GCSE Geography Support Booklet

Population Dynamics

The world’s population was increasing exponentially (doubling i.e. it was growing extremely quickly).

World population growth has now slowed down. There are lots of reasons for this. People all around the

world now have less children because contraception is widely available, less people need children to work on

the land, better health care and vaccination programmes means that infant mortality rate is lower i.e. fewer

children die so families don’t need to have as many.

It is difficult to predict future population growth as there are many things that could influence it. New

medicines will mean less people die – this could mean an increase in population.

A new disease might develop with could mean a decrease in population (e.g. impact of AIDS in Africa).

A war may break out which would mean a decrease in population.

Definitions: These will all affect population growth

Birth rate: the number of births per 1000 people per year

Death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people per year

Infant mortality rate: the number of babies that die before the age of 1 per 1000 per year.

Life expectancy: Average number of years a person might be expected to live.

Immigrants: people who move into a country

Emigrants: people who leave/move out of a country

The Demographic Transition Model

The DTM shows how birth rates and death rates change as a country develops.

As a country develops and has more money it is able to invest in health care. This means that less people die

and the death rate decreases. As less children die people will have less children so birth rate will then fall. At

this time less children are needed to work also another reason for a lower birth rate. Eventually in a

developed country like the UK both the birth rate and death rate are low.

In some countries the birth rate has fallen below the death rate and this is a problem as there will be lots of

old people but not many young people. This is an ageing population and there may not be enough people to

work.

Population Structures, Population Pyramid

Population Pyramids show the structure of a population – it shows age groups and gender (male/female).

The overall shape of the pyramid tells us about the balances between the different age groups and between

males and females.

A Population at stage 2 of the DTM has a youthful population. It will have lots of children as there is a high

birth rate = it will have a wide base. The pyramid will drop off quickly – the numbers will decrease with each

age group as there is a high death rate. As there a few elderly as life expectancy is low it will have a narrow

top (apex)

A population at stage 5 of the DTM has an ageing population. This means that the base will be narrow as

there is a low birth rate (there are few children). The pyramid will be ‘top-heavy’ – it will be wider at the top

as there is a high % of elderly people.

Things that can affect population structures:

Mali Japan

Economic growth

As Mali has become wealthier the birth rate has slowed as there is better health care so less children are dying.

Japan is a very wealthy country. When there is economic growth in a country i.e. it becomes more developed women tend to choose to have less children as they are expensive and more women have careers.

Migration

Many Malian men migrate south towards west Africa looking for work – so there are more women than men.

There is limited migration into the country which is one of the reasons why it has such an aging population. If there were more immigrants this would mean more economically active people.

Conflict

There are far few men that women aged 80+ due to WW2

Demographic Factors

Better health care means a lower death rate and a lower birth rate as more children survive

Good health care means a high life expectancy.

Why do some countries have an ageing population? Example: UK or Japan

Improvements in medical facilities have increased life expectancy.

Improvements in quality of life e.g. diet, exercise etc. have increased life expectancy

Decrease in birth rate – children expensive, women have careers etc.

Why is it a problem to have an ageing population?

There might not be enough people to work. If jobs are not filled = economic decline

There are not enough people to pay taxes. It is these taxes that support the dependent population.

Pressure to provide pensions.

Pensioners need care homes, meals on wheels etc.

Pressure on the NHS / health system.

Why do some countries have a youthful population? Example: Mali

Children still needed to work on land

Lack of contraception

Many young adults in the population having children

Why is it a problem to have a youthful population?

There will be pressure on resources e.g. food, firewood

Need to provide education and healthcare for the large numbers of children.

Not enough schools are available.

Could lead to rapid growth in cities and people living in shanty towns.

It will result in a rapidly growing population as when this generation reach child bearing age there will be

even more children.

The pressure on resources could lead to conflict.

Population Management

Governments may need to introduce policies to manage their populations. Governments want to have a

sustainable population / optimum population when population and resources are perfectly balanced e.g.

there is enough food, energy, space, jobs and housing for everyone without damaging the environment.

Why do governments need to manage their populations?

If a country is underpopulated there may not be enough people to work and pay taxes.

They may not be able to provide all the services needed in a country. The may not be able to exploit all their

resources. This is often the result of an ageing population.

If a country is overpopulated there will be pressure on resources such as food, energy, jobs, housing as there

will be too many people. This is often a youthful population which is rapidly growing.

Governments can manage their populations through trying to control birth rates or through controlling

migration.

Types of policies:

1. Pro-natalist = encouraging people to have more children.

Singapore 3 or more (if you can afford it)

Couples are given incentives to have more children:

Tax rebates for the third child and subsequent children

Cheap nurseries

Priority for best school places

Spacious apartments.

Pregnant women offered counselling to discourage abortions.

2. Anti-natalist = discouraging people from having children

China’s one-child policy

Introduced in 1979 –

Each couple were only allowed one child.

Those who had more than one child were penalised

Couples with only one child given a ‘one-child certificate entitling them to benefits such as cash

bonuses, longer maternity leave, better childcare, better access to housing.

Unmarried young people were persuaded to postpone marriage

Some women were forced to have abortions

Couples with more than one child were forced to be sterilised.

Was the policy successful?

The birth rate fell from 34 per 1,000 in 1970 to 13 per 1,000 in 2008

Population growth slowed down from 2.4% to 0.6%

Chinese tradition prefers sons – there has been selective abortions i.e. aborting girls. This has led to

there being more males than females, now 120 males to 100 females. A consequences of this is bride

kidnapping.

There are human rights issues – including babies being murdered in front of their parents.

There is a culture of ‘spoilt little emperors’

Migration policies

Governments may wish to:

Promote immigration if the country is underpopulated and they need more workers

Reduce immigration if the country is becoming overpopulated and there is a strain on resources, e.g. high

unemployment, lack of housing, not enough school places.

Ways to manage migration:

1. Open door policy

This is when a country allows the free admission of immigrants

This happened in the UK after the war when the British government encouraged migrants from colonies e.g.

the Caribbean. (1950-1960s ¼ million people came from the Caribbean).

The migrants filled jobs and helped rebuild the country after the war.

By the 1970’s the UK had more than enough labour, and controls were introduced to reduce the migrant

arrivals.

Positives: Help rebuild the country and met the shortage of labour

Negatives: Public money spent on meeting the needs of the immigrants e.g. housing, schools

When we went into a recession in the 1970’s the immigrants were an extra burden on employment.

2. Point based system

In 2008 the UK introduced this system. If you wish to come and work to settle down you need to gain a

certain amount of points. There are 5 tiers of migrants. Tier one has highly skilled workers such as scientists,

down to Tier five who are temporary workers e.g. musicians playing in a concert. This means that scientists

and highly skilled people eg doctors are more likely to be allowed into the UK where there is a skills shortage.

There may be a set quota for the number of migrants allowed in the country each year.

Impacts of migration

Positive Negative

They do jobs and add to the economy They often do the low paid jobs They pay taxes They create a dynamic and mixed culture

Tensions arise Hostility towards immigrants and discrimination Riots They became separated in ‘Ghettos’ – often in poor quality housing

Topic 2: Consuming Resources

Resources are things that people use and need.

There are 2 types of resources:

Natural – parts of the environment e.g. minerals, soil

Human – properties of a population e.g. technology, skills

These resources can be classified in a number of ways:

1. Availability

Non- renewable = cannot be ‘remade’ as it would take millions of years for them for form again e.g. coal, oil

Renewable = resources that can be maintained my management e.g. forests

Sustainable = resources that can be renewed if we act to replace them as we use them e.g. wood.

2. Type

Energy – coal, oil

Mineral – iron ore

Physical – wind, sunlight

Biological – timber

Supply and consumption

The supply (availability) and consumption (how much is being used) of resources have changed and will

change over time.

Things that may affect the supply:

A resource may run out e.g. oil

A new supply of a resource may be found e.g. North Sea Oil

Technology may improve which means a resource that a country was unable to actual

get may become available.

Things that may affect consumption:

As a country develops it may use more resources for instance more people own cars, more

people use electricity, e.g. China and India

As the population grows in a country so will its use of resources.

If there is a war in a country it may affect the country’s ability to import resources.

There are differences in the global supply and global consumption of oil (non-renewable energy) and wind

(renewable energy)

Why are there variations in the global supply

Why are there variations in the global consumption

Oil Can only supply it if you have the technology to extract it (get it) If the environment is extreme it will be difficult to get Oil supply has increased where more has been discovered e.g. Tarsands in Canada

Depends on wealth of country Dependence of use of the car High standard of living = air-conditioning, heating etc. Low petrol prices = encourage more people to use it. Rapid industrialisation (more industry to use energy) e.g. China

Wind If technology and money available to build turbines will be able to use more wind energy If the environment suitable i.e. is there enough wind?

Does the country need to use wind energy – is it running out of other resources?

How will international relations affect the supply and consumption of wind and oil?

Russia has large reserves of fossil fuels, however it is an unstable country and this is worrying. The

UK will rely more on Russia as North Sea Oil decreases. The UK opened talks in 2000 to try and

guarantee access to Russian Gas Supply.

In the UK the government worry about our need to import fossil fuels. The government is increasing

turning to renewable energy sources such as wind power.

Theories about population and resources

Malthus and Boserup put forward different theories about the relationship between population and

resources. Malthus was pessimistic. Boserup was optimistic.

There is evidence for each theory:

The challenges for the future:

What is sustainable development?

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising (limiting) the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs.

National and local governments have attempted to manage resource consumption (the amount of resources

used) through education, conservation and recycling.

How can we reduce resource consumption?

Use farmers markets – buy food that is produced locally. This food has travelled less distance and

may have a lower carbon footprint.

Encourage people to cycle instead of using cars – reduces car pollution and CO2 emissions.

Encourage people to reuse and recycle. This means materials are saved and used again. Up-cycling is

becoming more popular.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using renewable energy (e.g. solar)?

It may be unlimited

It is environmentally friendly i.e. minimal carbon emissions

As technology improves so does production

Because weather is constantly changing it may be difficult to maintain a constant supply

Current production is small

It may be quite expensive to produce.

Can technology solve out resource problems? e.g. Hydrogen Economy

Some people think that technology will help our resource concerns and enable us to produce new and

efficient energy resources.

Use hydrogen in a fuel cell to create power.

This involves electrolysis – splitting water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen

Clean technology

Only by-product is water

However you need lots of electricity for electrolysis – where will this come from?

Topic 3: Globalisation

Globalisation is the process in which the world’s countries are all becoming part of one vast global

economy i.e. countries in the world are increasingly working together, trading more etc.

Employment Sectors

There are 4 employment (job) sectors

Primary = working with natural resources e.g. fishing, farming

Secondary = making things e.g. Manufacturing (working in a car factory) construction (building a house)

Tertiary = providing a service e.g. teachers, doctors, working in a shop

Quaternary = research/hi-tech e.g. biotechnology

The employment sector of a country means how the workforce is divided up between the main sectors. The

importance of each sector changes over time and is different in different countries.

The Clark-Fisher Model

The model shows how employment sectors may change over time as a country develops.

Pre-industrial Most people work in the primary sector e.g. farming. This will be LEDC’s e.g. Ethiopia Industrial As a country develops the secondary and tertiary sector increase in importance. More people are working in factories and less in farming. E.g. China Post-industrial The tertiary sector becomes the most important sector. Some people start to work in the Quaternary sector e.g. UK.

Working conditions vary in countries at different stages of development A developing country e.g. Ethiopia

Most people work in agriculture

Long hours

Difficult physical conditions

Barely grow enough food for themselves and their family

A small number of jobs in the secondary sector – poorly paid mainly done by men.

Some people in informal sector – this involves people creating work for themselves e.g. selling goods

on the streets.

A Newly Industrialised Country (this is a country that has rapidly developed recently) e.g. China

Many people work in factories

Long hours

Unpleasant and unsafe environments

Earn more than in farming

Lots of people moving to the city where the work is.

People in mining – many accidents as little health and safety

More jobs in services – long hours but a more pleasant and safe environment.

A developed country e.g. UK

Manufacturing jobs will be in clean hi-tech factories

Working conditions

Good

Strict health and safety regulations

Fair wages – there is a minimum wage

No discrimination

More people able to work from home.

Global institutions help to create a more global economy:

World Trade Organisation – sets rules of trade between countries

International Monetary Fund – tries to reduce poverty. Provides funds to countries e.g. to help

improve infrastructure. Provides advice and aid to countries

Transnational Corporations – Companies that operate in more than one country e.g. Nike, Tesco,

Coca-Cola.

What is the impact of globalisation on different groups of people?

MEDC

Men Some men have had to re-skill More self employment and working from home Well paid and good working conditions

Women More women in workforce as more flexible working hours. More part-time work. Some women still do not have equal pay to men

LEDC

Men Learning new skills. Employed in manufacturing and services. More opportunities to get a salary Men may migrate to city May be in the informal sector Often poor working conditions

Women More opportunity to work May have less children May be exploited Unsafe working environment Left by men in rural areas to work the land

Child labour

In the last 50 years international trade has increased significantly. Why?

Foreign Direct Investment: This is when a business from one country invests money in a company in another

country, or builds its own factory or office in another country. FDI has grown as the world has become more

globalised.

A good example of FDI is China investing into Africa. China needs oil and mineral resources and it is trying to

find new sources of these. Therefore they are investing in Africa to find these resources. They also need to

improve the infrastructure in countries in Africa (roads, rail etc) so they can export the materials back to

China.

What has enable trade and FDI to increase?

1. Lower transport costs. It is now much cheaper and quicker to transport goods around the world e.g.

container ships can carry huge volume of goods, cheaply.

2. Growth of TNC’s. Because there are now lots of TNC’s operating all over the world, they are

increasing the movement of goods around the world. TNC’s will often have their headquarters in one

country and manufacture their goods in a number of different countries e.g. Nike

3. Mergers – this is when one company combines with another company e.g. Disney and Pixar, Orange

and T-Mobile = EE.

4. State-led investment – when a government of one country invests into another country.

Improvements in technology have been key in allowing globalisation e.g. internet – this allows people to

communicate instantly wherever they are in the world.

We have seen a ‘global shift’ in industry and services. This means that economic activities (and jobs) have

moved from developed to developing countries.

A TNC in the secondary sector (manufacturing) = Nike

Why does it operate in different parts of the world?

Headquarters – Oregon USA. Why?

Skilled and educated workforce

Latest technology available

State of the art offices which attract the best people!

Manufacturing – Cambodia. Why

Can pay workers lower wages

Limited health and safety regulations in place = cheaper to run the factory

Limited environmental controls – cheaper to run factory as don’t have to deal with waster

etc.

Workers have few rights.

Able to use the raw materials from these countries.

A TNC in the tertiary sector (services) = Tesco

How does it operate in different parts of the world?

It is the largest food retailer in the UK and the third largest retailer in the world.

One of the reasons for its success is that it diversified into new markets (i.e. didn’t just stick with

food but starting selling other products like clothes, toys, home products)

It now has 6,000 stores and employs over 500,000 people in 14 countries.

It opened its first supermarkets abroad in the 1990’s in Eastern Europe e.g. Hungary.

In 1998 it opened stores in Taiwan and Thailand. It then spread throughout Asia – China, Japan.

Today 60% of its profits come from Asia – it is successful because it has moved into Asia which is a

rapidly growing market both in terms of growing population and growing economy – people are

becoming richer and have more to spend.

It is successful because it has a clear brand image – you would recognise Tesco’s wherever you are in

the world (a bit like McDonalds)

It is also successful because it has products that it sells in all its stores – but it has also introduced

products in particular countries that reflect the diets and taste of the host country – gloclaisation.

It also outsources its products from other countries – i.e. products for Tesco’s are made all around

the world – this way they are able to get products cheaper.

Topic 4 Development Dilemmas

Development: Economic and Social progress that leads to an improvement in the quality of life for an

increasing proportion of the population.

Development can be measured in a number of ways:

Economic development – the progress made by a country or area creating wealth through business, industry

and trade.

Social development – the progress made by a country in terms of improving the lives of people.

Measures of development:

Gross Domestic Product – money made within a country in a year divided by the number of people.

There is data available to do this but it hides gaps between the rich and poor.

Human Development Index (HDI) considers GDP, literacy rates and life expectancy. This is good as it

covers a wide range of factors but again does not consider differences within a country i.e. there

may be some very rich and some living in poverty.

Political Freedom – measures political rights and freedom i.e. freedom to vote – it is based on

Western ideas of ‘freedom’. Political freedom is hard to measure. Some countries e.g. in Middle East

are very wealthy but have little political freedom.

The development gap.

A development gap exists in the world – the gap between rich nations (those that have) and poor nations

(the have nots)

The gap has widened since 1980 i.e. there is now a bigger difference between the rich and poor. Incomes in

MEDC’s and the Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan) have rapidly increased,

whereas growth has been much slower in the rest of the world.

Development has rapidly occurred in China and India. There has been little progress in some African

countries such as Ethiopia.

The richest 1% of people have as much money as the poorest 50%!

For one developing country in sub-Saharan Africa, consider recent social, political and economic

development.

Case Study: Uganda

Development / progress made:

Spending on healthcare has increased by 70%

Spending on education has increased by 40%. It is likely that all children will receive a primary

education in the upcoming years.

Large reserves of oil have been discovered which could earn Uganda an extra US $2billion a year.

Barriers to future progress:

Gender inequality – teenage girls often drop out of education to marry young. This means that the

birth rate is still high and the youthful population will grow.

87% of the population live in rural areas based on agriculture. Transport from these areas is difficult

and slow – it is difficult to get crops to the city to sell.

Political corruption means the money doesn’t always get to the people to help them.

The youthful population is a burden on the country.

There is a high % of people with HIV and Aids which is a burden on the country.

Why do countries develop over time?

We can use theories to try and explain why countries develop over time

In the 1960’s and economic model was proposed by Rostow. He suggested that all countries would

develop in a series of stages based on what happened in countries like UK and USA.

He suggested that countries would go through 5 stages:

1. Traditional Society Based on subsistence; farming, fishing, forestry.

2. Pre-conditions for take-off Building infrastructure (roads/rail etc)

3. Take-off Rapid growth of manufacturing industries.

4. Drive to maturity Technology improves, older industry is replaced

5. High mass consumption People have more money so buy more services and goods

There are some problems with the Rostow model:

It is based on European countries and assumes all countries will develop in the same way.

Not all countries’ have the resources to enable them to develop.

The dependency theory

Many people did not agree with the Rostow model as it is based on Western society. New models

emerged. One of these was the dependency theory which suggested that low levels of development

in poorer countries results from control of the world economy by richer countries. This is based on

the idea that the rich countries exploit the poor i.e. they get cheap resources / cheap labour.

It states than unequal development is reinforced / maintained through unbalanced trade (poor

countries sell cheaply but buy expensive goods), poor countries having to repay debts.

Core and Periphery.

There are often different levels of development within a country.

The ‘rich core’ is based on urban areas where there is the majority of people, jobs, business

and industry.

The ‘poor periphery’ often remote countryside and mainly involved in primary industry e.g.

farming.

There is a clear core-periphery in Brazil:

Core

In the south-east of the country

Sao Paulo

Rio de Janeiro

Hospitable climate

Access to ports for trading

Good road and rail networks

Fertile soil for farming

This area has attracted people (rural-urban migration) and many TNC’s

Periphery

In the north and north-east

Acre = hot wet tropical climate

Difficult to get to/from due to rainforest

Limited access to the sea for trading.

Maranhao

Sparsely populated

Few resources

Semi-arid climate with frequent droughts.

A government would worry about these disparities because the quality of life would be much lower for

people living in the peripheral areas. People from the periphery many move to the core leading to

overcrowding.

Top-down vs Bottom up

A country can use different ways to promote development. There are 2 types of development approaches:

Top-down and bottom up.

A table comparing top down and bottom up development projects

Top Down Bottom up

Scale Large and expensive ($22 -$39 billion for 3 Gorges Dam in China.)

Small scale. Less expensive (e.g. £34,000 for micro hydro scheme in Peru)

Aims To help the whole country develop quickly, especially urban cores. E.g roads, HEP dams, airports.

To help the remote rural periphery. To be appropriate for local peoples’ skills. To be low cost and easy to operate.

Funding Either from the government or usually borrowed from TNCs in developed countries or organisations like the world bank

Comes usually from the villagers themselves or charities e.g. CAFOD, Practical Action, Water Aid.

Technology Large scale, advanced technology. Detrimental effect on the environment.

Simple. Appropriate or intermediate technology. Easy for locals to use. Less impact on the environment.

Decisions Made by Governments and new laws often made to make the schemes go ahead Local people not involved in the decisions.

Local people much more involved in the whole process, from planning to daily operation.

Criticisms Country can get into debt, paying loans back for the project. Uses machinery and inappropriate technology rather than providing unskilled jobs for people. Expensive to operate and energy intensive.

Initial costs are still high for poor villagers. Poor people still have to pay for the electricity. Some specialist equipment may still need to be imported. It may take longer for a country to develop under these schemes as so small scale.

Exam question: Using named examples compare the main features of a top down project and a bottom up

project. (6 marks) Main features = scale, aims, funding and technology.

Sustainable development is ‘development that meets the needs to the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

Sustainable development should be affordable, have long term benefits for the local people, limited impact

on the environment and use appropriate technology.

What has been the impact of one large scale project on different groups of people in a developing

country?

Case study: Three Gorges Dam , China

The building of the Three Gorges Dam affected many people in a positive way. Firstly the building of the dam

created 250,000 jobs for people from all over China. Once built the dam decreased the risk of flooding which

was important for the poor people living in the Hubei Province as they were are particular risk of flooding

and could lose their lives, homes and livelihoods during floods. The hydroelectricity generated from the dam

has also been a huge benefit to various groups of people. Businesses in the cities of shanghai and Beijing as

well as the residents now have a stable and efficient source of power. For businesses this could increase

profits and potentially create more jobs.

However the building of the dam also had a negative effect on people. 1.4 million people were forced to

relocate during the construction of the demeaning people lost their homes and communities. Fishermen in

the area were also affected as algae blooms have been recorded along the length of the dam which has

reduced fish numbers. As a result some fishermen have seen their income decrease. Finally although people

living in the Hubei province are now less affected by floods the building of the dam has increased the

potential for landslides in the area.

Topic 6: Changing Settlements in the UK

There have been many changes in urban areas in the last 50 years.

What has caused these changes?

Processes

Processes are things that have happened that have caused out urban areas to change. They include:

De-industrialisation – heavy industry e.g. ship building closing down

Government planning policies e.g. introducing greenbelts

Regeneration of inner city areas to improve the housing for people living in these areas

Immigration – migrants moving into an area.

These processes changed urban areas – some for the better, some for the worse! E.g. London vs Liverpool

London - economic and population growth Liverpool – economic and population decline

Economic processes

Lighter industry attracted to area because of good communication network (transport). Good links to Europe via Channel tunnel.

It became a world financial centre

The economic boom led to lots of luxury flats and apartments being built in the area.

Decline of traditional industry Containerisation = decline of docks.

Social processes Jobs were created Toxeth riots in 1981 1989 Hillsborough disaster.

Political processes In 1981 the Docklands became an Enterprise Zone = government lifted tax burdens and gave quick planning permission

Growth of financial services due to deregulation by the government

County Council went into debt

Demographic processes

Skilled labour force attracted new lighter industry

Loss of population 12,000 people a year leaving the city High unemployment

There are variations (differences) in the quality of urban residential areas.

The quality of urban areas has been affected by all the changes that have taken place.

Quality of urban areas considers housing, services, amenities and recreational areas.

In some areas the quality of the urban area is very high e.g. Chelsea in London.

In other areas the quality of the urban area is low – it is said to be deprived e.g. Newham

Deprivation is a measure of how either individuals or groups of people are at a disadvantage

compared with those living elsewhere.

Multiple Deprivation is when there are lots of aspects of an area that are of poor quality.

Some urban areas are more affluent (wealthier) than others. E.g. Overall Chelsea and St Albans are affluent

compared to Newham (less affluent / poorer)

An affluent area will have:

Expensive housing.

Good access to services such as doctors, schools, transport networks e.g. train station

Good access to amenities such as Parks, Golf courses, cinemas.

Good quality recreational areas e.g. open spaces and parks.

Facts: Chelsea has the 3rd highest proportion of people living in privately rented housing. 53% of residents

have at least a degree level education. 58% of residents are in very good health.

A less affluent area will have:

Cheaper housing and more council housing estates.

Less access to services such as doctors and good quality schools.

Less access to amenities such as shops and restaurants. May be near less desirable amenities such as

rubbish tips.

Not much recreational area as the houses are often cramped with little open space.

Facts: Incomes lower in Newham than anywhere else in England. People in Newham live in some of the

most densely packed housing estates in the UK. It is one of the most deprived areas in the UK

There can be variation within an urban area – think back to your controlled assessment about variations

within St Albans. i.e. differences between Sopwell (less affluent) and Veralum (more affluent)

Rural areas have also changed significantly over the last 50 years and new types of rural settlements have

developed.

Can you give an example of each? Explain what they are like? Explain how they developed?

Type of rural area Characteristics How they have developed

Remote rural communities in upland areas e.g. Highlands of Scotland

Not very accessible – may take to a day to travel to from a city. Almost totally rural Lots of people leaving these areas Limited services Little industry

Many farmers have left area as too difficult to make a profit. Lack of jobs means people move away from area. Difficult to get to and very remote means people are leaving.

Retirement communities e.g. Eastbourne

Fairly accessible (easy to get to) Attractive scenery

Increased life expectancy = more elderly people Elderly people tend to be wealthier now than in the past – want to move to peaceful, scenic areas, Elderly people may want to be near people of a similar age so retirement communities in certain areas develop.

Commuter Villages e.g. Tyttenhanger Green, St Albans

These are located in more accessible rural areas, nearer urban areas. Access to transport is needed as people need to get to work

People who can afford to live in the countryside but need to commute to the towns for work live in these villages. As transport improves people don’t need to live near work. More people have flexible working – able to work from home more. Farmers are selling their land and this land is being used for housing developments = more housing available in these villages.

Explain the variations in the quality of life and levels of deprivation between 2 contrasting rural areas.

East Anglia Highlands of Scotland

Generally high quality of life and low level of deprivation Lots of agricultural land, very fertile soil - produces lots of cereals = jobs and income. Excellent transport links with Cambridge and London – this has attracted people with scientific expertise from these areas = New industries have developed in area e.g. ICT firms. New ports e.g. Felixstowe = created jobs. Growth of tourism e.g. Norfolk Broads has created jobs.

This area covers half the land mass of Scotland but only 4% of the population. Prosperity generally low in this area. Limited agriculture due to steep slopes and thin acid (poor) soil. Lots of rain = limited agriculture. Declining fish stocks = declining fishing industry = loss of jobs. There are tourism jobs but these are seasonal. Limited access to services – this leads to lots of people leaving the area. There is little industry – there are a few distilleries producing whisky but this creates few jobs.

How easy is it to manage the demand for high quality places to live?

What strategies can be used to improve the quality of rural settlements to make them more sustainable?

Many strategies can be used including Rural Development Schemes such as the Eden Project and Planning

Policies such as Greenbelts and National Parks.

The Eden project is an example of a rural development scheme that has been developed to stimulate

(improve) the economy of an area and also stop people migrating out of an area.

Facts:

A visitor attraction in Cornwall

Consists of 2 huge domes containing thousands of plants

Each area contains a different natural Biome

It has the world’s largest rainforest in captivity!

Has it been successful?

It employs 600 people directly

Attracts over 1 million visitors each year

Brings benefits to surrounding hotels, shops and restaurants

It always tries to use local suppliers for food etc. generating £7million for local suppliers

However….

Traffic has increased in the area.

It only brings profit to this area of Cornwall

Some other tourist attractions have lost visitors as they are attracted to the Eden project instead.

How successful have greenbelts and National Parks been in conserving valuable landscapes and allowing

economic development?

Success in conserving landscape

Problems with conserving landscape

Successes in allowing economic development

Problems in allowing economic development

Greenbelts An area around a city composed of mostly farmland and parkland in which development is strictly controlled. Its purpose is to stop the outward spread of the city

Have prevented urban sprawl. Have prevented neighbouring towns joining e.g. St Albans and Hatfield. Have preserved the character of historic towns e.g. St Albans

Have put more pressure on the rural land just outside the greenbelt i.e. has moved the problem somewhere else. Much of the greenbelt actually contains brownfield sites e.g. landfill

There has been some economic development in towns as the brownfield site have been regenerated e.g. Regeneration of the old Oaklands College. As St Albans has maintained its character it has attracted investment.

As developers can build on the greenbelt land it actually limits the growth in some areas.

National Parks Large areas of attractive countryside where scenery and wildlife are protected. 2 aims: to preserve and enhance the natural beauty of the landscape and to provide a place for recreation and enjoyment. E.g. the Lake District.

There is strict control in NP’s which has allowed them to maintain their character.

Victim of their own success. Congestion around honeypot sites. Towns can be overcrowded. Footpaths eroded by high number of visitors trampling over them. Quarrying in NPs affect landscape and also lorries to transport quarried materials.

NPs are very successful tourist attraction – created huge number of jobs – hotels, restaurants, shops etc. Increased wealth in area. High house prices.

Restrictions on developments which could hinder business expansion in the area.

The demand to live in some urban areas is rising. This is placing pressure on the environment.

Question: What are the environmental, social and economic impacts of rising demand for residential areas in

one urban area? Case Study: St Albans.

Why is there a rising demand?

Attractive due to historical features e.g. Roman Wall, Cathedral.

Excellent train links to London – this attracts commuters.

Good schools e.g. Loreto College!

Good road links e.g. M1 and M25

Surrounded by greenbelt land = attractive.

Low crime rate.

Lots of facilities e.g. Westminster Lodge

What are the economic impacts of the rising demand to live in St Albans?

Positive

• Development of tourism

• Allow the expansion in some areas e.g. research

Negative

• Net-out migration

• No land for new offices

What are the environmental impacts of the rising demand to live in St Albans?

Positive

• Development of Brownfield sites

• Construction of new homes

• Redevelopment of college

Negative

• Pressure on land

What are the social impacts of the rising demand to live in St Albans?

• Schools

• Entertainment / Restaurants

• Housing – supply and prices

• Leisure facilities

• Ethnic mix

Strategies have been put in place to improve urban areas e.g. regeneration of the London Docklands

Be ready to Evaluate the strategy i.e. discuss the good things and negative things.

What happened in the London Docklands?

Size of ships increased and unable to reach the docks so the docks closed down

Area became derelict with few jobs, poor environment and poor living conditions.

In 1981 the LDDC (London Docklands Development Corporation) was set up to try and improve the

economic, social and environmental conditions of the Docks.

Social Environmental Economic

Positive 22,000 new homes created

Warehouses converted to luxury homes

Several new shopping centres in the area

College and campus for the new University of London

750 hectares of derelict (empty/unused) land reclaimed (used again)

200,000 trees planted.

Number of jobs rose from 27,000 in 1981 to 90,000 in 2000

Global financial centre in Canary Wharf

Docklands light railway built connecting area to rest of London

Negative New houses were too expensive for local people

Newcomers did not mix with the local people causing a breakdown of the ‘East Enders’ community

Most new jobs went to people living outside the area

More money spent on expensive offices and houses than on services such as hospitals and care for the elderly.

Topic 7: The Challenge of an Urban World

How have cities grown and what challenges do they face?

Urbanisation = an increased proportion of people living in towns and cities.

Urbanisation is now happening most rapidly in LEDC’s.

Asia is seeing the most rapid growth of urban areas.

Reasons for growth of urban areas in LEDC’s

1. Natural increase (i.e. high number of births). It tends to be young adults who migrate to/live in the

cities and these are the child bearing age group.

2. Migration from the countryside to the city = Push:Pull factors

Push factors Pull factors

Lack of jobs Higher wages

Crop failure Perceived better quality of life

Lack of facilities Better health care

What are megacities?

Cities with more than 10 million people e.g. New York, Mexico City, Tokyo, Beijing.

What are the differences between megacities in the developed and developing world?

Developing World e.g. Shanghai, Mexico City

Developed World e.g. New York, Los Angeles

Economic activities (jobs)

Major centres of economic activity including manufacturing and financial and service industries.

Major centres of economic activity including manufacturing and financial and service industries.

Spatial growth(how the actual city grows)

Chaotic growth meaning less structure = less regular layout. Areas cannot be so easily defined as the city has grown so fast. People set up home on any land they can find. Expensive houses are separated from the rest often along main roads.

Have clear / distinct zones. The CBD is in the centre and the inner city zones and suburbs surround it. There still may be areas of poverty

Population The population structure tends to be dominated by older people. This is because fertility rates are low (women don’t have many children). Some people many still live in areas of poor housing such as Newham.

There are high fertility rates and high natural increase in developing megacities which means a youthful population. In 2012 over 1 billion people, nearly 1/7th of the world’s population lived in squatter settlements.

Urban challenges in the developed world e.g. London

Challenges that cities in the developed world face include food, energy, transport and waste disposal

demands. These challenges could lead to higher resource consumption in these cities i.e. people who live in

cities use more resources.

Food Food not grown in London – it has to be transport from other places in the UK or other countries = high carbon footprint (more carbon emissions) due to transport

Energy The demand for electricity in London is huge as there are so many homes and businesses. Energy generated in power stations which use fossil fuels = increased carbon footprint.

Transport Congestion in London at peak times. Exhaust fumes pollute the air. Congestion charge was introduced to reduce vehicles coming in to London.

Waste London produces 20 million tonnes of waste each year – mush of which is transported out and put into landfill.

Urban challenges in the developing world e.g. Dhaka

Challenges that cities in the developing world face include slum housing, the informal economy (forms of

employment that are not officially recognised e.g. people working for themselves on the streets) and urban

pollution. This can leads to a low quality of life.

Slum housing City growing so fast they can’t cope with number of people. People build homes on any spare land – often poor quality land prone to flooding/landslides. Lack of sewerage leads to disease e.g. cholera. Often no electricity or running water.

Informal economy

Most people work in the informal sector – shining shoes, selling water, making food to sell. Often on street corners.

Pollution Water is often polluted and can lead to death. Water can be polluted by animal and human waste, fertilisers, industrial chemicals.

Eco Footprint

The eco-footprint is a measure of how much land is needed to

provide a place with all the energy, water and materials it needs,

including how much is needed to absorb its pollution and waste.

Its purpose is to work out how sustainable any city is and what

changes need to be taken to improve the quality of life for people

now and in the future.

The bigger the eco-footprint the less sustainable the area is.

MEDC’s tend to have a larger eco-footprint than LEDC’s as they use

more energy and resources and generate more waste. LEDC’s grow

much of their own food, may use local wood for cooking, heating

and lighting. People are more likely to walk and cycle rather than

using cars and so produce less pollution.

The eco footprints may vary between cities depending on how far

food has to be transported, if there are recycling schemes, schemes

to reduce congestion in cities e.g. congestion change

How can all the problems that urban areas face be managed (improved)?

York is a city that is trying to reduce its eco-footprint by reducing its energy consumption (amount of energy

it is using) and waste generation (amount of waste it produces).

How is York reducing its energy consumption?

The local council have produced tips for people to save energy in their homes:

Use a shower instead of bath, it uses 40% less water

Turn off lights when you leave a room

Wait for full load in washing machine and dishwasher.

All the information can be found on the council website. They also produced a leaflet called ‘Creating a

sustainable York’.

How is York reducing the amount of waste it creates?

People have different coloured bins to sort their waste – 30% less now going to landfill than in 2006

Businesses are asked to use electronic communications like email instead of paper

Shops and businesses now sort their own waste.

Introducing Sustainable transport is another way that cities can reduce their eco-footprint.

Sustainable transport in London:

Bus lanes – sped up the journey for buses and therefore encouraging more people to use them.

Congestion Charge: 7am to 6pm on weekdays in the congestion charge zone in London. This

encourages people to use public transport rather than use their car.

Improvement of the underground: to make it more efficient. Fares are expensive which puts some

people off using it.

Boris’s cycle super highway: to create a safe cycle lane to encourage people to cycle rather than use

a car. Lots of debate about whether there is enough room to put in the ‘cycle super highway’.

More park and ride schemes

Sustainable transport in Curitiba:

The system transports 2.6 million people per day and used by 70% of the city’s people.

It is very efficient and cheap

Buses are frequent – some every 90 seconds

One fare

Efficient bus stops – no steps, passengers get on and off via a platform to the bus stop.

Buses use natural gas = less pollution.

How can the quality of life in cities in LEDC’s be improved?

1. Through self-help schemes

e.g. Rocinha, a favela, in Brazil where 70,000 people live. The local authority is helping people help

themselves. They provide building materials e.g. breeze blocks and cement to improve their houses.

Houses are much more stable and can withstand floods and landslides.

2. Through Non – Governmental Organisations (NGO’s)

e.g. Kachhpura in India. One problem was that sewage and waste water drained into the main river

channel that ran through the town. An NGO called CURE (Centre for Urban and Regional Excellence)

has provided a low tech temporary solution sewage plant that disposes of sewage and waste water.

It needs little technical maintenance and doesn’t depend on electricity.

3. Urban Planning

e.g. Curitiba – a model for a greener urban future. The growth of Curitiba was very well planned.

Success based on public transport system– see notes above.

Another strategy to manage environmental challenges in the developing world is to develop less

polluted cities e.g. Masdar City.

Advantages:

Building angled to maximise shade from the sun = less air conditioning needed.

Solar panel on roofs = more sustainable energy

A steel tower acts as a wind tower drawing in cool breezes from above the city and directing

them into the courtyard.

Personal Rapid Transport (electrical cars) transport people around the city. No cars allowed

in Masdar = reduces pollution.

Disadvantages:

Huge cost $22 billion

Isolated from other communities

High cost of apartments – only wealthy can afford to live there

Whole plan dictated by government – community not involved.

However overall Masdar is seen as a model for innovation and sustainable ideas.