Handbook Combined

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The Educator’sTrumpet Handbook

MUSC 106A Secondary Methods Class: Trumpet

James AckleyAssociate Professor of Trumpet

University of South Carolina School of Music

Table of Contents:_____________________________________I. Choosing a Trumpet p. 3

II. Choosing a Mouthpiece p. 4

III. Proper Embouchure Position p. 7

IV. Proper Posture & Breathing p. 8 Breathing Exercises p. 10 Breathing Aides p. 12 V. Fingering Chart p. 13

VI. Developing the Sound Concept p. 14

VII. The Art of Tonguing p. 15

VIII. Intonation p. 18

IX. Care & Maintenance p. 20

X. The Six Most Common Problems p. 22

XI. Dealing with Braces p. 24

XII. Tip on How to Practice p. 25

XIII. Other Trumpets p. 26

XIV. Mutes p. 27

XV. Literature & Resources p. 28

XVI. Selected Discography p. 36

XVII. Selected List of Artists p. 37

XVIII. Appendices: Various Articles p. 38 Effect of Breathing Management Instrument Maintenance Developing Sound

The Educatorʼs Trumpet Handbook James Ackley, University of South Carolina School of Music"

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I

CHOOSING A TRUMPET___________________________________________

Helping students choose a quality instrument can be challenging for many private teachers and band directors. Most private teachers know everything about the latest developments in trumpet technology for advanced players but cannot name a good beginning trumpet make or model. Some basic characteristics to look for in a good beginning instrument are:

1. Monel pistons, not plated2. First and Third slide rings (for adjusting intonation)3. Secure case with room for accessories

When having a beginning student purchase an instrument, inform the parents that this instrument will only get them into High School. Any student serious enough about the trumpet to want to continue after High School should consider a professional model trumpet. With the characteristics above in mind, the following are the most popular instrument brands that have served past students well: (photos courtesy of Yamaha Trumpets)

Beginners: Getzen - 300 series Selmer Bach - TR200, TR300, Bundy Yamaha - YTR2335

Professional: Bach Stradivarius - ML180 (37, 43 or 72 bell) Yamaha - YTR6335, Zeno or Artist Model Sonaré – 800 or 900 series

While choosing the trumpet or instrument that is needed or preferred, it is important to remember the steps we took with choosing a mouthpiece; they all apply. We should look for a free blowing instrument in all ranges, good intonation in all ranges, ease of response in all ranges and a good tone production in all ranges.


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II

CHOOSING A MOUTHPIECE________________________________________

The Mouthpiece is the most important part of equipment you will own. Because the vibrations inside the mouthpiece greatly dictates/influences the relative sound, it is a reasonable assumption that the mouthpiece plays an important part. Each and every person is unique in his or her body and facial structure, so the mouthpiece chosen should “fit” that particular individual. Although many brass players use the same equipment and it works for them, this does not mean that the same equipment will work for everyone. With that said, a Bach 7C to 3C, or equivalent, is normal to begin a student depending on the size of their lips (7C for thinner lips and 3C for thicker lips). A professional should take into consideration the type of music to be performed and the sound that is wanted. Moreover, the mouthpiece should be somewhat comfortable, produce a sound without restriction or tension and stable in response and intonation. Do not accept a mouthpiece if it “feels” good but sounds bad. There is almost always a compromise.

Things to Consider When Purchasing a Mouthpiece:

1. What sound do I want? What sound do I need? And, what type of mouthpiece is out there to help me obtain that sound? Below, I have listed, very generally, examples of different cups and their characteristics. Decide which is desired and the best for the situation in which you perform. Remember, the shallower the cup, the brighter the sound. The deeper the cup, the darker the sound. A deep cup gives more lower harmonics than high harmonics. Bright should not mean brittle and dark should not mean dull. Use your ears and your teacher to determine the correct sound needed.

Deep Cup: A robust, dark sound; great flexibility; easier to play softly and delicate. This is usually the choice of many orchestral musicians.

Somewhat Deep Cup:A more brilliant sound than that of the deep cup; generally has more projection; more compression but less flexibility. This is a popular choice for orchestral and jazz

musicians alike.

V-Cup:A bright sounding mouthpiece. Common in “lead” playing.


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Convex V-Cup: High compression, even less flexibility. Maynard Ferguson made this type of mouthpiece very popular among the elite high note “lead” players.

2. What size or form of the mouthpiece fit better (feels better)? With experience and experimentation you eventually learn what works for you and what doesn’t. Many teachers give you exact measurements to follow that work for them, but often this does not work for the student. Experimentation with your experienced private instructor is always best. Some factors to keep in mind are: the diameter, rim surface and the “bite” of the rim.

The Diameter – This is hugely different for each individual depending on lip size, musculature, experience, etc. It should be comfortable in all ranges of the trumpet (a small mouthpiece doesn’t give you range, it allows you to play longer with the range you already have… but, with a price… the sound quality).

Rim Surface – This is a comfort factor: the flatness, roundness and smoothness of the rim. There are many diverse variations: thin, thick, round and “cutting”, etc.

The “Bite” – The bite is the form inside where the rim meets the cup. A sharper rim helps with clearer attacks and flexibility, whereas a rounder rim helps with comfort and endurance.

Diagram of different shaped rims and “bite”.(Diagram courtesy of Woodwind & Brasswind)


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3. You need to use the right tool for the job. There are many brass players that use the same mouthpiece on everything they play yet there are an equal number of people who change their mouthpiece depending on the job at hand. Both brass legends Adolph “Bud” Herseth and Arnold Jacobs, former principal trumpet and tuba of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra respectively, often changed mouthpieces for specific jobs, but had one mouthpiece that was “home base. It is a good idea to get the job done right as easily as possible with the correct sound needed for that musical performance. I do not feel that it is right to use the same mouthpiece in every situation. For example, playing in a salsa band with one mouthpiece then use the same mouthpiece in a brass quintet, a symphonic band or an orchestra (vice versa); the sound will not work.

4. There are many well-known Brand names of mouthpieces: Bach, Schilke, Reeves, Yamaha, Blackburn, Greg Black, or Monette… one brand name is as good as the next just as long as you like the mouthpiece (after considering the above process). Professional instrument makers/repair people can also alter mouthpieces; changing the dimensions of the throat and backbore are common and generally aid in a freer and larger sound, but can change the articulation and intonation drastically. Again, the aid of your instructor is paramount. I usually recommend the use of a Bach mouthpiece for beginners. The size will depend on facial formation, general embouchure strength, etc., but usually falls within the 3C, 5C or 7C range. Having one of each for the student to try is helpful and beneficial.


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III

PROPER EMBOUCHURE POSITION____________________________________

It is difficult to pinpoint an individual and tell them that a specific embouchure is better than another. As I have stated before, each person is uniquely different from the next and will have slight variations of embouchure, articulation, etc. Only through slight experimentation can the correct embouchure for the individual be found. Its best to do this while the student is in their earlier stages of development. It is much more difficult during later stages. With this said, the standard trumpet embouchure is located in the center, below the nose, and is at a ratio of 50/50 (top lip to bottom lip), but I have also had great success with a 60/40 ratio (top to bottom lip). Notice, the corners are slightly down (frowning), but not drastically.

(Professor Ackley)

There are also common embouchure problems that can be readily fixed when the instructor spots them. The most common are the smile embouchure, the bunched-up chin embouchure, puffy cheeks, excessive pucker, and the mouthpiece placement (whether too low or too high). Please refer to Chapter Two of Teaching Brass: a Resource Manuel by Wayne Bailey, Patrick Miles, Alan Siebert, William Stanley and Thomas Stein, published by McGraw-Hill, Inc. This book is a terrific resource and should be welcomed in the library of every general music educator. I use this book because I feel it easily demonstrates the different aspects of brass playing for each instrument as well as their similarities. Please refer to Chapter X of this handout for pinpointing common problems.


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IV

PROPER POSTURE & BREATHING___________________________________

Before we discuss breathing, we must first understand that posture plays an equally important role. Not only does good posture enable us to breath better and easier, but it will also help us sound better. This is important to understand; there is a direct and unmistakable correlation between the two.

Posture: What a correct posture does is allow your body to expand and move naturally while breathing. It also allows the diaphragm to work properly and move without excess tension (the diaphragm is an involuntary muscle that, if under tension, will not respond properly to a normal breathing habit), resulting in a relaxed and full breath. An example of good posture would be… pretend that an invisible thread is pulling your spine upward. Relax the shoulders down with your arms at your side (not in front of you, but at your side). Your chin should not be looking up, rather down somewhat, with your head “over your shoulders”. The lumbar region of the back should have a nice curve (not a forced curve), causing your hipbone to pivot backward slightly and naturally. From there, you should be sitting on your “sitting bones” (you can feel these bones while rocking forward and backward in your chair); find a balance. You will notice that you are probably more forward than you originally anticipated. This is good! While standing, the same relaxed effort is applied while maintaining the curve in the lumbar region of the back (hips back). The balance is now located in the feet (do not stand back too far on your heels or too forward on your toes). Keep the posture, but stay nice and relaxed. Remember to keep the chest up in both instances. A good way to check is take a full breath and exhale while keeping the chest in pretty much the same position. You should notice that the chest is now up and allows the rib cage to be out of the way, aiding in a fuller breath. This should be a relaxed and easily maintained posture. The diagrams below outline the “do’s” and “don’ts” of playing posture. (Photos courtesy of the David G. Monette Corp. 2007)

Standing: do & don’t do Sitting: do & don’t do Hips open | Hips closed Hips open/throat open | Hips closed/throat closed


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Feet: parallel – hips open Feet: splayed/open – hips closed

Knees: parallel – hips open Knees: splayed – hips closed

Breathing: I am always saying, “The better the breath going in, the better the sound will be coming out”. This is a great way to correlate sound and technique. Try to emulate a good breath each time you breathe. Listen to your air going in; mimic the syllable “OH” or “HOME” while taking the breath. This should sound and feel very relaxed and you should feel cold air on the back of your throat. The sound it makes is very little. Remember to fill your lungs with air. Like filling a drinking glass, start from the bottom of your lungs and fill them to the top. You should notice movement or expansion (but not forced) of your torso, including the abdomen, the chest, and the shoulders. It is imperative that you do not move these areas voluntarily; rather let them move as a whole while the air fills the lungs. Using a breathing aid may help many to achieve a more relaxed way of breathing. I use the Breath Builder with my students and have seen wonderful results. This apparatus uses a ping-pong ball as giving a visual reference of the students’ breathing habits. One only needs to listen to the entire breathing process to know that it is relaxed, working properly and advantageous to the wind player. On page 7, I have included a few breathing aids so you may further explore them on your own.


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Breathing Exercises

1. Before beginning, try stretching. Just a few will do. This should only take a minute or two, but really gets the blood flowing, warms the body, and awakens the mind.

A. Head Rolls a. Standing, hold hands behind the body at the waist. b. Roll head slowly from left to right, 6-8 times. c. Arch head up and down slowly, 6-8 times. d. Roll head slowly from right to left, 6-8 times. e. You can repeat steps a-d at will. B. Chair Spinal Twist a. Sit erect on edge of chair. b. Reach around (left) with left arm and place on back of chair. c. With right arm, reach across the chair, extending your torso to the left. d. Inhale slowly and deeply, then exhale. Return to center. e. Repeat on opposite side. C. Back Stretch a. Standing, intertwine fingers and hold above head (palms up). b. Pull arms slightly backwards and upwards and hold briefly while breathing. Exhale and drop intertwined fingers by your belly button.

c. Push palms downward and bend at your waist (as to touch the floor). Hold briefly while breathing in and then exhale. Return to rest position.

2. Practice with the syllable “OH”. This will open the throat and allow a large quantity of air in very quickly. Like saying, “HOME.”

3. Play a game with your students: have your students breathe in for 4 counts and then expel the air for 4 counts at a slow tempo (quarter note = 60). Let the air come out in a controlled fashion, don’t push. Inhale for 8 counts, expel in 4 counts. Inhale for 4 counts expel in 16, etc.

4. Sit in a chair with your feet and legs/knees together. Bending over, grab your ankles and look forward. Uncomfortable? Good! Now, inhale… hold it. Inhale more and hold it… more and hold it…. let the air out. Where do you feel the expansion? Don’t repeat this too many times or your students will pass out on the floor.

5. Have the students take a deep, relax (yet quick) breath and then blow it through the horn (without the mouthpiece – this way there are no “sounds” to deal with). Have them recognize that the air does not need to be pushed out with a great deal of force. Have them achieve the best sound of air going in, “Home”, and coming out, “Ho”. Once this is done, play through a few chorales or lyrical selections and apply what is learned through music. Show them how to blow through the phrase and remind them that pushing is not necessary (see example below). Concentrate on the


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sound and the musicality (we have already gone through the exercises, now allow the students to experiment with this through their sound). Remind them to always play with a beautiful sound.

6. Exhale completely. Place back of your hand against your mouth and breath in (the back of the hand will cause resistance). Then, pull your hand away while breathing in and allow the air to rush into your lungs. Repeat several times. Remember to remain as relaxed as possible.

7. Exhale completely. Place the side of your hand, thumb under the chin, against your mouth. Breathing in, cause a “ripping” sound to occur. Relax and repeat.

8. While standing, breathe in and raise your hands above your head (intertwined), palms up. Then, exhale and lower your hands to below your stomach. Repeat several times.

9. Put on a metronome to 60 beats per minute. Inhale through your mouth for 5 counts. Count twenty counts from the metronome and exhale completely and as fast as possible. Careful not to repeat too much, you can cause dizziness.

10. Try No. 9 again, but stretch like in No. 8.


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Breathing Aids(photos of Power Lung, courtesy of Power Lung)

The Breath Builder$15.00 - $22.00The Breath Builder is used to feel (and see) the sensation of inhaling and exhaling. It is a tube of plastic six inches tall with a ping-pong ball inside. The bottom is sealed and the top has three holes, which are used to vary the resistance.

Volumetric Exerciser $17.00 - $22.00 The Voldyne is used to measure the amount of air inhaled (up to five liters.) There are two chambers: the larger (right) is used to measure air volume and the smaller (left) air pressure.

Incentive Spirometer $20.00 - $28.00 The Incentive spirometer (also known as the Inspiron) is used to give respiratory patients a visual demonstration of how much air they can inhale. Originally designed for inhalation, if the unit is turned upside down, it can also be used for exhalation. A built-in gauge is used to adjust resistance as needed. The Inspiron can also be used in conjunction with mouthpiece practice.

Air Bag $16.00 - $22.00 A 5 to 6-liter rubber air bag can be used for giving a rough estimate of a person's vital lung capacity and, by slowly re-breathing air several times in a row, the practice of inhalation and exhalation. Since the same air is breathed, carbon dioxide, rather than oxygen, is transferred avoiding hyperventilation.

Power Lung$80.00 - $ 120.00A small apparatus that fits in your hand and is easy to transport. It works on resistance training with inhalation and exhalation. A great training device, although expensive.


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V

FINGERING CHART______________________________________________


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VI

DEVELOPING THE SOUND CONCEPT__________________________________

There are many different trumpet tones – each individual has his or her own tone and each particular style of music has its own “tone” or sound. Orchestral trumpet playing has traditionally moved towards a balanced, more sonorous tone; one that would project to the back of the orchestra hall with the most resonance and the least amount of effort. Jazz has traditionally been performed in smaller avenues, therefore the sound does not need to be as sonorous - brighter sounds are easier to hear and usually project in those situations. This is subjective and the sound concept develops over years of study and during the act of performing.

Basically, a teacher has his or her own preference and will guide the student in this direction. Personally, I feel a typical trumpet tone, one of orchestral playing, is the ideal sound – as the student may change that sound afterwards via equipment or through personal experience and adapt to the musical situation more easily than if they began with a different sound. I’m sure this is arguable, but it’s worked for me as a teacher and player.

A few helpful ideas on developing a sound concept are:

1. Listening to recordings. Even during the lesson. Point out the sound characteristics. Make a game out of it... see who can guess the trumpeter first.

2. Attending live performances. Nothing substitutes a live performance. It’s not only important for the sound concept, but for many reasons.

3. Studying with a professional private instructor. This is very important. get a well qualified teacher/player whenever possible. Educators, if you are not a trumpet player, then have a professional come in every now and again and spot check. This is also great for inspiring the students.

4. Playing in the center of pitch. (playing in tune) The notes sound the best (the “fattest”, most “resonant”, more “ring”, better “projection”) when you play the note in its center. The center will often depend on the make and level of the trumpet. Listen for it, you can find it. Use lip bending to find the sweet spots.

5. Practicing slowly & correctly. Practice to build, not destroy. I cannot state this enough. Teach your student to practice. Teach patience. Teach what to listen for.

Please refer to the appendices for the article “Developing Sound.”


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VII

THE ART OF TONGUING___________________________________________

Tips and Study Aids for Tonguing

Tonguing, or articulation is an extremely important part of brass playing. The most beautiful tone quality in the world will be ruined by poor articulation. The sound of the shortest articulation must mimic the sound of a full long tone, no matter how short the note.

Knowledge of musical styles is important to the professional musician. As a student, you should become familiar with as many styles of music as possible and the articulations that apply to them.

General Tonguing Concepts

1. Placement of the tip of the tongue is usually behind the top teeth, near the gum line. Say the word “tip” to get an idea of proper tongue placement.

2. A strong, steady, relaxed air stream is very important. Avoid “puffs” of air for each note – instead, sustain the air as if playing a whole note.

3. While practicing, force yourself to play all articulations written, not just the notes!4. Play the following exercises:

a. Keep everything very connected: “Doe”, “Du” “Dah” or “Di” syllables depending on the register (or “Toe”, “Tu”, “Tah”, or “Ti” depending on the register). In this example, it is best to use “Dah” or “Tah”.

b. Once mastered, practice this exercise in all ranges and dynamics.

a. Play first measure sustained, then very short (staccatissimo, worth ¼ the value of the printed note). Do not change the air support or tone – “Toe”, “Tu”, “Tah”, or “Ti” depending on the register. In this example, it is best to use “Dah” or “Tah”.

b. Once mastered, practice this exercise in all ranges and dynamics.


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Syllables used in different registers“Toe”/”Doe” – low range“Tah”/”Dah” – middle range“Teh”/”Deh” – middle to upper range“Ti”/”Di” – upper range“Tsss” – extreme upper range

Why use syllables? Syllables allow us to position our tongues. Using the tongue is the most efficient way of control the airflow – namely the speed.

• With the tongue in the “Doe” position, it is down, out of the way, allowing for the oral cavity to open.

• With the tongue in the “Deh” position, it is in the middle of the oral cavity, raised higher than the “Doe”, hence speeding the air slightly and allowing greater ease for the particular register.

• “sss” – is used in the extreme range. Notice the tongue is at the roof of the mouth, the tip is forward and the air travels at its fastest speed, aiding the support of the notes in this particular register.

Multiple TonguingFor preliminary work on multiple tonguing, practice the above exercises using a Ga or Ka syllable. (I will use Ka in my explanations below for ease of typing, but I prefer the Ga syllable). Double Tonguing

Practice using the “Ka” in different places:a. Ta – Kab. Ka – Tac. Ta – Tad. Ka – Ka e. Always emulate the sound of the “Ta”. You should not hear an audible difference

between the “Ta” and “Ka” syllable while playing. Practice to keep the sound the same.

f. Again, the syllable use should change depending on the register.

Triple TonguingPractice using the “Ka” in different places:

a. Ta – Ta – Kab. Ta – Ta – Tac. Ka – Ka – Ka


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d. Ka – Ta – Tae. Ka – Ka –Taf. Ta – Ka – Ta (Ka – Ta –Ka)g. Ta – Ka – Kah. Always emulate the sound of the “Ta”. You should not hear an audible difference

between the “Ta” and “Ka” syllable while playing. Practice to keep the sound the same.

i. Again, the syllable use should change depending on the register.


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VIII

INTONATION__________________________________________________

There are three important steps to playing in tune on the trumpet:

1. You need to know if you're out of tune. Listen. If pitch is bad, assume it is YOU. 2. Adjust. Don't just sit there. If you don't know which way to go, try up or down.3. Keep your air moving! Keeping the air moving consistently can cure many intonation problems.

(Knowing your pitch tendencies will allow you to make an educated guess as to which direction you are probably out of tune.)

Pitch Tendencies: 1. Valve combinations: a. 1 = slightly sharp (normally, use a little slide). b. 1 + 2 = sharp (use first slide). c. 2 + 3 = flat (lip up, no slide needed). d. 1 + 3 = sharp (use third slide). e. 1 + 2 + 3 = very sharp (use first and third slide). 2. The harmonic series: a. Fifth harmonics are flat (lip up 4th line D, 4th space E-flat, and E). b. Sixth harmonics are sharp (lip down high G and F-sharp, thumb slide on F). c. Seventh harmonics are unusually flat. 3. Environmental temperature: a. Cold = flat. b. Hot = sharp. c. The more you play, the warmer the instrument-the sharper you will be. 4. Condition of the trumpet: a. Very dirty = smaller bore = sharp. b. Immovable slides = inability to adjust = sharp.

5. Sound quality, dynamic level, and distance: It is only possible to play in tune with a good, centered sound. Loud playing tends to go flat, or is at least perceived as flat. Soft playing tends to go sharp, or is at least perceived as sharp. Playing at a distance makes the pitch go flat to the listener, therefore if you are playing from backstage you must push the main tuning slide in further to adjust.


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6. Miscellaneous equipment issues: • Mutes make you go sharp, so pull the main tuning slide out. • Each type/brand of mute will differ, so check yours with a tuner. • Filing the corks can adjust a mute's pitch to a degree. • Tuners only work as a reference. You can be in tune with a tuner and out of tune with everyone else. • The shallower the mouthpiece, the sharper you will play. 7. Embouchure and tongue position: • The tighter your embouchure, the sharper you will play. • The more loose the embouchure, the flatter you’ll play. • The higher your tongue is arched in your mouth, the sharper you will play. • The lower your tongue sits, the flatter you will play. • The concept of adjusting your tongue arch in order to change pitch and tone quality is often referred to as "voicing." 8. Equal versus Just intonation: a. Equal temperament is playing 100 cents per half step, like with a tuner. This is the way a piano is tuned. b. Just intonation is adjusting to make intervals and chords sound without “beats”.

Here are the places where you should begin to do this:

With Relation to the RootM3 Narrow by 14 centsm3 Widen by 16 centsP4 Narrow by 2 centsP5 Widen by 2 centsm7 Narrow by 4 cents

(M = Major, m = minor)

You must know your place in the chord to accomplish this task.


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IX

CARE & MAINTENANCE_________________________________________

Items you need to thoroughly clean your trumpet: (photos courtesy of Dillon Music)

Valve Oil & Slide Cream Cleaning “Snake”

Polishing Cloth Mouthpiece Brush

Trumpet cleaning kit available (with all needed items)


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CLEANING YOUR TRUMPET

1. Draw a bath of warm water (not hot). 2. Place some baking soda in the water (this takes away bad smells!). 3. Take trumpet apart (place valves somewhere where they will not get wet), then place trumpet in water. Take off the bottom valve caps too! 4. Let the trumpet soak for a few minutes (5-10). 5. Take some liquid soap (from kitchen), pour into lead pipe and clean out with the cleaning snake. Run it through a few times. 6. Follow step 5 with all the slides, valve casing, slide casings (on the trumpet), bottom valve caps, and the bell. 7. Rinse thoroughly. Residual soap gums-up the trumpet valves. 8. Dry trumpet and all slides. 9. Put the slide grease/cream on the slides (a little goes a long ways). 10. Add a few drops of valve oil to the slides to help make them work better. 11. Then, clean the valves separately at a sink. a. Use warm water. b. Hold the valve stem in your hand. c. Put soap on the valve and use your brush to lather the soap by gently scrubbing up and down. (I personally use an old toothbrush for this). d. Rise thoroughly and dry them off. e. Oil each valve separately and insert into the correct valve casing (the valves are usually marked). 12. Use a polishing cloth to polish the lacquer or silver plating. 13. You are finished! MAINTENANCE

1. Use a soft cloth to wipe off daily finger prints. 2. Keep valves and slides oiled and in working condition. 3. Make sure you have a good case and place the trumpet in the case properly, as to not bend anything that shouldn’t be bent! 4. The mouthpiece should go in the mouthpiece slot or a case. Never leave it so it can move around freely. It will dent your horn! 5. Clean your horn once a month. See above instructions.


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X

THE SIX MOST COMMON PROBLEMS__________________________________

The six most common problems encountered by beginning and intermediate trumpet students. (from "A Complete Guide to Brass", Scott Whitener, 1990, Schirmer Books, p.118-119)

Restricted or interrupted breath. This refers to both inhalation and exhalation. Students have a tendency to try to control the air instead of simply letting it flow freely in and out of their lungs and through the instrument. In the process of inhalation students will sometimes close the throat or mouth and get a vacuum sound. Another tendency is to hold the breath at the top of the inhalation. This allows tension to set in and makes the body have to work to exhale the air. In the exhalation process students will often try to hold the air in or close the throat or oral cavity and cause the air to be restricted. The process of inhalation-exhalation should be thought of as one circular motion. Have students breathe in as full as they can get and then hold their breath. Then have them relax and experience the air falling out of their body. Exhaling all the air you can and relaxing to feel the air fall back in the body can also do this. Once they have felt the sensation of effortless breathing encourage them to breathe like that always. Also, have students think of filling from the belt to the shoulders. While it is important to take a full breath before playing, be careful not to breathe so full that tension is created. I encourage students to take a full and relaxed breath.

Excessive Pressure. Although there is no such thing as no-pressure playing, young students should be encouraged to use as little pressure as possible. I have students relax the grip they have on the instrument to release the pressure on the embouchure.

Incorrect Mouthpiece Placement. This is often where young players’ problems begin, especially in a class setting. The mouthpiece should be vertically and horizontally centered as much as the dental/facial characteristics will allow.

Stretched or Tight Embouchure. Smiling or frowning when forming the embouchure causes this. Have students pull the corners to the center of the mouth, into the teeth when forming the embouchure. This will create firm corners and a supple middle, something between and stretch and a pucker. Another habit that can cause the embouchure to stretch is puffing the checks. Keep a close eye for this habit and stop it early in the students training.


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Rigid Jaw or Tongue. This is caused by any number of conditions. The one I have encountered most is the clenching of the teeth, which tightens the jaw. The teeth should always be apart when playing any brass instrument. If a student is having severe difficulty in keeping the teeth apart I cut a piece off the casing of a “Bic” pen and have them hold it between their back teeth until they get used to the feeling of playing with the teeth apart. A relaxed tongue and jaw are vital to tone production, flexibility and range. Impedance at the mouthpiece. Occasionally there will be a problem that does not fit into any of the other categories. This means simply that there is something happening at the mouthpiece that is preventing the student from producing a good sound. It could be that the embouchure is too tight to buzz or the aperture is too large to produce the proper pressure to produce a sound. Whatever the case, if you have students say "m & m" or “mmm” to form the embouchure this will create the correct tension. If the aperture is too large have the student say a soft "pooh" as they exhale. This will close the aperture and get the buzz started. Persistent research on the part of the teacher is necessary to solve many of the problems in this category.


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XI

DEALING WITH BRACES___________________________________________

Dealing with issues surrounding braces can be very frustrating for both the student and the teacher. Braces do not necessarily impede the progress in brass playing, however it may make you take a different direction with the way in which you normally instruct players that do not have braces. The most frequent complaint from students is that their braces hurt their lips when playing/practicing. There are now a number of products that deal with this situation. The four most common are: wax, BraceGuard, The Morgan Bumper and the Karwoski Lip Protector. All three items listed below are readily available at any major instrument store or on the web.

Wax: Wax is usually very messy, hard to clean after playing and needs to be thick enough to prevent the braces from protrude through the lips. Also, when wax becomes warm it does not hold its shape very well. When students take the wax off their braces, it is usually difficult to “pick” all the wax off. www.dentakit.com/sildenwax.html (1-877-329-4733).

BraceGuard: Brace Guard is a kit that helps form a rubber guard between the braces and the lips. Brace Guard is more expensive than wax and is can be tricky to form to the braces. It is similar to a mouth guard that an athlete would use for protection (although not as thick). www.braceguard.com (1-803-695-5001).

The Morgan Bumper: The Morgan Bumper is a thin, soft PVC tube with a slit down the side. It comes in bulk and you simply cut the desired length. It is easily washable and fits over the braces easily and without mess or delay. www.morgan-bumper.com (1-800-453-7846).

Karwoski Lip Protector: Much like the Morgan Bumper, but some say a little thinner and more comfortable. http://www.lipprotector.com (1-800-377-2655).

Once the student has the braces put on by the orthodontists, it is a good idea to have the student begin playing immediately so the new embouchure has a chance to form and the lips will “toughen-up”. Short and limited exercises are great, especially lyrical etudes/exercises as in the Concone book or the Arban’s book (see Methods and Resources). When the student has the braces removed, it is better to have the student take some time off of the instrument for a few weeks. Playing too soon seems to hinder the re-adjustment process and leads to bad habits. Work closely with the private instructor. Have the instructor keep a close eye on the student for a few weeks, seeing them in a short lesson often (5-10 minutes 2-3 times a week) rather than 30 minutes a week. During the “time off” of the instrument, have the student listen to good recordings and research new literature. Keep the musical spark going, while the body has time to heal.


p. 24

http://www.dentakit.com/sildenwax.html

http://www.dentakit.com/sildenwax.html

http://www.braceguard.com

http://www.braceguard.com

http://www.morgan-bumper.com

http://www.morgan-bumper.com

http://www.lipprotector.com

http://www.lipprotector.com

XII

TIPS ON HOW TO PRACTICE________________________________________

1. Practice meticulously. Try to address as much as possible using the least amount of time as possible.

2. Practice areas that are more challenging. Don’t practice over and over areas that you are able to play.

3. Take phrases apart and then put them back together. “Skeletonize” the phrases and learn where the air pattern flows.

4. Have a schedule (game plan) and follow it.

5. Make sure you are warmed-up (physically and mentally).

6. Keep distractions to a minimum.

7. Use miscellaneous devices to achieve your goal. Use rhythmic displacement, flutter tonguing, slurring, over articulation, etc.

8. If recordings and scores are available, use them but don’t copy them. Be yourself.

9. Make sure you are in shape (don’t practice if you are struggling with the notes or endurance). First, make sure you are in shape and then begin practicing. This will limit bad habits.

10. Achieve a consistent end result. The end result should be your sound, style, phrasing and intonation. They should all be appropriate for the piece being studied/performed. 11. Practice performing. Performing is much different than a practice room. A consistent performance routine is also necessary for success.

12. Keep the inspiration flowing. Go hear other players that are great musicians, go hear orchestras, chamber music, etc. New ideas come from hearing others play. Listen and learn.


p. 25

XIII

OTHER TRUMPETS______________________________________________

There is a variety of trumpets that professionals use depending on the situation. You should be aware of the fact that these trumpets exist and are considered specialty instruments (with the exception of the cornet and flugelhorn). Photos courtesy of Yamaha, Inc.

The Cornet - they may come in various keys (usually Bb, A or Eb). Used mainly as a solo or orchestral instrument. A good choice of instrument for a beginner, especially if their hand are small and their reach is limited.

The flugelhorn - this instrument is used for both classical and jazz. None primarily for its use it jazz, the flugelhorn has many classical composition dedicated to it. Has also been used as a posthorn (e.g. Mahler’s 3rd Symphony).

The C trumpet - pitched in the key of C, this trumpet is the choice of most orchestral musicians. The sound is sweet, a little more brilliant than a Bb, with great carrying power.

The Eb/D trumpet - pitched in either Eb or D (by a moveable bell and/or slides), this is primarily used as a classical solo instrument. Orchestral players will also use these trumpets in a variety of way.

The piccolo trumpet - normally pitched in Bb/A (but also comes pitched in C, G and F). This is the modern baroque trumpet, facilitating baroque literature. It is also widely used in orchestral playing. It does NOT give you an extra octave in range - it only facilitates the natural range of the trumpet, making certain passages lighter in character.

The rotary trumpet - the term rotary refers to the type of valves used. Used mainly is European orchestras, rotary trumpet are becoming used more and more in orchestras, especially of Germanic literature. Rotary trumpets come in all the keys/style mentioned above.


p. 26

XIV

MUTES_____________________________________________________

There are many different kinds of mutes. And, as with all other equipment, many different brands and companies make mutes. My personal preferences lean towards Trumcor and Denis Wick mutes. They are skillfully manufactured and have distinct sounds that either allow them to cut through an ensemble or diffuse the sound enough to become a part of the ensemble. They also play very well in tune and little adjustment is needed.

There are several mutes that are a must have for any trumpeter. I will list them here: (photos courtesy of Dillon Music)

The Straight Mute - the most common of mutes. If a section is marked muted, they are referring to this mute. It produces a softer dynamic, but a more brilliant tone. Trumcor is pictured here, Denis Wick is another good mute. You want your students to use a metal mute, not a cardboard mute. They sound MUCH better!

The Cup Mute - used in many occasions, this versatile mute produces a round, somewhat muffled sound. You will find this mute used often in jazz ensembles, but it now used in many band and solos as well. Trumcor is pictured here, Denis Wick is another good mute. They are both “adjustable cups”, meaning you can move the cup of the mute, giving different tone timbres.

The Harmon Mute (Wah-Wah) - used in many situations, this is another must have mute for your trumpet section. It gives a nasal sound, often associated with jazz. The Jo-Ral Bubble Mute is pictured here, a great choice. Another choice is the Harmon brand.

The Plunger Mute - every jazz section will need a plunger. No need to purchase a brand name when you can go to a store and buy a plunger (make sure its not a used one!). Just remove the stick that comes with it and TA-DA, a mute. When used correctly, the plunger can almost mimic human speech. A very effective mute.


p. 27

XV

LITERATURE AND RESOURCES______________________________________

The following is a simple list of method books, journals, and other resources I have used or have found in researching solutions to a specific brass related problem. This is not to be considered a complete list, but rather a starting point. I feel it is our job as educators to constantly search for new sources of information and new music. This will enable us to grow and reach our goals. (Publisher listed within the parenthesis).

Trumpet Literature & Publishers List

Many of the publishers listed here may have works listed below that have since become difficult to find. If you are looking for a particular work and cannot find it, these publishers are a fabulous resource.

PUBLISHERSBeauport Press Music Publications (www.beauportpress.com)Boosey and Hawkes Music Publications (www.boosey.com)Brass Chamber Music Press (http://brasschambermusic.com)Carl Fischer (www.carlfischer.com)Cimarron Music Press (www.cimarronmusic.com)Cherry Classics Publishing (www.cherry-classics.com)Curnow Music Press (www.curnowmusicpress.com)Editions BIM (www.editions-bim.ch)Editions Marc Reift (www.reift.ch)Gerard Billaudot Edituer (www.billaudot.com)Hickman Music Editions (www.hickmanmusiceditions.com)Alphonse Leduc (www.alphonseleduc.com/english/)Schirmer (www.schirmer.com)Daniel Schynder (www.danielschnyder.com)Theodore Presser Company (www.presser.com)


p. 28

http://www.beauportpress.com

http://www.beauportpress.com

http://www.boosey.com

http://www.boosey.com

http://brasschambermusic.com

http://brasschambermusic.com

http://www.carlfischer.com

http://www.carlfischer.com

http://www.cimarronmusic.com

http://www.cimarronmusic.com

http://www.cherry-classics.com

http://www.cherry-classics.com

http://www.curnowmusicpress.com

http://www.curnowmusicpress.com

http://www.editions-bim.ch

http://www.editions-bim.ch

http://www.reift.ch

http://www.reift.ch

http://www.billaudot.com

http://www.billaudot.com

http://www.hickmanmusiceditions.com

http://www.hickmanmusiceditions.com

http://www.alphonseleduc.com/english/

http://www.alphonseleduc.com/english/

http://www.schirmer.com

http://www.schirmer.com

http://www.danielschnyder.com

http://www.danielschnyder.com

http://www.presser.com

http://www.presser.com

The following is a brief list on popular methods, repertoire and literature. By no means is it a final list, but it should give an educator a starting point or reference. I have included the publishers name when available.

COMPLETE METHODSArban: Complete Conservatory Method, ed. Goldman and Smith (C. Fischer)Arban: Methode Complete, ed Maire, 3 vols. (A. Leduc)Clodomir: Methode Complete, ed. Job (A. Leduc)Saint-Jacome: Grand Method (C. Fischer)

ELEMENTARY METHODSClarke: Elementary Methods (C. Fischer)Gordon: Physical Approach to Elementary Brass Playing (C. Fischer)Longinotti: l’Etude de la trompette (Editions Henn)Ridgeon: Brass for Beginners (Boosey & Hawkes)Robinson: Rubank Elementary Method (Rubank)Wiggins: First Tunes & Studios (Oxford)Grouse: Learn to Play the Trumpet/CornetHaddad: Step by Step Band TechniqueHering: Trumpet CourseKinyon: Breeze EasyLeonard: Essential Elements (Hal Leonard)Mitchell: Trumpet Method Book 1O'Reilly & Williams: Accent on Achievement Robinson: Rubank Elementary Method (Rubank)Sandoval: Playing Techniques and Performing, vol. 1Vincent & Weber: Cornet StudentKissling: Method for Beginning Trumpeter (AK Brass Press)

BAND METHODSAccent on Achievement (Alfred)Essential Elements 2000 (Hal Leonard)Now Go Home and Practice (Heritage Music Press)Standard of Excellence (Kjos)Step by Step (Kjos)Yamaha Band Student (Alfred)Band Expressions (Warner Brothers)


p. 29

STUDIESMEDIUM to MEDIUM-DIFFICULTBordogni: 24 Vocalises, trans. Porret (transposition) (A. Leduc)Bousquet: 36 Celebrated Studies, ed. Goldman (C. Fischer)Brandt: 34 Studies & 24 Last Studies, ed Vacchiano (Belwin-Mills)Broiles: Have Trumpet… Will Transpose (transposition) (C. Colin)Chavanne: 25 Characteristic Studies, ed Voisin (International)Clarke: Setting Up Drills (C. Fischer)Colin: Advanced Lip Flexibilities (C. Colin)Endresen: Supplementary Studies (Rubank)Gallay: 22 Exercises, ed. Maire (A. Leduc)Glantz: The Complete Harry Glantz (C. Colin)Goldman: Practical Studies (C. Fischer)Gower & Voxman (ed): Rubank Advanced Method (Rubank)Hering: 32 Etudes (C. Fischer)Hovaldt: Lip Flexibility (R. King)Kopprasch: 60 Studies, ed. Gumbert/Herbst, 2 vols (C. Fischer)Laurent: Etudes practiques, 3 vols (A. Leduc)Pares: Scales (Rubank)Salvation Army: 101 Techincal Exercises (Salvation Army)Schlossberg: Daily Drills and Technical Studies (M. Brown)Skornicka: Rubank Intermediate Method (Rubank)Smith: Lip Flexibility (C. Fischer)Staigers: Flexibility Studies, 2 vols (C. Fischer)Stamp: Warm-ups and Studies (Editions BIM)Vacchiano: Trumpet Routines (C. Colin)Zauder: Embouchure & Technique Studies (C. Colin)

DIFFICULTAndre: 12 Etudes caprices dans le style baroque (piccolo trumpet) (Editions Billaudot)Andre: Exercises Journaliers, ed. Lopez (Editions Billaudot)Balasanyan: 20 Studies, ed. Foveau (International)Balay: 15 Etudes (A. Leduc)N. Bizet: 12 Grandes etudes de perfectionnement (A. Leduc)Bodet: 16 Etudes de virtuosite d’apres J.S. Bach (A. Leduc)Broiles: Trumpet Baroque, 2 vols (piccolo trumpet) (Queen City)Charlier: Etudes transcendantes (A. Leduc)Clarke: Characteristic Studies (C. Fischer)Dunhem: 24 Etdues (C. Fischer)Gallay: 12 Grand caprices, ed. Maire (A. Leduc)Gallay: 39 Preludes, ed. Maire (A. Leduc)Harris: Advanced Studies (C. Colin)


p. 30

Hickman: The Piccolo Trumpet (Tromba Publications/Hickman Music Editions)Longinotti: Studies in Classical and Modern Style (International)Petit: Grandes Etdues (A. Leduc)Sasche: 100 Etudes (transposition) (International)Smith: Top Tones (C. Fischer)Webster: Method for Piccolo Trumpet (Brass Press)

UNACCOMPANIED TRUMPETDIFFICULTAdler: Canto I (Oxford)Arnold: Fantasy (Faber)Berio: Sequenza X per tromba in do (e risonanze di pianoforte) (Universal Eds.)Bozza: Graphismes (A. Leduc)Burrell: 5 Concert Studies (Oxford)Cheetham: Concoctions (Presser)Friedman: Solus (?)Henze: Sonatina (Dunster Music)Kagel: Old/New (Universal Eds.)Ketting: IntradaPersichetti: Parable (Presser)Presser: Suite (Ensemble Pubs)Renwick: Encore Piece (Tromba Pubs)Sampson: Litany of Breath (Brass Press)Schuman: 25 Opera Snatches (Presser)Takemitsu: Paths, In Memorium Witold Lutoslawski (Schott)Tisne: Emotion (Diffusion, Arpeges)Watkins: La mort de l’aigle

TRUMPET AND PIANOEASYAdams: The Holy City (Boosey & Hawkes)Bach: Aria – Bist Du Bei Mir, arr. Fitzgerald (Belwin-Mills)Bakaleinkoff: Serenade (Belwin-Mills)Barsham (ed.): 10 Trumpet Tunes (Oxford) 12 Trumpet Tunes (Oxford)Borst/Bogar (eds): Trumpet Music for Beginners (Editio Musica)Dearnley (ed.): 8 easy pieces (Chester)Dexter/de Smet: First Year Trumpeter, 2 vols. (E. Ashdown)Haydn: Andante, arr. Voxman (Rubank) A Haydn Solo Album, arr. Lawrence (Oxford)Handel: A Handel Solo Album, arr. Lethbridge (Oxford)


p. 31

Hering (ed.): Easy Pieces for the Young Trumpeter (C. Fischer)Lawton (ed.): The Young Trumpet Player, 3 vols. (Oxford)Lawton (ed.): Old English Trumpet Tunes, 2 vols. (Oxford)Lowden: Easy Play-Along Solos (recording included) (Kendor)Mozart: Concert Aria, arr. Voxman (Rubank) A Mozart Almub, arr. Lethbridge (Oxford)Philips (ed.): Classical & Romantic Album, vol. 1 (Oxford)Tenaglia: Aria, arr. Fitzgerald (Presser)Vandercook: Marigold (C. Fischer) Morning Glory (C. Fischer)Willner (ed.): Classical Album (Boosey & Hawkes)

MEDIUM to MEDIUM-DIFFICULTAnderson: Trumpeter’s Lullaby (Belwin0Mills)Bakaleinikov: Polonaise (Belwin-Mills)Balay: Petite Piece Concertante (Belwin-Mills)Barat: Andante et Scherzo (A. Leduc)Bozza: Badinage (A. Leduc)Chance: Credo (Boosey & Hawkes)J. Clarke: Trumpet Voluntary, arr. Voisin (International)Corelli: Prelude & Minuet, arr. Powell (Southern)Delmas: Choral et variations (Billaudot)Forbes (ed.): Classical & Romantic Album, vols. 2-3 (Oxford)Getchell (ed.): Master Solos (H. Leonard)Fioco: Arioso (Presser)Fitzgerald: English Suite (Presser)Gaubert: Catabile et Scherzetto (C. Fischer)Goedicke: Concert Etude (Belwin-Mills)Handel: Aria con Variazioni, arr. Fitzgerald (Belwin-Mills)Handel: Sonata No. 3, arr. Powell (Southern)Hovhaness: Prayer of St. Gregory (Southern)James: Windmills (B. Ramsey)Ledger (ed.): Warlike Music 1760 (Oxford)Mortimer (ed.): Souvenir Album (Boosey & Hawkes)Persichetti: The Hollow Men (Presser)Purcell: Sonata, ed. Viosin (transposed) (International)Richardson (ed.): 6 Trumpet Tunes (Boosey & Hawkes)Ropartz: Andante et Allegro (Southern)Simon: Willow Echoes (C. Fischer)Telemann: Herois Music, arr. Lawton (Oxford)Watsall (ed.): First Repertoire Pieces for Trumpet (Boosey & Hawkes)Voxman (ed.): Concert & Contest (Rubank)


p. 32

DIFFICULTAlbinoni: Concerto in D, arr. Thilde (Billaudot)Albrechtsberger: Concertino (Brass Press)Arban: Carnival of Venice (C. Fischer)Arnold: Concerto (Faber)Arutunian: Concerto (International)Bellstedt: Napoli (Southern) La Mandolinata (Southern)Bitsch: Quatre Variations sur un theme de Domenico Scarlatti (A. Leduc)Bloch: Proclomation (Broude Bros.)Bozza: Rustiques (A. Leduc)Charlier: Solo de Concours (Schott Freres)H. Clarke: Music of Herbert H. Clarke, 2 vols. (Warner Bros.)Enesco: Legend (International)Fasch: Concerto in D (Sikorski)D. Gabrieli: Sonata No. 2, ed. Tarr (Musica Rara)Haydn: Concerto in E (Eb), ed. Tarr (Universal Editions)M. Haydn: Concerto in D (A. Benjamin) Concerto No. 2 in D, ed. Tarr (Musica Rara)Hertel: Concerto No. 2 in D, ed Tarr (Musica Rara)Hindemith: Sonate (Schott)Honegger: Intrada (Salabert)Hummel: Concerto in E/Eb, ed. Stein (musica Rara)Ibert: Impromptu (A. Leduc)Jacchini: Sonata in D (Musica Rara)Jolivet: Concertino (A. Leduc) Concerto No. 2 (A. Leduc)Kennan: Sonata (Warner Bros.)Koetsier: Sonatina (Donemus)Longinotti: Scherzo Iberico (Editions Hen)Luening: Intro & Allegro (Peters)Mager (ed.): 9 Grand Solo de Concert (Southern)Mendez: Numerous solos (Hickman Music Editions)Molter: Concerto No. 1 in D (Musica Rara)L. Mozart: Concerto in D, ed. Thilde (Billaudot)Neruda: Concerto in Eb, ed. James Ackley (Cimarron Music Press)Pilss: Concerto (King)Purcell: Sonata (Schott)Riisager: Concertino (W. Hansen)Staigers: Carnival of Venice (C. Fischer)Stanley: Trumpet Tune, arr. Coleman (Oxford)Stradella: Sinfornia, 2 vols. (Musica Rara)Telemann: Concertos in D (Musica Rra)


p. 33

Heroic Music, arr. Lawton (Oxford)Tisne: Heraldiques (Billaudot)Tomasi: Concerto (A. Leduc)Torelli: Concerto in D, ed. Tarr (Musica Rra) Sinfonia con Tromba, ed. Tarr (Musica Rara)Vejvanovsky: Sonata (Edition Ka We)

RECOMMENDED BOOKSAttenberg/Tarr - Trumpeters and Kettledrummers Art (Brass Press)Bach – The Art of Trumpet Playing (Vincent Bach Corp.)Baines - Brass Instruments, Their History and Development (Faber)Bate - The Trumpet and Trombone (Ernst Bern, Ltd.)Bendinelli/Tarr - Entire Art of Trumpet Playing (Brass Press)Bush – Artistic Trumpet Technique and Study (Highland Music)Cardoso - Ascending Trumpets (Wilfredo Cardoso)Cardoso - Playing Trumpet in the Orchestra (Cardoso)Dale - Trumpet Technique (Oxford Univ. Press)Dalquist - The Keyed Bugle and Its Greatest Virtuoso, Anton Weidinger (Brass Press)D’Ath – Conrnet Playing (Boosey & Hawkes)Davidson – Trumpet Techniques (Wind Music)Dobzrelewski – Complete Audition Guide to Trumpet Excerpts, vols. 1-16 (HME)Eliason - Instrument Makers (Brass Press)Eliason - Keyed Bugles in the United States (Smithsonian)Fantini/Tarr - Modo per Impare (Brass Press)Farkas - Art of Brass Playing (Wind Music, Inc.)Farkas - Art of Musicianship (Musical Pub)Fredrickson - Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind (Windsong Press)Foster – Practical Hints on Playing the Trumpet/Cornet (Belwin-Mills)Green/Gallawey - The Inner Game of Music (Doubleday)Grocock - Advance Method (Agree Music Press) Hanson - Brass Playing (Fischer)Hickman - Trumpet Pedagogy: A Compendium of Modern Teaching Techniques (HME)Hunt - Guide to Teaching Brass (Wm. C. Brown)Hyatt – The Soprano and Piccolo Trumpets: Their History, Literature and a Tutor (DMA Thesis: UM 74-20, 473)Johnson - Art of Trumpet Playing (Iowa Univ. Press)Kent - The Inside Story of Brass Playing (Conn)Mendez - Prelude to Brass Playing (Fischer)Mathie - The Trumpet Teacher's Guide (Queen City Bras Pub.)Pietzch - Die Trompete (Univ. of Michigan)Sherman – The Trumpet Player’s Handbook (Accura Music)Smithers - Music & History of the Baroque Trumpet Before 1721 (Oxford Press)


p. 34

Weast - Keys to Natural Performance (Brass World)Whitener - A Complete Guide to Brass (Schirmer)

BRASS RELATED JOURNALSCanadian MusicianCrescendo and Jazz TalkFlute TalkITA JournalITG JournalMedical Problems of Performing ArtistsOpera NewsThe Horn CallThe InstrumentalistTUBA JournalWindplayer


p. 35

XVI

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY (brief)_____________________________________

NAME CD TITLEAckley, James Recital Music for Trumpet Lírico Latino: songs for trumpetAndre, Maurice Concertos pour trompette Great Trumpet Concertos Music of Our TimeAubier, Eric 4 Grand ConcertosAntonsen, Ole Edvard Trumpet Concertos Blanchard, Terrance Terrance Blanchard Burns, Stephen Solo Telemann Davis, Miles Sketches of Spain Kind of BlueHardenberger, Hakan Baroque Trumpet Concertos At the Beach Mysteries of the MacabreMase, Raymond Trumpet In Our TimeMarsalis, Wynton Trumpet Concertos Carnival Baroque Duet (With Kathleen Battle, soprano) Wynton MarsalisPlog, Anthony 20th Century Music for Organ and TrumpetSchlueter, Charles Virtuoso Trumpet Stevens, Thomas Music for TrumpetSmith, Philip Contest Solos for young trumpetersSchwartz, Gerard New Music for Trumpet Cornet Favorites A Festival of TrumpetsSandoval, Arturo The Latin TrainTromba Mundi Music for Trumpet Ensemble


p. 36

XVII

LIST OF SELECTED ARTISTS________________________________________

Recommended Artists for listening

Orchestra Brass Ensembles Film/Soundtracks Phil Smith Empire Brass Quintet Maurice Murphy (LSO)Michael Sachs Canadian Brass Malcolm McNabbDave Bilger Boston Brass Timothy MorrisonAdolf Herseth Atlantic Brass Quintet Mark IshamChris Martin Meridian Arts EnsembleRobert Sullivan German BrassTom Hooten Burning River BrassMark Inyouye Summitt BrassSusan Slaughter Philip Jones Brass Ensemble William Vacchiano Center City Brass Quintet

Jazz Soloists Historical Louis Armstrong Maurice Andre Crispian Steele-PerkinsBix Beiderbecke Hakan Hardenberger Edward TarrNicholas Payton Wynton Marsalis Nicholas EklundClifford Brown Gerard Schwartz Friedemann ImmerTerrell Stafford Ole Edvard Antonsen Tom Harrell Chris Geker Brass BandsMiles Davis Eric Aubier Black Dyke Brass BandDizzy Gillespie Guy Touvron River City Brass BandRandy Brecker Thomas Stevens Gohteberg Brass BandLee Morgan Robert Sullivan Brass Band of Battle CreekCat Anderson Dave HickmanJon Faddis Phil SmithMaynard Ferguson Alan VizzuttiTerrance Blanchard James AckleyWynton Marsalis Rafael Mendez Freddie Hubbard Reinholdt Friedrich


p. 37

XVIII

APPENDICES: VARIOUS ARTICLES_______________________________________

Attached are various articles from magazines dealing with different aspects of trumpet playing and teaching that I thought were interesting enough to include them for your benefit. Please visit section VIII Literature & Resources for further information regarding journals, magazines and other trumpet related reading materials.


p. 38

MENC: The National Association for Music Education

The Effects of Breath Management Instruction on the Performance of Elementary BrassPlayersAuthor(s): Karin Harfst SehmannSource: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Summer, 2000), pp. 136-150Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music EducationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345572Accessed: 25/02/2009 11:31

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136 JRME 2000, VOLUME 48, NUMBER 2, PAGES 136-150

The present study is an investigation of the effects of breath management instruction on the performance of elementary brass players. The experimental group (N = 32) received instruction on the use of air during brass performance. The control group (N = 29) continued with instruction from their method books. Three measures for breathing (thoracic displacement, abdominal displacement, and lung capacity) and for performance (range, duration, and tone quality) were the dependent variables. The data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance.

Independent variables included group (experimental and control), instrument (trumpet, horn, and trombone), and grade level (fourth, fifth, and sixth). Main effects for group showed that the experimental group had significantly higher scores on measures

of abdominal displacement, range, and duration (p < .05). There were no treatment-

by-instrument or treatment-by-grade-level interactions. Breathing instruction in

group lessons was effective in improving the breathing and performance of elementary brass players.

Karin Harfst Sehmann, Eastern Kentucky University

The Effects of Breath

Management Instruction

on the Performance of

Elementary Brass Players

Instrumental music in the United States has become a basic part of the music curriculum in most schools. The importance of this

early instruction to the total school instrumental music program has been noted by the Music Educators National Conference (now MENC-The National Association for Music Education) in The School Music Program: Description and Standards (MENC, 1986). Recommen- dations in this document include beginning wind instruction no later than Grade 5.

Given the importance of this instruction, little is found in the research literature concerning effective teaching techniques for

Karin Harfst Sehmann is an associate professor of music in the Department of Music, Eastern Kentucky University, Foster 101, Richmond, KY 40475; e-mail: [email protected]. Copyright ? 2000 by MENC-The National Association for Music Education.

JRME 137

beginning instrumentalists. Areas that have been investigated include strategies for rehearsals (Caimi, 1981; Price, 1983; Witt, 1986; Yarbrough & Price, 1981) and curriculum for instrumental lessons (Kendall, 1988). Several authors have commented about the lack of research concerning the psychomotor process of learning to play an instrument (O'Donnell, 1987; Rainbow, 1973).

Experts in wind playing, especially brass teachers, stress the importance of psychomotor skills. Johnson, in his 1981 book The Art of Trumpet Playing, states that "highly developed motor skills are critical in implementing fine musical performance" (p. 6). The well-known trombonist Denis Wick (1971) writes, "Playing any brass instrument for an extended period at a high standard is very much an athletic

pursuit. It demands prolonged concentration, precise coordination"

(p. 25). Of the motor skills involved, the respiration process often is mentioned as the most important physical aspect of brass playing (Farkas, 1956; Johnson, 1981; Wick, 1971). Kleinhammer (1963) states that "breath control is directly related to everything the trombonist plays" (p. 15). Kohut (1985), in his book Musical Performance: Learning Theory and Pedagogy, discusses all aspects of musical performance. He stresses the importance of breathing for the musician, writing that "breath directly affects intonation, articulation and dic- tion, vibrato, dynamic level and intensity of the tone as well as phrasing, accents, and other aspects of musical expression" (p. 163). Arnold Jacobs, long-time tubist with the Chicago Symphony, became known for his work with musicians on the topic of respiration (Bobo, 1981a, 1981b;Jacobs, 1991: Kelly, 1983; Russo, 1973; Stewart, 1987). He taught the same mode of abdominal/diaphragmatic breathing that has been described by the previously mentioned writers on brass

pedagogy (Kohut, 1985), stressing that the rib cage can be expanded simultaneously with the abdomen. Jacobs instructed the instrumental teacher to "start mechanical movements without the instrument so the student experiences change in the abdominal/diaphragmatic relationship" (Kelly, 1983, p. 11).

Kohut (1985), in his writing on instrumental pedagogy, notes the lack of concise, accurate writing about musical performance. He stresses that perceptual-motor learning is a large part of musical performance, but that it is neglected as a research topic and in pedagogical sources. He gives a thorough explanation of the breathing process for musicians and cites relevant research. Medical authorities, specialists in respiration, acousticians, and master teachers have studied the breathing process. The research and knowledge from these sources have not been synthesized into a systematic methodol- ogy for teaching brass players.

138 SEHMANN

Taylor (1968/1969) is perhaps the first to have surveyed the 20th- century scientific and pedagogical sources on breathing as related to wind playing. Taylor reported the most common type of respiration used by most teachers and players of brass instruments to be abdom-

inal/diaphragmatic breathing. Later scientific findings and expert opinions support this survey.

Medical researchers have conducted studies on the breathing process as to efficiency and functioning. Vellody, Nassery, Druz, and

Sharp (1978) studied the functions of the chest and abdominal

regions in breathing, finding that both areas of the torso contribute to the possible capacity of the lungs. Such scientific knowledge has

provided a basis for an understanding of the breathing process as it relates to musical performance. Druz and Sharp (1981) studied the effect of body position on lung capacity and noted that an upright, standing posture allowed the greatest amount of air to be inspired into the lungs. Watson and Hixon (1985) found that active breathing of the type used by singers and wind players involves different action and uses different muscles than passive breathing.

Advances in technology for measuring respiration (Bouhuys, 1964; Cugell, 1986; Konno & Mead, 1967) have made the study of breath-

ing more objective and quantifiable. The instrumentation used by Cugell (1986) in a study of brass players (respiratory inductive

plethysmography, or RIP) was similar to that used in the present study to measure movement of the chest and abdomen during brass

playing. This method (RIP) was originally developed for medical per- sonnel, but has been used for studying respiratory activity in musicians (Cugell, 1986; Fuks & Sundberg, 1999; Phillips & Sehmann, 1990; Phillips & Vispoel, 1990). The RIP equipment consists of one elastic band placed to measure chest expansion and one to measure abdominal expansion during respiration. All researchers found that wind players and singers use a combination of abdominal and thoracic lung expansion to perform.

In several studies, investigators have measured respiratory function in wind instrumentalists (Berger, 1965; Bouhuys, 1964; Cugell, 1986; Huttlin, 1982; Smith, Kreisman, Colacone, Fox, & Wolkove, 1990; Van Middlesworth, 1978). Results from several of these studies indicate that brass players have larger lung capacities than the aver-

age nonplayer; only Van Middlesworth reported no significant difference between the lung capacities of wind players and nonwind

players. Staples (1988) investigated the effects of different conditions

placed on brass players during inspiration and found that restricting the chest and shoulders decreased measured lung capacity. Dennis

(1987/1988) researched the use of instruction in the Alexander tech-

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nique with brass players, noting that a short amount of instruction did not alter musical performance or respiratory function, but was

highly regarded by the participants of the study. Smith et al. (1990) found that trained musicians had a much higher level of control over

breathing than the average population. A study by Phillips and Sehmann (1990), which served as a pilot study for the present research, was an investigation of the effects of breath management instruction on college-level brass players. These investigators found that instruction in breath management significantly improved breathing mode and some measures of musical performance for those subjects receiving the experimental treatment (breath man-

agement instruction). All of the studies cited used adults as subjects. The mode of breathing used in the present study was based on the

one recommended by most leading authorities on brass playing and

breathing physiology (Brown & Thomas, 1990; Jacobs, 1991; Kelly, 1983; Kohut, 1985; Sataloff, Spiegel, & Hawkshaw, 1990; Taylor, 1968/1969), which emphasizes abdominal/diaphragmatic breath-

ing. The technique is characterized by a lowered diaphragm, lateral-

ly extended lower ribs, and an expansion of the abdominal wall dur-

ing inhalation. Proper breathing motion allows for more air to be

inspired than is required for normal respiration. Many authors have commented on the need for correct breathing

(Farkas, 1956; Jacobs, 1991; Johnson, 1981; Kleinhammer, 1963; Kohut, 1985; O'Donnell, 1987; Wick, 1971), but few have proposed methods to teach breathing. Rainbow (1973) notes the shortage of research on the physical aspects of instrumental performance, stat-

ing that "one of the most urgent needs in instrumental music education is the development of a theory of instruction based on fact and not speculation" (p. 9).

A review of older method books intended for elementary-age brass students reveals that most traditional methods include little discussion about breathing (Erickson, 1988; Feldstein & O'Reilly, 1988; Froseth, 1984; Pearson, 1982; Swearingen & Buehlman, 1984). The writers of these books may assume that instrumental music teachers cover the psychomotor aspects of playing, or the absence of this information may reveal a lack of understanding as to the importance of breathing for young brass players. Even the more recently published methods, such as Essential Elements (Rhodes, Biershank, & Lautzenhauser, 1993), Standard of Excellence (Pearson, 1993), and Accent on Achievement (O'Reilly & Williams, 1997), include little about

breathing in the student books. In a descriptive study of beginning brass pedagogy, O'Donnell (1987) also notes a lack of psychomotor instruction for elementary brass players.

140 SEHMANN

Teaching students to breath properly for instrumental playing may be the most important part of the teaching sequence. The ability to

perform articulations, dynamics, phrasing, and most other "musical"

aspects of wind playing are contingent upon correct breath management. Kohut (1985) stated that "correct breathing, therefore, is an essential requisite to good performance, since it affects practically every aspect of tone production and musical expression" (p. 163).

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of breath

management instruction on the breathing technique and musical

performance of elementary level brass players in Grades 4, 5, and 6.

Specifically, the investigator sought to determine if instruction in breath management would effect a significant change in the physical breathing mode and lung capacity of brass players and would significantly improve the following performance measures: tone quality, range, and duration. To this end, an instructional manual was devel-

oped to present a logical, sequential method of instruction in breath-

ing.

METHOD

Subjects

The subjects in this study were all of the 64 brass students repre- senting five elementary schools within a moderate-size Illinois school district. Prior to the beginning of the study, the researcher set a minimum attendance level of eight lessons during the 10-week instructional sequence. Three students did not complete the study: one did not meet the minimum attendance requirement, one student moved out of the district, and one student dropped out of the instrumental

program. Therefore, 61 students completed all the requirements of the study.

Subjects were grouped by instrument class for lessons, and these same groups were used in the study so as not to disrupt the school schedule and possibly bias the results (since students might have real- ized they were in an experimental research setting). The instrumental lesson groups were randomly assigned to experimental (breath management instruction) and control groups. The lesson groups were matched for group size prior to assignment to treatment or con-

trol; that is, groups of five students per lesson were assigned equally to treatment or control, groups of four students per lesson were

assigned equally to treatment or control, and so forth. The 61 sub-

jects that completed the study included 34 trumpet students, 6 horn students, and 21 trombone/baritone students; tuba students were not a part of the study due to the lack of tuba players in these grades

JRME 141

and the small number of tubists in elementary schools in general. The subjects received 30-minute group lessons once each week in

the semester preceding this research project. The group structure remained the same for the duration of the second semester, the period of this study. Lesson groups were assigned to either the experimental or the control group. There were a total of 24 lesson groups involved in the study. All subjects were taught by the same instrumental instructor that they had had prior to the beginning of the

study. The experimental group received 5, 6, or 7 minutes of instruction, depending on the length of treatment in breath management during each group lesson, whereas the control group continued

group lessons in the same format as had been used the previous semester. The total amount of treatment time within lessons for the

experimental group was 65 minutes.

Duration of the Study

The duration of this study was 16 weeks. During the first week, all

preliminary dependent measures were taken. There followed 5 weeks of breath management instruction in weekly group lessons. This treatment period was followed by 4 weeks during which the subjects prepared for a solo and ensemble contest. No treatment was given during this 4-week period. During the final 6 weeks, treatment resumed for 5 weeks, and the final week of the study was given to

posttesting.

Instructional Procedures

The psychomotor instructional sequence, as devised by the inves-

tigator, was a combination of psychological and physiological approaches for achieving the optimum breathing mode for brass

playing. Specifically, the psychomotor instruction included parts of a

sequence used with college-level brass players (Phillips & Sehmann, 1990), practice with breathing tubes (Staples, 1988), instructional aids used with schoolchildren in a previous study on breathing (Phillips, 1983), recommended exercises for improving breathing (Zi, 1986), and researcher-devised instruction suggested by scientific

respiration research. Since the material from the investigator-devised instructional man-

ual was taught by the regular instrumental teachers, the investigator conducted two 1-hour training sessions with the two instrumental teachers. These training sessions were designed to make the instruction from the manual as identical as possible, since there were two different teachers involved in teaching the treatment groups

142 SEHMANN

involved in the study. The investigator explained the goals and theo- ries behind the development of the manual, the physical characteristics of proper breathing and posture, and the procedures to be followed for record keeping. The teachers were given demonstrations and tried specific exercises and activities for each lesson.

The first portion of the instructional sequence included postural exercises to reduce muscle tension. The next part of the instruction was the establishment of the technique of abdominal/diaphragmatic breathing, the type of breathing recommended by almost all brass

experts (Taylor, 1968/1969). The students' instruments were not used in the first exercises.

The second set of breathing exercises were designed to improve the exhalation portion of the breathing process, which determines the actual tone production on brass instruments. These exercises were intended to improve the action of the muscles involved in breath management. Activities such as deflating the abdominal area with the hands, exhaling in varied counting patterns, and exhaling while tonguing imaginary quarter notes ("toh, toh, toh," etc.) were

part of these lessons. The instruction manual included instructions that the chest should remain expanded as much as possible and should not be restricted in any way for maximum volume of air

(Staples, 1988). The application of breath management instruction to the subjects' instrumental playing occurred during the second 5- week period of lessons. Students performed long tones throughout their ranges while the instructors checked for application of abdom-

inal/diaphragmatic breathing to tone production. Another exercise consisted of tongued patterns designed to ensure that the breath

management remained the same in all styles of playing. The sequence of treatment exercises were presented to all of the

lesson groups in the experimental group. Depending on the lesson, 5, 6, or 7 minutes were spent on this instruction during the regular 30-minute lesson; the remainder of the lesson was spent playing out of the method book or working on solo and ensemble pieces. The control group played only out of the method book or worked on solo and ensemble literature.

Data Collection

Pretests and posttests of the three dependent measures of breath-

ing (thoracic displacement, abdominal displacement, and lung capacity), as well as the three dependent measures of performance (tone quality, range, and duration) were obtained for each subject. All of the measures were taken individually during separate sessions

by the investigator and an assistant during the 1-week pretest and

JRME 143

posttest periods. The measures of thoracic and abdominal displacement were

obtained using respiratory inductive plethysmography. This method was originally developed for monitoring medical patients, but has been used for studying respiratory activity in singers and wind players (Cugell, 1986; Fuks & Sundberg, 1999; Phillips & Sehmann, 1990; Phillips & Vispoel, 1990). The instrument used was a Respitrace unit

(Ambulatory Monitoring, Inc., Ardsley, NY). This breath measurement device consists of two gauze-like Respibands placed around the

subject's torso, one at upper chest level and one at the abdominal level. The Respibands contain sensors that, when connected to a pen chart writer (called a "penwriter"), are able to transmit the amount of torso displacement at these two levels. Measures of displacement were

produced by the penwriter tracings and were measured in millimeters. These measurements were made during the performance of long tones. A statistical analysis of the sum of the measurements for the three trials was done for both thoracic and abdominal displacements.

Lung capacity was measured before and after the treatment period with a Respiradyne pulmonary function monitor. The investigator recorded the lung capacity, called "vital capacity" in the medical world, in liters on three separate trials. Statistical analysis was done on the total of the three trials. Three trials have been used in previous studies (Bencowitz, 1984; Huttlin, 1982; Phillips, 1983; Staples, 1988) and have been accepted as reliable. Lung capacity was included in the study to determine if taking a "deeper" breath (abdominal/diaphragmatic mode) increased subjects' lung capacity. A significant increase in capacity was not expected.

Tone quality was assessed using an etude from a beginning level band book, Best in Class (Pearson, 1982). The subjects' performances were recorded and later scored by judges experienced in working with beginning brass students. Prior to listening to the taped exam-

ples, the judges attended a training session and practiced using the

rating scale on sample etudes. Four items from a multiple item 5-

point rating scale (Abeles, 1973) for clarinet performance were used. The range test consisted of subjects playing scales from music pro-

vided by the investigator. The investigator recorded the highest and lowest pitches played by each subject on three trials. The number of

half-steps between the highest and lowest pitches was calculated, and the total number of half-steps for the three trials was the score for the

range measure. The measure of duration determined how long each subject could

sustain a pitch. The same concert pitch (the concert B-flat nearest middle C) was played in the same register by each instrument (on the

144 SEHMANN

staff, these appeared for the trumpet, as middle C; for the horn, as the F above middle C; and for the trombone, as the B-flatjust below middle C). Research shows that equivalent concert pitches produce the same airflow rate on all brass instruments (Cugell, 1986; Bouhuys, 1964). To ensure similar playing levels, the subjects first

practiced the pitch while looking at a decibel meter (100 dB at one meter). When the reading on the decibel meter dipped to the line below the set level, the subject was instructed to stop playing. This

procedure was repeated three times.

RESULTS

Reliability estimates for thoracic displacement, abdominal dis-

placement, vital capacity, range, and duration range from 0.85 to 0.99. The interjudge reliability estimate (coefficient alpha) for

judges' scores of the tone quality ratings was 0.92. A two-by-three-by-three factorial design was used in the study. The

three independent variables were Group (experimental and control), Instrument (trumpet, horn, and trombone), and Grade (fourth, fifth, and sixth grade). The data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance on the SAS computer program (SAS, 1989). The results are shown in Table 1. The results for main effects showed that the experimental group had significantly higher scores than the control group (p < 0.05) on breathing and performance measures. Among the breathing measures, significant differences were found for abdominal displacement, but not for

lung capacity and thoracic displacement. These results were expected, since the instruction stressed increased abdominal expansion and did not work toward increased thoracic expansion. Among the

performance measures, significant differences were observed for

range and duration, but not for tone quality. There were no significant grade level main effects for either the

breathing or performance measures according to a MANCOVA

analysis. However, there were significant effects for instrument classi- fication. In both duration and tone quality, differences were noted. The horns had significantly higher duration scores than either the trombones or trumpets. Tone quality scores were significantly lower for trombones when compared with horns, but only marginally lower when compared with trumpets.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study show that breath management instruction is effective in improving both breathing and performance aspects of

JRME 145

Table 1 MANCOVA and ANCOVA Results for Breathing and Performance Measures

Measure Treatment (T) Instrument (I) Grade (G) T x I T x G

MULTIVARIATE F= 6.35** (6, 40)

F= 0.44 (12, 80)

F= 1.90* F= 0.73 F= 0.98 (12, 80) (12, 80) (12, 80)

UNIVARIATE

Thoracic displacement F= 0.03 (1, 50)

Abdominal displacement F= 8.83** (1, 50)

Vital capacity

Range

F= 2.72 (1, 50)

F= 0.01 (2, 50)

F= 0.20 (2, 50)

F= 1.15 (2,50)

F= 12.51** F= 0.11 (1, 50) (2,50)

F= 0.19 F= 0.48 F= 0.09 (2, 50) (2, 50) (2,50)

F= 1.82 F= 0.35 F= 0.24 (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)

F= 0.28 F= 0.67 F= 2.22 (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)

F= 1.92 F= 0.57 F= 0.55 (2,50) (2,50) (2,50)

Duration F= 21.63** F= 6.30* F= 0.33 F= 0.60 F= 1.19 (1, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)

Tone quality F= 1.45 (1, 50)

F= 3.59* F= 0.13 F= 0.65 F= 1.14 (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)

* p < .05; ** p< .01.

Note. Multivariate tests were run using the GLM procedure from SAS (1989). Pretest scores on all six dependent variables served as covariates in the MANCOVA analysis. A single covariate (the appropriate pretest measure) was used in the follow-up ANCOVA analysis.

brass playing. Group main effects for the dependent measures were found to be significant for the sample of fourth through sixth grade brass players. The results of the study reinforce the view that improving the brass player's breathing will improve the player's performance (Dale, 1965; Johnson, 1981; Kohut, 1985; O'Donnell, 1987).

146 SEHMANN

Among the breathing measures, abdominal displacement was found to be significantly higher for members of the experimental group (mean, +5.59 millimeters; standard deviation [SD] of 6.47) when

compared to the control group (mean, -1.37 millimeters; SD = 6.82). The control group still exhibited abdominal contraction, meaning the abdominal area got smaller when taking a breath. Therefore, the

regular instrumental instruction does not seem to aid the development of abdominal breathing.

Among the performance measures, the range measure showed significantly higher scores for the experimental group. The experimental group showed an average range of almost 22 half steps (SD = 3.91). The control group (18.72 half-step mean scores, SD= 4.22) improved slightly with a semester of regular instruction, but the larger increase in range for the experimental group seems to be due to the specific instruction in breathing. The experimental group also improved on the duration measure from pretest to posttest. The posttest experimental group averaged 13.92 seconds per held pitch. The control

group showed a lower score for duration on the posttest (mean, 9.39

seconds) than they had on the pretest (mean, 11.47 seconds). The treatment appears to be responsible for the increase in duration for the experimental group.

The instruction in breathing mode was successful in improving abdominal displacement. Both the experimental and control groups showed a lack of abdominal movement on the pretest, but the experimental group was able to change from a thoracic mode of breathing to an abdominal/diaphragmatic mode of breathing. Both groups showed about the same thoracic displacement on the posttest as they had on the pretest. This was expected, since the breath management instruction did not stress chest movement, and the students were

already actively using the thoracic mode of breathing. Various researchers have measured lung capacity among instru-

mentalists (Brown & Thomas, 1999; Huttlin, 1982; Staples, 1988; Tucker, Faulkner, & Horvath, 1971; Van Middlesworth, 1978), but

only the Brown and Thomas study explored the effects of breath

training upon the subjects. The control group in the present study increased their lung capacity slightly from an average of 1.81 liters to 1.97 liters. The experimental group also increased their lung capacity, although not quite reaching the significance level set by the researcher (1.85 liters to 2.17 liters; SD = .46). These results may have been due to the practice in taking deeper breaths by the experimental group or general maturity.

Among the performance measures, significant differences were found for range by group. The exercises in the instructional manual

JRME 147

stress using the airstream to produce higher pitches instead of using embouchure (or mouthpiece) pressure. An inspection of the means for the range measure shows that the control group increased about 1 half-step in overall range, while the experimental group increased their range about 5 half-steps.

Significant group differences also were found for the duration measure. The control group did show a decrease in their duration scores; perhaps the effects of improper breathing cause the inconsis-

tency in both inspiration and expiration and can have a negative effect on this aspect of playing. The results of these two measures show that the treatment (breath management instruction) made a

positive difference in an important component of brass-playing duration. This may have occurred because certain of the exercises stressed the control or slow emission of the air. These techniques enable the subjects to learn to relax the diaphragm more slowly, per- mitting the subject to conserve breath.

Among the experimental group, the horns had significantly better scores on the duration test than either the trumpets or trombones. This is probably due to the initial bore size of the instrument. The horns, of all the instruments in this study, have the narrowest lead-

pipe and, therefore, the most resistance and less air expended on the same airflow rate, allowing subjects to play slightly longer. More resistance makes it easier to slow the flow of air through the aperture.

Tone quality varied little from pretest to posttest between groups. It may take longer than 16 weeks to see any change in the tone quality of elementary brass players, or the rating scale used for judging may be too imprecise to measure small differences in tone. Also, tone

quality may be a function of other variables than just breathing style; these variables might include instrument, aural memory, aural tone model, articulation, and embouchure.

The tone quality scores for the trombone players were significantly lower than those for horn or trumpet players. Tone quality may be a function of variables other than just breathing style (e.g., instrument, aural memory, aural tone model, articulation, and embouchure). The young trombonists are playing in a range lower than their own singing range, and this may cause a difference in aural perception of the pitches as well.

Taken as a whole, the results indicate that the addition of some breath management instruction is more effective than traditional instruction alone for enhancing breathing and performance skills. The absence of group-by-instrument and group-by-grade interactions, coupled with the significant group main effects, indicates that the breath management instruction was equally effective with all

148 SEHMANN

grade levels and instrument classes. Brass teachers should be focus-

ing on teaching breathing skills to their students to obtain the most

growth in their performance abilities. Future research might focus on high school students and the benefits of breath instruction for

increasing their performance skills.

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SubmittedJanuary 26, 1999; accepted December 21,1999.

MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Preseason Maintenance for Brass InstrumentsAuthor(s): John A. HalesSource: Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 1 (Sep., 1979), pp. 54-55Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music EducationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3395718Accessed: 25/02/2009 11:32

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PRESEASON MAINTENANCE

John A. Hales

As marching season begins, pre- ventive maintenance requires each band director's immediate attention. Instruments used outdoors are subject to excessive abuse in handling, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and dirt. These promote rapid deterioration of instruments through dents, wearing of mechanical parts, and destruction of pads. Biannual instrument inspection will lead to early detection of problems that otherwise would result in cost- ly and inconvenient repairs.

Brass instruments are easily in- spected. First, check the instrument case for poor handles, broken latch- es and hinges, and interior and ex- terior damage that may cause problems when the instrument is transported. Do not overlook the protection afforded a mouthpiece, especially in trombone cases, which are notorious for loose mouthpieces that can dent the slide and instrument.

Next, check each valve to be sure it moves freely. If valves are slug- gish, dirt is probably the problem. When a valve does not function properly after cleaning, send the instrument to a repair shop. This is especially necessary with stuck valves, which are hollow and cannot be driven out with drumsticks.

The author is program coordinatorfor the musical instrument technology curriculum at State University of New York in Morrisville. This article is the first in a series on instrument repair and maintenance to be published on a periodic basis. Illustration by Steve Pederson

Leaving all valves in the casing, next remove all slides, starting with the tuning slide. Never use the old belt trick on the tuning slide, because the braces may loosen. Rather, brace one hand against the valve casing and the other against the body of the instrument and pull the slides out with your fingers. The valve slides are usually quite safe to remove. Place a length of cloth clothesline or a handkerchief through the crook. Depress the cor- responding valve while bracing one hand against the valve casing. Gent- ly tug in the normal direction you would move the slide. Most valve slides do not receive large amounts of saliva and therefore are usually easy to remove. If the slides do not pull, apply a good penetrating oil and leave it on the slide overnight. If the penetrating oil does not

work, do not force the slide further, but send the instrument to a repair shop. Remember, most baritones, sousaphones, and tubas have mov- able slides on the top of the valves, which can be distinguished by the ferrule (see Figure 1). Horn slides only should be pulled by hand since a rope or handkerchief will pull unevenly on the slide, causing damage to the instrument. Trom- bone tuning slides also should be removed by hand, using the thumbs to push the tuning slide brace (see Figure 2).

Inspect the inside of each slide for dirt or corrosion. Any sign of accumulation means the instrument should be cleaned carefully using lukewarm soapy water and a flex- ible brush. Do not use hot water, which will remove lacquer from the instrument.

.- ferrule

- - slide-inside

slide tube

Figure 1. Non-ferrule (left) and ferrule (right) slide design

54 mej/september '79

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FOR BRASS INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2. Removing a trombone tuning slide

The trombone slide should be checked for ease of movement. Check the inside slide on the mouthpiece side for dirt by holding it up to the light. Many students for- get to clean the inner slide, which continually deposits dirt between inner and outer slides and may create a drag on the slide. Never grasp a trombone slide at any loca- tion other than at the hand brace. Incorrect grip may cause even a clean slide to drag. If a clean slide drags, send it to a repair shop to remove the dents or adjust the alignment. Never work on your own slide; inexperience may ruin an otherwise good slide.

A general brass inspection should include an examination of the water

key corks. A deep impression in the cork is a telltale sign of problems. The pressure of the spring will continually wear a cork until the side splits or a defect in the cork leaks air. The water key cork can be de- ceptive in that air leaks do not affect all notes, but rather only certain notes in the overtone series. General appearance is the best guide for replacement.

Next, look for dents, especially on mouthpipes and taper end of mouthpieces. These should be removed. Most body dents are not serious to the performance, providing they are not larger than one quarter of the tube diameter. This is only a general rule, since certain locations may greatly affect some notes of the overtone series. The impact when a dent is made may break solder joints; therefore, carefully check each solder joint near a dent.

After all instruments are cleaned, lubricate the slides. The standby vaseline and lanolins are probably the least acceptable slide lubricants due to the large amounts of water that they contain. I have found the best lubricant to be Army surplus rifle grease, which is a non- corrosive, long-lasting, odorless, low-cost grease. Regular rifle grease sold in sporting goods stores has a strong odor caused by additives.

For brass instruments used in a marching band, a weekly flushing with water and a thorough biweekly cleaning with a brush is a good precaution. The band instrument's exposure to moisture, dirt, and food particles creates greater risks than do other instrumental performance situations. I

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Reprints from the

to promote communications among trumpet players around the world and to improve the artistic levelof performance, teaching, and literature associated with the trumpet

International Trumpet Guild Journal

Jon Burgess, Pedagogical Topics Editor – Phil Norris: DevelopingTone Quality (Jan 02/36)

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36 ITG Journal / January 2002 © 2002 International Trumpet Guild

“Sounds foggy.” I was in the second quarter of mymaster’s degree in trumpet performance and hadrecently found a mouthpiece that to me felt and sound-ed wonderful. How could he say I sounded “foggy?” Iwas perplexed to tears.At my next lesson, my teacher said something that

turned the light on for me: “Have you ever heard yourvoice on a tape?” Immediately I knew the central issuein my confusion. Nowhere have I read or heard anyoneaddress tone production in this way. Every book orarticle I’ve read about tone seems to assume that play-ers hear themselves as others do. This perception prob-lem often slows or prevents the development of tone inyoung or experienced players. Most, if not all, authorsand teachers urge us to imitate or imagine excellenttone. Let’s say I imitate Mr. Herseth on my trumpet.Will I sound like him? When I try to produce Herseth’ssound based on my hearing, the result will not soundlike Herseth to you. Why is this true?

The Basic Premise

The starting point in understanding tone productionon wind instruments is this: we do not hear ourselvesthe way others hear us. We hear ourselves subjective-ly. Singers have always understood this principle, butwind players and teachers have for the most parteither not known about or ignored this reality. Yet, thisshould be the starting point for approaching tonedevelopment in all wind players, including trumpeters.Our goal, then, is to find a way to hear our tone quali-ties more objectively. The implications of this approachextend to teaching and conducting as well as perform-ing.

How can we do this?

There are two basic ways to develop tone: 1) directly,through focus on the product, and 2) indirectly,through focus on the means of achieving good tone(such as airflow, oral cavity, embouchure, and tongueposition). Regardless of how tone is achieved, a fewplayers seem to have a great sound from the start,while most others have to find a way to develop it.There remains some mystery about the process, whichI hope to minimize in the course of this article.

In comparing perceived tone to actual tone (i.e. toneheard on a recording or described by another person),I’ve discovered a few simple, basic things that help inhearing more objectively. First, we need what I call a

“trusted friend” (a teacher, colleague, professional)who can tell us when we’re “in the ballpark.” Whenthe tone is deemed “good” by our friend, we shouldnotice the fine points of timbre and seek to reproducethem as consistently as we can regardless of how wepersonally feel about the sound we are producing.This is an important step, but in relying on anotherperson, there is still a mysterious nature to tone pro-duction. Players need something they can take withthem to help them know as they play that their tone isgood. Second, we need to know what sort of tone toproduce according to what we hear that will soundgood to the listener. Arnold Jacobs was right when hesaid that we must play from cranial nerves (nervesthat send signals to the body from the brain) and notfrom sensory information (from the body to the brain).In other words, we must decide in the mind what kindof sound to produce and make that sound rather thanlistening to ourselves and analyzing our product.When we play with attention to sonic or tactile hear-ing, we usually experience what Jacobs called, “paral-ysis of analysis.” Yet, there is a need to monitor thetone we make, so sensory analysis is not the primefocus. Successful performance involves ordering aclearly conceived product in the mind, which in turnsends signals to the body to produce the desiredsound. Once a player knows what kind of sound toorder, one that will sound good to the listener, themystery of tone production is greatly reduced. Thequestion remains: what kind of tone do I need to pro-duce that will sound good to the listener?

Tone Perception

Most musicians know about the nature of a tone:that it’s composed of a set of pure tone componentsknown as harmonics or overtones. A pure tone if iso-lated has a whistle-like quality. Pure tones when com-bined in various numbers and strengths determine thedifference between a flute and a trumpet and, for thatmatter, all sounds. All timbres can be digitally ana-lyzed to determine a “fingerprint.” When we play,because we are connected to the instrument (just as asinger is part of her instrument), certain parts of theharmonic series are not perceived as they actuallysound. The position of our ears relative to where thesound originates is an important factor in perception.Additionally there is a factor of perception in the objec-tive listener who will hear the timbre differently

Pedagogical TopicsJon Burgess, Editor

Developing Tone QualityBY PHIL NORRIS

© 2002 International Trumpet Guild

depending on the distance from the sound. The envi-ronment in which the sound is made contributes to theperception as well. For example, the sound of an oboeis different right beside the instrument compared to itstimbre heard at a distance of fifty feet. The timbre willalso be different in a dry space from one in a liveacoustic environment.

What to Order

In my work with this approach, I’ve discovered that“good” sounds require the player to produce a clearer,brighter, more ringing tone compared to what theplayer thinks would sound beautiful. The terms, clear,bright, and ringing are descriptions that seem toresult in improved tone production in all players solong as the blowing is not tight or compressed, butfreely blown. Occasionally I’ve read or heard individu-als use these terms to describe tone on their instru-ments. Doc Severinsen calls this quality “brrr.” Isometimes call it a “buzz.” For reed players the term“reedy” is used. Brass players may use the term“brassy.” When players (to their hearing) produceclearer, brighter timbres like these, the result (to thelistener) is actually more resonant: a darker, fuller,richer quality. In all cases, the lower registers shouldcontain more “buzz;” as the pitch ascends, the qualitythe player should try to produce (remember Jacobs’ordering of sound?) must have more clarity or “ring.”In the high register, the focus should be on preciseintonation while retaining the “ring” or a “floating”(vs. a forced) quality. When one is urged to produce a“dark” sound, the result is often not dark at all, butbright, thin, and tight. In my experience as a studentin a studio or under a conductor, direction to producea dark or deep tone has resulted in a brighter, thinnertone. Why does this occur? When I make the tonesound “dark” to my ears, I’m actually accentuating thelower harmonics in the timbre. At the same time, I’mreducing the higher partials in the overtone series.The net result is usually a “pinched” tone. For maxi-mum resonance and actual darkness or fullness oftone, the overtone series for a given instrument mustbe at its best (most complete).Younger players usually make sounds that sound

nice to them. To the rest of us, however, the resultingtone is tight and pinched. In working with players,teachers need to help them get past perception prob-lems, giving them a clearer sense of the objective resultthrough their subjective hearing. The player needs toknow what kind of sound to order from his ears so theresulting sound will be good to the audience. To theplayer, opposites in perception seem to work well. Theway to get wind players to sound “darker” is to askthem to make their timbre clearer or brighter to theirears. To add brilliance, increasing volume seems to dothe trick. When volume increases, so do the numbersand strengths of higher partials in the overtone series.

What role, if any, does imitation have? Imitation is

valuable in terms of style, interpretive aspects, andeven timbre, so long as the perceptual problem is con-sidered. If someone imitates a fine player and repro-duces the same quality to his or her ears, however, thesame sound will likely not result.

The Benefits

The benefits of this method of realizing tone produc-tion as a performer are enormous, but they also extendto teachers and conductors. First, teachers need tohear from the player’s perspective. What should theplayer conceive in the mind while producing a tone sothat the desired product will result? Teachers heardramatic improvement if they give the student toneproduction goals that achieve the desired sound fromthe listener’s perspective. With these, the player/stu-dent achieves good tone almost immediately, and isable to do so with little or no attention to the physicalmeans of creating the sound. In addition, the playergains greater independence by being better able tomonitor the sound apart from the teacher’s presence.The focus of this approach is the product, not themeans, which is a musically superior approach. That’snot to say we don’t give attention to some of the means,like oral cavity or use of breath, but often the meanscan be positively affected by ordering the proper tone.Second, this approach reduces misunderstandingsbetween a teacher or conductor and the player. Manyof us have struggled with teachers who asked us tosound a certain way that didn’t sound good to us. Asplayers understand the perception issue, they canmore readily accept instruction with little or no resis-tance. Third, as a teacher I can very quickly help refo-cus a player if the tone gets “foggy” by a simple one-word cue, given during a breath or a rest. When a stu-dent’s tone is getting tight, I’ll give a cue word like“buzz” or “ring” and immediately the tone is improvedwithout attention to oral cavity, breath, orembouchure. In this manner, attention is focused onthe product and away from the process.All musicians need to develop an awareness of how

the sound differs with respect to performer and audi-ence, and with respect to acoustical environment anddistance. This approach has made a positive impact inmy success as a performer, and it has helped my stu-dents — beginners and experienced players alike — tohave a clearer grasp of what it takes to develop an aes-thetically pleasing tone quality.

About the Author: Dr. Phil Norris is AssociateProfessor of Music at Northwestern College in St.Paul, Minnesota where he teaches trumpet, instru-mental methods, and music theory. He holds graduatedegrees in trumpet performance from NorthwesternUniversity and the University of Minnesota. He haspresented this topic at the Mid-West InternationalBand and Orchestra Clinic as well as other state musicconventions.

January 2002 / ITG Journal 37

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