Guitar Fingering

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8201061

S H E R R O D , R O N A L D J E R O N E

A GUIDE TO THE FINGERING OF MUSIC FOR THE GUITAR

The University of Arizona A . M U S . D .

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A GUIDE TO THE FINGERING OFMUSIC FOR THE GUITAR

by

Ronald Jerone Sherrod

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of theSCHOOL OF MUSIC

In Partial Fulfillment of the RequirementsFor the Degree ofDOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTSIn the Graduate CollegeTHE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 9


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THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONAGRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have readthe dissertation prepared by RONALD JERONE SHERRODentitled A GUIDE TO THE FINGERING OF MUSIC FOR THE GUITAR

and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirementfor the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS .

1Tj A, p a t e 'JJ, yV>/ Dateate? f ^

Date

Date

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon thecandidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the GraduateCollege.

I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under mydirection and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertationrequirement.

^ n/n/fit.jpertation Director Datei


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STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This dissertation has been submitted in partialfulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree a t TheUniversity of Arizona and is deposited in the UniversityLibrary to be made available to borrowers under rules ofthe LibraryBrief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurateacknowledgment of source is made Requests for permission

for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be grated by the head ofthe major department or the Dean of the Graduate Collegewhen in his judgment the proposed use of the material is inthe interests of scholarship In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED


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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

My sincere appreciation is extended to Dr. JohnFitch of the University of Arizona School of Music for histime, availability, and valuable assistance with thisdissertation.

iii


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viiABSTRACT xvi

1. INTRODUCTION 1The Need for the Study 1Fingering Defined 4Purpose 6Review of the Literature 11Articles 13Method Books 16Books 17Dissertations 20Questions Arising from the Lack ofLiterature 21Musical Excerpts 25

2. NOTATION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 28Letter Notation of Pitch 28Left Hand Notation 28Basic Left Hand Position 30Name of Positions 32Stretch and Squeeze Positions 36The Bar 39Hinge-Bar 41Right Hand Notation 50Basic Right Hand Position 52Rest Stroke and Free Stroke 54Summary 62

3. LEFT HAND FINGERING: MELODIES ON ASINGLE STRING 64General Considerations 64Timbre 64

Guitaristic Effects 65Technical Factors 71Physical Factors 73Specific Fingering Principles 76Basic Position 76Minimum Movement 81iv


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VTABLE OF CONTENTSContinued

PageFinger Combinations 90Summary of Fingering Principles 95

4. LEFT HAND FINGERING: MELODIES PLAYEDON TWO OR MORE STRINGS 96General Considerations 96Timbre 96Overlapping Sounds 97Open Strings 99Position Playing 102

Changing Position 105Consecutive Notes on Different Strings . . 112Open Strings 116Summary of Fingering Principles 1185. LEFT HAND FINGERING: HOMOPHONICAND CONTRAPUNTAL MUSIC

General Considerations 120The Bar 120Finger Preparation 125Specific Fingering Principles 127Strong and Weak FingerCombinations 127Guide Fingers and PivotFingers 130Simultaneous Notes Behindthe Same Fret 136Consecutive Notes onDifferent Strings 137

Open Strings 140Summary of Fingering Principles 1416. RIGHT HAND FINGERING 142

General Considerations 142Basic Position 142Specific Fingering Principles 144Alternate Fingers 144Strong and Weak FingerCombinations 153Summary of Fingering Principles 166


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TABLE OF CONTENTSContinuedvi

Page

7. APPLICATIONS, EXCEPTIONS, AND SUGGESTIONSFOR FUTURE RESEARCH 167Application 167Exceptions 170Suggestions for Future Research ... 72

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 174


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page1. Letter Notation of Pitch 292. Left Hand Finger and String Designations.... 93. Application of Finger and Stringdesignations to Music Notation 304., Le Roy, Branle de Bourgoine (Measures 1-4)... 15. Basic Positions for the Left Hand 316. Coste, Study in A Major (Measures 9-12).... 37. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 21(Measures 1-4) 348. Scarlatti, Sonata, L. 463 (Measures 1-5),With Indications for Playing in SecondPosition 359. Bach, Prelude for Lute, BWV 999(Measures 3-6) 3610. Tarrega, Study in E Major (Measures 9-12) ... 711. Beethoven, Variations on a Theme ofPaisiello (Measures 21-24) 3812. A Chord Requiring the Use of BarringTechnique 3913. Samples and Explanations of Bar Notation.... 014. Samples of Bar Notation Used inThis Dissertation 4115. Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor(Measures 1-4) 4216. Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor(Measures 1-4) Using Bar Notation 43

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viiiLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page17. Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor( M e a s u r e s 1 - 4 ) U s i n g Hi n g e - b a r N o t a t i o n.... 4418. Cutting, Toy (Measures 1-4) 4519. Carcassi, Study in A, Op. 60, No. 25(Measures 1 and 2) 4620. Albeniz, Asturias (Measures 7-10) 4721. Giuliani, Sonate, Op. 15 (Measures 7 and 8). . 4822. Bach, "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht undPracht" (Measures 9-12) 4823. "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht"(Measures 9-12) Using Bar Notation 4924. "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht"(Measures 9-12) Using Hinge-Bar Notation ... 5025. Letter Designations and Names of RightHand Fingers 5026. Giuliani, Divertissments Pour La GuitarreOp. 40, No. 4(Measures 1-4). . 5127. Carcassi, "Andantino" from Metado PerChitarra (Measures 1-4) . 5228. Basic Right Hand Position 5229. Tarrega, Prelude in A Minor (Measures 1-3) . . 5330. Sor, Study in D, Op. 35, No. 17(Measures 1 and 2) 5331. Albeniz, Sevilla (Measures 77-80)To BePlayed With Rest Strokes 5532. Sor, Study in A Minor, Op. 35, No. 3(Measures 1-4) 5633. Core Sound and Tonal Extremes as Suggested

by Charles Duncan 57


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ixLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page34. Coste, Etude in E Minor (Measures 1-4).... 5935. Tarrega, Study in A Major (Measures 1-3)... 6036. Carcassi, Study in A Major, Op. 60,

No. 3 (Measures 1 and 2) 6137. "El Noy de la Mare" (Measures 1-4)Playedon the First String 6538. "El Noy de la Mare" (Measures 1-4) Played

on Strings One, Two, and Three 6539. Ascending Ligado 6640. Descending Ligado 6741. Llobet, Scherzo-Vals (Measures 19 and 20) . . . 6842. Arrastres (Ascending and Descending) 6843. Portamenti (Ascending and Descending) 6944. Tarrega, Pavana (Measures 1-4) 7045. Robinson, Parajo Cantor (Measures 1-5).... 7146. Sor, Study in E Minor, Op. 60, No. 22(Measures 1 and 2) 7247. Sor, Variations on a Theme of MozartOp. 9 (Measures 1-4) 7248. Dowland, Fantasia (Measures 1-4) 7749. Albeniz, Sevilla (Measures 77-80) 7850. Sagreras, El Colibri (Measures 9-13) 7951. Logy, Capriccio (Measures 3-8) 8052. "O Ewigkeit, Du Donnewort" (Measures 1-3)Using Stretch Position 81


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XLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page53. "O Ewigkeit, Du Donnewort" Measures 1-3)Maintaining Basic Position 8154. Guerau, El Invierno (Measures 1-4) Movingto Eleventh Position 8255. Guerau, El Invierno (Measures 1-4) Movingto Ninth Position 8356. Robinson, Prelude (Measures 1-4) 8457. Carulli, Nocturne, Op. 90 (Measures 12-14)Without Guide Fingers 8558. Carulli, Nocturne, Op. 90 (Measures 12-14)Utilizing a Guide Finger 8559. Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) 8660. Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) WithFirst Phrase Ending in Measure 2 8761. Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) WithFirst Phrase Ending in Measure 3 8862. Fingerings Corresponding to the NaturalAccents of the Music 8963. "Viento de Primavera" (Measures 5-8) 9064. Muscles Controlling the Fingers of the Hand . . 9165. Extensor Tendons Controlling the Fingers ... 9366. Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cueur di Orlando(Measures 11 and 12) Using Weak Fingers.... 9467. Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cuer di Orlando(Measures 11 and 12) Using Strong Fingers... 9468. Paganini, Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6(Measures 1 and 2) 9869. Paganini, Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6(Measures 1 and 2) Showing an Overlappingof Sounds 98


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Fingers Page70. Tarrega, Danza Mora (Measures 22-24)Utilizing Open Strings 9971. Tarrega, Danza Mora (Measures 22-24) ShowingDampening of Open Strings 10072. Tarrega, Danza Mora (Measures 22-24)Fingered to Eliminate Open Strings 10073. Purcell, "Minuet" from Suite No. 1 in G(Measures 1-4) Utilizing Open Strings 10174. Purcell, "Minuet" from Suite No. 1 in G(Measures 1-4) Fingered to EliminateOpen Strings 10275. Carcassi, Study No. 18 from Melodic andProgressive Studies, Op. 60 (Measures 1-4)With Left Hand Movement 10376. Carcassi, Study No. 18 from Melodic andProgressive Studies. Op. 60 (Measures 1-4)

Without Left Hand Movement 10377. G Major Scale as Played by Andres Segovia . . . 10678. "Nieve Blanca de la Sierra" (Measures 1-4)Employing a Simultaneous Change of Stringand Position 10779. "Nieve Blanca de la Sierra" (Measures 1-4)Utilizing a Single String for the Changeof Position 10880. Bach, "Fugue" from Sonata No. 1 in G Minorfor Unaccompanied Violin (Measures 93 and 94). 10981. Schentz, Etude Fur Violin (Measures 1-8)Moving Away from the Final Goal ofTwelfth Position 11082. Schentz, Etude Fur Violin (Measures 1-8)Utilizing Direct Movement to the FinalGoal of Twelfth Position Ill


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xiiLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page83. Giuliani, La Tersicore del Nord. Op. 147,No. 12 (Measures 9-12) Using the SameFinger for the c#2 and in Measure 2 .... 1384. Giuliani, La Tersicore del Nord, Op. 147,No. 12(Measures 9-12) Using the Hinge-bar in Measure 2 11485. Giuliani, La Tersicore del Nord. Op. 147,No. 12 (Measures 9-12) Using DifferentFingers for the c nd a^ in Measure 2 . . 11486. "Suenos Tristes" (Measures 1 and 2) With

Awkward Fingering 11587. "Suenos Tristes" (Measures 1 and 2)Utilizing a Natural Position for the Hand . 11688. Bach, Inventio VIII (Measures 1-4) WithAwkward Movement of the First Finger BetweenMeasures 3 and 4 11789. Bach, Inventio VIII (Measures 1-4)

Utilizing an Open String 11790. Carcassi, Study in A Major, Op. 60, No.22 (Measures 1 and 2) 11891. Sor, Study in A, Op. 6, No. 65 (Measures5-9) Utilizing the Bar 12292. Sor, Study in A, Op. 6, No. 6(Measures 5-9)Fingered to Eliminate the Use of the Bar . . . 12293. Bach, "Bourrde" from the Lute Suite in EMinor (Measures 13 and 14) Utilizing

the Bar 12394. Bach, Bourre" from the Lute Suite in EMinor (Measures 13 and 14) Fingered toEliminate Use of the Bar 12395. Coste, Etude in A Major (Measures 1-4)Utilizing the Bar 124


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xiiiLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page96. Coste, Etude in A Major (Measures 1-4)Fingered to Eliminate Use of the Bar 12597. Carulli, Country Dance (Measures 9-16).... 2698. Alb^niz, Asturias (Measures 31-37)Utilizing Weak Fingers 12899. Albeniz, Asturias (Measures 31-37)Utilizing Strong Fingers 129100. Sor, Study in C, Op. 6, No. 8 (Measures 1-5) . 130101. Granados, Spanish Dance No. 5 (Measures25-28) 131102. Aguado, Estudio in A Minor (Measures 1-4)Fingered Without Guide Fingers 132103. Aguado, Estudio in A Minor (Measures 1-4)Utilizing a Guide Finger for the Change ofPosition 132104. Logy, "Aria" from Partita in A Moll

(Measures 9-12) 133105. Sor, Study in A Minor, Op. 35, No. 3(Measures 1-4) 134106. Sor, Study in B Minor, Op. 35, No. 22(Measures 1-6) 135107. Sor, Study in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 16(Measures 1 and 2)Using an Awkward Fingering . 136108. Sor, Study in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 16(Measures 1 and 2) Using a Secure Fingering . . 137109. "Spanish Romance" (Measures 1-4) With anAwkward Fingering 138110. "Spanish Romance" (Measures 1-4) With aSecure Fingering 139111. Llobet, El Mestre (Measures 1-6) 140


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xivLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page112. Carcassi, Study in C, Op. 60, No. 6(Measures 1-3) 143113. Carulli, Sonata in A Major (Measures 27-30)Requiring Repetition of the i _ Finger 146114. Carulli, Sonata in A Major (Measures 27-30)Utilizing Alternation of i _ and m 147115. de Visee, "Bourree" from the Suite in D Minor(Measures 1-4) Requiring Excessive Repetition

of^nd m 148116. de Vise, "Bourree" from the Suite in D Minor(Measures 1-4) Utilizing an Alternation ofFingers 149117. Sor, Study in A Major, Op. 31, No. 19(Measures 40-42) Requiring p to ExecuteRapid Thirty-second Notes 150118. Sor, Study in A Major, Op. 31, No. 19(Measures 40-42) Utilizing an Alternation ofFingers on Rapid Notes 151119. Aguado, Study in C (Measures 1-8) 152120. Coste, Etude de Genre. Op. 36, No. 22(Measure 1) Utilizing Weak Fingers 153121. Coste, Etude de Genre, Op. 36, No. 22(Measure 1) Utilizing Strong Fingers 154122. Carcassi, Prelude in C (Measures 1 and 2) . . . 157123. Aguado, Study in G Major (Measures 1 and 2) . . 157124. Llobet, Estilo Popular Argentino No. 1(Measures 18-20) 158125. Sor, Study in D Major, Op. 35, No. 17(Measures 1 and 2) 159126. Tarrega, Lagrima (Measures 1 and 2) 160


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued

Figure Page127. Zipoli, Fugue in A Minor (Measure 1)Containing Awkward String Crossings 161128. Zipoli, Fugue in A Minor (Measure 1)Containing Secure String Crossings....... 61129. Mudarra, Fantasia (Measures 17-20) 162130. Telemann, Concerto in A Ma.ior for FourViolins (Measures 20 and 21) ContainingAwkward String Crossings 163131. Telemann, Concerto in A Ma.ior for FourViolins (Measures 20 and 21) ContainingSecure String Crossings 163132. Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) ContainingAwkward String Crossings in Measures 2 and 4 . . 164133. Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing

Awkward String Crossing and Wide Reachin Measures 1, 3, and 5 165134. Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing

Secure Reaches and String Crossings 166135. Sor, Study in B Minor, Op. 35, No. 22(Measures 19-22) 170136. Giuliani, Study in C Major (Measures 1-4) . . . 171


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ABSTRACTAn important area of guitar education, whether in

a private studio or a public school classroom, is that ofguitar "fingering"the exact, well-planned, and deliberatedesignation of fingers to a musical passage. Knowledge,understanding, and application of basic fingering princi

ples will aid students in such parameters as technicalproficiency, expression, phrasing, memorization, and performance security. This dissertation supplies the teacherwith a theoretical basis from which to present this important topic. The basis is built on two sets of principles:(1) the physical properties of the guitar and its toneproduction (guitar size, distance between the frets,sustaining quality of the strings, and varying timbre ofthe strings), and (2) the physiological structure of thehuman hand and arm (length of the fingers, alignment ofhands with the strings, strong and weak finger combinations, changing positions, fatigue, and string crossing).

This study is divided into seven chapters. Thefirst serves as an overview of the currer.' status ofguitar education and provides an introduction to the topicof fingering. Chapter 2 describes the notation usedthroughout the document and defines such fundamentals as

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the names of positions, stretch and squeeze positions, thebar and hinge-bar, and rest and free strokes. Chapters3, 4, 5, and 6 present information that constitutes themain conclusions of this study. They deal with the lefthand fingering of melodies played on a single string, lefthand fingering of melodies played on two or more strings,left hand fingering of homophonic and contrapuntal music,and right hand fingering. Included in. these areas ofdiscussions are basic left and right hand positions,minimum movement, pivot and guide fingers, position playing,changing positions, strong and weak finger combinations,and fingerings which compliment musical phrasing andexpression.

Chapter 7 summarizes the major concepts presentedin the dissertation, gives guidelines to teaching thetopic of guitar fingering, and supplies suggestions forfuture research in this subject area.


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The Need for the StudyIn the elementary and secondary schools of the

United States guitar classes are rapidly becoming a regularpart of music programs. The reasons for this are two-fold.First, the guitar is extremely popular among young people;they readily identify with this instrument and are eager togain the ability to perform on i t . ' Thus, the guitaroffers a reliable means of getting the students' attentionfocused on music. Guitar study involves musical skillsthat may be pursued and developed, and it provides a bridge

to all aspects of musicstyle, theory, and historySecond, as a result of the concert performances of

great artists such as Andres Segovia, Julian Bream, andJohn Williams, the guitar in the United States is considered worthy of serious study. Guitar instruction has beenoffered in colleges and universities since 1963, and guitaris now accepted on a par with other solo and orchestral

1. Vahdah Bickford, "Guitar Forum," AmericanString Teacher (Winter, 1973), pp. 26 and 35.

1


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22instruments. This has opened the door to guitar programs

in lower grades and has allowed guitar classes to be formedeither as part of regular elementary, junior high, andsenior high school curriculums or as a supplementary partof general music and fine arts classes

Nevertheless, a perplexing discrepancy exists todaybetween the high interest in and enthusiasm for the instrument and the low quality of guitarists who complete publicschool guitar programs. A primary reason for this discrepancy is the lack of trained teachers. A survey conductedby the Guitar and Accessory Manufacturers Association ofAmerica in cooperation with The American String TeachersAssociation shows that in 1978 only 12% of all school guitarclasses were taught by individuals whose primary or secondary instrument was the guitar. The remaining 88% were taughtby band directors, choir directors, and general music

3teachers whose performance medium was not guitar. Oftensuch teachers, although well-qualified musically, areacquainted with neither the mechanics and techniques ofthe guitar and guitar playing nor guitar literature.Again, the above-mentioned research shows that 66% of

2 Thomas Hartman, "The Guitar: Then and Now,"Perspectives in Music Education (Washington, D.C.: MusicEducators National Conference, 1966), p. 454.3. Fact Sheet: Results of the 1978 GAMA/ASTASchool Guitar Survey, Guitar and Accessory ManufactorAssociation of America, Chicago, Illinois.


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3American guitar teachers in the schools are self-taught.4In reviewing this figure, Peter Miller of James MadisonUniversity states, "It follows logically then that the

5basic folk-style is the most common style taught." Thisstatement is supported by research which shows that classical style and technique are taught in only 4 % of the

gschools offering guitar. This is unfortunate, as ClareCallahan of the College Conservatory of the University ofCincinnati states:

When a public school student signs up forstudy on the violin, trumpet, piano or any otherinstrument, he is taught basic technique, not'pop' violin, 'western' trumpet, or 'folk' piano.When he signs up for study on the guitar, what istaught?

Basic guitar technique is rooted in classicalguitar technique. For some reason, this realizationcan elicit a fear from teachers and students thatthey will have to play the classics exclusively.Classic technique is equated instantly with classicalrepertoire and dismissed as too difficult or irrelevant. This attitude is not found in the beginningstudy of any other instrument, but on the guitar itis allowed to prevail.^

4. Fact Sheet: Results of the 1978 GAMA/ASTASchool Guitar Survey, op cit.5 Peter Miller, "Promoting Quality Public SchoolGuitar Programs," (an unpublished paper presented to

American String Teachers Guitar Symposium) Lubbock, Texas(October 1979), p. 2.6. Fact Sheet: Results of the 1978 GAMA/ASTA

School Guitar Survey, op. cit.7. Clare Callahan, "The School Guitar Class: A

Need for Redirection," The Instrumentalist (June, 1978),p. 60.


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4Likewise, Peter Miller states, "We need to inform thepublic and educators alike that the classical technique is

Othe foundation block on which all other forms evolve."From the foregoing statements, it is clear that

there exists a need to improve the quality and change thedirection of guitar instruction in public school education.This may be accomplished in part by production of adequateclassroom material and improvements in teacher training.Efforts are being made in these areas. Worthwhile guitarmethods suitable for classroom use are beginning to appear;more and more guitar ensemble music is available to theteacher; and graded lists of classical solo literature arebeing published. Workshops, methods classes, seminars, andmaster classes are being conducted at national, regional,and local levels. However, there exists a need to breakthe elements of guitar playing into small, individual unitsin order that the teacher be able to present them accurately and confidently to the students. The topic ofguitar fingering is one of these units.

Fingering Defined"Fingering" in this study is defined as the exact,

well-planned, and deliberate designation of fingers to agiven musical passage. The teaching of this methodical and

8. Peter Miller, op. cit., p. 4.


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5meticulous choice of fingers is of utmost importance inorder that students become completely familiar with theinstrument, feel secure in a performance situation, andpresent an authentic and artistic performance of the music.This is verified by comments such as:

C. P. E BachMore is lost through poor fingering than can bereplaced by all conceivable artistry and goodtaste. Facility itself hinges on it, for experience will prove that an average performer withwell-trained fingers will best the greatestmusician who because of poor fingering is forcedto play against his better judgment,9

Carl CzernyYou will already have remarked how necessary correct fingering is in playing. A single ill-chosen finger may often cause the complete failure of a whole passage, or at least, make it soundcoarse, unequal and disagreeable.10

Carl FleschThe term 'fingering' may be defined as the choiceof the finger used to produce a certain tone . .fingering represents a bridge, linking the personal taste of the performer with the intentionsof the composer.H

9. C. P. E. Bach, Essay on the True Art of PlayingKeyboard Instruments, trans, and ed. by William Mitchell(New York: Norton &Co., 1948), p. 41.10. Carl Czerny, Letters to a Young Lady on the Art

of Playing the Pianoforte, trans, by J. A. Hamilton (London: R. Cocks &Co., 1842), p. 24.11. Carl Flesch, Violin Fingering, ed. by BorisSchwartz (New York: Da Capo Press, 1979), p. 5.


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6Richard Greene

The way a passage of music is fingered and positioned can greatly change the way it is perceivedby the listener. .. . Finding good fingeringsis as important as finding the right notes.

William NewmanThe choice of, and adherence to, a fingering on akeyboard instrument can make or break a piece. Itcan profoundly affect memorizing, stage poise,technical mastery, speed of learning and generalsecurity at the piano.13

David OistrakhFingering is one of the most important branches ofthe violinist's art. The choice of the correctfingering can simplify technical difficulties andopen up new artistic possibilities. . ..14

Franklin TaylorAmong the essentials which contribute to the formation of a good technique, none can be of greaterimportance than a practical and systematic methodof fingering.

PurposeThis dissertation presents a study of many consid

erations regarding guitar fingering in order to help guitar

12. Richard Greene, "Guitar Forum," American StringTeacher (Spring, 1979), p. 40.13. William Newman, The Pianist's Problems (NewYork: Harper &Row, 1950), pp. 75-76.14. David Oistrakh, quoted in I. M. Yampolsky,The Principles of Violin Fingering (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), Preface.15. Franklin Taylor, Technique and Expression inPianoforte Playing (London: Novello &Co., 1897), p. 27.


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7instructors at every level in their endeavors to teach students to play with security, a minimum of effort, and in alegato style. Security and minimum effort are discussedthroughout this document; some comments on legato playingare presented in the following paragraph.

The legato touch qualitythe smooth, flowing connection of notes and phrasesis the one most often desiredin musical composition and performance. (Staccato and non-legato touches usually constitute the elements of contrastto the singing-like connection of notes.) With guitar, aswith other instruments, "The basic task of teaching tech-

16nique to a beginner is teaching legato playing." As PepeRomero states, ...he ideal of modern guitar playing is

17to ... carry a beautiful legato line,," Execution ofthe legato style is of equal value in the homophony of amelody supported by accompaniment and the polyphony ofsimultaneous melodies where the full independence of voicescan be realized only when each note is held for its entireduration. But this style of musical expression is difficultto teach on plucked instruments such as the guitar becausethe sound begins to decay almost as soon as it is

16. Jozsef Gat, The Technique of Piano Playing(London: Collet's Holding Ltd., 1965), p. 269.17. Pepe Romero, quoted in Allan Kozinn, "PepeRomero," Guitar Player (January, 1981), p. 33.


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818produced. It will be shown that the adherence to certain

fingering principles can enhance the teaching of legatoplaying.

Due to the similarities of all guitars and thestructure of all human hands, a theoretical basis for guitarfingering can be established to accomplish the stated objective of this paper. This basis is founded upon the physicalproperties of the instrument and its tone production (guitarsize, distance between frets, sustaining quality of thestrings, and varying timbre of the strings) and the physiological structure of the human hand (length of fingers,alignment of hands with the strings, strong and weak fingercombinations, changing positions, fatigue, and stringcrossing). Fingering principles will be drawn from thistheoretical foundation.

Such a statement of purpose presupposes that otherelements of guitar playing and musical expression will betaught simultaneously with the topic of fingering Studentsshould be required to 1) practice music reading skills inorder that they be familiar with the notes throughout theentire fingerboard and able to read homophonic and contrapuntal music, 2)refine technical skills in order to execute

18. George Sakellariou, in Ronald Sherrod, GuitarMaster Class (Melville, New York: Belwin Mills PublishingCorp., 1980), p. 8.


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9the correct notes at the correct time, and 3) develop interpretive skills in order to express themselves musically.

The area of interpretive skills includes a study ofhistory, style, and performance practice. As Julien Musafiapoints out, "The correct understanding of the musical objective in a given passage will determine the correctness of

19the fingering to be used." Thus, knowledge of fingeringprinciples (and knowledge of the results if the principlesare not adhered to) will allow the conscientious guitarinstructor to teach his/her students to select betweenalternatives and arrive at the best solution for any givenpassage according to the interpretive understanding of thatpassage. Failure to bring students to this realization maylead to undesirable results. Several points of attention

in this area are summarized as follows :1. Many musicians blindly follow the fingering provided

in printed editions of compositions not realizing that thisreproduces the interpretations of the editor and demands theeditor's technique.^

2. Fingerings are often added to the music sine instru-mentum: the fingerings look good on paper but have neverbeen tried on the instrument, or those that have been tried

19. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at thePiano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 3.

20. Willian Newman, op. cit., p. 77.


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1021may not have been done "up to tempo." Likewise, a given

passage when repeated may be executed more efficiently if22fingered differently the second time. For example, a pas

sage may be written in such a manner that the fingers arecoming from a particular placement, but on a subsequentappearance the same passage is approached from a differentplacement. Thus, a different fingering may be required.Also, a passage may be more effective musically if a changein timbre occurs the second time the passage is heard* Adifferent position on the guitar, requiring a different

23fingering, may accomplish this change. These alternatefingerings are seldom notated in printed music.

3. The choice of fingerings depends on the performancesituation. For a player who performs in a large hall, the

room itself acts as part of the instrument in aiding legato24and covering slides, A musician (especially a guitarist)performing in a smaller room has the advantage of a greateruse of dynamics and timbre. It should be noted from thisreinforcing the statement in No. 1 abovethat while moststudents buy and study the music editions of players such

21. Ibid.22. Carl Flesch, op. cit, p. 285.23. Ibid.24. Warren Benfield, The Art of Double Bass Play

ing (Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Co., 1973), p. 36.


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11as Andres Segovia, Julian Bream, and John Williams, thesestudents do not perform in the same environment as thesemasters. It is extremely important for students and theirteachers to realize this difference and adapt fingeringsappropriate to the individual situations.

As the principles presented in this writing areapplied to all types of guitar compositions, it will bediscovered that the same fingering principles used to pro

duce a legato style can be used in most situations toexecute all other styles of articulation. In playing theguitar, the hands are held in close proximity to the stringsand can stop a string's vibration either by touching it orreleasing its tension. Thus, a note which can be held fora long duration can be easily shortened, but the converseis not true. A fingering that can produce only a staccatotouch, for example, cannot produce a legato touch.

Review of the LiteratureAn examination of writings regarding guitar finger

ing shows that a thorough and systematic study of the topichas not been conducted. Guitarists before the twentiethand late nineteenth centuries have made comments regardingfingering. Many of the statements, such as those found in

25Fernando Sor's Method for the Spanish Guitar, are

25. Fernando Sor, Method for the Spanish Guitartrans, by A. Merrick (New York: Da Capo Press, 1971),p. 48.


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valuable; but discussions of fingering applied to thecontemporary classical guitar must express caution whenanalyzing the works of guitarists before the establishmentof the Antonio Torres guitar as a model. With the adoptionof this instrument as a standard for size arid dimensions,guitar technique and, consequently, fingering principleschanged. The changes in technique included the following:

1. A change in sitting position due to the instrument'slarger body size: "From his (Francisco Tarrega) time thesupport of the instrument on the left leg became standard.This playing position is in part a consequence of the larger

26instrument initiated by Torres."2. An abandonment of depressing strings with the left

hand thumb due to the wider fingerboard:One aspect of technique advocated in a number oftutors is the use of the left hand thumb to stopdown notes on the bottom string. This was madepossible by the narrower fingerboard of the earlynineteenth-century guitar; it would be an extremelyawkward movement on the larger fingerboard of themodern instrument and is no longer employed.3. The elimination of the practice of planting the lit

tle finger of the right hand on the face of the guitar dueto the raised fingerboard and the higher bridge and saddle:

Tarrega .. . established the use of the apoyandostroke. To incorporate this into right hand technique necessitates the abandonment of the practice

26. Harvey Turnbull, The Guitar from the Renais-sance to the Present (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,1974), p. 106.


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13of supporting the hand by resting the little fingeron the table; in order to play either apoyando ortirando with any of the fingers as the texture ofthe music demands, the right hand must be poisedover the strings with complete freedom. A furtherTorres' innovation may have contributed to this.The fingerboards of the small nineteenth-centuryg u i t a r s w e r e e i t h e r fl u s h w i t h t h e t a b l e...rat most c. 2 mm deep; the fingerboards of moderninstruments are much deeper6-7 mm. With themodern bridge and saddle the height of the stringsabove the table is raised, which makes the supportedposition more awkward, particularly when complexmusic is performed.2

An overview of twentieth century writings which pertain to the teaching of guitar fingering will be found inthe following paragraphs.

ArticlesReferences to guitar fingering may be found in such

statements as, "Points to be stressed here are: ...Alternation of i [index finger] and m [middle finger] in the

29right hand, no matter what the left hand is doing," "Thebass F sharp is muted and shortened to an eighth note tofinish the phrase and to permit an expressive left-hand

30fingering of the next entry," and28. Ibid., p. 106.29. Robert Mayeur, "Classroom Guitar Forum," Soundboard (May, 1981), p. 98.30. Charles Duncan, "The Segovia Sound: What Is

It?" Guitar Review (Fall, 1977), p. 30.


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14The difference between this scale . . . and thosein the older tuition manuals, is an important one.The scales taught in the older manuals includedcertain notes played on 'open strings,' where thebone 'nut' acted instead of a finger. These scalesare 'fixed scales': they cannot be played anywhereexcept in the 1st position because of the use ofthe open strings. They must be learned, of course,but they are useful only in 1st position. The scalepatterns I will set down for you do not use any openstrings. Each note must be fingered, it is therefore possible to move the pattern to a differentpart of the fingerboard without destroying its shapeor altering the pattern,31

Richard Greene, in "Guitar Forum" of American String Teacher,offers several comments on guitar fingering such as:

. in chording, sliding fingers can be of greathelp as 'guide' fingersanchoring the hand andhelping to set the position . . . avoid using thesame finger twice consecutively on differentstrings. ... Try to follow the natural alignment of the fingers to strings when changings t r i n g s [ r e f e r r i n g t o t h e r i g h t hand].... onot use three fingers when two will do as well[right hand].... at faster speeds or in morecomplicated textures, repeating a finger will oftendistort the tempo and cause tension (right hand.)

It is noted, however, that Mr. Greene does not elaborate onhow these principles were arrived at or why they are beneficial. Some comments by Mr. Greene which deal more withtechnique and interpretation than with specific fingeringprinciples are valuable to an overall view of the topic andguitar playing in general:

31. Terry Usher, "Scale Playing," Guitar Review(Fall, 1955), p. 21.32. Richard Greene, "Guitar Forum," American StringTeacher (Spring, 1979), p. 40.


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15Use all of your fingers. Do not shy away from usingthe fourth finger.. . Try to keep fingers in thevicinity of their next uses...e careful withslides. In single lines, using the same finger ontwo frets of the same string can be messy, noisy,and uncontrolled. Slide only if there is no othersolution, or if the slide is interpretive. . ..Finger 'backwards'. When planning a fingering, startat the point where you want to end up, then workb a c k w a r d s f r o m t h e r e t o s e e h o w t o g e t t h e r e ...U s e r i g h t h a n d p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e e a s i l y remembered.33

Emilio Pujol, in the Guitar Review of 1954, providesenlightening information regarding the rest (supported)

34stroke as employed by Francisco Tarrega. Also includedare examples of right hand fingerings as employed byTarrega.3 Also included are examples of right hand fingerings as employed by Tarrega and the comment: "Tarrega. ..never failed to specify the correct fingering for eitherhand. Whether in dealing with the right hand or the left,he always strove to establish a logical order of fingeringin accordance with the physiological possibilities of the

35hand and the organic nature of the instrument."

33. Ibid.34. Emilio Pujol. "The 'Supported' Stroke,"

Guitar Review, 1954, pp. 3-4.35. Ibid.


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16Method Books

36Method books commonly used in guitar educationwhich present the classical style based on the techniques

37developed by Francisco T^rrega include the following:Noad, Frederick. Solo Guitar Playing. New

York: Schirmer Books, 1976.Parkening, Christopher. The ChristopherParkening Guitar Method. Chicago: SherryBrener, 1973.Pick, Richard. First Lessons for ClassicGuitar. Chicago: Forster Music Publisher,Inc., 1971.Pujol, Emilio. Escuela Razonada de la Guitarra,vol. 1-4. Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana,1952, 1954, 1956.Sagreras, Julio. Las Primeras Lecciones deGuitarra. Translated by Bernard A. Moore.Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1975.Shearer, Aaron. Classic Guitar Technique,vol. 1 &2. Melville, New York: Franco

Colombo Publications, 1963 &1964.Each book discusses elements which apply directly or indirectly to guitar fingering. Included in this area are basicleft and right hand positions, position playing, rest strokeand free stroke, alternation of right hand fingers, guideand pivot fingers, ligados, arrastres, portamenti, and thebar. The authors of these books indicate fingerings in the

36. "Curriculum in the Elementary, Junior High andSecondary Schools." Panel Discussion, Jerry Snyder, moderator. National Guitar Convention, San Jose, California,1973.37. See "Musical Excerpts," p. 21.


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17music examples that"are congruous with the principles discussed in this paper. They do not discuss fingering as anisolated topic, however, and give very little rationale forthe fingerings they have marked onto the music.

BooksTwo books, while not discussing fingering, give

information which pertains to all areas of guitar playing:Duarte, John. The Bases of Classic Guitar

Technique. Borough Green, Great Britain:Novello &Co., Ltd., 1975.,Duncan, Charles. The Art of Classical GuitarPlaying. Princeton, New Jersey: Surnmy-Birchard Music, 1980.

Numerous references to these books are made throughout thisdissertation.

The guitar teacher may gain substantial insightsinto the values and principles of guitar fingering by reading works written on the topic of violin fingering. Boththe guitar and the violin are stringed instruments and bothare played with the same four fingers of the left hand.Thus, both instruments will have in common certain physicalcharacteristics of a vibrating string, and the playing ofboth is related by the physiological structures of thefingers. Additionally, the two instruments employ musicwritten in the treble clef. A guitarist can easily read themusical examples presented and grasp the points illustrated.Two useful books which deal with violin fingering are:


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18Flesch, Carl. Violin Fingering. Translated

by Boris Schvvarz. London: Barrie &Rockliff, 1966.Yampolsky, I. M. The Principles of ViolinFingering. Translated by Alan Lumsden.London: Oxford University Press, 1967.

The material of special interest to the guitarist mightinclude discussions of anatomical peculiarities of the performer in the build of the shoulder, hand and fingers, theindividual timbres of each string, the natural fall of the

fingers to the fingerboard, vertical and horizontal movementof the hand in relation to the fingerboard; position playing; and fingering as applied to interpretation. Thefollowing comments by Carl Flesch are typical of violinwritings relevant to guitar playing.

The fourth finger is recommended . . . because byits use the change of strings is made to coincidewith a relatively strong accent.... leap isless precarious if, as a result of a preceding shortnote, a natural pause arises. .. [The] fingering[in the excerpt] introduces a musically justifiedportamento. .. .The use of the A-string forms awelcome interruption, appropriately emphasizing thesubsequent crescendo on the D-string. When arepeated musical phrase calls for increasingintensity there is even greater justification fora change of timbre.38

The thoughts on fingering piano music are of valueto the guitar teacher because on both the piano and guitarthe sound begins to decay soon after it is produced. Theplayers can neither increase the volume nor control the rate

38. Carl Flesch, op. cit., pp. 10, 140, 204, and285.


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19of decrease in volume of a sustained pitch. Also, similarities between the physiological movements of the fingers onboth the piano and guitar and the psychological aspects offingering both instruments may be found.

One work which discusses musical, physiological,and psychological factors pertaining to fingering a t thepiano is The Art of Fingering at the Piano by Julien Musafia.The book is based on the following statements which are given

39as "explicative of the function of fingering." It may benoted that these also relate to the function of guitar fingering.

1. The function of a good fingering is to securethe maximum musical expression with a minimumof effort.

2. Expression results from skillful manipulationof note durations and intensities of the givenpitches.

30 Note durations are the components of rhythmand tempo, legato and staccato4. Intensitiessoft and loud playing, accents,crescendo and descrescendoare the main components of phrasing5. Effort in piano playing is both physical and

mental.6. Minimum physical effort is that which resultsfrom the least amount of motion and the least

amount of muscular strain.

39. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at thePiano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 1.


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207. Minimum mental effort, on the contrary, resultsfrom a maximum of mental activity directed

towards the organization of all the elements 4Qinvolved in performance into simple patterns.

Many references to Professor Musafia's work are made throughout this dissertation.

DissertationsIn recent years a number of dissertations have been

written on topics related to the guitar. It is noted thatthese documents do not address the topic of guitar fingeringspecifically, but they do give a vast amount of informationthat may be of interest to the guitar teacher. In the fieldof musicology, the following are available:

1. Sasser, William G. "The Guitar Works of FernandoSor." The University of North Carolina, 1980.UM order no. 60-6995.

2. Hudson, Richard G. "The Development of Italian Keyboard Variations on the 'Passacaglio' and 'Ciaccona"from Guitar Music in the 17th Century." Universityof California-Los Angeles [UCLA], 1967. UM order71-16249.

3 Heck, Thomas F. "The Birth of the Classic Guitarand Its Cultivation in Vienna, Reflected in theCareer and Compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d.1829)." Yale University, 1970. UM order no.71-16249.

4, Pinnell, Richard, "The Role of Francesco Corbetta(1615-1681) in the History of Music for the BaroqueGuitar. Including a Transcrintion of His CompleteWorks." UCLA, 1976. UM order no. 77-1675.

5. Cox, Paul W. "The Evolution of Playing Techniquesof the Six-stringed Classic Guitar as Seen ThroughTeaching Method Books from ca. 1780-ca. 1850."Indiana University, 1978. UM order no. 7909683.

40. Ibid.


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216. Pennington, Neil. "The Development of BaroqueGuitar Music in Spain, Including a Commentary on

and Transcription of Santiago de Murcia's'Passacalles y Obras' (1732)." University ofMaryland, 1979. UM order no. 80-02075.Of possible special interest to the educator is:

"The Development and Testing of a Guitar Method to EnableEducators to Play and Teach the Guitar in the Schools" byRoy E. Petschauer (University of Oregon, 1972, UM order no.73-7943). As the abstract of this work states:

The purpose of this study was to plan, develop andtest a guitar method which would enable classroomteachers and music specialists to incorporate theguitar into the school music curricula with confidence and authority. Specifically, a method wasdesigned which presented the basic elements of guitartechnique to help the educator acquire the skillsand understandings needed to accompany class activities and to instruct others in playing both folk-style and classic-style guitar.

Questions Arising from theLack of Literature

Considering the lack of specific information on thetopic of guitar fingering two questions naturally arise:"If principles of fingering do exist, why have they not beendiscussed previously?" "If principles of fingering are usedby master guitarists, how did these guitarists learn them?"Some responses to these questions are as follows:

1. As discussed previously, the placement of guitarinto academia is a rather recent event. A guitar divisionof the American String Teachers Association was not


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2241established until 1972. The Guitar Foundation of America

42and its publication Soundboard began in 1973. Until thesechannels of communication between guitarists were open, theprimary transmitter of guitar information was the GuitarReview (first published in 1947); but it was directed, as asurvey of material in this publication shows, toward theperformer and historian. Thus, it might be concluded thatthere has not been enough time for all issues of guitar

education to have been organized and expressed in formalwritings. Likewise, in terms of publications, the guitarhas become beneficial only recently to commercial enterprise. "The Book-of-the-Month Club, which began by selling,books, has turned to selling .. . guitar records. . . .The Columbia Broadcasting System, in 1965, paid more moneyto acquire a guitar-making firm than it had paid to buy

43control of the New York Yankees." This recent move ofthe guitar into a position of commercial profit has placedpublication of guitar information behind that of otherinstruments. The library of the University of Arizona,Tucson, reflects this fact. The library has obtained 165

41. "ASTA Opens Ranks to Classic Guitar," TheSchool Musician (April, 1973), p. 52.

42. Date founded is printed on each issue ofSoundboard.43. Fredrick Gruenfield, The Art and Times ofthe Guitar (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1969),

p. 2.


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23piano books and eighty-one violin books which contain textsrelated to instruction, methods, performance, and interpretation. There are only twenty-four similar guitar books.

2. The placement of the guitar into a public schoolsituation often results in a non-guitarist teaching large

44classes. The private studio, with a guitarist as teacher,allows for fingering principles to be discussed in isolatedenvironments and with individual pieces. Also, the studentmay learn as much through observing the teacher and listen-

45ing to the teacher play as through verbal instruction.There would seem to be little need for organizing large-scale fingering principles in this situation and commitingthese principles to print. Only now that the instrument istaught by non-guitarists to large groups of people does theneed arise to transmit large amounts of information toteachers and students by verbal and written means.

3. Another question might be submitted in support ofthe idea that basic fingering principles exist: "Is thereanything that master guitarists have in common?"Christopher Berg states that, ". .. guitarists are awareof the necessity of moving smoothly and accurately from one

44. Peter Miller, op. cit., p. 2.45. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical GuitarPlaying (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music,1980), p. 105.


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2446string to another.'.' Lee Ryan submits, "At any given

moment, he (the master guitarist) is completely relaxingthose fingers which are not in use. He uses exactly theenergy needed to play wellno more, no less. He does more

47with less. For him the music flows effortlessly." Thus,it seems that at least three common qualities of fine guitarists are that they play smoothly, accurately, and effortlessly. This dissertation will support the premise thatthese qualities are only achieved by the application ofcertain fingering principles. (Instead of the terms"smoothly," "accurately," and "effortlessly" this paper willuse the phrases "in a legato style," "with security," and"with the least amount of effort," respectively.) But didmaster guitarists obtain these qualities by the consciousapplication of fingering principles? Not necessarily. Itmay have been that just as gravity was in effect long beforeit was named and studied, so the use of fingering principleswas in effect long before they were identified. It will beshown that performance security and musicality, learned bythe master guitarists through performing and listening,demand the adherence to certain fingering principles. Thus,

46. Christopher Berg, quoted in Ronald Sherrod,Guitar Master Class (New York: Belwin Mills PublishingCorp., 1980), p. 43.47. Lee Ryan, quoted in Ronald Sherrod, Guitar

Master Class (New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corp.,1980), p. 33.


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25all master guitarists use fingering principles in commonwith other master guitarists.

Musical ExcerptsThe musical examples presented in this paper are

drawn from elementary and intermediate guitar literature.Some excerpts from such sources as vocal music, chorales,and folk songs are used as illustrations because of theirease in clarifying specific points.

The performance of the musical excerpts requires aknowledge of basic guitar technique. This knowledge may beacquired from the study of any of the guitar method booksdescribed previously in "Review of the Literature." All ofthese books follow the fundamental technical concepts (sitting position, left hand approach to the fingerboard, andbasic right hand approach to the strings) founded byFrancisco T&rrega. This master's influence on guitar playingis discussed in an article by Theodorus Hofmeester, Jr. in

48the Guitar Review of October, 1946. As Harvey Turnbullstates, "It was T^rrega who laid the foundations of modern

49technique."

48. Theodorus Hofmeester, Jr., "Is There a Schoolof Trrega?," Guitar Review (October, 1946), pp. 2-4.49. Harvey Turnbull, op. cit., p. 106.


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26To some public school teachers, the excerpts pre

sented in this dissertation may seem too complex. However,these teachers might consider the following:

1. By surveying the aforementioned method books, itwill be discovered that none of the musical examples in thisdissertation exceed the technical levels arrived a t in thesemanuals. As was indicated earlier, there exists a need tochange the direction of public school guitar education fromthe most commonly taught folk style technique to classicalstyle technique. It is the desire of this writer thatguitar teachers seriously analyze their programs with thefollowing questions in mind: "Are adequate demands beingmade of the students in order that they might reap everypossible benefit from the study of the instrument?" "Am Iqualified to teach guitar as I am other subjects?"

2. The words "elementary" and "intermediate" as usedabove are congruous with Guitar Music Index, a graded list-

50ing of music in print for classical guitar and lute.Every musical passage drawn from guitar literature in thisdissertation is included in this index. At no time does anexample exceed the level of performance indicated as"medium." Another indication of "intermediate" level maybe found in Charles Duncan's comments relating to

50. George Gilrnore and Mark Pereira, Guitar MusicIndex (Honolulu, Hawaii: Galliard Press, Ltd., 1976).


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27Andres Segovia's arrangement of "Sarabande" from Partita

51No. 1 for Unaccompanied Violin by J. S. Bach.3. In order to present the topic of guitar fingering, a

level of proficiency must be maintained in order that thetopic be thoroughly presented. For example, should thetopics of "rest stroke and free stroke," "changing positions," "the use of the bar," or "playing contrapuntalmusic" be left out of this writing because a certain numberof teachers have not had experience with them? This wouldhardly be justifiable in a research document. Rather, it ishoped that this work will encourage educators to explorethese areas if not already familiar with them. It should beemphasized,.however, that the application of the considerations presented in this dissertation are not restricted tothe same technical level required to perform the musicalexcerpts. The principles are equally valid for elementaryand advanced guitar performance and, as discussed in Chapter7 of this document, should be presented at all levels ofguitar instruction.

51. Charles Duncan, "The Segovia Sound: What isIt?" Guitar Review (Fall, 1977), p. 30.


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CHAPTER 2

NOTATION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

This chapter briefly outlines guitar notation andpresents technical elements which have a relationship to thefingering of guitar music A thorough discussion of guitartechnique is not included, however, because such a discussion is beyond the scope of this dissertation topic. Methodbooks, such as those cited in "Review of the Literature" inChapter 1, may be consulted for that purpose and, unlessotherwise noted, constitute a primary source for the information contained herein.

Letter Notation of PitchWhen it is necessary to identify exact pitches

within text material, the designations of octave registersas shown in Figure 1 will be used throughout this writing.It is to be noted that the guitar sounds one octave lowerthan written or stated.

Left Hand NotationA number placed beside a note designates the left

hand finger to be used. A circled number or, less commonly,a number in parenthesis near a note designates the string onwhich the note is played. These notations are summarized inFigure 2. This dissertation will utilize the circled number

28


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29

Figure 1. Letter Notation of Pitch

0r (1) = first string1 = index finger


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30to designate the string. Thus, there might be located neara note an uncircled number and a circled number. In Figure3 the 2nd finger of the left hand is used to depress the e^on the third string.

Figure 3. Application of Finger and StringDesignations to Music Notation

If several notes are to be played on the samestring, a circled number to indicate the string and a horizontal line to designate the notes to be played on thatstring may be used. The notation used in an excerpt fromBranle de Bourgoine by Adrian Le Roy serves as an example(Figure 4).

Basic Left Hand PositionBasic position for the left hand is a span of four

adjacent frets. As can be seen in Figure 5, if the 1st finger is in the area behind the first fret, the 2nd finger isheld within the area behind the second fret, the 3rd fingeris held within the area behind the third fret, and the 4thfinger within the area behind the fourth fret. Thisposition is sometimes referred to by its Spanish name


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31

Allegro U

it 1 i f(D| d>-1 2 31(D i0D i_A 2 1iii

2 1

Figure 4. Le Roy, Branle de Bourgoine (Measures 1-4)

= d ,L__

-4i

Figure 5. Basic Positions for the Left Hand


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33

Moderato< 2 >

J


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34

Andante D 1(2)iO 1 |Mulr J-Ji j l f jShift

r (3) , ,

I'1' ^ 11r r 1Figure 7. Paganini, Caprice, Op 1, No 21 (Measures 1-4).

Scarlatti illustrates these three methods (Figure 8). Thenotations in Figure 8, even though they would allow theguitarist to move to the correct position at a glance, havenot been widely adopted This is due possibly to the observations that 1) the notation of string and finger asdiscussed previously is sufficient to place the guitaristin the desired position, 2) the notation might be confused


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37The opposite of the stretch position is "squeezing"

the fingers into less than four frets. This is commonlycalled the squeeze or "compressed" position. The squeezeposition is shown in Study in E Major by Trrega (Figure 10).

squeezeAllegro

squeeze

squeeze

Figure 10. TSrrega, Study in E Major (Measures 9-12)

The measures given in Figure 11, from Variations on a Themeof Paisiello by Ludwig van Beethoven, utilize the squeezeposition in measure two and the stretch position in measurefour.


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39The Bar

One finger placed across and depressing two or morestrings simultaneously is known as the "bar." Except inrare instances the bar is executed with the 1st finger ofthe left hand. The finger may extend over as many as sixstrings or as few as two. An example of the use of the baris given in Figure 12.

Figure 12. A Chord Requiring the Use ofBarring Technique

A survey of guitar music shows that there are manyways used to notate the bar. Some guitarists distinguishbetween the bar and the "half-bar" in their notation.Others indicate bar, half-bar, and "small-bar." However,there is no standard description or definition of theseterms. Some of the possibilities of notating the barringof two strings at the second fret are shown in Figure 13.


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40

WCj2 Ca2 CII CII CI] iC2 ) j 2 - 6 2-0 00 0 0 0 0 0I iiII Lll 1 1 Ii H 11Mfa MC2 c2 B2-0 00 0~ BII BII BIIV-0 0 iB2ii it it ii II mp BII b2-0- 0- II 6H-0 0 II i i i ll i i ll ii If 'ItCj, Ca = Spanish ceja (bar, iterallyridge )

C = Spanish ceja or Italian cap otasto(literally, head of the fingerboard )jrCf > > MC = media-ceja or mezzo-capotasto(half-bar)

c = cejilla or capotastino (small-bar)B = French barre (bar)

- g - B , t f t * DB = demi-barre half-bar)b = petite barre (small-bar)

Figure 13. Samples and Explanations of Bar Notation


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41Throughout this dissertation a large "C" will indi

cate the bar and a Roman numeral will indicate the fret atwhich the bar occurs (Figure 14). Also, as demonstrated inFigure 14, brackets may be used to clarify the number ofstrings included under the bar.p v c v- O4 1 4 fV p

VL#ft)

Figure 14. Samples of Bar Notation Usedin This Dissertation

Hinge-barA subtle technique called the "hinge-bar" is used by

advanced guitarists. It consists of using a portion of the1st finger other than the tip to stop a string. A partof the "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor by Francisco Corbettaserves as an example (Figure 15). In measure three, the 1stfinger is required to play different notes (b^ and f^) onbeats one and two. In order to smoothly connect these two

Onotes, the f _ should not be held with the tip of the 1stfinger, but should be held with a portion of the finger close


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42

4J L _Tempo

i k ,. a ti*di gavotte

^ i = # /-J-hi= 1

h T

rj

2-

rs?

3 4

f*

J r fL . J

T T IJQjj f r = rUf trFigure 15. Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor(Measures 1-4)

to the hand. This finger placement is called the hinge-bar.As the music continues, beat three requires a bar; but inorder to sound the open d * on beat four, another hinge-bar is

2 1required in order to simultaneously sound the _ f and the d .There is no standard notation for the hinge-bar. It

has generally been left to the guitarist to discover andapply opportunities to use the hinge-bar. In Figure 15 itappears that the tip of the 1st finger moves from the b to


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45Excerpts from Toy by Francis Cutting (Figure 18),

Study in A, Op. 60, No. 25, by Mateo Carcassi (Figure 19),Asturias by Isaac Albniz (Figure 20), and Sonate, 0p 15,by Mauro Giuliani (Figure 21) demonstrate additional typesof hinge-bars.

Animato Civi.,iiMJi f 'ij.onh-___J -J z:r-T lT f T TW 'I I I I I INJ rrri "

Figure 18. Cutting, Toy (Measures 1-4)


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46

Allegro brillanteh.CII.

M 2 2E3 03-

CII

i fc3 2 ai0 4i < 3 > _-=- fffl w G>1 -T ^-0- 0 3-1 3 Q'1

Figure 19. Carcassi, Study in A, Op. 60, No. 25 (Measures1 and 2)


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47

Moderato

CVII

Figure 20. Alb^niz, Asturias (Measures 7-10)


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48

7Allegro spiritosoI 410 10f . ' J ;

h r yr \ 3 f rr rfi i LI 1 Lf f 1Figure 22. Bach, "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht"(Measures 9-12)


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491 2used for both the g and c in measure one, a break in the

sound would occur because of the time it takes to move the1 2tip of the first finger from the g to the c . If a bar

were used to play the two notes, as in Figure 23, the g1owould continue to sound when the c is produced, thus caus

ing the melody notes to ring together. A solution to theseproblems is the hinge-bar. The 1st finger being placed ini-12 1tially across both the g and c is rocked away from the g

2at the instant when the c is sounded. This action will2require that the c be held with the middle portion of the1st finger, but it will smoothly connect the melody notes.This use of the hinge-bar is shown in Figure 24.

3s r

V ,1 i r r f 1 J f%

r

f

J r U ; i / 13 1 3 14Mgs Q

Figure 23. "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht" (Measures9-12) Using Bar Notation


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50

*cv11 f 3 A i 2I f ffJ1{faVt:r r t IP

It JJ1 3 1 A

3 1 3 1 AW f m f -

2 U1 Lf f=Figure 24. "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht" (Measures9-12) Using Hinge-Bar Notation

Right Hand NotationThe thumb and three fingers of the right hand are

used in guitar performance. These fingers are notated byletters which correspond to their Latin derivations (Figure25). In guitar music these letters appear as demonstrated

Latin French Italian Spanishthumb = p pollex pouce pollice pulgarindex = i index index indice indicemiddle = m medius majeur medio medioring = a anulus annulaire anulare anular

Figure 25. Letter Designations and Names of Right HandFingers


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55

Molto legato

Figure 31. Albniz, Sevilla (Measures 77-80) To Be PlayedWith Rest Strokes

from Study in A Minor, Op. 35, No. 3, by Fernando Sor(Figure 32).

The sound of the free stroke probably will be weakerthan that of the rest stroke because the angle of attack"displaces the string from the sidewise plane in which much

2of its natural vibration takes place." But the rest strokeis not always practical to execute due to the physiology ofthe hand and because the rest stroke would dampen any

2. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical GuitarPlaying (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music,1980), p. 37.


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60

Tempo di ninuetto

Figure 35. Trrega, Study in A Major (Measures 1-3)

This implies a "graceful," "whimsical," "dance-like" char-9 10acter which is best achieved with the free stroke.

Figure 36 is a portion of Study in A Major, 0p 60, No 3by Mateo Carcassi. The rest strokes are indicated.11

9. Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music,2d ed. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press ofthe Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 532.

10. Charles Duncan, op. cit.11. Suggested by Michael Lorimer in Ronald Sherrod,Guitar Master Class (Melville, New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corp., 1980), p. 11.


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first strings, respectively, while the thumb rests on eitherthe fourth, fifth, or sixth string.

6. Two types of right hand strokes are used in fundamental guitar technique. A "rest" stroke results when thefinger of execution comes to rest on a string adjacent tothe string sounded. With the "free" stroke, the finger ofexecution misses the adjacent string.


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66these. The following brief descriptions may be augmentedby the discussions of these terms in guitar method books.

Ligado (literally "tied"): Two types of ligadosexistthe ascending ligado (also called "slur") and thedescending ligado (also called slur or "snap"). In theexecution of an ascending ligado the right hand strikes thefirst note only; the second note is sounded by the left handfinger responsible for that note. The finger is placed(driven) onto the string with enough force to cause thestring to vibrate without the use of the right hand. InFigure 39 the second note is sounded by the force of the3rd finger being driven to the string.

Figure 39. Ascending Ligado

In the execution of the descending ligado the righthand strikes the first note only; the left hand finger usedto hold the first note then plucks the string to sound thesecond note. (The right hand is not used in the production


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67of this note.) n Figure 40 the second note is sounded bythe 3rd finger plucking the string.

v

Figure 40. Descending Ligado

A ligado may occasionally occur across two strings.This type of ligado is called a ligado de vibracion (vibra-

2tion slur). It is generally avoided due to lack of controlof volume and timbre, but it is acceptable in rapid passages.The ligado de vibracidn is used in Scherzo-Vals by MiguelLlobet (Figure 41). (The sole purpose of the bar at thesixth fret in this example is to give a "clean" sound andmore volume to the ligado de vibracic5n.)

2. Vahdah Bickford, Method for Classic Guitar(New York: Peer International Corp., 1964), p. 72.


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68

Allegro vivace

CVI _

iFigure 41. Llobet, Scherzo-Vals (Measures 19 and 20)

Arrastre (literally "dragged"), also called glis-sando ("gliding" or "slide"): In the execution of thearrastre, the right hand strikes the first note only; thesecond note is sounded by quickly sliding (dragging) theleft hand finger to the new position. Examples of thearrastre are given in Figure 42.

i iFigure 42. Arrastres (Ascending and Descending)


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Portamento (literally "carrying"): The portamentois a ligado followed by an arrastre, or an arrastre followedby a ligado. As indicated in Figure 43, specific notationmust be used in order to determine whether the ligado orarrastre is executed first The indicated notation for theportamento, while used throughout this dissertation, is notadopted universally by writers and editors of guitar music.As Emilio Pujol points out, some confusion exists in thenotation of the portamento: "Los autores de musica paraguitarra en general, lo indican con una lfnea recta como

Oel arrastre o con una lfnea curva como el ligado" (Thewriters of music for the guitar in general indicate it[the portamento] with a straight line as for the arrastreor with a curved line as for the ligado.) his lack ofdistinction between portamento and arrastre, or portamentoand ligado, seems unfortunate since the portamento differs

v

Figure 43. Portamenti (Ascending and Descending)

3. Emilio Pujol, Escuela Razonada De La Guitarra,vol. 1 (Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1956), p. 69.


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70in sound from both the others and since all three of thesetechnical devices may be desired in a single composition.An except from Pavana by Francisco Tarrega combines theligado, arrastre, and portamento (Figure 44).

Moderato1 3

f t13. c^ 3J1,II-fj'

i rCIVf?

0ff r-'lEfcJ' Q .p^-O)

Figure 44. Tarrega, Pavana (Measures 1-4)

The intentional composition or arrangement of apassage to be played on a single string can result in aneffect which would not be present if played on two or morestrings. This can be seen in an arrangement by James Robinson of the Mexican folk song Para.jo Cantor (Figure 45).


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71

Grazioso

Figure 45. Robinson, Parajo Cantor (Measures 1-5)

Technical FactorsPlaying a melody along a single string leaves the

other strings free for use in accompaniment or counter-melody. This advantage has been used by many composers andarrangers of guitar music. In an excerpt by Fernando Sor,Study in E Minor, Op. 60, No. 22, the accompaniment is easyto execute because the melody is confined to the firststring (Figure 46). In a portion of another work by Sor,Variations on a Theme of Mozart, Op. 9, a "campanella"(bell) effect is produced by the constant, recurring soundsof the second string (Figure 47).


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73Physical Factors

As the following quotations indicate, the idealperformance is that which produces the best musical resultswith the least amount of movement and/or physical exertion;

Carl FleschThe rule of minimum effort precludes any movementthat does not actually contribute to the productionof the desired tone quality or that detracts fromit; such movements are superfluous and represent awaste of energy.4

Julio SagrerasRespecto a ...mano, poco tengo que decir, sinoque, en general se deben evitar todos los movimien-tos intitiles. .. .[With respect to. .(the) hand, I have little tosay, except that, in general one ought to avoid allunnecessary movements. . ..]

Louis KentnerIt is generally agreed that modern pianoforte technique is based on the idea of relaxation, weightand economical use of shoulders, arms, hands andfingers, u i i 3 operative word 'economical' meaning thatas little effort as possible should get the greatestpossible results, in terms of speed, accuracy andvolume.

4. Carl Flesch, op. cit., p. 5.5. Julio Sagreras, Tecnica Superior De Guitarra(Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1922), p. 2.6. Louis Kentner, Piano (New York: Schirmer Books,1976), p. 60.


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74Jozsef G&t

. . . a ramp of any part of the body, even theclenching of one's lip, will hinder the appropriatefunctioning of the muscles.'''

Yehudi MenuhinThe violinist's enemy is any tightness of hold,whether of fingers, hands, arms, shoulders, head,neck, chest (right or left side), shoulder-blades,waist, hips, knees, ankles or feet; in fact, anyimpediment whatsoever to the instantaneous translation of a total impulseemotional, physical,spiritual or intellectualinto the reality ofsound.8

Thus, the lack of any physical exertion, i.e., a state ofrest, would be ideal for a performer. If it were possibleto "think" the strings into vibration or shorten the lengthof a string by thought, such elements as missed notes,slides, and buzzes would not exist. "One of the reasons

conductors seem more musical than many solo performers isthat their musical thought is not: handicapped by the physical limitations of producing the music.However, physicaleffort, the contraction of muscles, is required; and whena signal is sent from the brain to a contracting muscle,sending a finger toward its destination, the possibility is

7. J6zsef Gat, The Technique of Piano Playing(London: Collet's Holding, Ltd., 1965), p. 2.8. Yehudi Menuhin, Violin and Viola (New York:Schirmer Books, 1976), p. 42.9. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at thePiano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 4.


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75introduced that the brain may"have miscalculated the preciselocation of the desired fret and string. This is often thecase, in fact, requiring what J6zsef Gat terms as "adaptingmovements"the movements which bring the fingers into properstriking position.1 "There are many kinds of these movements, but a common feature of all of them is that they arealways decided by the momentary requirement as to what [sic]and to what extent they must be utilized. It followslogically that the farther a particular finger must move toreach its goal, the more adapting movements are necessary.John Duarte concurs with this as he states: "The further afinger is from the strings, the further it has to travel inreturning to the fingerboard to depress a string; this makestiming more difficult, since the necessary journey is longer,and increases the risk of inaccuracy, as it is obviouslyeasier to 'hit' a target that is close than one that isfurther away."12 Because each of these adapting movementsrequire the use of muscles, it can be concluded that a smallamount of movement requires less physical effort than and ispreferable to a large amount of movement. In the materialwhich follows, this concept is the basis for the principlesof "Basic Position" and "Minimum Movement."

10. Jozsef Gt, op. cit., p. 33.11. Ibid.12. John Duarte, The Bases of Classic Guitar Tech-nique (Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello &Co., Ltd.,1975), p. 29.


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77[We (guitarists) call 'normal position' that in whicheach finger occupies the fret that corresponds innumerical order to it. That is to say, in a group offour adjacent frets, whenever the 1st finger occupiesthe first fret, the 2nd finger occupies the secondfret; the 3rd finger, the third fret; and the 4thfinger, the fourth fret.]

Pujol's term "normal" indicates that basic position is therule; stretch and squeeze positions constitute the exceptions. The consistent maintenance of basic position isshown in the fingerings for Fantasia by John Dowland,Sevilla by Isaac Albdniz, El Colibri by Julio Sagreras, andCapriccio by Johann Anton Logy (Figures 48-51).

- j j U j l f - j , 1 ^f f 2 1i t r 3- p11 F

1 _

I1 2 2

r r r rT

1 i

;iv4M4= F 5+

i t >^

Figure 48. Dowland, Fantasia (Measures 1-4)


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78

Molto legato

Figure 49. Alb^niz, Sevilla (Measures 77-80)


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79

Allegro

Figure 50. Sagreras, El Colibri (Measures 9-13)


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81

f- PT f1 2 4-r 1 1 i$ * t

Figure 52. "O Ewigkeit, Du Donnewort" (Measures 1-3) UsingStretch Position

r - fitfiff3 lig1 -*

1

Figure 53. "0 Ewigkeit, Du Donnewort" (Measures 1-3) Maintaining Basic Position

Minimum MovementAs melodies are played on a single string utilizing

basic position, shifts of position are likely to be required.In such instances the concept of minimum movement can beapplied in the following ways: 1)The smallest number ofshifts necessary should be used; 2)shifting farther thannecessary should be avoided; and 3) guide fingers should beutilized. These principles can be observed in previous


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83

Allegretto

Figure 55. Guerau, El Invierno (Measures 1-4) Moving toNinth Position

A "guide" finger is one that lightly remains on astring during a shift from one position to another. AsJohn Duarte indicates, constant contact with the stringsadds to the player's security, confidence, and accuracy.

The sensation of steadiness and stability originates in the proper development of the use of thehands as compact power units; it is emphasized bythe contact of the hands with the strings and withthe back of the instrument's neck in the course ofplaying. Its endpoint is the establishment of afeeling of unity between player and instrument,negating the sensation that the hands are thingswhich are held 'outside' the guitar and from whichfingers are 'sent out' to make contact as and whenrequiredlike satellites radiating signals.

In the case of the left hand. .. . The practice of lifting left-hand fingers only when necessary, of using pivot fingers during chord changes,


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84and of using guide fingers when making changes ofposition, assist in reinforcing this feeling.15

In a portion of Prelude by John Robinson (Figure 56)the 1stfinger should act as a guide finger during the shift fromfourth to eighth position, remaining in constant contactwith the string. (The pressure on the string is released,however.)

In two versions of Nocturne, Op. 90, by Ferdinando Carulli(Figures 57 and 58), both fingerings keep the hand in basicposition and both use three shifts. The second fingering(Figure 58) is stronger, however, because of the use of aguide finger.

Maestoso

w

Figure 56. Robinson, Prelude (Measures 1-4)

15. John Duarte, op. cit., p. 36.


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85

AllegroC D2

=H 1l=M1 Mn 2 .f4 1 3 0j g k-c =( ^f=Figure 57. Carulli, Nocturne, Op. 90 (Measures 12-14) Without Guide Fingers

Figure 58. Carulli, Nocturne, Op. 90 (Measures 12-14)Utilizing a Guide Finger


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89

AllegrettoQ (K i ik 2*.2 2 U 2; i r j r r i r

Allegretto

stretch

Finger 62. Fingerings Corresponding to the Natural Accentsof the Music

stretch position in this instance should be compared withthat in Figure 52.) At times, the squeeze position isalso valuable in this respect, as is shown in an arrangement of the Mexican folk song "Viento de Primavera" (Figure63).


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93

Kiddle

LittleThumb

Figure 65. Extensor Tendons Controlling the Fingers


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94

Adagio

;)_o-(>-2* JsV J i n -JL_JL_J-J -J a -J a rA

J1 3c3 -4x/

3 3 4 3 A 3 SsrA 3 -J1>I FF=1-e

A k/ J

1 Jn*1

Figure 66. Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cueur di Orlando (Measures11 and 12)Using Weak Fingers

Adagio

Figure 67. Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cuer di Orlando (Measures11 and 12) Using Strong Fingers


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CHAPTER 4

LEFT HAND FINGERING: MELODIES PLAYEDON TOO OR MORE STRINGS

One string has a melodic range of approximately anoctave and a half, whereas the six strings provide a spanof three and a half octaves. Also, in any one positionmany notes are available to the fingers without the need tomove the left hand. The material in this chapter will dealwith the utilization ,of two or more strings in playingmelodic passages. All of the information of previouschapters should be considered when,supplying fingerings tomelodic passages that are played on two or more strings,but previous material will be restated only if additionalcomments relating to the subject of this chapter are necessary

General Considerations

TimbreWhen changing from one string to another the tone

color may change. "There is a distinct difference in tonebetween the same note played on different strings. * Inthe practice of scales and melodic lines, every attempt

1. Fredrick Noad, Solo Guitar Playing (New York:Schirmer Books, 1976), p. 117.96


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97should be made to maintain as consistent a timbre as possible. As Charles Duncan points out:

Whether we use free or rest stroke . .. the different tonal characteristic of each string willproduce inconsistent color in the progress of ascale unless the angle of attack is varied. Thesame attack that gives a pleasing first-string tonewill yield a muddy-sounding third string and ascratchy bass. If the attack is angled so as toproduce attractive tone on the bass strings, thenthe higher strings will sound thin The truth isthat the angle of attack must change during a scale,from perpendicular on the sixth string to some 30degrees on the first.2

Overlapping SoundsA possible danger exists with the utilization of two

or more strings that could not exist if only one string wereused. If two melody notes are played on different strings,it is easy to continue holding the first note while playingthe second. In an example from Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6,by Niccolo Paganini (Figure 68), if the 1st finger continued

2 2to press the f _

Documents

Guitar Fingering