French Revolution

Liberty and EqualityLiberty and Equality• Political revolutionaries were fueled by the ideas of liberty and

equality

• Liberty was a call for human rightsLiberals protested governmental controls:a) an end to censorshipb) freedom of religionc) freedom of speech and expression

• Equality meant all citizens were equal with the nobility having no extra rights

• It was call for a new kind of government

• People were sovereign

• Liberals believed that men and women were not equal. Women should not have the same rights

• People were not economically equal

• Classic liberalism reflected the Enlightenmenta) human dignityb) human happiness

• Attracted the well-educated and rich

• Representative government did not mean democracy - because those who could vote would own property

• Liberalism lacked popular support:i) comfortable Liberals did not have to worry about foodii) traditional practices and institutions that the Liberals wanted to abolish were important to the peasants

• French Revolution was a direct consequence of the American Revolution, but it was more radical and more controversial.

• It opened a new era of politics

• Chateaubriand, “The patricians began the Revolution, the plebeians finished it”

Louis XVILouis XVI

• Old Regime (ancient regime)

• Absolute monarch

• Weak monarch

• Most of the debt held by the nobles

Marie AntionetteMarie Antionette

• Wife of Louis

• Sister of Austrian King Leopold II

• Older

• “Give them cake”

SOCIAL PROBLEMSSOCIAL PROBLEMS

The Estates GeneralThe Estates General• 25 million people divided into 3 Estates

• First Estate - Clergy - 300 seats

• Divided into:a) upper -bishops and abbots - sold offices - usually wealthyb) lower - priests - usually poor

• i) 10% of landii) paid “voluntary tax once every five years”iii) Could levy a 10% tithe on landowners

• Second Estate - Nobility- 300 seats• Nobility of the Sword - lineage• Nobility of the Robe - appointed offices

i) 400,000 noblemenii) owned 25% of landiii) labor dues (corvee)iv) could tax peasants for privileges, i.e. wine press or mill.v) supported the philosophes - but criticized by themvii) wanted a constitutional monarchy to limit the king

• Third Estate - The rest - 600 seatsi) The peasants, Middle Class, Urban workersii) some commoners were educated and rich - bourgeoisieiii) they wanted status which was not recognized through wealthiv) felt frustration with the second estatev) wanted positions in the church, government, and army open to the most qualified

FINANCIAL PROBLEMSFINANCIAL PROBLEMS

• Population• Debt• Food shortages• Inflation• Disease• Recession in textiles• Nobility demanded more power• The main cause of the revolution was the financial

problems:50% interest25% military6% Versailles

AGRARIAN PROBLEMSAGRARIAN PROBLEMS

• Four-fifths of the population were rural• Foreign trade had increased fivefold between

1713 and 1789• Consumer prices rose 65%; wages rose 22%

between 1730-80• But lord peasant relations were not master/man.• The participants were motivated by economic

distress

NATIONAL ASSEMBLYNATIONAL ASSEMBLY

• Louis’ minister of finance proposed a general tax on all landed people, he persuaded the king to call an Assembly of Notables in 1787

• The Assembly promised support if the provincial assemblies could control spending

• The king dismissed the Assembly of Notables and tried to reassert his authority

• Parliament declared the king’s power null

• In July 1788 Louis was forced to call the Estates General first time since 1614- absolutism was collapsing

• People started to elect representatives and organize their demands

• Two-thirds of the clergy delegates were commoners by birth; one-third of the nobility were committed to liberalism; but no delegates were actually poor.

• The Estates wanted:a) absolutism to give way to constitutional monarchyb) liberties would have to be guaranteed

• But how would they vote?• The old system virtually guaranteed control by the first and

second estates• The government “doubled” the Third Estate but still

useless as long as they voted as estates.• Abbé Sieyès wrote, “What is the Third estate?”• May 1789 the Estates General met at Versailles• June 13, delegates from the Third Estates refused to

transact business, a few clergy moved into the Third Estate• June 17 Third Estate became the National Assembly

Tennis Court OathTennis Court Oath• Moved to an indoor tennis court and

pledged not to disband until they had written a new constitution

• Louis allied with the nobility

• The king moved the army to Versailles and dismissed the Liberals

The BastilleThe Bastille

• By 1789 almost half the people needed relief• July 14 1789• Symbol of power• 7 prisoners• Turned a

political event into revolution

• Great Fear

• August 1789• “All men are born

free and equal”• Natural rights: liberty, property,

security freedom from oppression,innocent until proved

• Didn’t guarantee economic equality• October 1789 7,000 women marched to Versailles to

protest the price of bread.• King, queen and National Assembly taken to Paris

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• The National Assembly passed major reforms• July 1790, Louis agreed to a constitutional monarchy.• New laws increased opportunities for women, but still no vote.• Reorganized the provinces into 83 departments• Weights and measures were standardized (metric), guild

restrictions lifted.• Abolition of special privileges for the nobility• Wrote a constitution which limited the monarchy• Torture was abolished, citizen juries introduced, sale of offices was

abolished

• Customs tax on internally transported goods was lifted• The government used assignats as paper currency• Subordinated the church to the state• The clergy was required to take an oath of loyalty to the

state. Only half did.• The Assembly declared the Revolution over!• Louis made several concessions to the Assembly but he

never intended to keep them• The people still loved the king and blamed his ministers for

the problems

• But in June 1791 Louis and his family had tried to escape to Austria, “flight to Varennes” (Leopold was Marie’s brother)

• Louis was captured at Varennes and returned to Paris

• August 1791, Declaration of Pillnitz - Austria and Prussia to show support for the king “if”

• Political clubs take over the Assembly

• By September 1791 the National Assembly announced its work completed, Louis accepted the constitution.

• By 1792 the Revolution had turned radical because of:a) a counter revolution led by the king, church, and Catholic peasantsb) economic, social, and political discontent among the peasants, artisans, and wage earners (sans-culottes)

• In April 1792 France declared war on Austria

• July 25, Brunswick Manifesto: Austria and Prussia promise revenge if the monarch is hurt

• Prussia joined Austria to create the First Coalition

• The French were easily defeated, but the leaders of the Coalition argued amongst themselves

• Gradually the French the gained the upperhand and a wave of patriotism swept the country

The Second RevolutionThe Second Revolution• The sans-culottes insisted it was the duty of the

government to protect them

• Wanted the government to increase wages, fix prices, and end shortages

• They wanted to prevent extremes of wealth

• Wanted a democratic republic liked the ideas of Thomas Paine

• In August 1792 they attacked the palace and killed several hundred guards

• The second phase was much more radical

• By September Paris was in turmoil

• “September Massacres” slaughtered prison inmates

• On September 1st, 1792 France was declared a Republic

• The king was imprisoned and tried in December - executed by one vote

• After the execution the Assembly became the National Convention

• British Prime Minister Pitt said France had to leave Belgium

• Problems stopped them from being successful

• February 1, 1793 France declares war on Britain, Holland, Austria, and Prussia (later Spain)

• Members of the National Convention were republican and Jacobins

• Jacobins divided into two groups: Girondists from western France, and the Mountain led by Robespierre and Danton

• Both advocated war

• In the spring France was pushed from Belgium

National Constitutional Convention

National Constitutional Convention

• Republican armies captured Nice, invaded the Rhineland and occupied Austrian Netherlands

• Girondists and Mountainist became very suspicious of each other

• May 31 1793, the Commune, under sans-culottes pressure, has the Girondists arrested

• Sans-culotte emerge as the most powerful group in Paris

• Robespierre (disciple of Rousseau) formed the Committee of Public Safety to ensure success of the revolution

• Mandated economic controls, but too weak to enforce, except the price of bread

• Nationalized the war effort• Arrested thousands of suspected counter-revolutionaries• Robespierre wanted to create a Republic of Virtue• To ensure his ideals he implemented the Reign of Terror

(1793-4)

Reign of TerrorReign of Terror

• Leaders of the Girondins were executed including Danton

• Revolutionary courts tried enemies of the state

• Dictatorship

• 40,000 executed, 300,000 imprisoned

• Levée en masse

• Abolished feudalism

• Robespierre tried to dechristianize the country• New calendar with no Christian holidays or

Sundays - Sept. 1, 1792 was day one, year one.• Each month had 30 days, with 10 day weeks• June 1794 Robespierre introduced the cult of the

Supreme Being in which the Republic acknowledged the existence of God

• Alienated Catholics

Marie AntoinetteMarie Antoinette

• Beheaded Oct. 16• “Terror is the order of the day”• 1794 French armies successful on all fronts• 1795 Spain and Prussia quit• 1796 Austria quit leaving only Britain

Thermidorean ReactionThermidorean Reaction• Robespierre wanted an ideal democratic republic without rich or

poor• Through despotism and the guillotine he eliminated all opposition• Robespierre was arrested by the Convention and executed (July

28, 1794) by fearful middle class who really benefited from his removal

• Inflation increased, self-indulgence increased, people turned to religion

• National Convention abolished economic controls and wrote a new constitution

The DirectoryThe Directory• 1795 leadership passed to five Directors, but same old

leaders - people who had survived - dominated by bourgeoisie

• Lowered prices; alleviated hunger; reorganized the tax system; won military victories; wrote a constitution which incorporated Belgium

• Faced revolts from the left - “Gracchus” Babeuf and the “conspiracy of equals”from the monarchists - Barthelemy and Carnot

• 1795 Louis “XVII” died, the Count de Provance claimed to be Louis “XVIII”

• Declaration of Verona:a) restore the Old Regime b) return all confiscated landc) restore old privileges, taxes, and dues

• 18 Fructidor (Sept 4, 1797) three Directors occupy Paris and stage a coup

• They annulled the elections, imposed censorship, and exiled troublemakers

• Napoleon sent deputy to Paris to ensure the success of the coup

Napoleon BonaparteNapoleon Bonaparte

• March 1795 France signed a treaty with Prussia• June Spain dropped out of the coalition• Napoleon had sweeping success in Italy• April 1796 defeated the Austrians at Millesimo• The British had problems: social unrest, rebellion in

Ireland, cost of the war, naval mutinies and started talks with the French

• The French demanded more concessions and talk stopped

• October 1797 the Hapsburgs signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, which left only Britain at war

• November 1797 Napoleon returned to Paris a hero, and planned to invade Britain

• He persuaded the Directory to let him invade Egypt to cut Britain off from India

• August 1, 1798 Admiral Nelson annihilated the French fleet at Abukir

• In Egypt he lost to the British but kept his reputation• Dec. 1798, Tsar Paul I signed with Britain to create the Second

Coalition, later Austria and the Ottomans joined

• May 1799 Sieyes was elected a Director and started to plot against the government

• “confidence from below, power from above”• In October Napoleon appeared on French soil• 18 Brumaire Napoleon led a coup and almost messed

up the coup saved only by his brother Lucien• By December the Consulate ran the country and

Napoleon was in charge

The ConsulateThe Consulate

• Napoleon offered King George III peace but Britain refused to negotiate

• June 1800 at Marengo he crushed the Austrians • 1801 Treaty of Luneville expanded French control over

Italy and western Germany • 1802 Peace Amiens with Britain restored peace to Europe• Napoleon could now focus on France• Created a new administrative system run by prefects• Wanted peace with the Catholic Church

The Concordat of 1801The Concordat of 1801• Pope recognized the sale of church land and the govts.

right to appoint bishops• Pope gained an acknowledgment of catholicism as the

main religion of France - but not state religion• Church was allowed to hold services• State pays salaries• 1802 Organic Acts stated the state was supreme over

the church• May have been the height of Napoleon’s career

• 1800 Bank of France created• 1801 government discusses Civil Codes• 1802 educational reform• 1802 issues amnesty to émigrés

a) swear an oath of loyaltyb) had no claim on lost property

• Old Regime was dead and most very happy• Consulate suggested Napoleon be made consul for life - 3,568,885 to

8,374• Napoleon created the Legion of Honor headed by himself - with

pay and privileges for a selected few - despite Constituent Assembly

• Napoleon becomes involved with Switzerland• May 1803 Britain declares war on France• French troops prepare to invade Britain, sold Louisiana to gain

money (15c an acre) • Napoleon makes himself Emperor• Made himself consul with a lie, emperor with a murder• December 1800 assassination attempt• Duke d’Enghien the chief suspect• Fouché rounds up all suspects• May 1804 Senate declare him “First Consul of the Republic”

became Napoleon I

• Civil Code of 1804 reasserted two principles of the Revolution:a) equality for all male citizensb) absolute security for wealth and property

• Very rationalistic:strengthened laws on property, religious toleration, equality before the law for all- except women, strengthened the rights of employers

• Dec. 1804 Pope Pius VII at Notre Dame Cathedral, attempts to crown Napoleon

• Napoleon crowns himself• 1807 the Civil Codes became the Napoleonic Codes

• Alexander I of Russia sees himself as Napoleon’s eastern counterpart

• August 1805 Russia, Austria, Britain form the Third Coalition• At Ulm Napoleon defeats the Austrians but lost French-Spanish

fleet at Trafalgar• Defeated Austria at Austerlitz (favorite victory)• Treaty of Pressburg with Austria gave him full sovereignty over

Italy• 1806 forms the Confederation of the Rhine and disolves the Holy

Roman Empire• 1806 Prussia joins the war against France

• Battles of Jena and Auerstädt, Prussia easily defeated

• “nation of shopkeepers”

• 1806 Berlin Decree closed continental ports to British ships

• 1807 Milan Decree - ships not complying would be treated as hostile

• President Jefferson - passes the Embargo Acts

Peninsular WarPeninsular War

• 1808 Napoleon forced the king of Spain to abdicate - Joseph becomes king

• Civil uprising forces Joseph to flee and Nap. has to send and army to help Joseph

• Nap. found himself in a guerrilla war against Spain (supported by Britain)

• Wellesley (Wellington) drove the French from Portugal• 1813 Napoleon forced from Spain• “It was the Spanish ulcer that ruined me”

• Friedland French defeated the Russians• Tsar signs the Treaty of Tilsit, Prussia lost half her

population and Russia accepted Napoleon’s control of Europe and promised to help blockade Britain

• Napoleon’s empire had three parts:i) The core - Franceii) dependent satellite kingdomsiii) independent, but allied states

• 1809 Austria rose against France but crushed at Battle of Wagram - Treaty of Schonbrunn

• But neither Russia nor France trusted the other• France had occupied Holland and not helped Russia fight the

Ottomans• Napoleon blamed Russia for the failure of the Continental System• June 24 1812 the Grande Armee invades Russia• Battle of Borodino, France win costly victory• September 14 he occupies Moscow• Five weeks later he retreats to France, only about 30,000 men

escaped• Prussia deserts France to join the Russians

• Austria joins the Grand Alliance - subsidized with British money

• Battle of the Nations France is defeated• Talks start about abdication• Allies could not all agree on terms• Problem was:

a) future of Napoleonb) borders of France

• Nov. 1813 Frankfort Proposals were drawn up by Prussia, Russia, Austria, and agreed to by Britain: a)France would return to her natural borders; b) Napoleon would still be emperor; c) Prussia would be compensated

• Napoleon wanted better terms - so allies refused• March 9, 1814 Treaty of Chaumont created the Quadruple

Alliance to last for 20 years• Napoleon offered the Island of Elba• Napoleon was allowed to keep his title and a pension of 2m.

francs a year• The allies wanted to restore the Bourbon monarchy

• May 3 Napoleon abdicated, Louis XVIII became king of a constitutional monarchy

• May 30 “first’ Peace of Paris signed with plans for Congress in Vienna in September

The Hundred DaysThe Hundred Days

Congress of ViennaCongress of Vienna

• a) Not punish France - make sure she could not wage war againb) Restore the balance of power - no one dominatesc) Compensation -States should be compensated for the loss of land or peopled) Legitimacy - restore the monarchs that ruled prior to Napoleon, if possiblee) Victors should be rewarded

• Prince Karl von Metternich of Austria was in chargehe believed in conservatism not liberalism

• Quadruple Alliance - Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia agreed to meet to review the situation

• March 1, 1815 Napoleon re-enters France

• But not overwhelming support

• Napoleon invaded Belgium

• At Waterloo he met the Duke of Wellington and was defeated

• “Second” Treaty of Paris - much harshera) borders would the same as 1790b) indemnity of 700 million francsc) 150,000 troops occupy France for 3 to 5 yearsd) renewed the Quadruple Alliance

• Napoleon exiled to St. Helena • Russia persuaded Austria and Prussia to form the

Holy Alliance to rule under Christian principles• Quadruple Alliance later admitted France

Congress of ViennaCongress of Vienna

• One of the 4 great treaties of modern historya) Westphalia - 1648b) Utrecht - 1713c) Congress of Vienna - 1815d) Peace of Paris - 1919

• No European war until 1850s - Crimean• No major war until 1914• Until 1815 economic and political revolutions were usually

separate• After 1815 they fused into the “dual revolution” (Eric

Hobsbawn)

• 1814 Treaty of Chaumont - initial meeting of the Great Powers

• Created Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain) i. Remain united until France defeated and then for another 20 yearsii. Each pledged 150,000 meniii. Britain pledged £5m

• First Treaty of Paris 1814 was VERY lenient towards France - a devastated France would cause more problems for Europe

• Allies were motivated by:a) self-interestb) balance of powerc) legitimacy

• Balance of power meant military and political equilibrium - so no one country gains an advantage

• Legitimacy means restoring the monarchy• Austria - Metternich

Great Britain - CastlereaghRussia - Tsar AlexanderPrussia - William III

• a)France keeps 1792 borders (not 1789)b) Few colonial possessionsc) No reparationsd) Restore Bourbon monarchy e) France keeps war treasures

• But:a) Belgium and Holland unitedb) Prussia gained more land to the east

• Issue of territory would not be discussed until the Congress in the Fall

• Great Britain won coloniesAustria gave up Belgium but expanded into northern Italy and the AdriaticRussia had already taken Finland and Bessarabia - wanted Poland which would include parts of Prussia and AustriaPrussia was willing to agree to Poland if they could take Saxony

• But these demands were too much for Castlereagh and Metternich they feared a strong Russia

• January 1815, Austria, Great Britain, and France signed a secret agreement against Russia and Prussia

• Fear of war caused Russia and Prussia to reduce their demands

The CongressThe Congress• All countries involved in the war were invited - but

territorial decisions were only made by the Great Powers

• Tsar Alexander wanted a significant role because he felt more important

• Main focus was equilibrium - restoring the legitimate monarchs

• Castlereagh wanted to be the honest mediator• Von Hardenburg of Prussia was deaf• France was also invited - Talleyrand

• Poland became independent• Prussia got some German states and 40% of Saxony• Austria got northern Italian states• Russia got the Duchy of Warsaw• France was surrounded by Netherlands, German

Confederation including part of Austria and Prussia, Switzerland, and Spain ruled by Ferdinand VII (a Bourbon)

• Napoleon’s return did not alter the territory, but the conditions for France

• Second Treaty of Parisa) Fat old Louis XVIII restored againb) France lost territory - 1790c) Indemnity of 700 million francsd) Army of occupation (150,000) for five years

• The Quadruple Alliance agreed to meet periodically to discuss events

• Marked the start of the European “congress system”

• 1815 Austria, Prussia, and Russia create the Holy Alliance against the dual revolution based on Christian principles, to lend support to protect religion, peace, and justice

• Austria was both a German state and the most important province in an empire of many nationalities

• Germany was the main language• The Habsburgs needed the German middle-class to support him• Metternich kept the Magyar nobles loyal by fear of a lower-class

uprising• Prussia and Austria both feared Russia, especially in the Balkans• Britain gradually withdrew from European affairs