meadow) and grassland. Those treeless landscape extend up to the nival zone (snow line) at about 4,500 m asl.

Snow in the Top Montanea

Formation

Tropical lowland

boleevergreen rain

forest

Tropical lower

montane rain forest

Tropical upper

montane rain

forest

Subalpine forest

Canopy height 25-45 m 15-33 m 1.5-18 m 1.5 – 9 m

Emergent trees Characteristic, to

60(80) m tall

Often absent, to 37 m

tall

Usually absent,

to 26 m tall

15 m

Pinnate leaves Frequent Rare Very rare -

Principal leaf size

class of woody plants

Mesophyll Mesophyll Microphyll Nanophyll

Buttresses Usually frequent and

large

Uncommon, small Usually absent Absent

Cauliflory Frequent Rare Absent Absent

Compound leaves Abundant Present Rare Absent

Big woody climbers Abundant Usually none None Absent

Bole climbers Often abundant Frequent to abundant Very few -

Creepers Usually abundant Common or abundant Very rare absent

Vascular epiphytes Frequent Abundant Frequent Very rare

Non-vascular

epiphytes

Occasional Occasional to

abundant

Often abundant abundant

Flora

Lower Montane Forest :

Fabaceae (Quercus, Castana, Lithocarpus, Nothofagus)

Lauraceae (Litsea)

Hammamelidaceae

Magnoliaceae

Ericaceae

Upper Montane Forest

Conifer (Araucariaceae, Dacrydium, Podocarpus)

Loptospermum

Clearia

Ericaceae

Subalpine and Alpine

Graminae

Cyperus

Juncus

Agrotis

Fauna Tiger (Panthera pardus melas,

etc.)

Frogs

Lizard, Snake

Bird (Eagle, etc.)

Langur

Squirrel, shrew

Palm civet

Gymnure

Causes of Forest Destruction

Mining

Exploitation

Convertion to agricultural cultivation

Natural disaster

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