Greek Epicurus

7/28/2019 Greek Epicurus

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The Hellenistic philosophers

V O L U M E 1

Translations of the principal sources

with philosophical commentary

A . A . L O N G

Professor of Classics, Universi ty of California, Berkeley

D . N . S E D L E Y

Laurence Professor of An cient Phi losophy, Universi ty of C am bri dg e ,

and Fellow of Christ 's College



Epicurean i sm

P H Y S I C S

4 T h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s e r v a t i o n

A Epicu rus , Letter to Herodotus 3 8 - 9(1) H a v i n g g r a s p e d th e s e p o i n t s , w e m u s t n o w o b s e r v e , c o n c e r n i n g t h e

n o n - e v i d e n t , f i rs t o f a ll t h a t n o t h i n g c o m e s i n t o b e i n g o u t o f w h a t is n o t .

F o r i n t h a t c as e e v e r y t h i n g w o u l d c o m e i n t o b e i n g o u t o f e v e r y t h i n g ,

w i th no need fo r s eeds. (2 ) A l so , if t ha t w h i ch d i sappea r s w er e de s t ro ye d

in to wh a t is no t , all t h ing s w ou ld h av e pe r i shed , fo r l ack o f t ha t i n to

w h i c h t h e y d is s o l v ed . (3 ) M o r e o v e r , t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h i n g s w a s a l w a y s

such as i t is n o w , and a lw ay s wi l l be , (4) s ince th er e is n o th in g i n t o w h ic h

it changes , (5) and s ince bes ide the t o t a l i t y t h e re is n o t h i ng w h i ch cou ldpass i n to it and p ro du ce the cha ng e .

B Lucret ius 1.159-^73

(1 ) For if t h ing s cam e in to be ing ou t o f no th in g , eve r y speci es w o u ld be

a b le t o b e p r o d u c e d o u t o f e v e r y t h i n g , n o t h i n g w o u l d n e e d a s e e d . (2)

M en , to s ta r t w i th , wo u ld be ab le to spr ing u p ou t of th e sea an d sca ly f i sh

f rom the l and , and b i rds ha t ch ou t o f t he sky . Ca t t l e and o the r l i ves tock ,

a n d e v e r y sp ec ie s o f w i l d a n i m a l , w o u l d b e b o r n a t r a n d o m a n d o c c u p y

f a r m l a n d a n d w i l d e rn e s s al ik e . N o r w o u l d t h e s a m e f r u i t s s t ay r e g u l a r l y

on the same t r ee s , bu t wou ld change ove r : a l l t r ee s wou ld be ab l e t o bea r

ev e ry th in g . (3) In a s i t ua t ion w he re each th ing d id no t hav e i ts o w n

p r o c r e a t i v e b o d i e s , h o w c o u l d t h e r e b e a f i x e d m o t h e r f o r t h i n g s ? (4) B u t

s ince in fac t ind iv idua l th ings a re c rea ted f rom f ixed seeds , each i s born

a n d e m e r g e s i n t o th e r e a l m o f d a y l i g h t f r o m a p l a c e c o n t a i n i n g i ts o w n

m a t t e r a n d p r i m a r y b o d i e s ; (5) a n d t h e r e a s o n w h y e v e r y t h i n g c a n n o t

c o m e i n t o b e i n g o u t o f e v e r y t h i n g is t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s c o n t a i n t h e i r

o w n s e p a r a t e p o w e r s .

C Luc re t iu s 1 . 225-37

(1) Bes ides , i f t im e to t a l l y des t ro ys t he t h ing s w h i ch i t r em ov es th ro u g h

o l d a g e , a n d c o n s u m e s a l l t h e i r m a t e r i a l , f r o m w h e r e d o e s V e n u s b r i n g

back l iv ing c rea tu res , each a f te r i ts spec ies , to the da yl ig ht o f l i fe? O r

2 5



17 The criteria of truth

17 The cr i ter ia of truth

A D iog en es Lae r t i u s 10 .31

(1) Thus Epicurus , in the Kanon ( 'Y a rd s t i ck ' ) , s ays t ha t s ensa t ions ,

p rec onc ep t io ns and r ee l ings a r e t he c r i te r i a o r t ru th . (2) I he Ep icu re ans

a d d t h e ' f o c u s i n g s o f t h o u g h t i n t o a n i m p r e s s i o n ' .

B Ep icu rus , Key doctrines 24

(1) If yo u are go in g to re jec t an y sensa t ion abs olu te ly , an d n ot d i s t in gu ish

op in ions r e l ian t on ev id enc e ye t aw a i t ed f r o m w ha t is a l r ead y p re se n t

t h r o u g h s e n sa t io n , t h r o u g h f e e li n g s , a n d t h r o u g h e v e r y f o c u s i n g o f

t h o u g h t i n t o a n i m p r e s s i o n , y o u w i l l c o n f o u n d a l l y o u r o t h e r s e n s a t i o n s

wi th empty op in ion and consequen t ly r e j ec t t he c r i t e r ion in i t s en t i r e ty .

(2) A nd i f yo u are g oi n g to t rea t as es tab l i she d b o th a ll the ev id en ce ye t

awa i t ed in your con jec tu ra l concep t ions , and tha t wh ich has f a i l ed to

<e a rn > a t t e s t a t i on , yo u wi l l no t exc lud e f a l se ho od , so t ha t you wi l l

h a v e r e m o v e d a ll d e b a t e a n d a ll d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n c o r r e c t a n d

i n c o r r e c t .

C Ep icu rus , Letter to Herodotus 37—8

(1) F i r s t , t hen , Herodo tus , we mus t g ra sp the t h ings wh ich unde r l i e

w ord s , so t ha t w e ma y hav e th em as a r e f e renc e po in t aga ins t w h i ch toj u d g e m a t t e r s o f o p i n i o n , i n q u i r y a n d p u z z l e m e n t , a n d n o t h a v e

e v e r y t h i n g u n d i s c r i m i n a t e d t o r o u r se l v e s as w e a t t e m p t i n f i n i t e c h a i n s o f

p r o o f s, o r h a v e w o r d s w h i c h a re e m p t y . F o r th e p r i m a r y c o n c e p t

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e a c h w o r d m u s t b e s e e n a n d n e e d n o a d d i t i o n a l p r o o f ,

if w e are go ing to ha ve a r e f e r enc e po in t fo r m a t t e r s o f i n qu i ry ,

p u z z l e m e n t a n d o p i n i o n . ( 2 ) S e c o n d , w e s h o u l d o b s e r v e e v e r y t h i n g i n

the l ight of o ur sensa t ions , and in ge ne ra l in the l ight of o u r pre sen t

t o c u s in g s w h e t h e r o f t h o u g h t o r o f a n y o f o u r d i s c r i m i n a t o r y f a c u lt ie s ,

and l ikewise a l so in the l ight of the fee l ings which exis t in us , in order to

hav e a bas is fo r s ign - in fe rence s ab ou t ev ide nce ye t awa i t ed an d abo u t t h e

n o n - e v i d e n t .

D E p i c u r u s , Letter to Herodotus 82

So we shou ld pay heed to t hose f ee l ings wh ich a re p re sen t i n us , and to

our sensa t ions — un ive r sa l s ensa t ions fo r un iv e r sa l ma t t e r s , pa r t i cu l a r on es

fo r pa r t i cu l a r ma t t e r s - an d to a ll s e l f - ev iden ce w h ic h is p re se n t by v i r tu e

o f each o f t he d i sc r im ina to ry f acu l t ie s .

E D iog ene s Lae r t i u s ro .33

(1) P re co nc ep t ion , t he y [ the Ep icu reans ] s ay , is as it w e r e a pe rce p t i on , o r

co r r ec t op in ion , o r concep t ion , o r un ive r sa l ' s t o red no t ion ' ( i . e .

87



Epicurean ethics

E T H I C S

20 F ree wi l l

A E p i c u r u s , Letter to Menoeceus 133—4

(1) W h o m , a f t e r a ll , do y ou c ons id e r supe r io r t o t he ma n w h o . . . w ou ld

d e r i d e t h e < f a t e > w h i c h s o m e i n t r o d u c e as o v e r l o r d o f e v e r y t h i n g ,

< b u t see s t h a t s o m e t h i n g s a r e n e c e s s i t a t e d , > o t h e r s a re d u e t o f o r t u n e ,

and o the r s dep en d on us , s ince necess ity is acc ou n tab le t o no one , and

f o r t u n e is a n u n s t a b l e t h i n g t o w a t c h , w h i l e t h a t w h i c h d e p e n d s o n u s,

w i th w h i ch cu lp ab i l i t y a nd i ts op po s i t e a r e na tu ra l ly a s soc ia t ed , is f r ee o f

a n y o v e r l o r d ? (2 ) F o r it w o u l d b e b e t t e r t o f o l l o w th e m y t h o l o g y a b o u t

go ds than be a s l ave to t he ' f a t e ' o f t he na tu ra l ph i lo sop he r s : t he fo rm er a t

l ea s t h in t s a t t he ho pe o f be gg in g th e gods o f f by m eans o f w orsh ip ,whereas t he l a t t e r i nvo lves an inexorab le necess i ty .

B E p i c u r u s , On nature 34.21—2

(1) B u t m a n y n a tu ra l ly capa b le o f ach iev in g these and those r e su lt s f ai l t o

ach ieve them, because o f t hemse lves , no t because o f one and the same

respo ns ib i l i t y o f t he a to m s and o f t hem se lve s . (2 ) A nd w i th t hese we

espec i a l ly do ba t t l e , and r ebuke them, ha t ing them fo r a d i spos i t i on

w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e i r d i s o r d e r e d c o n g e n i t a l n a t u r e as w e d o w i t h t h ewho le r ange o f an ima l s . (3 ) For t he na tu re o f t he i r a toms has con t r ibu ted

n o t h i n g t o s o m e o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r , a n d d e g r e e s o f b e h a v i o u r a n d

cha rac t e r , bu t i t is t he i r de ve lo pm en t s w h i ch th em se lves posses s a ll o r

m os t of the re spo ns ib i l i ty fo r cer ta in th in gs . (4) I t is as a resu l t of tha t

n a t u r e t h a t s o m e o f t h e i r a t o m s m o v e w i t h d i s o r d e r e d m o t i o n s , b u t it is

no t on the a toms tha t a l l < the r e spons ib i l i t y shou ld be p l aced fo r t he i r

b e h a v i o u r . . . > (5 ) T h u s w h e n a d e v e l o p m e n t o c c u r s w h i c h t a k e s o n

so m e d i s t i nc tness f r o m the a t om s in a d i f f e r en t i a l w ay - n o t 111 t h e w a y

w h i c h is l ik e v i e w i n g f r o m a d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e — h e a c q u i r e s

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w h i c h p r o c e e d s f r o m h i m s e l f ; (6) t h e n h e s t r a i g h t a w a y

t r ansmi t s t h i s t o h i s p r imary subs t ances and makes the who le o f i t i n to a

y a r d s t i c k . ( 7) T h a t is w h y t h o s e w h o c a n n o t c o r r e c t l y m a k e s u c h

d i s t i n c t i o n s c o n f u s e th e m s e l v e s a b o u t t h e a d j u d i c a t i o n o f r e sp o n s ib i li ti e s.

C E p i c u r u s , On nature 34.26—30

(1) F r o m t h e v e r y o u t s e t w e a l w a y s h a v e s ee ds d i r e c t i n g u s s o m e t o w a r d s

t h e s e , s o m e t o w a r d s t h o s e , s o m e t o w a r d s t h e s e and those , ac t ions andt h o u g h t s a n d c h a r a c t e r s , i n g r e a t e r a n d s m a l l e r n u m b e r s . C o n s e q u e n t l y

tha t w h ic h w e d ev el op - cha rac te r i s t ics of th i s or tha t k ind - i s a t f i rs t

abs o lu t e ly up to us ; and the t h ing s w h i ch o f necess i ty f low in t h ro u gh ou r

passages f rom tha t wh ich su r rounds us a r e a t one s t age up to us and

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20 Free will

d e p e n d e n t o n b e li ef s o f o u r o w n m a k i n g . . . (2 ) < A n d w e c a n i n v o k e ,

a g ai ns t t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t o u r e v e n t u a l c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s

mus t be phys i ca l ly caused e i the r by ou r i n i t i a l make -up o r by those

e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s > b y w h i c h w e n e v e r c e a s e t o b e a f f e c t e d , t h e

fac t t ha t we r eb uk e , opp ose and r e fo rm each o t he r as i f t he r e spo ns ib i l i t y

lay a lso in ou r se lves , and no t j u s t in ou r co ng en i t a l m ak e - u p an d in t he

acc identa l necess i ty of tha t which sur rounds and penet ra tes us . (3) For i f

s o m e o n e w e r e t o a t t r i b u t e t o t h e v e r y p r o c e s s e s o f r e b u k i n g a n d b e i n g

rebuked the acc iden ta l necess i ty o f wha teve r happens to be p re sen t t o

onese lf a t t he t im e , I 'm a f r a id he can ne ve r in th i s w ay u nd e r s t an d < h i s

o w n b e h a v i o u r i n c o n t i n u i n g th e d e b a t e . . . > (4) < H e m a y s i m p l y

choose to m a in t a in h i s t hes is w h i l e i n p rac t i ce co n t in u i ng t o > b l a m e o r

pra ise . B ut i f he w er e to ac t in th is w ay h e w o u ld be leav ing in tac t the

ve ry same be ha v io ur w h ic h a s f a r as ou r ow n se lves a r e co nc e rn ed c rea t e sthe p re co nc ep t ion o f ou r r e spon s ib i l i t y . An d in t ha t he w o u ld a t one

poin t be a l te r ing h is th eo ry , a t an o th er < . . .> (5) < . . .> such er ro r . F or

th is so r t o f acc ou n t is s e l f - r e f u t in g , and can nev e r p ro ve tha t ev e r y t h i ng is

of the k ind ca l led 'necess i ta ted ' ; bu t he deba tes th i s very ques t ion on the

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t h is o p p o n e n t is h i m s e l f r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e .

(6) A nd even l fh e goes on to i n f in i ty say ing tha t this ac t ion o fh i s is i n t u r n

necess i ta t ed , a lw ays appe a l ing to a rg um en t s , he is no t r ea so n in g i t

em pi r i ca l ly so lon g as he goes on im pu t i n g to h im se l f t he r e spo ns ib i l i t yt o r h a v i n g r e a s o n e d c o r r e c t l y a n d t o h is o p p o n e n t t h a t f o r h a v i n g

reasoned inco r rec t ly . (7 ) Bu t un le s s he were t o s top a t t r i bu t ing h i s ac t ion

to h imse l f and to p in it on necess ity i n s t ead , he w o u ld n o t ev en < b e

c o n s i s t e n t . . . > (8) < O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , > if in u s i n g t h e w o r d ' n e c e s s i t y '

o f t h a t w h i c h w e c al l o u r o w n a g e n c y h e is m e r e l y c h a n g i n g a n a m e , a n d

w o n ' t p r o v e t h a t w e h a v e a p r e c o n c e p t i o n o f a k i n d w h i c h h a s f a u l t y

d e l in e a t io n s w h e n w e c al l o u r o w n a g e n c y r e s p o n s i b l e , n e i t h e r h is o w n

< beh av iou r no r t ha t o f o th e r s wi l l be a f f ec t ed . . . > (9 ) < . . . > bu t

even to ca ll nece ss i ta t ion em p ty as a r e su l t o f y o u r c l a im . If s o m e o n e w o n ' texp la in th i s, and has n o aux i l i a ry e l em en t o r imp u l se i n us w h i ch he

m i g h t d i s s u a d e f r o m t h o s e a c t i o n s w h i c h w e p e r f o r m c a l l i n g t h e

r e s p o n s ib i l it y f o r t h e m ' o u r o w n a g e n c y ' , b u t is g i v i n g t h e n a m e o f

fool i sh necess i ty to a ll the th ing s w hi ch w e c la im to do ca l l ing th e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e m ' o u r o w n a g e n c y ' , h e w i l l b e m e r e l y c h a n g i n g a

name ; (10 ) he wi l l no t be mod i fy ing any o f ou r ac t ions i n t he way in

w hic h in so m e cases t he m an w h o sees w h a t so r t o f ac t ions a r e

necess i t a t ed r egu la r ly d i s suades t hose who des i r e t o do some th ing in t het ace o f co m pu l s io n . (11 ) A nd th e m in d w i l l be i nqu i s i t i ve t o l ea rn w h a t

so r t o f ac t ion it shou ld then con s ide r t ha t one to be w h i ch w e pe r f o rm in

s o m e w a y t h r o u g h o u r o w n a g e n c y b u t w i t h o u t d e s i r i n g t o . F o r h e h a s

no a l te rna t iv e bu t t o s ay w ha t so r t o f ac t ion i s necess i t a t ed < a n d w h a t is

1 0 3



Epicurean ethics

discussion at De interpretation 9. But Epicurus, like the Stoic with whom he is

contrasted in E 1 (see fu rth er , 38G ), saw physical and logical determ inism as two

aspects of a single thesis. T he tw o form ulatio ns of de ter m in ism tend to be treated

as interchangeable, as do the two respective solutions, the swerve and the denial

of bivalence (cf. Cicero, On fate 1S-19, and perhaps E 1-3). This conflation

seems to rest on the assumed equivalence of ' true in advance' with 'determinedby pre-existing causes'; cf. also the telling comment at the end of I.

Th e interpretat ion of the swerve theory ad opted abov e may help explain how

it could be thought interchangeable with the denial of bivalance. Neither

doctrine is involved in analysing the nature of volition itself (as many have

thought the swerve to be). Their shared function is to guarantee the efficacy ot

volit ion, by keeping alternative possibili t ies genuinely open.

21 P leas u re

A C i c e r o , On ends 1.29—32, 37-9 (wi th omiss ions)

[ T h e E p i c u r e a n s p o k e s m a n , T o r q u a t u s ] (1) W e a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g w h a t is

the f i na l and u l t ima te good , wh ich a s a l l ph i losophe r s ag ree [ c f . 63A]

m us t be o f such a k in d th a t it is t he end to w h ic h ev e r y t h i ng is t he m eans ,

bu t it is no t it se l f the m ea ns to an y th in g . Ep icu ru s s i tua tes th i s 111 pleasure ,

w h i ch he wa n t s t o be t he g rea t e s t g o o d w i th pa in as t he g rea te s t bad . H i s

d o c t r i n e b e g i n s111

this w ay : (2) as so on as ev er y a ni m al is b o rn , i t seeksaf te r p le asu re an d re jo ices in it as the grea tes t g o o d , w hi le i t re jec ts pa in as

the greatest bad and, as far as possible , avoids i t ; and i t does this when i t is

n o t y e t c o r r u p t e d , o n t h e i n n o c e n t a n d s o u n d j u d g e m e n t o f n a t u r e its elf .

H en ce he says t he re is no n eed to p ro v e o r d iscuss w h y p l easu re shou ld be

pur sued and pa in avo ided . He th inks t hese ma t t e r s a r e sensed ju s t l i ke

the hea t o f fire, t h e w h i t e n e s s o f s n o w a n d t h e s w e e t n e s s o f h o n e y , n o n e

o f w h i c h n e e d s c o n f i r m a t i o n b y e l a b o r a t e a r g u m e n t s ; it is e n o u g h t o

po in t th em ou t . . .(3) S ince m a n has n o th in g le f t i f sensa t ions a re

r e m o v e d f r o m h i m , it m u s t b e t h e ca se t h a t n a t u r e i t s e l f j u d g e s w h a t is ina c c o r d a n c e w i t h o r c o n t r a r y t o n a t u r e . W h a t d o e s it p e r c e i v e o r w h a t

do es it j u d g e ex ce pt p leas ure a nd pa in as a bas is for i ts purs u i t or

a v o i d a n c e o f a n y t h i n g ? (4 ) S o m e o f o u r s c h o o l , h o w e v e r , w a n t t o

t r an sm i t t hese do c t r in es in a sub t l e r w ay : t hey de ny the su f f ic i ency o f

ju d g in g w h a t is g o o d o r bad by sensa t ion , s ay ing tha t t he i n t ri n s i c

des i rab i l i ty of p leasure and the in t r ins ic undes i rab i l i ty of pa in can be

un de r s t oo d by the m in d to o and by r eason . So they say tha t ou r s ense tha t

the on e is des i r ab l e and the o th e r u nd es i r a b l e is v i r t ua l ly a na tu ra l andi n n a t e p r e c o n c e p t i o n in o u r m i n d s . . . T o e n a b l e y o u t o v i e w t h e o r i g in

o f t he en t i r e m i s t ak e o f t hose w h o c r i ti c i ze p l easu re and p ra ise pa in , I w i l l

d i s c l o s e t h e w h o l e m a t t e r a n d e x p o u n d t h e a c t u a l w o r d s o f t h e f a m o u s

dis co ve rer o f the t r u th , the a rc hi te c t , as i t w er e , of the ha pp y l i fe . (5) N o

- - • f c



21 Pleasure

one re jec ts or d i s l ikes or a vo ids p leasu re i t sel f beca use i t is p lea sure , bu t

because g rea t pa ins r e su l t fo r t hose who do no t know how to pu r sue

p leasu re r a t i ona l ly . N o r aga in is t he re any on e w h o loves , goes a f t e r o r

"wants to ge t pa in i t sel f beca use it is pa in , b ut be cau se c i r cu m sta nc es

somet imes occur wh ich enab le h im to ga in some g rea t p l easu re by to i la n d p a in . . . (6) T h e p l e a s u r e w e p u r s u e is n o t j u s t t h a t w h i c h m o v e s o u r

ac tua l na tu re w i th s om e g ra t i f i c a t io n and is pe rc e ived by the senses in

co m pa ny w i th a ce r t a in de l igh t ; w e ho ld tha t t o be t he g rea t e s t p l easu re

wh ich is pe rce ived on ce all pa in has been r em o v ed . Fo r w h en w e a re

f r eed f rom pa in , we r e jo i ce i n t he ac tua l f r eedom and absence o f a l l

d is tr es s; bu t ev e ry th i ng in w h i ch w e r e jo i ce is p l easu re , j u s t as ev e r y t h i ng

that di st re sse s us is pa in ; t h e r e fo re t he co m pl e t e r e m ov a l o f pa in has

r igh t ly been ca l l ed p l easu re . Thus when hunge r and th i r s t have been

r e m o v e d b y f o o d a n d d r i n k , th e m e r e w i t h d r a w a l o f d i st re s s b r i n g sp leasu re fo r th as i ts con sequ enc e . So qu i t e gene ra l ly t h e r e m ov a l o f pa in

causes p leasure to take i t s p lace . (7) Hence Epicurus d id not accept the

ex i s t ence o f any th ing 111 b e t w e e n p l e as u re a n d p a in . W h a t s o m e p e o p l e

rega rded as in be tw ee n — t h e c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e o f p a i n — w a s n o t o n l y

p leasu re bu t a lso the g rea t e s t p l easu re . Fo r an yo n e aw ar e o f h is o w n co n -

d i t i on mus t e i t he r have p l easu re o r pa in . Ep icu rus , moreove r , supposes

tha t comple t e absence o f pa in marks t he l imi t o f t he g rea t e s t p l easu re , so

tha t t he r ea f t e r p l easu re can be va r i ed and d i f f e r en t i a t ed bu t n o t i nc reasedand ex pa nd ed . (8) B u t a t A th e n s . . . t he re is a s t a tue in t he Ce ra m ic us o f

C h r y s i p p u s s ea te d w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d , w h i c h i n d i c a t e d h is d e l i g h t i n

the fo l lowing l i t t l e sy l log i sm: ' I s t he re any th ing tha t your hand , i n i t s

p re sen t cond i t i on , wan t s? ' 'Ce r t a in ly no t . ' 'Bu t i f p l ea su re were t he

go od , it w ou ld ha ve a w an t . ' ' I t h in k so . ' 'T he re fo re p l easu re is n o t t he

go od ' . . . T h e a rg u m en t is en t i r e ly va l id aga ins t t he C yre na ic s , bu t d oes

n o t t o u c h E p i c u r u s .

B E p i c u r u s , Letter to Menoeceus 1 2 7 - 3 2

(1) W e mus t r eckon tha t so m e des ir e s a r e na tu ra l an d o the r s e m p ty , and

of t he na tu ra l some a re necessa ry , o the r s na tu ra l on ly ; and o f t he

necessa ry som e a re necessa ry fo r happ iness , o the r s fo r t he b o d y ' s f r ee d o m

fr o m s tress, and o th ers fo r l i fe i t se l f . Fo r the s teady o bs er va t io n of these

th ings mak es it poss ib l e t o re f e r ev e ry cho ice and av o id an ce to t he hea l th

o f t he body and the sou l ' s f r eedom f rom d i s tu rbance , s ince th i s i s t he end

be lon gin g to the b lessed l ife . For th i s is w h a t w e a im a t in a ll ou r ac t io ns —

to be f ree f r o m pa in and an xi e ty . (2) O n c e w e ha ve go t th is , a ll the sou l ' s

tu m ul t is re leased , s ince the c r ea tur e ca nn ot g o as i f in purs u i t of

some th ing i t needs and sea rch fo r any second th ing a s t he means o f

m a x i m i z i n g t h e g o o d o f t h e s o u l a n d t h e b o d y . F o r t h e t i m e w h e n w e

need p l easu re is w h en w e a re i n pa in f r o m the absence o f p l easu re . < B u t

3



22 Society

In assessing all this material it is essential to recognize Epicurus' insistence that

hedonic happiness will emerge if people remove the impediments to i t , which

are largely due to false beliefs concerning inessential goods and avoidable pains

(see W, X; 24C). The sources of those pleasures that happiness requires are

readily available (X 2), and pain need never o utw eig h such pleasures (C 2). T h u s

the Epicurean, equipped with true beliefs about the world and his own needs,

and disposed to organize his actions in w ays that co nf or m to basic mora l no rm s,

will achieve not the invariable happiness symbolized by god (cf. 23), but the

increm ental happiness (K) wh ich in no w ay falls short o f the divin e kind (cf. G 1;

14D 5; 23J-K )

22 S oc ie ty

A Epicu rus , Key doctrines 3 1 - 5

(1) [3 1] N a t u r e ' s j u s t i c e is a g u a r a n t e e o f u t i l it y w i t h a v i e w t o n o t h a r m -

i n g o n e a n o t h e r a n d n o t b e i n g h a r m e d . ( 2) [ 32 ] N o t h i n g i s j u s t o r u n j u s t

in r e l a t i on to t hose c r ea tu re s wh ich were unab le t o make con t r ac t s ove r

n o t h a r m i n g o n e a n o t h e r a n d n o t b e i n g h a r m e d ; s o t o o w i t h a ll p e o p l e s

w h i c h w e r e u n a b le o r u n w i l l i n g t o m a k e c o n tr a c t s o v e r n o t h a r m i n g a n d

no t be ing ha rm ed . (3 ) [33] Jus t i ce was ne ve r any th in g per se, bu t a

con t r ac t , r egu la r ly a r i s ing a t some p l ace o r o the r i n peop le ' s dea l ings

w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , o v e r n o t h a r m i n g o r b e i n g h a r m e d . ( 4) [ 34 ] I n j u s t ic e is

s o m e t h i n g b ad n o t per se bu t i n t he f ea r t ha t a r is e s f ro m th e susp ic ion tha t

one wi l l no t e scape the no t i ce o f t hose who have the au tho r i t y t o pun i sh

such th ings . (5 ) )35 ] N o on e w h o sec re t ly i n f r ing es an y o f t he t e rm s o f a

m u t u a l c o n t r ac t m a d e w i t h a v i e w t o n o t h a r m i n g a n d n o t b e i n g h a r m e d

can be conf id en t t ha t he wi l l e scape de t ec t ion eve n i f he does so coun t l e s s

t imes . For r ig ht up to h is de a th i t is un c le ar w h e th er h e w i l l ac tua l ly

escape .

B Ep icu rus , Key doctrines 36—7, 17

(1) [36] T ak en ge ne ra l ly , jus t ice i s the sa m e fo r a l l, s ince it is s o m e th in g

usefu l in pe op le ' s soc ial re la t io nsh ips . B u t in the l ight of w h a t is pecu l ia r

t o a r e g i o n a n d t o t h e w h o l e r a n g e o f d e t e r m i n a n t s , t h e s a m e t h i n g d o e s

no t turn o ut to be ju s t fo r a l l. (2) [37] W h a t i s l ega l ly d ee m ed to be ju s t

has i ts ex is tence in the do m a in of jus t ice w h e n e v e r i t is a t tes te d to be

use fu l in the r eq u i r em en t s o f soc ia l r e l a t i onsh ip s , w h e t h e r o r no t it t u r ns

ou t t o be t he same fo r a l l . Bu t i f someone makes a l aw and i t does no t

happen to accord wi th the u t i l i ty of soc ia l re la t ionships , i t no longer has

the na tu re o f j u s t i ce . A nd eve n i f w ha t is u se fu l i n t he sphe re o f j u s t i c e

changes bu t f i ts t he p re co nc ep t io n fo r som e t im e , it wa s no l es s j u s t

t h r o u g h o u t th a t t i m e f o r t h o s e w h o d o n o t c o n f u s e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h

em pt y u t t e r ances bu t s im ply look a t t he f ac t s. (3 ) [17] T h e ju s t < l i f e > is

mo s t f r ee f r o m d i s tu rb anc e , bu t t he un jus t l i fe is fu l l o f t he g rea t e s t

d i s t u r b a n c e .

1 2 5



Epicurean ethics

C E p i c u r u s , Key doctrines 7, 40

(1) [7] C e r t a i n p e o p l e w a n t e d t o b e c o m e f a m o u s a n d a d m i r e d , t h i n k i n g

tha t t hey would t hus acqu i r e s ecur i t y f rom o the r men . Consequen t ly , i f

such peo ple ' s l i fe wa s secure , they d id o bta in na tur e ' s go od ; but i f it was

not secure , they are not in possess ion of the objec t ive which theyor ig ina l ly sought a f te r on the bas i s of na ture ' s a f f in i ty . (2) [40] T h o s e

w h o had t h e po w er t o e l imina t e all f ea r o f t he i r ne ig hb ou r s l ived t oge the r

accord ing ly i n t he mos t p l easurab l e way , t h rough hav ing t he f i rmes t

p l edge o f s ecur i t y ; and a f t e r en joy ing t he fu l l e s t i n t imacy , t hey d id no t

g r i ev e ove r som eo ne ' s un t im e ly dea th a s if it c a ll ed fo r c om m ise ra t i on .

D E p i c u r u s , Vatican sayings 58 , 70 , 79

(1) [58] W e m us t l ibera te ourse lves f ro m the pr i son of rou t ine bus iness

and pol i t i cs . (2) [70] Let no th in g be do ne i n yo ur l i fe w hich w i l l b r i ng

y o u f e a r if it s h o u l d b e k n o w n t o y o u r n e i g h b o u r . (3) [79] T h e

undis turbed man causes no s t ress to h imsel f or to anyone e l se .

E E p i c u r u s , Key doctrines 2 7 - 8

r o (1) [27] O f the th ing s w is d o m acqui res fo r the b lessedness of l ife as a

r p w ho le , fa r the grea tes t is the possess ion of f r i en dsh ip . (2) [28] C o n f i d e n c e

s£j׳ י^ tha t n ot h i n g te r r ib le l as ts fo r ev er or even fo r a lon g t im e is pro du ce d b y

^ t he sam e ju d g em e n t t ha t a lso ach i eves t he i ns igh t t ha t f r i endsh ip ' ssecur i t y w i th in t hose ve ry l im i t a t i ons is pe r f ec t l y com ple t e .

F E p i c u r u s , Vatican sayings 23, 28, 34, 39, 52, 66, 78

(1) [23] All f r i endship i s an in t r ins ic v i r tue , but i t or ig ina tes f rom

b e n e f i t i n g . (2) [28] Nei the r t hose who a r e ove r - eage r fo r f r i endsh ip nor

tho se w h o are hes i tant sh ould be ap pr ov ed , b ut i t is a lso necessary to t ake

r i sks for the sake of f r i endship . (3) [34] I t is n o t ou r f r ie nd s ' help tha t w e

need so m u ch as t he con f ide nce o f the i r he lp . (4) [39] O n e w h o is a l w a y slo ok ing for he lp is no t a f r i e nd , no r is on e w h o ne ve r assoc ia tes he lp w i th

f r i endsh ip . For t he fo rmer t r ades sen t imen t fo r r ecompense , whi l e t he

la t te r cut s of f co nf id en t ex pe cta t ion in rega rd to the fu tu re . (5) [52]

Fr i endsh ip dances round the wor ld announc ing t o us a l l t ha t we shou ld

w ak e u p an d fe l ic i t a te on e an ot he r . (6) [66] Let us fee l fo r ou r f r i ends no t

b y m o u r n i n g b u t b y t h i n k i n g o f t h e m . (7) [78] T h e m a n o f n o b l e

cha rac t e r is ch i e f ly con ce rn ed w i th w i sd om and f r i endsh ip . Of these the

fo rmer i s a mor t a l good , bu t t he l a t t e r i s immor t a l .

G P l u t a r c h , Against Epicurean happiness 1097A ( U s e n e r 5 4 4 , p a r t )

T h ey them selves [Epicu reans] in fac t say tha t i t is m o re p leasurable to

co nfe r a ben e f i t t han t o r ece ive one .

126



22 Society

H P l u t a r c h , Against Colotes i i i i b (Usene r 546)

Though choos ing f r i endsh ip fo r t he sake o f p l easu re , he [Ep icu rus ] s ays

he takes on the grea tes t pa ins on behal f of h i s f r iends .

P9

I Seneca , Letters 19.10 (Usener 542)H e [ E p i cu r u s] sa ys y o u s h o u l d b e m o r e c o n c e r n e d a t i n s p e c t i n g w h o m

you ea t and d r ink wi th , t han wha t you ea t and d r ink . Fo r f eed ing

wi thout a f r iend i s the l i fe of a l ion and a wol f .

J L u c r e t i u s 5 . 9 2 5 - 3 8 , 9 5 3 - 6 1

(1) Bu t t he hu m an r ace a t t ha t t im e was mu ch ha rd i e r on the l and , as w as

f i tt i n g f o r c r e a tu r e s e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e h a r d e a r t h . S u p p o r t e d f r o m

with in on la rger and more so l id bones , they were f i t t ed a l l over the i r f leshw i t h p o w e r f u l s i ne w s , a n d w e r e n o t ea sil y c a p a b l e o f b e i n g h a r m e d b y

hea t o r co ld o r unusua l food o r any damage to t he body . (2 ) And fo r

m any o f t he sun ' s cyc le s t h ro u g h t he sky they d rag ge d o u t t he i r l if e i n t he

r o v i n g m a n n e r o f w i l d b e a s t s . T h e r e w a s n o s t u r d y d i r e c t o r o f t h e

r o u n d e d p l o u g h , n o o n e w h o k n e w h o w t o w o r k t h e l a n d w i t h i r o n o r t o

d ig yo un g shoo t s i n to t he so il o r t o cu t d o w n the o ld b ran che s o f t a ll t ree s

w i t h p r u n i n g k n i v e s . W h a t s u n a n d r a i n h a d g i v e n , w h a t e a r t h h a d

c rea t ed o f it s o w n acco rd , was g i f t su f f ic i en t t o s a ti s fy t he i r h e a r t s . . . (3 )

A s y e t t h e y d i d n o t k n o w h o w t o m a n i p u l a t e t h i n g s w i t h f i r e , n o r h o w t o

use sk ins and c lo th e the i r bodi es in the spoi ls of wi ld b eas ts . T h e y d w el t in

w oo ds and m ou n t a i n caves and fo re s t s , and used to h ide the i r r o u g h

l imbs am id sh rubs w h en f o rc ed to t ake she l t e r f r o m the l ash o f w in ds and

r a i n s . ( 4 ) N o r c o u l d t h e y h a v e t h e c o m m o n g o o d i n v i e w , n o r d i d t h e y

k n o w h o w t o m a k e m u t u a l u s e o f a n y c u s t o m s o r l a w s . W h a t e v e r p r i z e

fo r t un e had p ro v id ed to each ma n , he ca r r i ed o f f , t au gh t t o app ly h i s

s t r eng th and l i ve on h i s o w n a cco un t j u s t fo r h imse l f .

K L u c r e t i u s 5 . 1 0 1 1 - 2 7

(1) Th en a f t e r t hey ob ta in ed h u t s and sk ins and f i r e , and w o m a n un i t ed

w i t h m a n w i t h d r e w i n t o a s i ng l e m a r r i a g e , a n d t h e y s aw o f f s p r i n g

e n g e n d e r e d f r o m t h e m s e l v e s , t h e n th e h u m a n r a c e f ir s t b e g a n t o s o f t e n .

For f i re saw to i t tha t the i r ch i l ly bodie s co uld n o t n o w bea r co ld so wel l

unde r t he cove r ing o f t he sky ; s ex sapped the i r s t r eng th , and ch i ld ren by

the ir ch a rm easi ly b r ok e the i r pa r en t s ' s t e rn d em ea n ou r . (2 ) T h e n to o

n e i g h b o u r s b e g a n t o f o r m f r i e n d s h i p s , e a g e r n o t t o h a r m o n e a n o t h e r

and no t t o be ha rmed ; and they ga ined p ro t ec t ion fo r ch i ld ren and fo r t he

fem ale sex , w h en w i th b aby ish noises an d ges ture s the y indic a te d tha t i t is

r i g h t f o r e v e r y o n e t o p it y t h e w e a k . ( 3) Y e t h a r m o n y c o u l d n o t e n t i r e l y

b e c r e at e d ; b u t a g o o d a n d s u b s t a n ti a l n u m b e r p r e s e r v e d t h e i r c o n t r a c t s

1 2 7



2j God

the rack' (Q 3), 'pityin g his slaves' (Q 4), 'no t eng agin g in polit ics . . . or l iving

as a Cy nic ' (Q 5), all nega te Stoic precepts; 'being co nsistently wise' (Q 2), 'being

happy on the rack' (Q 3), 'not being wiser than another wise man' (Q 6) accord

with Stoicism.

23 G od

A L u c r e t i u s 5 . 1 1 6 1 - 1 2 2 5

(1 ) An eas ie r t a sk no w is t o exp la in w h a t cause sp read th e au t ho r i t y o f t h e

gods th rough the wide wor ld , f i l l ed the c i t i e s w i th a l t a r s , and l ed to t he

ins t i tu t ion of the ho ly r i tua ls w h ic h n o w f lourish in gr ea t s ta tes an d

p laces. Th ese eve n no w a re t he sou rce o f t he aw e wh ic h s it s i n m or t a l

m en ' s hea r t s , w h i ch r a ise s n e w sh r ines t o t he god s a ll ov e r t h e w o r l d , an d

w hic h com pe l s t h em to j o in t h e r i te s on h o l y days . (2 ) T h e r eason is t ha t

a l r eady in t hose days t he r aces o f mor t a l men used to see wi th wak ing

m i n d , a n d e v e n m o r e s o i n t h e i r d r e a m s , f i g u r e s o f g o d s , o f m a r v e l l o u s

a p p e a r a n c e a n d p r o d i g i o u s siz e. T h e y a t t r i b u t e d s e n s a t i o n t o t h e m ,

b e c a u s e t h e y s e e m e d t o m o v e t h e i r l i m b s , a n d t o g i v e u t t e r a n c e w i t h

v o ic e s o f a d i g n i t y t o m a t c h t h e i r s p le n d i d a p p e a r a n c e a n d g r e a t s t r e n g t h .

T h e y e n d o w e d t h e m w i t h e v e r l a s t i n g l if e , b e c a u s e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e w a s

in p e r p e t u a l s u p p l y a n d t h e f o r m r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d , a n d m o r e

g e n e r a l l y b e c a u s e t h e y s u p p o s e d t h a t b e i n g s w i t h s u c h s t r e n g t h c o u l d n o te as il y b e o v e r c o m e b y a n y f o r c e . A n d h e n c e t h e y s u p p o s e d t h e m t o b e

s u p r e m e l y b l e s s e d , b e c a u s e n o n e o f t h e m s e e m e d o p p r e s s e d b y f e a r o f

d e a t h , a n d a l s o b e c a u s e i n t h e i r d r e a m s t h e y s a w t h e m p e r f o r m m a n y

m a r v e l l o u s a ct s w i t h n o t r o u b l e t o t h e m s e l v e s . (3 ) A l s o , t h e y s a w h o w

t h e p a t t e r n s o f h e a v e n l y m o t i o n a n d t h e v a r i o u s se a so n s o f t h e y e a r c a m e

r o u n d i n a f i x e d o r d e r , a n d w e r e u n e q u a l t o d i s c o v e r i n g t h e c a u se s w h i c h

b r o u g h t t h is a b o u t . T h e y t h e r e f o r e t o o k r e f u g e i n t h e p r a c ti c e o f

a t t r i b u t i n g it a ll t o t h e g o d s a n d m a k i n g e v e r y t h i n g b e c o n t r o l l e d b y

t h e i r a u t h o r i t y . A n d t h e y l o c a t e d t h e g o d s ' a b o d e s a n d p r e c i n c t s i n t h e

heaven s , because i t is t h ro u g h th e hea ven s tha t n i gh t an d m o o n a re seen to

r o t a t e - m o o n , d a y , n i g h t a n d h e r s t e rn b e a c o n s , t h e s k y ' s n i g h t -

w an de r in g torc he s an d f ly ing f lames , c loud s , sun , ra in , sn o w , w in ds ,

l i g h t n i n g , h a i l , s u d d e n n o i s e s , a n d m i g h t y m e n a c i n g r u m b l e s . (4 )

U n h a p p y h u m a n r a c e, t o a t t r i b u t e s u ch b e h a v i o u r , a n d b i tt e r w r a t h t o o ,

t o t h e g o d s ! W h a t l a m e n t a t i o n s d i d t h e y l a y u p f o r t h e m s e l v e s in t h o s e

days, what w ounds for us, what tears for our descenda nts! It is no piety to

be seen w i th cov e re d head bo w in g aga in and aga in to a s to ne and v i s i t i ngevery altar, nor to grovel on the ground and r a i s e y o u r hands b e f o r e t h e

shrines of the gods, nor to drench altars in the blood of animals, nor to

u tte r s tr ings o f p ray e r s ; b u t r a the r , t o be ab l e t o co n t em p la t e a l l t h ing s

with a t r anqu i l mi nd . (5 ) Fo r wh e n w e gaze u p w a rd s a t t he he av en ly

39



Epicurean ethics

prec inc t s o f t he g rea t cosmos and a t t he ae the r s tudded wi th i t s

s h i m m e r i n g s ta rs , a n d w h e n w e t u r n o u r t h o u g h t t o t h e p a t h s of su n an d

m o o n , t hen in ou r hea r t s , a l r ead y bese t w i th o th e r t roub le s , a fu r the r

anx ie ty is aw ak en ed and be g ins t o ra ise i ts head , t ha t wh a t c on f ro n t s u s

m a y b e s o m e u n b o u n d e d p o w e r , b e l o n g i n g t o t h e g o d s , w h i c h t u rn s th e

g leaming s t a r s on the i r va r ious cour ses . Fo r t he l ack o f an exp lana t ion

d r i v e s t h e m i n d t o w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h e w o r l d h a d a n y b e g i n n i n g , a n d

l ikewise w h e t h e r t he r e is any l imi t t o t he pe r io d fo r w h ic h i ts wa l l s can

bear the s t ra in of th i s res t less mot ion , or whether they a re d iv ine ly

e n d o w e d w i t h e v e r l a st i n g i m m u n i t y a n d ca n g l id e d o w n t h e u n e n d i n g

t r ack o f measu re l e s s t ime , de fy ing i t s migh t . ( 6 ) Bes ides , whose mind

does no t sh r ink wi th f ea r o f t he gods , whose l imbs do no t c r awl wi th

t e r r o r , w h e n e v e r t h e g r o u n d i s s c o r c h e d a n d s h a k e n b y th e q u i v e r i n g

i m p a c t o f a t h u n d e r b o l t a n d r u m b l i n g s s w e e p ac ro s s t h e g r e a t h e a v en s ?D o n o t w h o l e n a t i o n s t r e m b l e , a n d p r o u d k i n g s s h r i n k , t r a n s f i x e d w i t h

fea r o f t he gods , le st t he g r i m h o u r o f r ec ko n in g sho u ld hav e a r r ived fo r

s o m e w i c k e d ac t o r p r o u d w o r d ?

B E p i c u r u s , Letter to Menoeceus 1 2 3 - 4

(1) F i rs t , th ink of go d as an im pe r i sh ab le an d b lessed c rea tu re , as the

c o m m o n idea o f go d is i n ou t l i ne , and a t t ach to h im no th ing a li en to

imper i shab i l i t y o r i nappropr i a t e t o b l e s sedness , bu t be l i eve abou t h im

ev e r y t h i ng th a t can p re se rve h is co m bi na t io n o f b l es sedness and

im pe r i sha b i l i t y . (2) Fo r t he re a re god s - t he k n ow le d ge o f t h em is s e lf -

ev ide nt . (3) B u t they a re no t such as the m an y be l ieve th em to be . For by

the i r be l i e f s a s t o t he i r na tu re t he many do not p r e s e r v e t h e m . T h e

i m p i o u s m a n is n o t h e w h o d e n i e s t h e g o d s o f t h e m a n y , b u t h e w h o

a t t aches t o gods the be l i e f s o f t he many abou t t hem. For t hey a re no t

p re co nc ep t ion s bu t f a lse supp os i t i ons , t he a s se r ti ons o f t he m an y abo u t

go ds . It is th ro u g h these tha t the grea tes t ha rm s, the ones a f fec t ing bad

m en , s tem f r o m god s , and the g rea t e s t bene f i t s t oo . (4 ) For hav in g a t o t a la f f in i ty fo r the i r o w n v i r tu es , they a re rece pt iv e to those w h o are l ike

th em , and c on s ide r a lien al l tha t is no t of tha t k i nd .

C E p i c u r u s , Letter to Herodotus 7 6 - 7

(1) A m o n g c e le s ti al p h e n o m e n a m o v e m e n t , t u r n i n g , e c li ps e, r is in g ,

s e t t i n g a n d t h e l i k e s h o u l d n o t b e t h o u g h t t o c o m e a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e

m i n i s t r y a n d p r e s e n t o r f u t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f s o m e i n d i v i d u a l w h o a t

the same t ime possesses the combina t ion of to ta l b lessedness andi m p e r i s h a b i l i t y . F o r t r o u b l e , c o n c e r n , a n g e r a n d f a v o u r a r e in c o m p a t i b l e

w i th b l e ssedness , bu t have the i r o r ig in i n weak ness , f ea r and dep end ence

on ne ig hb ou r s . (2) N o r sho u ld w e th ink tha t be ings w h ic h a re a t t he same

t ime cong lomera t ions o f f i r e posses s b l e s sedness and vo lun ta r i l y t ake on

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God

t he se movemen t s . (3 ) Bu t we mus t obse rve a l l t he ma je s ty a s soc i a t ed

w i th all t he nam es w h ic h w e app ly to such conc ep t ion s , if t he y g iv e r is e

to no be l i e f conf l i c t i ng wi th ma je s ty . O the rwi se t he conf l i c t i t s e l f w i l l

g ive r i se to the grea tes t menta l d i squie t .

D L u c r e t iu s 6 . 6 8 - 7 9

Unles s you expe l t hese i deas f rom your mind and d r ive f a r away be l i e f s

unwor thy o f t he gods and a l i en to t he i r t r anqu i l l i t y , t he ho ly d iv in i ty o f

t h e g o d s , d a m a g e d b y y o u , w i l l f r e q u e n t l y d o y o u h a r m : n o t b e c a u s e o f

the poss ib i l i t y o f v io l a t i ng the gods ' sup reme power , and o f t he i r

c o n s e q u e n t a n g r y t h i rs t f o r b i t t e r v e n g e a n c e , b u t b e c a u s e y o u y o u r s e l f

w i ll i m a g i n e t h a t th o s e t r a n q u i l a n d p e a c e f u l b e i n g s a r e r o l l i n g m i g h t y

b i l l ows o f w ra th aga ins t yo u . Y ou wi l l be una b le t o v i si t t he sh r ines o f t h e

gods wi th a ca lm hea r t , and incap ab le o f r ece iv ing w i th t r a nq u i l l i t y and

p e ac e t h e i m a g e s f r o m t h e i r h o l y b o d i e s w h i c h t r a v e l i n t o m e n ' s m i n d s t o

revea l t he god s ' appea ranc e . T h e d i r ec t e ff ec t on yo ur l i f e is obv iou s .

E C i c e r o , On the nature of the gods 1.43—9

[Speake r : t he Ep icu rean Ve l l e ius ] (1 ) Anyone who r e f l ec t s how

u n g r o u n d e d a n d r a s h t h e s e [ n o n - E p i c u r e a n t h e o l o g i c a l ] d o c t r i n e s a r e

o u g h t t o r e v e r e E p i c u r u s a n d p la c e h i m a m o n g t h e v e r y b e i n g s w h o m

this inves t iga t ion concerns . (2) For he a lone saw, f i r s t , tha t the godsex i s ted , because na tu r e he r se l f had im pr in t e d the co nc ep t io n o f t h em in

all m e n ' s m i n d s . F o r w h a t h u m a n n a t i o n o r r a c e d o e s n o t h a v e , w i t h o u t

ins t ruc t ion , som e p re co nc ep t ion o f t he gods? Ep icu rus ' w o r d fo r t h is is

prolepsis, tha t is w h at w e ma y ca ll a de l ine a t io n of a t h i n g , p r e c o n c e i v e d

b y t h e m i n d , w i t h o u t w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , i n q u i r y a n d d i sc u s si o n a r e

i m p o s s i b le . T h e p o w e r a n d v a l u e o f t h is r e a s o n i n g w e h a v e le a r n t f r o m

E p i c u r u s ' h e a v e n - s e n t b o o k 011 t he ya rds t i ck and c r i t e r ion . Thus you see

the founda t ion o f t h i s i nqu i ry admi rab ly l a id . Fo r s ince the be l i e f has no t

been e s t ab l i shed by any conven t ion , cus tom o r l aw, and r e t a ins

unan imous consen t , i t mus t necessa r i l y be unde r s tood tha t t he re a r e gods ,

g i v e n t h a t w e h a v e i n g r a i n e d , o r r a t h e r i n n a t e , k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m . B u t

tha t on wh ich a l l men ' s na tu re ag rees mus t necessa r i l y be t rue . The re fo re

it m ust be co nc ed ed tha t the re a re go ds . (3) S ince th i s is ag ree d a m o n g

vi r tua l ly a ll - the une du ca ted , as w el l as ph i lo so ph ers - l et us a l so a l lo w

t h e f o l l o w i n g t o b e a g r e e d : t h a t w h a t I c a ll ed o u r p r e c o n c e p t i o n , o r

p re no t ion , o f t he god s ( fo r n e w th ings r eq u i r e ne w na m es , j u s t as

Ep icu rus h imse l f gave prolepsis its n a m e , a n a m e w h i c h n o o n e h a dprev ious ly app l ied to it ) is such tha t w e th in k th e god s b lessed a nd

im m or ta l . Fo r as we l l as g iv ing us a de l in ea t io n o f t he gods them se lve s ,

na tu re has a lso en gr av ed on o u r m ind s the v i e w o f t h em as eve r l a s t i ng

a n d b le ss ed . (4) T h e r e f o r e E p i c u r u s ' w e l l - k n o w n m a x i m [ = Key doctrine

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24 Death

B.C. were interpreting the 'go d' of Epicurus' system as just such a life-fo rm .Cicero in On the nature of the gods 1, from which E is drawn, seems to assumeEpicurus' gods to be discrete spatial entities. His Epicurean spokesm an Velleiusclearly cannot unde rstand ho w Ep icuru s' technical accou nt of the gods as image sis meant to fit in w ith this, virtually ad m ittin g his inco m pre hen sion in his

parenthesis in E 7, and offers only quite inadequate reasons for these beings'literal imperishab ility (cf. the sequel to E in vol. 2). T he m ost fam ou s such reasonis the idea that the go ds live in the intermundia, the spaces betw een wo rlds, w herethey are less buffeted by other m atter. This particular doctrine was prob ably notyet known to Cicero's sources (which may date from the second or early firstcentury B . C . ) , since it is mentioned neither in Velleius' speech nor in theAcademic Cotta 's reply. But it was kno w n to Cice ro himself, w ho alludes to it inhis introduction (1.18), and w as accepted by his conte mp oraries Philod em us andLucretius. The latter, while accurately transmitting part of the technical

Epicurean account at A 2, nevertheless elsewhe re assumes the gods to live in th eintermundia (from where their images travel to us: D). His promise in L toexplain how this can be is never fulfilled, and w e may guess that this is because hefound no help on the point in Epicurus' writings. Philodemus, in twofragmentanly surviving books, tries to establish the details of the gods' lifestyle(e.g.: do they speak Greek?). But it seems do ub tfu l tha t he had a ny thin g m ore togo on than Epicurus' advice about h ow we are to envisage the gods as living (cf.B 1, C) - advice which prima facie may suggest that they are actual livingorganisms, but w hich is in fact no less consistent w ith their being me re th ou gh t-

objects.It is not hard to see how Epicurus' repudiations of atheism could have

deceived some of his adherents into reading him this way. To find aninterpretation consistent with their views as well as with Epicurus' ownpronouncements seems impossible, and we have settled instead for the only onewhich seems to us to fit the items of evidence widely regarded as the mostauthentic; to account for the deviant items as influenced by a very under-standable misreading of Epicurus' intentions; and to leave him with atheology which ranks in subtlety and originality with any ofhis central theories,

and which could hope to compete on equal terms with the rival Stoic doctrine(54).

24 D ea th \ ־

A E p i c u r u s , Letter to Metioeceus 1 2 4 - 7

(1) A ccu stom you rself to the bel ief that d eath is n ot h in g to us. Fo r all

goo d and evi l lie in sensat ion, w he rea s dea th is the abse nce of sen sat ion.

(2) H enc e a correct u nd ers tan din g tha t death is no th in g to us m ake s th e

m orta l i ty of l ife en jo yab le , no t by add ing in f in i te t im e, bur by r idd ing us

of the des ire for imm or ta l i ty . (3 ) For the re is no th in g fea r fu l in l iv ing fo r

one w h o ge nuin ely grasps that there is no th in g fe ar fu l in no t l iv ing . (4 )

Therefore he speaks id ly who says that he fears death no t because i t wi l l

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Epicurean ethics

be pa in fu l w h en p re sen t bu t because it is pa in fu l i n an t i c ip a t ion . Fo r if

so m et h in g causes n o d is tress w h en pre sen t , it is f ru i t less to be pa in ed by

the exp ec t a t io n o f i t. (5 ) T he re fo re t ha t m os t f r i g h t fu l o f ev il s, dea th , is

no th in g to us, s ee ing tha t w he n w e ex is t dea th is no t p re sen t , and w he n

de ath i s pre sen t w e do no t ex is t . T h u s i t is n o th in g to e i ther the l iv ing or

the dead , s ee ing tha t t he fo rmer do no t have i t and the l a t t e r no longe r

exis t . (6) T h e m a n y s om et im es sh un de a th as the grea tes t of ev i ls , bu t at

o t he r t ime s ch oo se it as a re lease f r o m l i fe 's < ev i l s . Bu t the wise m an

ne i th e r dep re ca t e s l i v1ng> n or f ea r s no t l i v ing . Fo r he ne i th e r f i nds l i v ing

i rk so m e no r t h in ks no t l i v ing an ev i l. Bu t j u s t a s he chooses t he

p leasan te s t food , no t s imply the g rea t e r quan t i t y , so t oo he en joys t he

p leasan te s t t ime , no t t he l onges t . ( 7 ) He who adv i se s t he young man to

l ive w el l bu t th e o ld m an to d ie wel l is na iv e , n ot o nly because l ife is

so m e t h i ng to be w e l co m ed , bu t a lso because to p rac t i se l i v ing we l l and top rac t i s e dy ing we l l a r e one and the same . (8 ) Much worse , however , i s he

who says ' I t ' s a f i ne t h ing neve r t o be bo rn . Or , once bo rn , t o pas s

th ro u g h th e ga t e s o f H ad es w i th t he u t m os t speed ." I f he be l ieves wha t he

says , w h y does he no t t ake h is de pa r tu re f ro m l i fe? H e has eve ry

o p po r t u n i ty t o do so , sup po s ing tha t h is r e so lve w ere se r ious . If he is

jok ing , h i s words a r e i d l e and wi l l be g ree t ed wi th i nc redu l i t y .

B E p i c u r u s , Vatican sayings 3 1

A ga in s t o th e r t h ings it is poss ib l e t o ob ta in se cu r i t y . Bu t w he n i t com es to

dea th we human be ings a l l l i ve i n an unwa l l ed c i t y .

C E p i c u r u s , Key doctrines 1 9 - 2 1

(1) [19] Inf in i te t ime and f in i te t ime conta in equal p leasure , i f one

measures the l imi t s of p leasure by reasoning . (2) [20] The f lesh p laces the

l imi t s o f p l easu re a t i n f in i ty , and need s an in f in i t e t im e to b r ing it a bo u t .

B u t t he i n t e l lec t , by m ak in g a r a t i ona l ca l cu l a t ion o f t he end and the

l imi t w h i ch go ve rn th e fle sh , and by d i spe l l i ng the f ea rs ab ou t e t e rn i ty ,

b r in gs abo u t t h e co m pl e t e li f e, so t ha t w e no lo ng e r need the in f in i t e

t ime . Bu t ne i the r does i t shun p l easu re , no r even when c i r cums tances

b r in g ab ou t o u r d ep a r tu re f ro m l i fe does it suppo se , as it pe r ishes, t ha t

i t has in any w ay fa l len sho r t o f the bes t l ife . (3) [21 j H e w h o kn ow s

the l imi t s of life k n o w s h o w easy it is t o ob ta in t ha t wh ich r e m ov es pa in

c a u s ed b y w a n t a n d t h a t w h i c h m a k e s t h e w h o l e o f l if e c o m p l e t e . H e

t h e r e f o r e h a s n o n e e d f o r c o m p e t i t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t s .

D D iog en es Lae r t i u s 10 .22 (U sen e r 138)

H e r e is t h e le t t e r t o I d o m e n e u s w h i c h h e [ E p i c u r u s ] w r o t e o n his d e a t h -

be d: 'I w ro te th i s to yo u on th a t b lessed day of m y l i fe w hi ch w as a lso the

l a s t . S t r angury and dysen te ry had se t i n , w i th a l l t he ex t r eme in t ens i ty o f

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