Groups and Groups and OrganizationsOrganizations

Chapter 6Chapter 6

Book ResourceBook Resource

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups

► GroupGroup-any number of -any number of people with similar norms, people with similar norms, values, expectations who values, expectations who regularly and consciously regularly and consciously interactinteract

► Primary Group-Primary Group-small group small group characterized by intimate, characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and face-to-face association and cooperationcooperation

► street gangs, family under street gangs, family under the same roof, “sisters” in a the same roof, “sisters” in a sororitysorority

► instrumental in a persons instrumental in a persons day-to-day existenceday-to-day existence

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups

► Secondary Group-Secondary Group-formal, formal, impersonal group where impersonal group where there is little social intimacy there is little social intimacy or mutual understandingor mutual understanding

► distinction between primary distinction between primary and secondary is not always and secondary is not always clear cutclear cut

► workplace, social clubs who workplace, social clubs who have become too largehave become too large

► <In-Group-<In-Group-any group or any group or category to which people feel category to which people feel they belong, “we” or “us”they belong, “we” or “us”

► narrow-family or broad-narrow-family or broad-societysociety

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups

► Out-Group-Out-Group-a group or category a group or category to which people feel they don’t to which people feel they don’t belongbelong

► ““they” or “them”they” or “them”► In-Groups have a feeling of In-Groups have a feeling of

distinctiveness among distinctiveness among members, they are better than members, they are better than people in the Out-Grouppeople in the Out-Group

► proper behavior for an In-Group proper behavior for an In-Group is seen as unacceptable is seen as unacceptable behavior for the Out-Groupbehavior for the Out-Group

► enhances a double standardenhances a double standard► <Robert Merton-conversion of <Robert Merton-conversion of

“in-group virtues” to “out-“in-group virtues” to “out-group vices”group vices”

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups

► Can turn violent-ColumbineCan turn violent-Columbine► Out-Group- <“Trench Coat Out-Group- <“Trench Coat

Mafia” resented In-Group- Mafia” resented In-Group- “Jocks” taunting“Jocks” taunting

► study of 7000 teenagers study of 7000 teenagers found that, even though a found that, even though a teenager has opportunities teenager has opportunities for group membership-they for group membership-they spend 3 and 1/2 hours alone spend 3 and 1/2 hours alone every dayevery day

► crave attention-striking out crave attention-striking out is one way to get itis one way to get it

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups► Reference Group-Reference Group-standard of standard of

evaluating themselves and their evaluating themselves and their own behaviorown behavior

► two basic purposes 1. set and two basic purposes 1. set and enforce standards of conduct and enforce standards of conduct and beliefs; 2. used as a measurementbeliefs; 2. used as a measurement

► to join a certain group- you must to join a certain group- you must pattern yourself after that group-pattern yourself after that group-dress, language etcdress, language etc

► many cases behavior is modeled to many cases behavior is modeled to groups they do not belong-groups they do not belong-example-college student majoring example-college student majoring in finance-reads the in finance-reads the Wall Street Wall Street Journal, Journal, study annual reports of study annual reports of major corporations, listens to major corporations, listens to midday stock newsmidday stock news

Small GroupsSmall Groups

► A group that is small enough A group that is small enough to interact simultaneouslyto interact simultaneously

► primary groups-familiesprimary groups-families► not always the case-a not always the case-a

manufacturer’s meeting with manufacturer’s meeting with its 7 member regional sales its 7 member regional sales staffstaff

► distinct and predictable distinct and predictable patternspatterns

► <street gangs-like a family <street gangs-like a family businessbusiness

► sets-sets-several geographically several geographically based units-each have a based units-each have a leader, lower-ranking officers, leader, lower-ranking officers, rank and file membershiprank and file membership

Small GroupsSmall Groups

► Gangs develop relationships Gangs develop relationships with tenant leaders in public with tenant leaders in public housing, participate in non-housing, participate in non-delinquent social activitiesdelinquent social activities

► maintain their authority in maintain their authority in the neighborhoodthe neighborhood

► number which makes a number which makes a small group isn’t clearsmall group isn’t clear

Interaction Process within Interaction Process within GroupsGroups

► <Georg Simmel (1858-1918)-<Georg Simmel (1858-1918)-first to recognize the importancefirst to recognize the importance

► smaller groups have distinctive smaller groups have distinctive qualities and patterns that qualities and patterns that disappear as the group expandsdisappear as the group expands

► Dyad-Dyad-two member group-wife two member group-wife and husband, business and husband, business partnership, singing duopartnership, singing duo

► special level of intimacyspecial level of intimacy► can be destroyed by the loss of can be destroyed by the loss of

a single membera single member► threat of termination hangs over threat of termination hangs over

this group more than any otherthis group more than any other

Interaction Process within a Interaction Process within a GroupGroup

► <Triad-<Triad-three member groupthree member group► the introduction of another the introduction of another

member in a dyad dramatically member in a dyad dramatically changes the character of the changes the character of the small groupsmall group

► three basic ways of interacting-three basic ways of interacting-► 1. Unifying-married couple and 1. Unifying-married couple and

their first childtheir first child► 2. Mediating-two roommates 2. Mediating-two roommates

always fighting-3rd may always fighting-3rd may attempt to stay on good terms attempt to stay on good terms with both, arrange compromiseswith both, arrange compromises

► 3. Divide-and-rule-coach hopes 3. Divide-and-rule-coach hopes to gain greater control by to gain greater control by making his assistants rivalsmaking his assistants rivals

CoalitionsCoalitions

► The size of triads or largerThe size of triads or larger► a temporary or permanent a temporary or permanent

alliance geared toward a alliance geared toward a common goalcommon goal

► broad-based or narrowbroad-based or narrow► Tobacco-coalition formed Tobacco-coalition formed

between Tobacco companies, between Tobacco companies, Campaign for Tobacco-Free Campaign for Tobacco-Free kids, the American Cancer kids, the American Cancer Society, The Association of Trial Society, The Association of Trial Lawyers of America for a short Lawyers of America for a short time to reach a settlement in time to reach a settlement in excess of $360 billion-excess of $360 billion-

► When done, they went back to When done, they went back to their decades old fighttheir decades old fight

Formal Organizations and Formal Organizations and BureaucraciesBureaucracies

► As more advanced forms of As more advanced forms of technology develop and social technology develop and social structures become more complexstructures become more complex

► a special purpose group designed a special purpose group designed and structured for maximum and structured for maximum efficiencyefficiency

► US postal service, Boston Pops US postal service, Boston Pops Orchestra, collegeOrchestra, college

► bureaucratic form of managementbureaucratic form of management► ascribed statuses play a large role ascribed statuses play a large role

in how we see ourselves within a in how we see ourselves within a formal organizationformal organization

► Women lawyers, where 15% or less Women lawyers, where 15% or less in the largest law firms, “feminine” in the largest law firms, “feminine” traits are strongly devaluedtraits are strongly devalued

► masculinity is equated to successmasculinity is equated to success

BureaucracyBureaucracy

► Rules and hierarchical ranking Rules and hierarchical ranking are used to achieve efficiencyare used to achieve efficiency

► all perform bureaucratic all perform bureaucratic tasks-even though we do not tasks-even though we do not want to be associated with itwant to be associated with it

► <Max Weber-basic similarities <Max Weber-basic similarities of structure and process of structure and process found in religion, government, found in religion, government, education and businesseducation and business

► developed an developed an Ideal TypeIdeal Type, , model of bureaucracymodel of bureaucracy

► 1. Division of labor-1. Division of labor-specialized experts employed specialized experts employed to perform specialized tasksto perform specialized tasks

Weber’s Weber’s Ideal Type Ideal Type for for Bureaucracies Bureaucracies

► Fragmentation takes away from any Fragmentation takes away from any connection with the overall connection with the overall bureaucracybureaucracy

► produces alienation-estrangement or produces alienation-estrangement or disassociation of the surrounding disassociation of the surrounding societysociety

► can lead to can lead to trained incapacity-trained incapacity-workers workers develop blind spots and may not care develop blind spots and may not care what is happening in another what is happening in another departmentdepartment

► <1986 <1986 Challenger Challenger explosion-roots of explosion-roots of problem lay in the social organization problem lay in the social organization of NASAof NASA

► defect for problem was discovered in defect for problem was discovered in 1977-1985 was labeled a “launch 1977-1985 was labeled a “launch constraint”constraint”

► day of launch-company recommended day of launch-company recommended that launch be cancelledthat launch be cancelled

Weber’s Weber’s Ideal TypeIdeal Type for for BureaucracyBureaucracy

► 34 people who were 34 people who were involved in the pre-involved in the pre-launch ignored the launch ignored the warningwarning

► no one was held no one was held responsible responsible

► at its worse, a narrow at its worse, a narrow division of labor ca division of labor ca allow everyone to avoid allow everyone to avoid responsibility for responsibility for critical decisionscritical decisions

Weber’s Weber’s Ideal TypeIdeal Type► 2. Hierarchy of Authority2. Hierarchy of Authority► each position is under the each position is under the

supervision of a higher authoritysupervision of a higher authority► Catholic Church-<Pope-supreme Catholic Church-<Pope-supreme

authority, under him are authority, under him are Cardinals, then bishops and so onCardinals, then bishops and so on

► 3. Written Rules and Regulations-3. Written Rules and Regulations-ensures uniform performanceensures uniform performance

► offers clear standards, valuable offers clear standards, valuable sense of continuitysense of continuity

► individuals come and go-the individuals come and go-the structure and past records give structure and past records give the organization a life all its ownthe organization a life all its own

Weber’s Ideal TypeWeber’s Ideal Type

► Rules and regulations can Rules and regulations can overshadow the larger goals of overshadow the larger goals of the organizationthe organization

► becomes dysfunctionalbecomes dysfunctional► Robert Merton (1968)-Goal Robert Merton (1968)-Goal

Displacement-overzealous Displacement-overzealous conformity to official regulationconformity to official regulation

► eg.-not treating a patient in an eg.-not treating a patient in an emergency room because they emergency room because they have no proof of US citizenshiphave no proof of US citizenship

► 4. Impersonality-Max Weber-4. Impersonality-Max Weber-work carried out work carried out sine ira et sine ira et studiostudio, without hatred or , without hatred or passionpassion

► small firms are impersonal-small firms are impersonal-telephone system, email telephone system, email

Weber’s Ideal TypeWeber’s Ideal Type

► 5. Employment Based on 5. Employment Based on Technical Qualifications-Technical Qualifications-rather than on favoritism, rather than on favoritism, performance against performance against specific standardsspecific standards

► procedures protect procedures protect bureaucrats against bureaucrats against arbitrary dismissal, provide arbitrary dismissal, provide a measure of security, a measure of security, encourage loyaltyencourage loyalty

► ““impersonal” bureaucracy impersonal” bureaucracy can be an improvement can be an improvement over non-bureaucratic over non-bureaucratic organizations organizations

Peter PrinciplePeter Principle► Laurence J. Peter-Laurence J. Peter-► Bureaucracies value technical and Bureaucracies value technical and

professional competenceprofessional competence► personnel decisions don not follow personnel decisions don not follow

ideal patternsideal patterns► >every employee within a >every employee within a

bureaucracy tends to rise to his or bureaucracy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetenceher level of incompetence

► not directly or systematically not directly or systematically tested-possible dysfunctional tested-possible dysfunctional outcome of structuring outcome of structuring advancement on the system of advancement on the system of meritmerit

► talented people receive promotion talented people receive promotion after promotion until they reach a after promotion until they reach a position they can not handleposition they can not handle

BureaucratizationBureaucratization► Not all of Weber’s Ideal Type will be Not all of Weber’s Ideal Type will be

experiencedexperienced► >the process by which a group, >the process by which a group,

organization, or social movement organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucraticbecomes increasingly bureaucratic

► might have to speak to 10 to 12 might have to speak to 10 to 12 different individuals for a particular different individuals for a particular jurisdiction over a problemjurisdiction over a problem

► Jennifer Bickmen Mendez (1998)-Jennifer Bickmen Mendez (1998)-studied domestic houseworkers studied domestic houseworkers employed by a nationwide employed by a nationwide franchisefranchise

► found that employees had 22 steps found that employees had 22 steps to follow to clean a bathroom-to follow to clean a bathroom-complaints and special requests complaints and special requests went to a office-based managerwent to a office-based manager

OligarchyOligarchy

► Rule by a fewRule by a few► Conflict Theorists-even the most Conflict Theorists-even the most

radical movements radical movements bureaucratized in the interest of bureaucratized in the interest of holding on to powerholding on to power

► Iron Law of Oligarchy-Iron Law of Oligarchy-even a even a Democracy will develop into a Democracy will develop into a bureaucracy that is ruled by a bureaucracy that is ruled by a fewfew

► people who achieve leadership people who achieve leadership roles also have the ability to to roles also have the ability to to direct, if not, control othersdirect, if not, control others

► there are a number of checks on there are a number of checks on power-groups compete, informal power-groups compete, informal channels and controls can channels and controls can undercut authorityundercut authority

Organizational CultureOrganizational Culture

► Bureaucracy and the Bureaucracy and the average individualaverage individual

► classical theory-classical theory-scientific scientific management approachmanagement approach--workers are motivated workers are motivated almost entirely by economic almost entirely by economic rewardsrewards

► workers are treated as a workers are treated as a resourceresource

► management approach management approach requires efficiency studies requires efficiency studies and not studies on workers and not studies on workers attitudes or feelings of job attitudes or feelings of job satisfactionsatisfaction

Human Relations ApproachHuman Relations Approach

► Workers organized into unionsWorkers organized into unions► forced management to forced management to

recognize them as other than recognize them as other than objectsobjects

► informal groups of workers informal groups of workers have an important impact on have an important impact on organizationsorganizations

► Human Relations approach Human Relations approach emphasizes the role of peopleemphasizes the role of people

► interest of interactionalistsinterest of interactionalists► bureaucracy’s other facebureaucracy’s other face--

unofficial activities and unofficial activities and activities that are a huge part activities that are a huge part of a bureaucracyof a bureaucracy

Hawthorne StudyHawthorne Study► Research subjects may alter their Research subjects may alter their

behavior to match the behavior to match the experimenter’s expectationsexperimenter’s expectations

► social factors in worker’s social factors in worker’s productivityproductivity

► study of switchboard-bank link study of switchboard-bank link makers makers

► producing far less than should be producing far less than should be expected because they were paid expected because they were paid based on how much they based on how much they producedproduced

► afraid if they produced too much, afraid if they produced too much, their pay rate might be reduced their pay rate might be reduced or they may lose their job or they may lose their job

► created informal norms on rate of created informal norms on rate of productivityproductivity

Technology and the Technology and the WorkplaceWorkplace

► 1. Automation-by 2005 less than 1. Automation-by 2005 less than 12% of the paid labor force will be 12% of the paid labor force will be on the floor of the factoryon the floor of the factory

► 2. Telecommuting-work at home, 2. Telecommuting-work at home, linked to supervisors or colleagues linked to supervisors or colleagues through computer, phone lines and through computer, phone lines and fax, by 2005-25% will be fax, by 2005-25% will be telecommuting or at home workerstelecommuting or at home workers

► 3. Electronic Communication-e-3. Electronic Communication-e-mailing, easy and Democraticmailing, easy and Democratic

► too easy to use-6.6 trillion too easy to use-6.6 trillion messages move through e-mails a messages move through e-mails a yearyear

► company’s CEO banned all e-mails company’s CEO banned all e-mails from 9:30-12 and 1:30-4from 9:30-12 and 1:30-4

► doesn’t convey body language doesn’t convey body language leaves a permanent record, can leaves a permanent record, can “watch”their employees“watch”their employees

Organizational ChangeOrganizational Change► Most obvious changes are Most obvious changes are

personnelpersonnel► goals may changegoals may change► Goal Multiplication-Goal Multiplication-expands its expands its

purposespurposes► YMCA-Young Men’s Christian YMCA-Young Men’s Christian

Movement (1850’s)Bible Study-Movement (1850’s)Bible Study-early 1900’s diversified early 1900’s diversified (gymnasium facilities and include (gymnasium facilities and include everyone) and 1960’s goal everyone) and 1960’s goal multiplication occurred again (job multiplication occurred again (job training and juvenile delinquent training and juvenile delinquent programs) and 1980’s serve the programs) and 1980’s serve the poor-Watts in LA, but also have one poor-Watts in LA, but also have one in Beverly Hills to serve the other in Beverly Hills to serve the other classesclasses

Organizational ChangeOrganizational Change

► Goal Succession-Goal Succession-realized or realized or been denied its goalbeen denied its goal

► must find a new objectivemust find a new objective► rare because if they reach their rare because if they reach their

goal they are no longer needed-goal they are no longer needed-Committee to elect a Political Committee to elect a Political candidate-they dissolve when candidate-they dissolve when they meet their goalthey meet their goal

► may shift towards new goalsmay shift towards new goals► March of Dimes-original purpose March of Dimes-original purpose

was to support research and was to support research and help victims of Polio, 1955 Salk help victims of Polio, 1955 Salk Vaccine wiped out PolioVaccine wiped out Polio

► changed to arthritis and birth changed to arthritis and birth defects defects