French Revolution1789-1799

Significance in European HistoryThe French Revolution (17891799) was a period of radical social and political upheaval in French and European history. The absolute Monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years. French society underwent an epic transformation as feudal, aristocratic, and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from liberal political groups and the masses on the streets. Old ideas about hierarchy and tradition succumbed to new Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights.

CausesThe main factors were economic in nature including famine and malnutrition on account of rising food prices. There was also deliberate starvation in the most destitute parts.Another cause may have been France's near bankruptcy as a result of the many wars fought by Louis xv.The national debt amounted to almost two billion Livres. At the same time, the Roman Catholic Church, the largest land owner, levied an additional food crop tax, which further worsened the conditions for the poorest segment of the society.

Background ConditionsLouis XVI ascended to the throne amidst a financial crisis; the nation was nearing bankruptcy and outlays outpaced income.In 1776, Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed Director-General of Finance. He was not made a minister because he was a Protestant, and could not become a naturalized French citizen. Necker realized that the country's tax system subjected some to an unfair burden; numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy.He argued that the country could not be taxed higher, that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy should be removed, and proposed that borrowing would solve the country's fiscal problems.This was not received well by the King's ministers and Necker, hoping to solidify his position, argued to be accepted as a minister. The King refused, Necker was fired

National Assembly 1789The Estates-General was organized into three estates, respectively: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France.On 10 June 1789 Abb Sieys moved that the Third Estate, proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them.

The Tennis Court OathIn an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des tats where the Assembly met, making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days. Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting, so the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby indoor real tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailes.

SignificanceThe Oath signified the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI, and the National Assembly's refusal to back down forced the king to make concessions. The Oath also inspired a wide variety of revolutionary activity in the months afterwards, ranging from rioting across the French countryside to renewed calls for a written French constitution.Moreover, the Oath communicated in unambiguous fashion the idea that the deputies of the National Assembly were declaring themselves the supreme state power. From this point forward, Louis XVI would find the Crown increasingly unable to rest upon monarchical traditions of divine right.

National Constituent Assembly (17891791)

Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his support and guidance to the Third Estate.On 11 July 1789, after Necker suggested that the royal family live according to a budget to conserve funds, the King fired him, and completely reconstructed the finance ministry at the same time.Many Parisians presumed Louis's actions to be the start of a royal coup against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day. They were also afraid that arriving soldiersmostly foreigners under French service rather than native French troopshad been summoned to shut down the National Constituent Assembly. The Assembly, meeting at Versailles, went into nonstop session to prevent eviction from their meeting place once again. Paris was soon consumed with riots, chaos, and widespread looting.

Storming of the Bastille On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille Fortress, which was also perceived to be a symbol of monarchist tyranny. After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a cease fire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis Bernard De Launav was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city.

SignificanceAlthough the fortress had held only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behavior, and a murder suspect), the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the Ancien Regime. Returning to the city hall, the mob accused the mayor Jacques De Flesselles of treachery and he was shot.

ConsequencesThe King and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. La Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris.The King visited Paris, where, on 17 July he accepted a tricolour cockade, to cries of Vive la Nation [Long live the Nation] and Vive le Roi [Long live the King]. Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short-lived.

Working toward a constitution On 4 August 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism, in what is known as the August Decrees. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.On 26 August 1789, the Assembly published the Declaration Of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution.

Women's March on Versailles On 5 October 1789 crowds of women first marched to the City Hall, demanding that city officials address their concerns.7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them cannons and a variety of smaller weapons. The attacked the palace, killing several guards.On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris.

ChurchUnder the Ancien Regime, the Church had been the largest single landowner in the country, owning about 10 percent of the land in the kingdom. The Church was exempt from paying taxes to the government, however it levied a tithe- a 10% tax on income, often collected in the form of crops.The power and wealth of the Church was highly resented.

Royal flight to Varennes Louis XVI cast his lot with General Bouill, who condemned both the emigration and the Assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at Montmedy. On the night of 20 June 1791 the royal family fled the Palace wearing the clothes of servants.However, late the next day, the King was recognized and arrested at Varennes. He and his family were brought back to Paris under guard, still dressed as servants. When they reached Paris, the crowd remained silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the King. He and Queen Marie Antoinette remained held under guard.

War and Counter-Revolution (17921797) The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King wanted to wage war, as any result would have increased his power.France declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. By this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past.

Execution of Louis XVI Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population if it were to resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. This made Louis appear to be conspiring with the enemies of France. 17 January 1793 saw Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety. Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.

WarShocked at the royal executions, neutral countries joined the war against France.When war went badly, prices rose and the sans culottes poor labourers and radical Jacobins rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilizing public support.An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government.

EconomyWidespread shortages and famine ensued. The Committee reacted by sending dragoons into the countryside to arrest farmers and seize crops. This temporarily solved the problem in Paris, but the rest of the country suffered. By the spring of 1794, forced collection of food was not sufficient to feed even Paris and the days of the Committee were numbered.

Reign Of TerrorThe Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, a lawyer, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (17931794).On 13 July, the assassination of Jean Paul Marat a Jacobin leader and journalist known for his bloodthirsty rhetoric by a Girondin, resulted in further increase of Jacobin political influence.The revolt and its suppression (including both combat casualties and massacres and executions on both sides) are thought to have taken between 117 000 and 250 000 lives.

GuillotineThe guillotine became the symbol of a string of executions. Thousands were condemned to death, while the mob would beat others up.At the peak of the terror, the slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities could place one under suspicion.

White TerrorOn 27 July 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members.In the wake of excesses of the Terror, the Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on 22 August 1795, which lasted for 4 years.

End On 9 November 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte staged the Coup of 18 Brumaire which installed the Consulate.This effectively led to Bonaparte's dictatorship and eventually (in 1804) to his proclamation as emperor, which brought to a close the French Revolution.

Napoleon BonaparteNapoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 5 May 1821) was a military and political leader of France and Emperor, whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, the France under him engaged in a series of conflictsthe Napoleonic Warsinvolving every major European power. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 marked a turning point in Napoleon's fortunes. His army was badly damaged in the campaign and never fully recovered.