The Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchThe Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1.1. PurposivenessPurposiveness2.2. RigorRigor3.3. TestabilityTestability4.4. ReplicabilityReplicability5.5. Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence6.6. ObjectivityObjectivity7.7. GeneralizabilityGeneralizability8.8. ParsimonyParsimony

The hallmarks or main distinguishing The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be characteristics of scientific research may be listed as follows:listed as follows:

Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchHallmarks of Scientific Research

1.1. PurposivenessPurposiveness

It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.It has to start with a definite aim or purpose. The focus is on increasing employee The focus is on increasing employee

commitment.commitment. Increase employee commitment will translate Increase employee commitment will translate

into less turnover, less absenteeism and into less turnover, less absenteeism and increased performance levels.increased performance levels.

Thus it has a purposive focus.Thus it has a purposive focus.

2. 2. RigorRigor A good theoretical base and sound methodological design A good theoretical base and sound methodological design

would add rigor to the purposive study.would add rigor to the purposive study. Rigor adds carefulnessRigor adds carefulness

Example:Example:

A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the manager reaches several conclusions on how employee manager reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons:the following reasons:

1.1. Based on few employeesBased on few employees2.2. Bias and incorrectnessBias and incorrectness3.3. There might be other influences on commitment There might be other influences on commitment

which are ignored and are important for a researcher which are ignored and are important for a researcher to knowto know

Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and thought out methodology.thought out methodology.

These factors enable the researcher to collect the right These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.analysis of the data gathered.

3.3. TestabilityTestability

The researcher might hypothesize that The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher decision making would have a higher level of commitment.level of commitment.

After random selection manager and researcher After random selection manager and researcher develops certain hypothesis on how manager develops certain hypothesis on how manager employee commitment can be enhanced, then employee commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purposetests to the data collected for the purpose..

It means that it can be used again if similar It means that it can be used again if similar circumstances prevails.circumstances prevails.

Example:Example: The study concludes that participation in The study concludes that participation in

decision making is one of the most important decision making is one of the most important factors that influences the commitment, we factors that influences the commitment, we will place more faith and credence in these will place more faith and credence in these finding and apply in similar situations. To the finding and apply in similar situations. To the extent that this does happen, we will gain extent that this does happen, we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our confidence in the scientific nature of our research.research.

4. 4. ReplicabilityReplicability

ConfidenceConfidence– Confidence refers to the probability that our Confidence refers to the probability that our

estimations are correct. estimations are correct. – That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,

but it is also important that we can but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.chance of our being wrong.

– This is also known as confidence level.This is also known as confidence level.

6. Objectivity6. Objectivity

The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional values.or emotional values.

Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase participation in decision making will increase organizational commitment and this was not supported organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help!employee participation would still help!

7. Generalizability7. GeneralizabilityIt refers to the scope of applicability of the research It refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organization setting to other settings.findings in one organization setting to other settings.

Example: If a researcher’s finding that participation in Example: If a researcher’s finding that participation in decision making enhances organizational decision making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true in a variety of commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and service organizations, manufacturing, industrial and service organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied and not merely in the particular organization studied by the researcher, then the generalizability of the by the researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other organizational settings is enhanced. findings to other organizational settings is enhanced. The more generalizable the research, the greater its The more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and value.usefulness and value.

8. Parsimony8. ParsimonySimplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.

For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are identified, which when changed would raise the identified, which when changed would raise the organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more useful and valuable to the manager than if it would be more useful and valuable to the manager than if it were recommended that he should change 10 different were recommended that he should change 10 different variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%. variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%.

The Building Blocks of Science in The Building Blocks of Science in ResearchResearch

Deduction and InductionsDeduction and InductionsAnswers to issues can be found Answers to issues can be found either by the process of either by the process of deduction or the process of deduction or the process of induction, or by a combination induction, or by a combination of the two.of the two.

Deduction (Top-Down)Deduction (Top-Down) Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a

reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. Quantitative researchknown fact. Quantitative research

Example: we know that all high performers are highly Example: we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their jobs. proficient in their jobs. If Ahmad is a high performer, we then conclude that If Ahmad is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his jobhe is highly proficient in his job

InductionInduction Induction is a process where we observe certain Induction is a process where we observe certain

phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

In other words, in induction we logically In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on establish a general proposition based on observed facts.observed facts.

The Building Blocks of ScienceThe Building Blocks of Science

ObservationObservation

– Observation is the first stage, in which Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are one senses that certain changes are occurring or that some new behaviors, occurring or that some new behaviors, attitudes and feelings are surfacing in attitudes and feelings are surfacing in one’s environment (i.e., the work one’s environment (i.e., the work place).place).

Preliminary Information Gathering:Preliminary Information Gathering:

– It involves the seeking of information in depth, of It involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is observed.what is observed.

– This could be done by talking informally to several This could be done by talking informally to several people in the work setting or to clients or to other people in the work setting or to clients or to other relevant sources, thereby gathering information on relevant sources, thereby gathering information on what is happening and why. (Unstructured what is happening and why. (Unstructured interviews) interviews)

– Then it is followed by structured interviews.Then it is followed by structured interviews.– Additionally by doing library research or obtaining Additionally by doing library research or obtaining

information through other sources, the investigator information through other sources, the investigator would identify how such issues have been tackled would identify how such issues have been tackled in other situations.in other situations.

Theory Formulation (Theoretical Theory Formulation (Theoretical Framework)Framework)

– It is an attempt to integrate all the It is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manners, so that the information in a logical manners, so that the factors responsible for the problem can be factors responsible for the problem can be on conceptualized and tested.on conceptualized and tested.

– The theoretical framework formulated is The theoretical framework formulated is often guided by experience and intuition.often guided by experience and intuition.

– In this step the critical variables are In this step the critical variables are identified and examined as to their identified and examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be the problem occurs and how it can be solved. solved.

Hypothesizing Hypothesizing – It is the next logical step after theory It is the next logical step after theory

formulation.formulation.

– From the theorized network of associations From the theorized network of associations among the variables, certain testable among the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures hypotheses or educated conjectures (assumptions) can be generated.(assumptions) can be generated.

– Hypothesis testing is called deductive Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. research.

Further Specific Data CollectionFurther Specific Data Collection

–After the development of the After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the to each variable in the hypotheses need to be hypotheses need to be obtained.obtained.

–Further data are collected to Further data are collected to test the hypotheses that are test the hypotheses that are generated in the study.generated in the study.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

– Data gathered are statistically analyzed Data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported.generated have been supported.

– Co relational method will be used to Co relational method will be used to analyze and determine the relation ship analyze and determine the relation ship of two or more factors in the of two or more factors in the hypotheses for example: stock hypotheses for example: stock availability and customer satisfactionavailability and customer satisfaction..

DeductionDeduction–Deduction is the process of Deduction is the process of

arriving at conclusions by arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of interpreting the meaning of results of the data analysis.results of the data analysis.

Other Types of ResearchOther Types of Research

Case studies and action research Case studies and action research are sometimes used to study are sometimes used to study certain types of issues.certain types of issues.

1.1. Case StudiesCase Studies

2.2. Action ResearchAction Research

Case StudiesCase Studies

It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an individual person, a couple, a group, or an individual person, a couple, a group, or an organization .organization .

It is an intensive description and analysis of a case.It is an intensive description and analysis of a case. The examples could be a case study of a highly The examples could be a case study of a highly

successful organization, a project (Orangi Pilot successful organization, a project (Orangi Pilot Project, Karachi), a group, a couple, a teacher, and a Project, Karachi), a group, a couple, a teacher, and a patient.patient.

Action ResearchAction Research

Those who are being studied Those who are being studied participate in research process; participate in research process; research incorporates popular research incorporates popular knowledge; focus on power with knowledge; focus on power with goal of empowerment increase goal of empowerment increase awareness; tied to political action.awareness; tied to political action.