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William M. Firmender Fostering Achievement and Self-efficacy Among Newcomer Immigrant Youth: A Program Evaluation of Soccer Without Borders

Fostering Achievement and Self-efficacy Among Newcomer

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W i l l i a m M . F i r m e n d e r

Fostering Achievement and Self-efficacy Among Newcomer Immigrant Youth:

A Program Evaluation of Soccer Without Borders

PURPOSE OF STUDY

• This study is an initial program evaluation of Soccer Without Borders using community-based participatory research principles

• Help illustrate if SWB was associated with outcomes important to newcomer immigrant youth

• Provide suggestions for how SWB could improve their data collection process to better assess their outcomes

NEWCOMER IMMIGRANT YOUTH

• Immigrant is an umbrella term including refugee, asylees, and unaccompanied minors• Between 14 and 18• Arrived their new country within the last 5 years• At risk for physical and psychological health

problems• Self-efficacy and academic abilities may be

underdeveloped

Shakya, Khanlou, & Gonsalves, 2010; Suárez-Orozco, Pimentel, & Martin, 2009; Fazel & Stein, 2002 3

IMMIGRANT POPULATIONS

• Percentage of immigrant youth in the United States has been steadily increasing over the past 50 years • In 2013• 70,000 refugees admitted • Over 1/3 children

• 25,000 asylees admitted• 1/6 children

Fazel & Stein, 2002; Passel, 2011; Congressional Research Service, 2014 4

IMMIGRANT POPULATIONS

Passel, 20115

CHALLENGES OF IMMIGRATION

• Pre-migration stressors• War• Violence• Injury/death of family/

friends• Interrupted education

• Post-migration stressors• Racism• Poverty• Discrimination/violence• Difficulty finding new

peer group

• At risk for• Post-traumatic stress

disorder• Anxiety disorders• Depression• Conduct Disorder

• Academic difficulties• Identity development

difficulty

Suárez-Orozco, Pimentel, & Martin, 2009; Fazel & Stein, 2002 6

SELF-EFFICACY

• Reaching desired goals through abilities• Having success raises self-efficacy• Failing lowers self-efficacy

• Formed by actual experiences• Self-efficacy gained or lost by other methods can be

counteracted or confirmed by actual experience

Catalano et al., 2004; Bandura, 1989; Bandura & Adams, 1977; Sherer et al., 1982; Oettingen, 1995 7

SELF-EFFICACY DEVELOPMENT

• Stems from a youth’s sense of identity• Newcomer immigrant youth may be delayed

• Attachment with primary caregiver creates a strong sense of identity in young children• Role models especially important for adolescents• Youth begin to measure their abilities by comparing

themselves to others starting at age 7 • Conflicting research regarding changes in self-

efficacy with age• Some studies show it declines, other show it increases

Erikson, 1980; Roffman, Suárez-Orozco, & Rhodes, 2003; Harter, 1983; Schuck & Meece, 2006; Bandura, 2006; Biskup & Pfister, 1999 8

SOCIAL SELF-EFFICACY

• Reaching desired social goals through abilities• Significantly related to first semester grades in

college students• Other expectancy beliefs were not

• May help improve academic self-efficacy

Anderson & Betz, 2001; Ferrari & Parker, 1992 9

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN SELF-EFFICACY

• Research also conflicts regarding ethnic and cultural differences in self-efficacy• Stereotypes affect self-efficacy• General self-efficacy was found to be a universal

construct• More general types of self-efficacy may be applicable to

minority populations regardless of ethnicity or culture

• Little research on social self-efficacy in diverse populations

Schunk & Meece, 2006; Meece & Scantlebury, 2006; Scholz et al., 2002 10

SELF-EFFICACY IN NEWCOMER IMMIGRANT YOUTH

• Stressful life transitions, including school transitions, can lead to decreases in self-efficacy in youth• Immigrant youth are more vulnerable to transitions due to• The unique stressors they face before, during, and after the

transition• The degree of their transition

• The difficulties of transitioning may require specific interventions designed to help immigrant youth regain some of the self-efficacy they have lost

Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995; Schunk & Pajares, 2002; Schunk & Meece, 2006; Suárez-Orozco, Pimentel, & Martin, 2009 11

ACADEMICS AND NEWCOMER IMMIGRANT YOUTH

Suárez-Orozco et al., 2010 12

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

• Social relationships can be developed through extracurricular activities• Immigrant youth may not have access to activities

• Many different activities were favorably related to social and academic outcomes• May help improve their self-efficacy and academic

outcomes

• The amount of participation is also associated with positive academic outcomes

Feldman Farb & Matjasko, 2012; Stearns & Glennie, 2010 13

SPORTS

• Sports produces the most positive outcomes• May be because regular physical activity can help

prevent and reduce mental and physical health problems

Marsh, 1992; Broh, 2002; US Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2008 14

SOCCER

• Soccer is seen as the ideal sport to engage immigrant youth• Is popular among immigrant youth• Does not require a set court, requires little equipment, and

allows for large variation in team size• Is played in over 200 countries worldwide

• Playing soccer enables them to idolize and attempt to imitate the soccer stars they love• Consistent with self-identity development stage youth go

through where they begin to look up to and strive to be like famous athletes and celebrities.

Cushman, 2014; Yohani, 2010 15

SOCCER WITHOUT BORDERS

16

SOCCER WITHOUT BORDERS

• A sports-based extracurricular activity• Seeks to help newcomer immigrant youth become better

integrated into their new communities by “harnessing the power of soccer as a universal language”

• Focus on social skills, emotional development, and leadership skills more than athletic success.• Targets at-risk and hard to reach social group

Cushman, 2014 17

SOCCER WITHOUT BORDERS

• SWB believes their program benefits immigrant youth• Do not have the means to evaluate themselves to

determine if their beliefs are accurate

• Curriculum based on principles of Positive Youth Development (PYD)• Theory that tries to integrate• Human development• Community organization and development• Social and community change

18

SWB GOALS

• Empirical evidence of program benefits to newcomer immigrant youth• Demonstrate SWB improves • Academic performance• Relationship with peers

• Improve data collection process to better assess outcomes

19

CBPR

• Community-based participatory research principles were used to conduct the program evaluation• Creating an equitable partnership• Ensuring that everyone gains knowledge• Pledging support for a long-term commitment

Israel, Eng, Schulz, & Parker, 2005 20

PROGRAM EVALUATION

• Structured procedure that gathers information about programs to help stakeholders answer questions about the effectiveness of their programs• Proposed study is: • Impact evaluation• Answer questions about a programs intended effects

• Who it helped• Why it may have helped

• Process evaluation• Helps improve the process of data collection

McDavid & Hawthorn, 2006; Harrell et al., 1996 21

CDC GUIDELINES

• 1.) Engage stakeholders

• 2.) Describe the program

• 3.) Design appropriate evaluation

• 4.) Gather credible evidence

• 5.) Justify conclusions

• 6.) Share what was learned

Koplan, Milstein, & Wetternhall, 1999 22

HYPOTHESIS 1

• A majority of participants will report that being involved in SWB increased their social self-efficacy

23

HYPOTHESIS 2

• Participants’ GPA will increase over time

24

HYPOTHESIS 3

• Greater participation in Soccer Without Borders will predict higher academic achievement

25

HYPOTHESIS 4

• Students that participate in Soccer Without Borders will have higher academic achievement than the school as a whole

26

METHODS

SAMPLE AND SETTINGS

• Archival data• Immigrant adolescents• Males• Ages 13-19• Enrolled in high school

• N = 102• Unique setting• International High School

28

PROCEDURE

• Research questions were created collaboratively based on• What each party wanted• What data was available• Were informed by research literature

• Initial program evaluation• With suggestions regarding a more in-depth secondary

evaluation

PROCEDURE

• Impact model of program evaluation• Results used to illustrate if SWB was associated with

outcomes important to newcomer immigrant youth• Social self-efficacy• Academic achievement• School attendance

• Process model of program evaluation• Results used to provide suggestions for how SWB could

improve their data collection process to better assess their outcomes

MEASURES

• Demographics

• End-of-Year Questionnaire

• SWB Participation

• Grade Point Average

31

END OF YEAR QUESTIONNAIRE

Because of coming to Soccer Without Borders…

Not Really

Kind of

Yes

…I am better at working with other kids

…I have made new friends

…I am more comfortable expressing myself

…I am better at listening to other people

…I have the chance to be a leader

32

GRADE POINT AVERAGE

• SWB Participants• 2014 Fall• 2015 Spring• 2014-15 Cumulative• 2015 Fall• 2016 Spring• 2015-16 Cumulative

• School-wide average:• 2014-15 Cumulative• 2015-16 Cumulative

33

DATA ANALYSIS: HYPOTHESIS 1

• A majority of participants will report that being involved in SWB increased their social self-efficacy

• Looks at the percentage of students who endorsed that participation in Soccer Without Borders increased their social self-efficacy• Measured by answering ‘yes’ or ‘kind of’ to the five

questions that comprise the social self-efficacy measure on the EOY Questionnaire

34

DATA ANALYSIS: HYPOTHESIS 2

• Participants’ GPA will increase over time

• Paired-samples t-test• Change in mean scores of continuous variable (Academic

achievement) across 2 time points• 2014 Fall GPA à 2015 Spring GPA• 2015 Fall GPA à 2016 Spring GPA

35

DATA ANALYSIS: HYPOTHESIS 3

• Greater participation in Soccer Without Borders will predict higher academic achievement

• Linear regression• Continuous IV (Amount of participation)• Continuous DV (Academic achievement)

36

DATA ANALYSIS: HYPOTHESIS 4

• Students who participate in Soccer Without Borders will have higher academic achievement than the school as a whole

• One-sample t-test• Mean GPA of sample (SWB)• Mean GPA of population (School as a whole)

37

RESULTS

DEMOGRAPHICS

Variable Levels 2014/ 2015 2015/2016 # of participants

(n=66) % of

participants # of participants

(n=90) % of

participants Country of Origin Afghanistan

Chin State Columbia El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Guatemala Honduras Karen State Mexico Mongolia Nepal Rwanda Somalia Yemen Brazil Syria India

5 1 1

16 4 1 8 3

10 5 1 2 1 2 6 0 0 0

7.6 1.5 1.5

24.2 6.1 1.5

12.1 4.5

15.2 7.6 1.5 3.0 1.5 3.0 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

6 2 2

23 7 1

17 4

10 5 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 1

4.4 2.2 2.2

25.6 7.8 1.1

18.9 4.4

11.1 5.6 2.2 3.0 1.1 1.1 5.6 1.1 1.1 1.1

DEMOGRAPHICS

Variable Levels 2014/ 2015 2015/2016 # of participants

(n=66) % of

participants # of participants

(n=90) % of

participants Age 13

14 15 16 17 18 19

1 3 9

13 18 14 8

1.5 4.5

13.6 19.7 27.3 21.2 12.1

1 5

13 22 28 16 5

1.1 5.6

14.4 24.5 31.1 17.7 5.6

Cumulative GPA 0-2.00 2.01-2.50 2.51-3.00 3.01-3.50 3.51-4.00

1 8

10 18 29

1.5 12.1 15.2 27.3 43.9

7 4

15 30 34

7.8 4.4

16.7 33.3 37.8

Participation 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 100+

0 11 4 9 4 7 9 7 7 5 3

0.0 16.7 6.0

13.7 6.0

10.6 13.7 10.6 10.6 7.6 4.5

3 8

13 8 9 5

16 12 10 5 1

3.3 8.9

14.4 8.9

10.0 5.6

17.7 13.3 11.1 5.6 1.1

RESULTS – HYPOTHESIS 1

2014-15• Question 1• 98.4% endorsed

• Question 2• 95.4% endorsed

• Question 3• 98.5% endorsed

• Question 4• 96.9% endorsed

• Question 5• 98.4% endorsed

2015-16• Question 1• 100% endorsed

• Question 2• 98.5% endorsed

• Question 3• 95.6% endorsed

• Question 4• 100% endorsed

• Question 5• 98.5% endorsed

RESULTS – HYPOTHESIS 1

• Hypothesis 1: Participants would predominately endorse that SWB increased their social self-efficacy

• Null hypothesis rejected

• For each of the five questions, more than 95 percent of respondents endorsed participating in SWB increased their social self-efficacy

RESULTS – HYPOTHESIS 2

• Hypothesis 2: Participating in SWB will increase students’ academic achievement

• Null hypothesis could not be rejected• No significant change was found in GPA between Fall and

Spring GPA for either school year

RESULTS – HYPOTHESIS 3

• Hypothesis 3: The amount of participation in SWB will predict academic achievement

• Null hypothesis could not be rejected

• The amount of participation was not shown to predict academic achievement for either school year

RESULTS – HYPOTHESIS 4

• Hypothesis 4: SWB participants will have higher academic achievement than the school as a whole

• Null hypothesis rejected

• 2014-15• SWB participants(M = 3.33) GPA was significantly higher

than the school-wide (M = 3.02) GPA (t[65] = 4.12, p = .000)• 2015-16• SWB participants(M = 3.25) GPA was significantly higher

than the school-wide (M = 3.11) GPA (t[90] = 2.01, p = .048)

ANCILLARY ANALYSES

• Ancillary analyses were conducted to determine• At what time points the GPAs of SWB participants was

higher than the school average• One sample t-test

• If participating students had fewer absences than the school as a whole• One sample t-test

• If the five-item subset chosen to represent social self-efficacy measured the same construct• Exploratory factor analysis

ANCILLARY ANALYSES - GPA

• Fall 2014 (M = 3.34) GPA and Spring 2015 (M = 3.28) GPA of SWB participants was higher than 2014/2015 school-wide GPA (M = 3.02); (t[65] = 4.02, p = .000; t[65] = 3.40, p = .001)

• Fall 2015 (M = 3.28) GPA of SWB participants was higher than 2015/2016 school-wide (M = 3.11) GPA (t[90] = 2.19, p = .031)• Spring 2016 GPA was not significantly different than the

school-wide GPA

ANCILLARY ANALYSES - ABSENCES

• 2014-15• Average absences (M = 4.35) of SWB participants was

significantly lower than school-wide (M = 9.90) average absences (t[65] = -10.36, p = .000)

• 2015-16• Average absences (M = 5.68) of SWB participants was

significantly lower than school-wide (M = 7.56) average absences (t[90] = -3.11, p = .003)

ANCILLARY ANALYSIS – FACTOR ANALYSIS

• 2014-15• A two-factor solution was found• “Because of SWB, I am better at working with other kids” was its

own factor• The other four items were a separate factor

• a = .71

• 2015-16• A one-factor solution was found• All items matching onto a single construct

• a = .66

ANCILLARY ANALYSIS – FACTOR ANALYSIS

Question 2014/2015 2015/2016 Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 1

Because of coming to Soccer Without Borders I am better at working with other kids

.983 .648

Because of coming to Soccer Without Borders I have made new friends

.912 .647

Because of coming to Soccer Without Borders I am more comfortable expressing myself

.577 .570

Because of coming to Soccer Without Borders I am better at listening to other people

.543 .484

Because of coming to Soccer Without Borders I have the chance be a leader

.299 .299

DISCUSSION

DISCUSSION

• SWB likely has a positive influence on the social self-efficacy of newcomer immigrant youth

• SWB participation may not be strongly related to changes in academic performance• May be due to the differences in comparing GPA across

two different semesters• May have been a ceiling on participants’ GPAs• Social self-efficacy is generally stable over time by the time

a person reaches college

Tsai et al., 2016

DISCUSSION

• SWB participation was not significantly related to academic achievement• This finding is counter to much of the previous research,

though the unique population may help explain this• It is consistent with one study that investigated number of

sporting events attended per week

DISCUSSION

• For both school years, the average GPA of SWB participants was significantly higher than the school-wide student body. • Suggests there may be some quality associated with SWB

participation that leads to higher academic achievement• Alternative explanation: extracurricular activities (such as

SWB) initially attract high achieving students• “Better academic adjustment evinced by students who

participate in school-based extracurricular activities are not the spurious result of the selection of better adjusted students into extracurricular activities”

• Instead, extracurricular participation aligns the students’ values to the schools’ values

DISCUSSION

• SWB participants had significantly fewer absences than the school as a whole

• Consistent with previous research showing:• Male athletes have lower rates of misconduct than non-

athlete males• Skipping school or cutting classes

• Sports participation may decrease the likelihood that disadvantaged males will drop out of high school

Miller et al., 2005; Eitle, 2005 55

LIMITATIONS

• Lack of empirically validated outcome measure or true control group• Difficult to make concrete claims about the effectiveness of

the program• Reliability coefficients are above or near the acceptable

threshold of .70

LIMITATIONS

• Use of self-report measure creates potential confounds• Highly subjective and is unable to be verified• Exacerbated by limited English proficiency of sample

• At least one portion of the EOY Questionnaire overlaps with nationally normed social self-efficacy and PYD measures

Nunnally, 1978; Sherer et al., 1982; Connolly, 1989; Arnold, Nott, & Meinhold, 2012; Lerner et al., 2005 57

LIMITATIONS

• Small and specific sample• Findings are likely not generalizable to the general

population, nor to the entire SWB program• Tells us a lot about immigrant male population• Diversity of the participants in terms of country of origin does

increase the generalizability to immigrant populations

LIMITATIONS

• Use of archival data• Little opportunity to explore other areas of research interest

that SWB may not have included in their past outcome measurements

• Archival data has its perks• Not influenced by presence of researchers• Minimizes organizational strain

Berg, 2004; Wong, 2012 59

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

• Focus on how school engagement/bonding may affect the relationship between extracurricular activity participation and academic achievement

• Use the qualitative section at the end of the EOY Questionnaire or conduct interviews with participants to assess what participants gain from the program in their own words

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

• Explore themes among the girls and boys SWB teams at multiple SWB sites

• Perform a multi-year study• Assess the utility of any new measures SWB chooses to add

to their data collection procedure• Track a group of participants to measure graduation rate

PROGRAM FEEDBACK AND SUGGESTIONS

• Add a pre-test that already has standardized norms for adolescents and use the same measure as a post-test

• Add data input from other sources such as teachers, parents/guardians, or SWB staff

• Add a measure that assesses Positive Youth Development

Ben,

Thank you so much for all your help, support, and patience throughout this process. Watching you work and interact with students always brought and smile to my face and drove home how much you care about all aspects of their development.

I look forward to working with you more in the future,

Sincerely,

Wil

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